Manual  of  Ancient  and  Modern  History 


W.C  Taylor 


D.  Appleton  &  Co, 
1878 


THE  GIFT  OF 

MAY  TREAT  MORRISON 

IN  MEMORY  OF 

ALEXANDER  F  MORRISON 


PREFACE. 


In  blinking  out  an  American  edition  of  .this  work,  the  publishers 

were  desirous  not  only  to  furnish  a  valuable  work  for  general  readers, 

tj      but  also  to  make  it  in  point  of  size  and  price  as  well  adapted  to  the 

t*.     wants  of  public  instruction  as  they  believed  it  to  be  in  intrinsic  merit 

az     In  complying  with  their  request  to  revise  the  work  with  this  view,  tht 

^     present  editor  has  made  a  few  slight  curtailments — principally  in  the 

arst  part  of  the  volume  of  Ancient  History — which  could  be  made  with* 

out  suppressing  or  in  any  way  distorting  or  impairing  any  material  fact 

O     or  statement. 

'■O 

2  In  the  English  edition,  all  that  is  to  be  found  relatmg  to  the  history 

^  of  the  United  States  amounts  to  two  or  three  pages,  interspersed  in  he 
history  of  England.  In  the  place  of  these  meager  notices,  the  present 
editor  has  appended  to  the  volume  of  Modern  History  a  distinct  and 
special  chapter,  giving  to  the  history  of  the  United  States  its  proportion- 

QC  ate  place  in  general  history,  and  to  which  it  is  certainly  entitled  in  a 
work  designed  for  public  instruction  in  this  country.  He  trusts  that 
this  sketch  will  be  found  to  contain  a  fair  and  clear  view  of  the  leading 
events  of  our  history. 

In  the  preface  to  the  third  American  edition  of  Guizot's  History  of 
European  Civilization,  the  present  editor  took  occasion  to  offer  some 
remarks  upon  the  study  of  history  as  a  part  of  the  course  of  sti^diea 
pursued  in  our  higher  institutions  :  in  which  he  attempted  to  answer  the 
extremely  difficult  question,  "  How  best  to  employ  the  very  limited  time 
allotted  to  history  in  the  usual  course  of  public  instruction  ?"  On  the 
one  hand,  it  is  obvious  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  history  (which  it 
is  the  work  of  years  to  gain)  can  never  be  acquired  in  the  time  allowed  ^ 


C9 


IV  PREFACE. 

and  on  tho  other  hand,  it  is  far  more  difficult  to  make  a  successful  be 
ginning,  to  lay  a  good  foundation  in  history,  than  in  the  other  studiea 
included  in  the  usual  public  course.  This  it  is  which  makes  the  most 
useful  employment  of  the  little  time  allowed  so  perplexing  a  problem. 

The  conclusion  to  which  the  editor  arrived  wr^,  that  in  the  impos- 
sibility of  communicating  a  thorough  knowledge  of  history  in  this  time, 
thus  much  should  be  attempted  :  1.  The  study  of  some  judicious  work 
of  general  history  ;  2.  The  study  of  some  good  specimen  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  history,  as  it  is  called,  or  the  method  of  generalizing  and 
reflecting  upon  the  facts  of  history  ;  and  3.  The  thorough  investigation 
of  some  small  portion  of  special  history.  The  editor  recommended  the 
work  of  Guizot.  referred  to  above,  as  a  good  specimen  of  philosophical 
reflection  upon  history  ;  and  he  knows  no  work  on  general  history  better 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  public  instruction  than  the  present. 

C.  S.  H. 

Nkw  York,  Dcwinl/cr  11,  1814. 


INTRODUCTION-. 


The  use  of  history  is  not  to  load  the  memory  with  facts,  hut  to 
store  the  mind  with  principles — to  collect  from  tlie  experience  of 
past  ages  rules  for  our  conduct  as  individuals  and  as  members  of 
society.  Every  historical  work,  therefore,  professes  to  give  only 
a  selection  of  events ;  and  the  writer's  choice  is  determined  by  the 
nature  of  his  history;  the  general  historian  directs  attention  to 
the  occurrences  that  have  changed  the  general  aspect  of  society, 
the  revolutions  of  states  and  empires,  the  causes  that  led  to  them, 
and  the  consequences  by  which  they  were  followed.  The  special 
historian  confines  his  attention  to  one  class  of  facts,  specified  in 
the  title  of  his  work ;  thus  the  ecclesiastical  historian  writes  only 
of  the  affairs  of  the  church ;  the  military  historian  confines  his 
narrative  to  wars  and  battles ;  and  the  commercial  historian  de- 
votes his  attention  exclusively  to  trade. 

But  even  general  histories  may,  in  some  degree,  be  regarded 
as  special;  their  object  may  be  called  "political,"  that  is,  they 
profess  to  describe  the  destinies  of  nations,  both  in  their  external 
relations  with  foreign  states,  and  in  their  internal  affairs.  Under 
the  first  head  are  comprised  wars,  treaties  of  jDeace  or  alliance,  and 
commercial  intercourse  ;  under  the  second,  governments,  institu- 
tions, and  manners.  Such  a  history  must,  to  a  certain  extent,  be 
a  history  of  civilization  ;  for  it  will  describe  tlie  progress  of  social 
improvement,  and  the  progress  of  the  human  mind.  These  essen- 
tial parts  of  civilization  must  not  be  confounded ;  for  we  shall 
have  more  than  once  occasion  to  remark  that  the  social  system, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  relations  between  the  different  parts  of 
society,  may  display  great  wisdom  and  justice,  wliile  men,  in  their 
individual  capacity,  continue  the  slaves  of  ignorance  and  super- 
gtition. 
A  distinction  is  usually  made  between  the  narrative  and  thephiloso- 


^'  INTRODTJCTION. 

|>hy  of  history  in  the  former  are  included  the  actions  of  kingd  and 
rulers,  the  accounts  of  wars  and  treaties,  the  rise  and  full  of  empires  , 
in  the  latter  are  comprehended  descriptions  of  the  political  and  religioufl 
institulions,  the  organization  of  society,  the  amount  of  knowledge,  the 
state  of  industry  and  the  arts,  the  morals,  the  habits,  and  the  prevailing 
prejudices  in  any  age  or  nation ;  and  the  facts  thus  ascertained  by  phi- 
losophy, are  shown  to  be  the  causes  of  the  events  detailed  in  the  nar- 
rative. It  is  possible  to  go  back  a  step  further,  and  to  trace  the  origin 
of  these  institutions  and  manners  in  the  succession  of  opinions,  and 
gradual  development  of  the  human  intellect.  But  unassisted  reasor 
can  go  no  further ;  the  law  fixed  by  Providence  for  the  succession  of 
opinions  and  development  of  mind,  can  only  be  known  to  its  omniscient 
Author,  but  that  such  a  law  exists,  is  proved  to  us  by  the  fulfilment  of 
prophecy,  by  the  frequent  instances  of  unconscious  agents  working  out 
the  great  designs  of  God. 

It  is  proposed  in  the  following  pages  to  unite  the  philosophy  with 
the  narrative  of  history,  to  combine  events  with  their  causes,  and  direcl 
occasionally  the  attention  of  the  student  to  the  progress  of  civilization, 
both  in  its  effect  on  society  and  on  individuals.  Sacred  history — the 
account  of  the  direct  operations  of  the  Divine  agency  on  his  chosen 
servants  and  chosen  people — is  necessarily  excluded  from  a  political 
history  ;  but  the  general  course  of  Providence  displayed  in  the  mora] 
government  of  his  creatures  is  an  essential  element  of  our  plan  :  it  is, 
in  fact,  the  principle  of  unity  that  binds  together  its  several  parts. 

The  necessary  companions  of  history  are  chronology  and  geograpliy  ; 
they  determine  the  lime  when,  and  the  place  where,  each  event  oc- 
curred. The  difficulties  of  chronology  arise  both  from  the  imperfection 
of  records,  and  from  varieties  in  the  mode  of  computation  :  the  former 
can  not  be  remedied ;  but,  to  prevent  the  mistakes  which  may  arise 
from  this  cause,  uncertain  dates  have  been  marked  with  an  asterisk  : 
the  secoi'd  source  of  confusion  is  removed  by  using  throughout  solar 
years  for  a  neature  of  time,  and  the  birth  of  Christ  as  an  era  from 
which  to  reckon. 

Inritead  of  constructing  a  general  system  of  ancient  geography,  it 
has  seemed  better  to  prefix  a  geographical  outline  of  the  history  of 
each  separate  country,  and  to  combine  with  it  some  account  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  s('il,  and  its  most  remarkable  animal  and  vegetable  produc- 
tions. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  position,  climate,  and  fertility  of  a 
coun'ry',  have  a  powerful  influence  over  the  character,  condition,  and 
destiny  of  its  inhabitants,  and  ought  not  to  be  omitted  in  ihe  considera 
tion  of  their  historv. 


INTRODUCTION.  vu 

The  arrangement  of  this  work  is  both  chronological  and  geographi- 
cal ;  the  history  of  each  country  is  given  separately,  but  the  states  are 
arranged  in  the  order  of  their  attaining  a  commanding  influence  in  the 
world.  To  this  there  are  two  exceptions — Egypt,  which  is  placed 
first,  on  account  of  its  being  the  earliest  organized  government  of 
which  we  have  any  authentic  record  ;  and  India,  which  is  placed  last, 
because  it  exercised  no  marked  influence  over  the  most  remarkable 
nations  of  ancient  times. 

The  history  of  Greece  in  this  volume  has  a  less  orderly  appearance 
than  in  most  similar  works,  because  it  contains  not  merely  the  histories 
of  Athens  and  Sparta,  to  which  most  writers  confine  their  attention, 
but  also  those  of  the  minor  states,  the  islands  and  the  colonies.  A 
nliapter  has  been  added  on  the  colonial  policy  of  the  Greeks — a  subject 
of  great  importance  in  itself,  and  peculiarly  interesting  to  a  commer- 
cial country. 

To  the  Roman  history  there  is  prefixed  a  brief  account  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  Italy  before  the  era  usually  assigned  for  the 
foundation  of  Rome.  In  the  earlier  period  of  the  republic,  notice  is 
taken  of  the  reasonable  doubts  that  have  been  raised  respecting  the 
authenticity  of  the  common  narrative  ;  but  care  has  been  taken  to  avoid 
an  excess  of  skepticism,  which  is  at  least  as  bad  as  an  excess  of 
credulity. 

In  the  chapter  on  India,  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  ancient 
routes  of  trade  between  that  country  and  eastern  Europe  :  many  of 
these  subsist  to  the  present  day ;  projects  have  been  formed  for  reopen- 
ing others  ;  some  account  of  them  consequently  appears  necessary, 
for  illustrating  both  ancient  commerce  and  modern  policy. 

In  a  general  summary,  restricted  within  narrow  limits,  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  avoid  dryness  of  details  ;  notes  have  therefore  been  added, 
consisting  for  the  most  part  of  illustrations  and  anecdotes,  that  may 
serve  both  to  relieve  the  mind,  and  to  place  important  traits  of  charac- 
ter, national  and.  individual,  in  a  clearer  light. 

It  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  take  some  notice  of  the  mythology 
as  well  as  the  real  history,  of  nations  ;  for  though  mythic  traditions 
may  in  many  or  in  most  instances  have  had  no  foundation,  yet  thej 
should  not  be  wholly  neglected  by  the  historian,  for  they  had  a  share 
in  forming,  and  they  help  to  illustrate,  the  character  of  the  nation  by 
which  they  were  once  believed.  At  the  same  time,  care  has  been 
taken  to  separate  these  traditions  from  the  authenticated  narrative,  and 
to  discriminate  between  those  that  have,  and  those  that  have  not,  somt' 
probable  formdation  in  fact. 


nu  INTRODCCTION. 

Political  reflections  and  moral  inferences  from  the  narrative  have,  in 
general,  been  avoided :  the  instructive  lessons  of  history  are,  for  the 
most  part,  found  on  the  surface,  and  may  best  be  collected  by  the  stu- 
dents themselves.  It  is  not  quite  fair  to  prejudge  questions  for  the 
mind ;  the  chief  business  of  those  who  write  for  the  young  should  be 
to  make  them  think,  not  to  think  for  them. 

The  author  has  to  acknovifledge  his  great  obligations  to  tlie  works 
of  Professor  Heeren,  whose  volumes  on  the  Politics,  Intercourse,  and 
Trade  of  Ancient  Nations,  should  form  part  of  every  historical  library; 
he  has  also  borrowed  very  copiously  fiom  the  i Bluable  essays  that  have 
appeared  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  French  Academy  of  Inscriptions ;  his 
particular  obligations  in  the  several  chapters  need  not  be  specified, 
most  of  them  being  mentioned  in  the  notes. 

The  design  of  this  introduction  is  merely  to  explain  the  plan  of  the 
work  ;  some  few  suggestions,  however,  may  be  added  on  the  mode 
of  using  it.  Students  should  compare  the  geogiaphical  chapters  with 
maps,  and  fix  in  their  minds  ihe  most  characteristic  natural  features  of 
the  country  whose  history  they  are  about  to  commence.  One  division 
should  be  thoroughly  mastered  before  another  is  begun  ;  and  when  the 
whole  is  gone  through,  it  will  be  found  a  most  useful  exercise  tc 
synchronize  the  events  in  the  history  of  one  country  with  the  events  in 
die  history  of  another ;  for  instance,  to  trace  the  condition  of  tho  Ro- 
man republic  at  the  liBie  of  the  battle  of  Arb^la. 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 


ANCIENT  HISTORY 


Chaptkb  I. — Egjpt. 

PAGE. 

Sect.   I.  Geogrnphieal  Outline <,,....! 

n.  Political  and  Social  Comlition  of  Ihe  Egyptians ...,2 

m.  History  of  Egypt  from  the  earliest  Period  to  the  Accession  of  Psam- 

mtticlius 5 

TV.  History  of  Ei<ypt  from  the  Reign  of  Psammetiohus  to  its  subjugtitioa 

by  Cainbvses .....9 

V.  Egyptian  Manufactures  and  Commerce , 11 

Chapter  H. — The  Efhiopiins. 

Sstrr.  I.  Geographical  Outline  and  Natural  History 13 

II.  History  of  the  Eth.iopians 14 

HI.  Arts,  Commerce,  and  Manufactures  of  Meroe 15 

Chapter  HI. — Babylonia  arui  Assyria. 

SscT.  1.  Gengrcphical  Outline  and  Natural  History 17 

II.  Political  and  Social  Condition  of'  the  Assyrians  aLd  Babylonians 18 

III.  HiHor\  of  the  Assyrians  ai.d  Babylonians 19 

IV.  De^criptioIl  of  Nineveh  and   Ba^iylon ..23 

V.  Commerce  and  Manufactures  of  the  Babylonians 23 

Chapter  IV. — Western  Asia. 

Skct.  I.  Asia  Minor. — (Geographical  Outline , 27 

H.  Ancient  Histcry  of  A>ia  Minor «... 28 

HI.  Syna. — G'^osrraphical  Outline 29 

IV.  Soflal  and  Political  Condition  of  the  Syrians  and  Ph<Bniciuns., 30 

V.  Hi't  irv  of  the  Syrians  and  Phoenicians 31 

VI.  Ph  pni:iar  Co'cmii  8  aid  F'oreisn  Possessions ......32 

TlI.  PhcL-ni^ian  Maaufaotures  and  C  )mu't'r(.e 33 

Chapter  V. — Palestine. 

feCT.  I.  Ger-crra   hicnl  Outline , 36 

II.  Histv.r>  of  i'alestinp , 3G 

III.  I'hr  C  aqui  St   'f  Canaan  by  Joi^Oua 39 

IV.  Iii£!c>rv  of  Israel  ULder  tne  Judged 40 


X  TABLE    Of    CONTEXTS. 

SucT.  V.  HiMory  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Israel 42 

VI.  Tilt  Revolt  of  the  Ten  Tribes.— The  Kingdom  of  Israel 47 

VII.  The  Kingdom  of  Judah 5] 

Chaptek  VI. —  The  Empire  of  the  Medea  and  Pirsiatis. 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline 58 

II.  Sources  and  Extent  of  our  Knowledge  respecting  the  Ancient 

Persians 59 

III.  Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Ancient  Persia 60 

IV.  History  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  under  the  Kuianian  Dynasty 62 

V.  History  of  the  Persians  under  theHyslaspid  Dynasty 64 

Chapter  VII. — Phanician  Colonies  in  Northern  Jifrica. 

Selt.  I.  Geosraphical  Outline  of  Northern  Africa 68 

II.  Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Carthage 69 

III.  History  of  Carthage  from  the  Foundation  of  the  City  to  the  Com- 

mencement of  tiie  Syracusan  Wars 70 

IV.  History  of  Carthage  during  the  Sicilian  Wars 73 

V.  From  the  Commencement  of  the  Roman  Wars  to  the  Destruction  of 

Cartha?e 76 

VI.  Navigation,  Trade,  and  Commerce  of  Carthage 79 

Chapter  VIII. — The  Foundatioii  of  the  Grecian  States. 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline  of  Hellas 8l 

II.  Geographical  Outline  of  the  Peloponnesus 83 

lil.  The  (Jrecian  Islands  in  the  iEgean  and  Mediterranean  Seas 8c 

IV.  The  Ionian  Islands 85 

V.  The  Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Greece 86 

VI.  Traditional  History  of  Greece  from  the  earliest  Ages  to  the  Com- 
mencement of  the  Trojan  War 89 

VII.  From  the  Trojan  War  to  the  Colonization  of  Asia  Minor 9S 

('hafter  IX. — History  of  the  Grecian  States  and  Colonies  before  the 
Persian  War. 

ShXT.  I.  Topocra  phy  of  Sparta 95 

II.  Legislation  of  Lycurgus,  and  the  Messenian  Wars 95 

III.  Topos;rapliy  of  Athens 97 

IV.  History  of  Athens  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Persian  War 99 

V.  Historical  Notices  of  the  JMinor  States  of  Greece  previous  to  the 

Persian  War 102 

VI.  History  of  the  principal  Grecian  Islanrls 103 

VII.  History  of  the  Greek  Colonies  in  Asia  Minor 104 

VIII.  History  of  the  G  -^ek  Colonies  on  the  Euxine  Sea,  Coast  of  Thrace, 

MaceJon,  &.C.. . 106 

Chapter  X. — History  of  Greece  from  the  Persian  Wars  to  the 
Jrcesiion  of  ..Alexander  the  Great. 

Sect.    I.  The  First  Persian  War.... 108 

II.  The  Second  Persian  War 110 

III.  The  First  Peioponnesian  War 1 13 

IV.  The  Second  Peioponnesian  War II? 

V.  Tyrannical  Rule  of  Sparta. — Third  Peioponnesian  War 121 

VI,  The  Second  Sacred  War. — Destruction  of  Grecian  Freedom 128 

Chapter  XI. — The  Macedonian  Kingdom  and  Empire. 

iiixrr.  I.  Geosrraphical  Outline  of  Macedon 131 

II.  Hi.- lory  of  tne  Macedonian  Monarchy 132 

III.  Dissolution  of  the  Macedonian  Emuire 138 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  X] 

Chaitkr  XII, — History  of  the  States  that  arose  from  (he  Dismcmbi.Tm'nii 
of  the  Macedonian  Empire. 

PAUK. 

Sv:tT.  I.  History  of  MaceJon  and  Greece  from  the  Battle   of  Jpsus  to  the 

Rormn  Conqut'St 145 

II.  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Syria  under  the  Seieucidae 153 

III.  History  of  E?ypt  under  the  Ptolemies J5g 

IV.  History  of  tiie  Minor  Kin2;doms  in  Western  Asia 162 

V.  History  of  Bactria  and  Parthia 106 

VI.  History  of  Idumea,  and  its  Capital  Petra 16e 

VII.  History  of  the  Jews  from  their  Return  out  of  the  Babylonish  Cap- 
tivity to  tiie  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus   171 

Chapter  XIII. — History  of  Ancient  Italy. 

Sect.   I.  Geographical  Outline 183 

II.  Historical  Notices  of  the  early  Inhabitants  of  Italy 187 

III.  The  Greek  Colonies  in  Italy 19C 

Chapter  XIV. — History  of  Sicily. 

Sect.  I.  Geographical  Outline 193 

II.  Historical  Xotices  of  the  early  Inhabitants  of  Sicily 19C 

III.  The  History  of  Syracuse 197 

Chapter  XV. — History  of  the  Roman  Republic. 

■lECT.  I.  Traditions  respecting  the  Origin  of  the  Romans > 20(. 

II.  From  the  Foundation  of  Rome  to  the  Abolition  of  Royalty 201 

III.  From  the  Establishment  of  the  Roman  Republic  to  the  Burning  of 

the  City  by  the  Gauls 206 

rV.  From  the  Rebuilding  of  the  City  to  the  First  Punic  War 215 

V.  From  the  Commencement  of  the  Pi»nic  Wars  to  the  Beginning  of  the 

Civil  Dissensions  under  the  Gracchi 218 

VI.  From  the  Beginning  of  the  Civil  Dissensions  under  the  Gracchi  to 

the  Downfall  of  the  Republic 22*; 

VII.  The  Establishment  of  the  Roman  Empire 237 

Chapter  XVI. — Geographical  and  Pulilical  Condition  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

Sect.  I.  European  Countries. — Spain. 243 

II.  Transalpine  Gaul 243 

III.  Britain 244 

IV.  Northf^rn  Provinces  of  the  Empire 245 

V.  Asiatic  and  African  Provinces 247 

VI.  The  Principal  Nations  on  the  Frontiers  of  the  Empiie 248 

VII.  Topography  of  the  City  of  Rome 251 

Chapter  XVII. — History  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

S"/'!'.   I.  The  Reigns  of  the  Family  of  the  Caesars ,  256 

II.  From  the  Extinction  of  the  Julian    to  that  of  the  first    Flavian 

Family 265 

HI.  From  the  Extinction  of  the  first  Flavian  Family  to  the  last  of  the 

Antonines 271 

rV.  Foieign    Comtnerce    of  the  Romans     in  the   Age  of    the     \nto- 

iiitifs ■: 278 

V.   From  the   Extinction    of  the  Antonines   to   the    F]stabiishment  of 

Military  Despotism 2*^0 

VI.  From  the  Murier  of  Alexander  Severus  to  the  Captivity  of  Valerian 

and  the  Usurpation  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants 5S.^ 


Xll  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 

PAOB 

Skct.  VTI.  From  the  Captivity  of  Valerian  to  the  Resignation  of  Dioclcsian  ..5^9 
VIII.  From  the  Resignation  of  Dioclesian  to  the  Death  of  Constantine 

the  Great.... 29j 

IX.  From  the  Death  of  Constantine  to  the  Reunion  of  the  Empire 

under  Theodosin«  the  Great 30] 

X.  Overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire ...  3 12 

Chapter  XYIU.—Iniia. 
Early  History 318 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 


MODERN    HISTORY 

Chapter  I. — Consequences  of  the  Fall  of  the  Western  Empire. 

PAQB. 

Sect.   I.  The  Gothic  Kinsdom  of  Italy 327 

II.  The  Reign  of  Justinian 329 

III.  The  Establishment  of  the  Civil  Law 334 

IV.  History  of  the  Silk    Trade. — Introduction  of  the  Silkworm  into 

Europe 337 

V.  The  Monarchy  of  the  Franks,  under  the  Merovingian  Dynasty 341 

VI.  The  Lombard  Monarchy 346 

VIL  Tne  Anglo-Saxons 349 

Chapter  II. — The  Rise  and  Establishment  of  the  Saracenic  Power. 

Sect.  I.  Political  and  Social  Condition  of  the  East  at  the  Coming  of  Mohammed. 352 

II.  State  of  Arabia  at  the  Coming  of  Mohammed 355 

Iir.  The  Preaching  of  Mohammed 357 

IV.  Early  Progress  of  the  Saracens 3G1 

Chapter  III. — Restoration  of  the  Western  Empire. 

«F.CT.  L  The  Life  of  Cfiarlemagne 369 

II.  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Carlovingian  Dynasty 375 

III.  The  Foundation  of  the  Germanic  Empire 382 

IV.  State  of  the  East  from  the  Establishment  to  the  Overthrow  of  the 

Khaliphate 38T 

Chapter  IV. — Growth  of  the  Papal  Power. 

Sect.  I.  The  Origin  of  the  Papacy 39C 

II.  The  early  Development  of  the  Political  System  of  the  Papacy 394 

III.  The  Struggle  for  Supremacy  between  the  Popes  and  Emperors 398 

rV.  Revival  of  the  Papal  Power 401 

V.  Pontificate  of  Gregory  VII 406 

VI.  The  War  of  Investitures 412 

VII.  The  Crusades 416 

VIII.  Tne  Crusade  against  the  Albigenses 421 

IX.  Consequences  of  the  Crusades 427 

X.  Formation  and  Constitutional  History  of  the  Spanish  Monarchy 430 

XI.  Survey  of  the  Constitution  of  Aragon 434 

XII.  State  of  Western  Europe  at  the  Commencement  of  the  Fourteenth 

Century '1^7 

XIIL  Pontificate  of  Boniface  VIII 44? 

XIV.  State  of  England  and  the  Northern  Kingdoms  at  the  Commenoo- 

ment  of  the  Fourteenth  Century 448 

XV,  RevolutiDns  in  the  East  in  Consequence  of  the  Mongolian  InTasinn...4oO 


Xiv  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

C'HAPTyji  V. — The  Rcvii-nl  of  Lilcrature. —  The  Progress  j/  Civ.h- 
zation  aiul  Invention. 

PAOE 

5Err.  I.  Decline  of  the  Papal  Power. — The  Great  Schism  of  the  West 45S 

II.  First  Ufviviil  of  Literature,  and  Inventions  in  Science 469 

III.  Progress  of  Commerce 472 

IV.  Revolutions  of  Germany,  France,  and  Spain 479 

V.  The  State  of  Enszland  and  the  Northern  Kingdoms  in  the  Fourteenth 

and  Fifteenth  Centuries 483 

VI.  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Ottoman  Empire 486 

Chapter  VI. — The  Reformation,  and  ComnuuLiment  of  the  States- 
System  in  Europe. 

dEiT.  I.  Progress  of  Maritime  Discovery 490 

I  [.  Orisin  of  the  Reformation 495 

III.  History  of  the  Negotiations  and  Wars  respecting  Italy 500 

IV.  The  History  of  Burgundy  under  the  Princes  of  the  House  of  Valois...502 

V.  The  History  of  Burgundy  (continued) 505 

VI.  The  History  of  Burgundy  {concluded) 507 

VII.  The  Age  of  Charles  V 512 

VIII.  The  Ase  of  Elizabeth 524 

IX.  The  Age  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 536 

X.  Administration  of  the  Cardinals  Richelieu  and  Mazarine 540 

XI.  Fonimtion  of  the  States-System  in  the  Northern  Kingdoms  of  Europe.. 546 
XII.  Progress  of  the  Turkish  Power  in  Europe 549 

•    Chapter  VII. — The  Augustan  .Ages  of  England  and  France. 

.■fecT.  I.  Stale  of  the  Continental  Kingdoms  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia 555 

II.  History  of  England  under  the  Commonwealth 556 

III.  History  of  England,  from  the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution;  and 

Rise  of  the  Power  of  Louis  XIV , 56f4 

IV.  General  History  of  Europe,  from  the  League  of  Augsburg  to  the 

Formation  of  the  Grand  Alliance 578 

V.  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession .• 583 

VI.  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia.— Charles  XH.  of  Sweden 590 

Chapter  VIII. — Growth  of  the  Mercantile  aud  Colonial  System. 

Sect.  I.  Establishment  of  the  Hanoverian  Succession  i-n  England 59S 

II.  The  Colonial  Struggle  between  France  and  Great  Britain 609 

III.  The  Seven  Years'  War 613 

Chapter  IX. — The  jige  of  Revolutions. 

Skct.  I.  Change  in  the  Relations  of  the  Catholic  Powers  to  the  Holy  See. — 

Dismemberm  nt  of  Poland 626 

II.  History  of  England,  from  the  Peace  of  Paris  to  the  Conrimencement 

of  the  American  War 630 

m.  The  American  War 634 

IV.  The  British  Empire  in  India 637 

V.  History  of  Europe,  from  the  End  of  the  American  War  to  the  Com- 
mencement of  the  French  Revolution 639 

VI.  The  French  Revolution 643 

Chapter  X. — The  French  Empire. 

dECT.  I.  Renewal  of  the  War  between  England  and  France 655 

II.  Progress  of  Napoleon's  Power 6f>9 

HI.  The  French  Invasion  of  Spain 663 

rV.  The  Russian  War 673 

V.  History  of  Europe,  from    the  Dethronement  of  Napoleon  to  the 

Conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  Vienna t378 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTK.  XV 

Chapter  XI. — HUtory  oj  the  Peace. 

r«oK 

Sect.  1    State  of  Europe  at  the  Close  of  the  War (iS? 

II,  History  of  Europe  during  the  Reign  of  George  IV 684 

III.  History  of  Europe  during  the  Reign  of  William  IV 695 

Chapter  XII. — History  of  Colonization. 

Sect.  I.  The  Establishment  of  the  Spaniards  in  Mexico 706 

II.  The  Establishment  of  t)ie  Spaniards  in  I'eru 71G 

III.  The  Portuguese  Colonies  in  South  America 719 

IV.  The  English  in  America 725 

V.  Colonization  of  the  West  Indies , 726 

VI.  The  Portuguese  in  India 728 

Vn.  The  Spaniards  in  the  East  Indies 730 

VIII.  The  Dutch  in  the  East  Indies 730 

IX.  The  Danes  in  the  East  Indies 732 

X.  The  French  in  the  East  Indies 732 

XI.  The  English  in  India 733 

Chapter  XIIL—Histo:y  of  China 742 

Chapter  XIV. — Histoi  y  of  the  Jews 747 

Chapter  XV. — History  of  the  United  States. 

SecT.  I.  Colonial  History 752 

II.  Revolutionary  History 759 

III.  Constitutional  History 767 

Tables  of  Contemporary  Dynasties , 786 

Genealogical  Table  of  the  Bourbons 7!>fi 

Genealogical  Table  of  the  Royal  Family  of  England .7W 


THE 


STUDENT'S  MANUAL 

OF 

ANCIENT   HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  I. 
EGYPT. 

Section  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

Egypt  is  the  country  in  which  we  first  find  a  government  and  polit- 
i';ul  institutions  established.  Civilization  everywhere  seems  lO  have 
commenced  in  the  formation  of  agricukural  associations,  on  the  banks 
of  rivers  ;  and  the  Nile  invites  men  to  tillage  more  forcibly  than  any 
other.  Egypt  itself  has  been  called,  from  the  earliest  antiquity,  "  the 
Gift  of  the  Nil  3,"  and  its  annual  inundations  have  had  a  vast  influence 
over  the  lives  and  customs,  the  religion  and  science,  indeed,  the  entire 
social  existence  of  the  people.  It  appears  that  civilization  advanced 
northward  along  the  valley  of  the  river :  and  we  shall  therefore  com- 
mence our  examination  of  the  land,  at  the  southern  frontier  of  Egypt. 

The  Nile  enters  Egypt  near  the  city  of  Syene,  below  the  cataracts, 
and  flows  through  a  narrow  valley,  about  nine  miles  in  breadth,  to 
Chem'mis,  wh^re  the  valley  begins  to  widen.  At  Cercasorus,  sixty 
miles  from  its  mouth,  the  stream  divides,  and  encloses  a  triangulai 
piece  of  country,  called  the  Delta.  The  narrow  valley  from  Syene  to 
Chem'mis  was  called  Upper  Egypt ;  the  wider  valley.  Middle  Egj'pt ; 
and  the  Delta,  Lower  Egypt. 

Rain  seldom  falls  in  Lower  Egypt,  almost  never  in  the  upper 
regions :  the  fertility  of  the  country,  therefore,  depends  on  the  annual 
overflowings  of  the  river.  These  inundations  are  caused  by  the  heavy 
rains,  that  fall  in  Upper  Ethiopia,  from  May  to  September.  The  rivera 
of  that  country  pour  their  waters  into  the  Nile,  which  begins  to  rise 
about  the  middle  of  June.  Early  in  August,  the  river  overflows  itd 
banks,  giving  the  valley  of  the  Nile  the  appearance  of  an  inland  sea. 
Toward  the  beginning  of  October,  the  waters  begin  to  subside,  and,  by 
the  end  of  the  month,  are  confined  to  the  proper  channel  of  the  river. 
The  fertility  of  Egypt  extends  as  far  as  this  inundation  reaches,  oi  eva\ 
he  continued  by  artificial  means. 

1 


■i  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

Tno  eastern  siilc  of  }1iq  yiillgy,  of  the  Nile  is  a  mountainous  ranjf*^ 
i)f  country,  ex'ipmlmg  totlle^lljp'ii  ."so:.!,  suited,  in  some  districts,  for  pa* 
turage,  but  unfit  for  agriculture  ;' iiljcunding,  however,  in  those  rich 
quarries  of  niurble  ,<vi(i'.f>ijil,ilir.g  .©tone;  that  formed  the  inexhaustible 
magazines  for  the  'archltecfxihir  Wou'delrs  of  Egypt. 

On  the  western  side  of  the  Nile,  the  valley  is  bounded  by  a  stony 
ridge  covered  with  sand,  which  slopes  on  its  remote  side,  into  the 
Great  Desert  This  ridge  protects  the  valley  from  the  sands  of  the 
desert,  which  would  otherwise  desolate  the  whole  country 

Upper  Eg}-pt  coniams  far  the  most  numerous  and  intereoting  monu- 
ments. Near  the  cataracts,  are  the  islands  of  Philae  and  Elepliantine 
containing  the  proudest  edifices  of  antiquity;  lower  down,  the  c.ty  ol 
Apollo  ;  then  Thebes,  filling  the  whole  valley  on  both  sides  of  the 
Nile  with  enormous  temples,  more  like  mountains  than  human  edifices 
colossal  statues,  sphinxes,  and  obelisks,  with  the  Catacombs,  in  the 
mountains  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river ;  and  lastly,  Dendura,  with 
the  celebrated  Zodiac  sculptured  on  its  mighty  temple. 

Middle  Egypt  is  a  wider  valley.  It  contains  the  lake  Moeris,  an 
immense  reservoir,  partly  natural,  partly  artificial,  and  affording  such 
facilities  for  regulating  the  irrigation  of  the  country,  that  this  was  the 
most  fertile  district  of  Egypt.  The  labyrinth,  so  renowned  in  antiquity 
was  near  Arsinoe.  Below  Arsin'oewas  Memphis,  the  capital  of  Middle 
Egj'pt.  This  was  the  city  of  the  Pharaohs  who  received  the  family 
of  Israel.  There  are  now  but  slight  remains  of  its  temples  and 
palaces  :  the  neighboring  mountains  are,  however,  filled  with  catacombti 
similar  to  those  of  Upper  Egj'pt.  But  the  most  remarkable  moniunenta 
of  this  district  are  the  Pyramids. 

Lower  Egj'pt,  or  the  Delta,  possesses,  from  the  extension  of  the 
river  a  greater  quantity  of  fertile  land  than  the  other  districts.  It  waa 
covered  with  nourishing  cities,  as  Sa'is,  Naucratis,  and  Alexandria, 
which  last,  situated  on  the  western  frontier  of  the  Lybian  desert,  still 
retains  the  name,  and  proves  by  its  extensive  trade  the  wisdom  of  its 
great  founder. 

The  more  civilized  portion  of  Z.e  Egyptians  dwelt  in  the  rich  plains 
of  the  valley,  and  attained  a  perfection  in  the  arts  of  social  life,  that 
but  for  the  irresistible  evidence  of  the  monuments,  v/ould  scarcely  be 
credited.  It  was  the  great  object  ol'  the  sacerdotal  and  royal  policy, 
to  keep  this  population  stationary,  to  direct  their  attention  to  agricul- 
ture, commerce,  and  manufactures,  and  to  prevent  them  from  adopting 
the  nomad  life  of  the  pastoral  and  plundering  tribes  on  their  north- 
eastern frontiers  :  and  hence  we  find  it  recorded,  that  "  every  shepherd 
was  an  abomination  to  the  Egyptians." 

Section  II. — Political  and  Social  Condilion  of  the  Kgyptians. 

It  appears  that  the  Egyjitians  were  a  brown  race  of  people,  and 
that  the  higher  castes  of  priests  and  warriors  were  fairer  than  the  other 
classes.  It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  Egyptians  derived  theii 
system  of  civilization  fiom  the  Hindus:  but  it  is  difficult  to  conceivfc 
how  this  could  be. 

Ijocal  circumstances  produced  marked  differences  in  the  habits  ano 


hGYPT.  d 

tnanner-s  of  the  people  In  the  mountainous  eastern  districts  and  in 
the  fens  of  the  DeUa,  where  agricuUure  was  impossible.,  the  inhabitants 
led  a  pastoral  life.  On  the  Nile  and  along  the  coast,  were  tribes  of 
fishermen.  In  the  rich  plains,  dwelt  the  more  civilized  part  of  the 
nation.  The  institution  of  castes  existed  among  them.  The  priests 
and  warriors  were  the  most  honored ;  next,  the  agriculturists,  mer- 
chants, mariners,  and  artisans  ;  the  lowest  caste  was  that  of  shep- 
herds. 

The  migrations  of  the  priestly  caste  from  their  native  regions  in  the 
south,  were  not  simultaneous ;  they  formed  settlements  at  diflerent 
times,  in  tlie  most  fertile  portions  of  the  valley.  The  central  point  of 
the  colony  was  always  a  temple,  round  which  cities  were  gradually 
formed.  These  settlements  afterward  led  to  the  division  of  the  country 
into  nomes,  a  name  given  by  the  Egyptians  to  a  city,  its  environs  and 
dependant  villages.  There  was  a  religious  (as  originally  a  political; 
distinction  between  these  nomes :  each  city  had  its  own  presiding 
deity,  and  the  animals  regarded  as  sacred  in  one  nome  were  not 
respected  in  another.  The  history  of  these  petty  states  is  unknown ; 
but  they  were  finally  absorbed  in  the  dominion  of  Thebes  and  Mem- 
phis. 

The  nations  bordering  on  the  Egyptians  were,  for  the  most  pan, 
barbarous  and  wandering  tribes,  whoSe  avarice  was  roused  by  the 
increasing  opidence  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  The  Hyk'sos,  or 
shepherd-kings,  as  they  were  called,  came  from  Arabia,  and,  after  many 
predatory  incursions,  made  themselves  masters  of  Lower  and  Middle 

Egypt. 

Eg)'pt  became  united  under  one  sovereign,  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
Hyk'sos  :  and  the  divisions  of  the  people  into  castes,  and  of  the  country 
ii;to  nomes,  were  permanently  fixed.  The  priestly  caste  was  subdi- 
vided into  families,  each  devoted  and  restricted  to  a  separate  temple 
and  a  particular  God.  Over  each  of  these  sacerdotal  subdivisions  a 
high-priest  presided,  whose  office  was  hereditary  ;  and  the  high-priests 
of  metropolitan  temples  enjoyed  authority  almost  equal  to  that  of  kings. 
And  their  influence  was  greatly  strengthened  by  their  monopoly  of 
every  branch  of  scier.dfic  knowledge.  They  were  not  only  priests, 
but  also  judges,  soothsayers,  physicians,  architects,  and  sculptors. 

The  warrior-caste  ranked  next  to  that  of  the  priests :  the  royaj 
family  belonged  to  it.  Certain  nomes  were  assigned  to  the  support  of 
this  caste,  most  of  which  were  in  Lower  Egyi^t,  where  the  country 
was  most  exposed  to  attack. 

The  Egyptians  were  the  earliest  nation  that  organized  a  regulai 
aniiy,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  whole  system  of  ancient 
warfare.  A  brief  account  of  their  military  affairs  will  therefore  illus- 
trate, not  only  their  history,  but  that  of  the  great  Asiatic  monarchies, 
and  of  the  Greeks,  during  the  heroic  ages. 

The  most  important  division  of  an  Egyptian  array  was  the  body 
of  war-chariots,  used  instead  of  cavalry.  These  chariots  Avere  mounted 
on  two  wheels,  and  made,  especially  the  wheels,  with  great  care. 
They  were  hung  low ;  open  behind,  so  that  the  warrior  could  easily 
2tep  in  and  out ;  and  without  seat.  They  were  drawn  by  two  horses 
j.ud  generally  contained  two  wa:riors,  one  of  whom  managed  the  steeds 


4  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

while  the  other  fought.     Nations  were  distinguished  from  each  othKi 
oy  the  shape  of  their  chariots. 

Great  attention  was  paid  to  the  breeding  and  training  of  horses,  if; 
Etr\'pt.  The  harness  and  housings  of  the  horses  were  richly  deco- 
rated ;  and  fixed  to  the  chariots,  on  the  outside,  was  a  quiver  and  bow- 
case,  decorated  also  with  extraordinary  taste  and  skill.  The  bow  ua-s 
the  national  weapon,  employed  both  by  infantry  and  cavalry.  No 
nation  of  antiquity  paid  so  much  attention  to  archery  as  the  Egyptians 
their  arrows  were  drawn  to  the  ear ;  and  their  bows  were  more  pow 
erful,  and  their  arrows  better  aimed,  than  those  of  other  nations.  Tht 
children  of  the  warrior-caste  were  trained  from  earliest  infancy  to  the 
practice  of  archery. 

The  arms  of  the  Egyptian  heaAy-armed  infantry  were  a  spear,  a 
dagger,  a  short  sword,  a  helmet,  and  a  shield.  Pole-axes  and  battle- 
axes  were  occasionally  used.  Coats-of-mail  were  used  only  by  the 
principal  officers,  and  some  remarkable  warriors,  like  Goliath,  the 
champion  of  the  Philistines.  The  light  troops  were  armed  with 
swords,  battleaxes,  maces,  and  clubs. 

The  system  of  discipline  and  drill  was  very  complete.  Every  bat- 
talion had  its  standard,  with  some  symbol  or  sacred  object  represented 
on  it,  usually  the  cognizance  of  the  nome  or  tribe.  The  soldiers  were 
levied  by  conscription,  drilled  lo  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  and  taught 
to  march  in  measured  time. 

Cavalry,  in  the  earlier  period,  were  not  employed  as  a  military  body, 
but  used  as  skirmishers,  videttes,  and  expresses,  rathei  than  as  war- 
riors. The  Egyptians  generally  treated  their  captives  v/ith  greal 
cruelty,  putting  them  to  death,  or  reducing  them  to  slavery. 

The  religion  and  government  of  Eg}'pt  were  intimately  blended: 
there  were  prescribed  forms  and  ceremonies  for  every  important  action 
which  even  kings  dared  not  neglect.  This  gave  the  priests  paramount 
control  over  public  atfairs  and  domestic  life.  The  religion  of  the 
priests  seems  to  have  been  more  refined  than  the  gross  idolatry  of  the 
lower  classes :  one  general  idea,  however,  pervades  the  entire  system 
• — the  importance  of  agriculture  to  a  state.  Hence,  the  great  influence 
of  astronomy  in  beir  theology,  as  determining  the  times  and  seasons 
for  agricultural  operations  ;  hence,  also,  the  deification  of  the  produc- 
tive powers  of  nature.  Never  were  a  people  more  dependant  on 
priestly  astrologers  than  the  Egyptians :  the  stars  were  consulted  fcr 
every  undertaking,  private  or  public,  and  the  priests  alone  had  the  right 
to  consult  them  and  deliver  their  oracles.  The  belief  in  a  future  state 
influenced  every  portion  of  Eg}^ptian  life :  but  the  nature  of  the  creed 
is  difficult  to  be  explained.  In  fact,  there  were  two  inconsistent  creeds, 
the  belief  in  transmigration  of  souls,  confined  to  the  priestly  caste ; 
and  the  belief  that  the  soul  will  continue  as  long  as  the  body  endures 
— whence  the  practice  of  so  carefully  embalming,  and  of  hewing  sep- 
ulcLres  in  the  solid  rock.  The  latter  was  the  popular  opinion  ;  hence, 
the  importance  of  the  rites  of  burial,  and  the  dread  of  the  trial  aftet 
death,  when  a  rilnmal,  under  priestly  direction,  determmed  wheihei 
the  body  should  be  placed  in  the  tomb,  or  left  to  natural  decay. 

The  relative  position  of  the  lower  castes  varied  at  diflferent  times 
*mt  all  trades  and  professions  were  hereditary.     It  was  probably  sup 


EGfPT  0 

;josed  that  this  exclusive  dedication  o^  families  to  separate  emplo^Tnents 
would  insure  perfection  in  the  arts  ;  and,  certainly,  the  progress  of  tlie 
Eo^'ptians,  especially  in  architecture,  surpasses  that  of  any  other 
nation. 

Gpnnastic  exercises  and  music  were  the  favorite  amusements  of 
the  ancient  Egj^tians.  At  their  meals,  they  used  chairs  and  tables  noi 
unlike  our  own.  Women  were  treated  more  respectfully  than  in  other 
cj^untries  of  the  East.     Great  respect  was  paid  to  age  and  rank. 

The  principal  trees  of  Egypt  were  the  sycamore,  the  fig,  the  pome- 
f^ranate,  the  peach,  the  locust-tree,  and  the  vine.  Great  care  was  taken 
of  the  vines.  Wine  was  used  in  great  quantities,  by  the  nobles  and 
wealthy  merchants.  Of  esculent  vegetables  growing  w'ld,  the  most 
remarkable  were  the  lotus,  a  kind  of  lily,  and  the  papyrus ,  the  leaves 
of  the  latter,  dried  and  prepared,  were  used  for  wiiting  upon.  The 
cultivated  vegetables  were  corn  and  pulse,  cotton,  melons,  cucumbers, 
onions,  &c. 

The  domestic  animals  of  the  Egj-ptians  were  the  same  as  those  of 
most  civilized  countries.  The  cat  was  held  in  particular  l.onor.  The 
animals  of  the  mountain  and  desert  Avere  the  wild  ox,  the  goat  and 
sheep,  and  the  antelope.  They  seem  to  have  obtained  camels  from 
some  foreigTi  country.  Among  the  amphibious  animals  of  the  Nile, 
the  crocodile  and  the  hippopotamus  deserve  to  be  noticed,  the  skin  of 
the  latter  being  regarded  as  the  best  covering  for  shields.  Wild  and 
tame  fowl  abounded  ;  the  eggs  of  geese  and  other  poultry  were  hatched 
in  oven=  heated  to  the  requisite  temperature,  a  process  still  used  by  the 
modern  Copts. 

Section  III. — History  of  Egypt  from  Ike  earlicsl  period  to   the  Accession 
of  Psamntetichus. 

FROM    B.    C.     1900    TO    B.    C.    650. 

Egypt  was  originally  composed  of  several  small  states,  of  which  the 
first  were  founded  in  Upper  Egypt.  Though  Thel  es  was  the  most 
ancient  of  the  powerful  states,  Memphis  is  that  of  which  we  have  the 
earliest  accounts.  It  was  the  metropolis  of  a  powerful  kingdom  when 
it  was  visited  by  the  patriarch  Abraham,  and  already  the  centre  of  a 
flourishing  corn-lrade.  The  court  of  the  reigning  Pharaoh  was  reg- 
ularly organized  :  the  jealousy  o '  foreigners,  especially  the  heads  of 
pastoral  tribes,  was  not  yet  apparent,  for  Abraham  was  received  with 
gTeat  hospitality. 

In  the  interval  between  the  departure  of  x^braham  from  Egypt  and 
the  sale  of  Joseph  to  Potiphar,  the  Hyk'sos  and  other  wandering  tribes 
had  began  to  make  incursions  into  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  and  to  ravage 
its  fruitful  fields.  The  policy  which  induced  the  Pharaoh  who  then 
Dccupied  the  throne  to  grant  the  land  of  Goshen  to  the  colony  of  the 
Israelites,  was  equally  creditable  to  his  sagacity  and  generosity  ;  it  was 
a  pasturage  and  frontier  province,  forming  the  eastern  barrier  of  Egypt 
toward  Syria  and  Palestine,  the  countries  from  which  invasion  was 
most  dreaded.  By  assigning  this  district  to  Jacob  and  his  lamily,  il 
was  covered  in  a  short  time  by  a  numerous,  brave,  and  industriou.- 
P'cople,  giving  additional  security  and  resouri-es  to  the  countrv. 


6  ANCIENT  HISTOR\. 

After  ihe  death  of  Joseph,  but  at  what  dislai.ce  of  time  there  is  nc 
b\  idence  to  detoriniue,  a  chaiitje  of  dynasty  took  place  m  Eg>'pt.  Tiiis 
was  probably  the  e\'eiit  described  by  profane  writers  as  the  conquest 
of  Ejivpt  l)y  the  Ilyk'sos,  and  consequently  tlie  Pharaoh  who  so  cruelly 
IjTaniiized  over  tlie  Israelites  was  not  a  native  Egyptian,  but  an  intru- 
sive foreigner.  The  motive  assigned  for  oppressing  the  Israelites  was, 
"  this  people  are  more  and  mightier  than  we" — which  could  hardly  be 
tr:e  of  the  whole  Egyptian  nation,  but  miglit  very  probably  be  of  a  race 
of  conquerors.  One  of  the  tasks  which  this  cruel  despot  imposed  on 
tlie  Israelites,  was  the  building  of  "  treasure  cities."  Among  the  cruel- 
ties inflicted  on  them,  their  being  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
brick  is  particularly  mentioned  :  under  the  burning  sun  of  Egypt,  the 
process  of  wetting,  tempering,  and  working  the  clay  previous  to  itd 
being  moulded,  was  so  painful  and  unwholesome  that  it  n^as  usually  the 
work  of  slaves  and  captives.  But  when  the  Pharaoh  found  that  the 
Israelites  still  continued  to  "  multiply  and  wax  very  mighty,"  he  had 
recourse  to  the  barbarous  expedient  of  extermination,  2.i.d  ordered  that 
all  the  male  children  should  be  destroyed.  Moses  was  saved  from  the 
general  slaughter  and  educated  at  the  Egyptian  court;  after  which, 
though  the  fact  is  not  expressly  stated,  the  cruel  edict  appears  to  have 
fallen  into  disuse.  Moses  never  forgot  his  parentage  and  nation  ;  prob- 
ably the  courtiers  of  Pharaoh  failed  not  to  remind  him  that  he  belonged 
to  a  degraded  caste. 

Having  been  compelled  to  quit  Egypt  for  having  slain  one  of  the  op- 
pressors, Moses  sought  shelter  in  the  land  of  Midian,  where  Jehovah 
appeared  to  him,  and  commanded  him  to  achieve  the  deliverance  of 
His  chosen  people,  investing  him  with  the  miraculous  powers  neces- 
sary for  so  difficult  an  object.  The  reigning  Pharaoh  refused  to  part 
with  so  valuable  a  race  of  slaves,  and  his  obstinacy  was  punished  with 
ten  dreadful  plagues.  The  smiting  of  the  first-born  was  the  consum- 
mation of  these  fearful  judgments :  Pharaoh  and  his  subjects  hasted 
10  send  the  Israelites  away,  and  they  quitted  the  land  of  Egypt.  Av 
arice  induced  the  Pharaoh  to  pursue  them  with  a  mighty  army ;  but 
God  opened  a  passage  for  the  Israelites  through  the  Red  sea,  while 
the  Egypti?.!  host,  attempting  to  pursue  them,  were  overwhelmed  with 
the  returnmg  waters. 

This  calamity  (b.  c.  1491)  greatly  weakened  the  power  of  the 
Hyk'sos,  a 'ready  menaced  by  the  increasing  strength  of  the  Theban 
monarchy.  Previous  to  this,  we  have  scarcely  any  probable  account 
of  the  names  and  ages  of  the  Egyptian  kings,  except  that  Menes  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  founder  of  the  monarchy,  and  Osirtesen  I.  the 
Pharaoh  who  received  Joseph.  But  henceforth  we  are  able  to  deter- 
mine with  probability  some  general  epochs  by  comparing  the  evidence 
of  the  monuments  with  that  of  the  historians.  To  this  period  belong 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties  of  Manetho,  the  found(!rs  of 
the  most  important  monuments  of  Upper  Egypt.  In  the  reign  of  Am'e- 
noph  1.,  the  Thebans  extended  their  conquests  to  the  south,  and  seized 
on  part  of  Nubia.  Crude  brick  arches  were  constiaicted  at  this  periof^ 
(b.  c.  1540)  and  glass  was  soon  after  brought  into  use.  Under  the 
fourth  king  of  this  dynasty,  Thutmosis,  or  Thothmes  III.,  the  childrer. 
of  Israel  departed  fr)m  Egypt,  and  the  Theban  monarch  ■■ucce'Kled  ir 


EGYPT.  7 

sxpellmg  the  H)k'so?— greatly  weakened  by  the  destruction  of  iheii 
best  warriors  in  the  Red  sea — from  the  greater  part  of  the  country^ 
ttnd  shutting  them  up  in  their  fortresses.  Their  great  stronghold  was 
taken  by  his  son  and  successor,  Thoth'mes  IV. ;  and  the  shepherd- 
kings  surrendered  on  condition  of  being  allowed  to  withdraw  into  Syria. 
The  intimate  coimexion  between  these  two  events — the  Exodus  of  the 
Israelites,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyk'sos — have  led  to  their  being 
confounded  together.  The  next  remarkable  monarch  was  Am'enoph 
.II.,  who  reigned  conjointly  with  his  brother;  but,  soon  becoming 
weary  of  divided  empire,  he  expelled  his  partner.  The  dethroned 
brother  was  probably  the  Dan^aus*  of  the  Greeks,  vv^ho,  leaving  Egypt 
with  his  partisans,  settled  in  Ar'gos,  of  which  he  became  king  (b.  c. 
1430).  The  pretended  vocal  statue  of  Mem'non  was  erected  in  honoi 
of  Am^enoph ;  and  in  his  reign  the  building  of  the  great  temples  seems 
to  have  been  commenced.  He  annexed  the  greater  part  of  Nubia  to 
his  dominions.  Among  his  successors  the  name  of  Rame^ses  is  the 
most  distinguished.  It  was  borne  by  four  sovereigns  ;  two  in  the 
eighteenth,  and  two  in  the  nineteenth  dynasty.  The  first  was  expelled 
by  his  brother,  and  is  by  some  identified  with  Dan'aus :  the  second, 
called  Mi-Am'mon,  "  he  who  loves  Am'mon,"  was  the  founder  t)f  the 
palace  of  Medinet  Abu  at  Thebes ;  and  from  the  sculptures  on  it? 
walls,  he  appears  to  have  been  a  warrior  and  conqueror. 

Am'enoph  IV.  was  the  last  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty.  In  his  un- 
fortunate reign  the  Hyk^sos  renewed  their  invasions ;  and  the  king, 
confiding  his  son,  a  child  of  five  years  old,  to  the  care  of  a  friend,  fled 
into  Ethiopia,  where  he  remained  thirteen  years  an  exile.  During  this 
period  the  Hyk'sos  were  guilty  of  the  most  wanton  excesses  ;  for  "  they 
not  only  set  fire  to  the  cities  and  villages,  but  committed  every  kind  of 
sacrilege,  and  destroyed  the  images  of  the  gods,  and  roasted  and  feo 
upon  those  sacred  animals  that  were  worshipped ;  and  having  com 
pelled  the  priests  and  prophets  to  kill  and  sacrifice  them,  they  cas' 
them  naked  out  of  the  country."!  Amen'ophis  at  length,  aided  by  ar. 
Ethiopian  army,  and  supported  by  his  gallant  son,  expelled  the  shep- 
herd-kings, and  restored  the  prosperity  of  his  country. 

Rame'ses  the  Great,  called  also  Sethos  or  Sesos'tris,|  is  the  most 
:elebrated  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs.  The  conquests  attributed  to  him 
die  so  mighty,  that  he  has  been  by  some  regarded  as  merely  a  sym- 
bolical being  ;  but  from  the  evidence  of  the  monuments,  he  appears  tc 
be  undoubtedly  an  historical  personage.  It  is  indeed  doubtful  whether 
the  Ram''eses  who  founded  Medinet  Abu,  or  the  son  of  Am'enoph,  be 
'he  great  conqueror  who  carried  his  arms  into  Bac'tria  in  the  east,  and 
Thrace  in  the  west,  and  before  whose  throne  captives  from  the  frozen 
(Jau'casus  mingled  with  the  sable  tribes  from  the  extreme  south  of 
Ethiopia. :  but  the  existence  of  this  conqueror,  his  daring  hunts  of  the 
hon  in  the  desert  while  a  youth,  his  aid  in  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyk'sos, 
his  extensive  conquests,  and  the  vast  treasures  he  collected  fiom  the 
vanquished  nations  are  satisfactorily  proved  by  the  sculptured  hist  on 
3f  his  exploits  on  the  walls  of  the  buildings  he  erected  or  enlarged 

*  Others  assign  Dan'aus  to  a  later  period. 

fManetho,  as  quoted  by  Josephus. 

t  Wilkinson  identities  Rame'ses  II.  with  Sesostrib. 


H  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Havini,'  suhduoil  the  mountainous  districts  east  of  E;j^'pt.  and  pnrt  of 
ihe  Arabian  peninsula,  he  fitted  out  a  fleet  of  war-galleys  to  scour  the 
Indian  seas.  The  naval  engagements  sculptured  on  iiiti  walls  of  Me- 
dinet  Abu  and  Karnac  fully  support  the  account  of  these  expeditions 
given  by  the  historians,  and  show  that  they  were  extended  to  the 
western  co.ist  of  Hindost'an.  Ethiopia  was  subdued,  and  compelled  to 
pay  a  tribute  of  ebony,  gold,  and  elephants'  teeth.  The  battle,  the  vic- 
torj',  the  offering  of  the  booty  and  tribute,  are  represented  on  the  mon- 
uments at  Kalabshe,  in  Lower  Nubia.  Ilis  campaigns  in  Asia  and 
Europe  were  equally  remarkable.  Northward  he  subdued  SjTia,  An- 
atolia, and  part  of  Thrace  ;  eastward  he  is  said  to  have  advanced  as  fai 
as  Bac'tria  and  India.  There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  of  his  ex- 
ploits in  the  neighborhood  of  Assy'ria  and  the  Euphrates  ;  for  they  are 
represented  on  the  sculptures  of  the  building  called  the  tomb  of  Osy- 
man'dyas,  but  which  should  rather  be  called  the  temple-palace  of  King 
Ram'eses. 

It  is  singular  that  no  record  of  such  a  conqueror  should  be  found  in 
the  Scriptures ;  for  he  must  have  subdued  the  land  of  Canaan  and 
Syria,  countries  which  were  always  coveted  by  the  rulers  of  Egypt. 
Mr.  Milman  very  plausibly  argues  that  the  conquests  of  Sesos'tris  took 
place  while  the  Israelites  were  wandering  in  the  desert,  and  that  this 
providential  arrangement  was  intended  to  facilitate  the  conquest  of  the 
promised  land.  There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  that  some  king  of 
Egypt  performed  many  of  the  exploits  attributed  to  Sesos'tris,  though  it 
is  very  difiicult  to  ascertain  the  exaCt  period  in  which  he  flourished. 

The  successors  of  Sesos'tris  seem  to  have  sunk  into  the  usual  in- 
dolence of  oriental  monarchs.  Their  history,  for  nearly  three  hundred 
years,  presents  little  more  than  a  catalogue  of  names,  until  we  come  to 
Sesouchis,  the  Shishak  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  who  was  the  first  mon- 
arch of  the  twenty-second  dynasty.  In  the  fifth  year  of  the  reign  of 
Rehoboam,  the  foolish  and  wicked  son  of  Solomon  (b.  j.  970),  Shishak 
made  war  agains.  Palestine,  and  pillaged  Jerusalem.  His  army  con- 
sisted of  twelve  kindred  chariots,  sixty  thousand  horsemen,  and  an  in- 
numerable body  of  infantry,  consisting  not  only  of  Egyptians,  but  also 
of  Libyans,  Ethiopians,  and  Troglody'tes.  His  empire  consequently 
extended  beyond  the  bounds  of  Egj'pt,  and  included  a  large  portion  of 
southern  and  western  Africa. 

In  the  next  century  the  Egyptian  monarchy  declined  rapidly,  and  the 
country  was  subjugated  by  Sab'aco,  a  foreign  conqueror  from  Ethiopia. 
The  history  of  the  Ethiopian  dynasty  will  be  found  in  the  next  chapter. 

Under  Tirhakah,  the  last  of  the  Ethiopian  dynasty,  a  priest  named 
Sethos,  contrary  to  all  precedent,  usurped  the  government  of  Lower 
E;^ypt.  He  not  only  neglected  the  caste  of  warriors,  but  deprived 
them  of  their  privileges  and  lands ;  at  which  they  were  so  incensed, 
that  they  refiised  to  bear  arms  in  his  defence.  Sennach'erib,  king  oJ 
Assyria,  prepared  to  invade  Egypt  with  a  very  powerful  army,  and 
advanced  to  Peh'sium  (b.  c.  713).  Sethos,  deserted  b)  the  military 
cjiste,  armed  the  laborers  and  artificers,  and  with  this  undisciplined  host 
marched  to  meet  the  invader.  A  pestilence  in  the  Assyrian  camp 
saved  Egypt  from  ruin,  and  Sennach'erib  returned  to  meet  fresh  mis- 
fortunes at  Jerusalem.  When  Sethos  died,  twelve  princes,  or  heads 
of  nomes,  shared  the  kingdom  amon<^  them ;    but  soon  quarrelling   about 


EGYPT  9 

■he  limits  of  their  respective  principalities,  they  engaged  in  nuitual  war. 
md  drove  one  of  their  number,  Psammet'ichus,  prince  of  Sais,  into 
exile.  Psammet'ichu  J  levied  an  army  of  Greek  and  Carian  mercen- 
aries, most  of  whom  appear  to  have  been  pirates  ;  and  having  overcome 
^ll  his  rivals,  once  more  united  all  Egypt  into  a  single  monarchy,  of 
which  Mem'phis  ranked  as  the  capital,  though  Sais  was  usually  the 
seat  of  government.  The  intercourse  with  the  nations  in  the  eastpm 
Mediterranean  was  greatly  extended  during  the  reign  of  Psammct'- 
.chus :  many  Greeks  settled  in  the  Egyptian  seaports;  and  a  new 
caste  of  interpreters  and  brokers  was  formed  to  facilitate  commerce 
But  the  patronage  of  foreigners,  and  the  preference  that  ^sammet'ichus 
showed  for  the  mercenaries  to  whom  he  owed  his  crowi.,  so  disgusted 
the  caste  of  warriors,  that  the  whole  body  emigrated  from  their  coxmtry, 
and  setttled  in  Ethiopia  (b.  c.  650). 

Section  IV. — History  of  Egypt  from  the  Reign  of  Psammeticlius  to  its 
Subjugation  by  Cambyses. 

FROM    B.C.  650    TO    B.C.  525. 

The  accession  of  Psammet'ichus  was  followed  by  a  complete  revo- 
lution in  the  ancient  policy  of  Eg)'pt ;  foreign  auxiliaries  performed 
the  duti'^s  of  the  warrior  caste  ;  plans  of  permanent  conquests  in  Syria 
succeeded  to  the  predatory  expeditions  of  the  ancient  Pharaohs ;  and 
the  political  influence  of  the  priesthood  rapidly  declined,  as  new 
opinions  were  imported  from  abroad,  and  new  institutions  rendered 
necessary  by  increasing  commerce.  For  several  reigny,  the  great 
object  of  Egyptian  policy  was  to  obtain  possession  of  the  commercial 
cities  of  Syria  and  Phoenicia.  Psammet^ichus  led  the  way  by  laying 
siege  to  Azotus,  a  frontier  town  of  Syria — persevering  in  successive 
attacks  for  twenty-nine  years,  until  he  accomplished  his  object. 

Nechus,  called  in  Scripture  Pharaoh-Necho,  succeeded  his  father 
Psammefichus  (b.c.  616),  and  became  a  powerful  prince,  both  by  land 
and  sea.  He  built  fleets  in  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red  seas, 
and  attempted  to  unite  them  by  cutting  a  canal  across  the  isthmus  of 
Suez  ;  an  enterprise  subsequently  completed  by  Darius  Hystaspes.* 
The  increasing  strength  of  the  Medes  and  Babylonians,  who  had  over- 
thrown  the  ancient  empire  of  Assyria,  justly  alarmed  Necho.  He  led 
a.u  army  against  the  king  of  Assyria,  directing  his  march  toward  the 
Euplirates,  but  was  checked  by  the  ii  terference  of  Josiah,  king  of 
ludah,  who  tried  to  prevent  him  from  besieging  Car'chemish  or  Circe- 
«um,  but  was  defeated  and  slain. f  Necho,  having  reached  the 
Euphrates,  captured  the  important  city  of  Car'chemish,  or  Circesium, 
which  he  garrisoned.  On  his  return  to  Egypt  he  became  master  o( 
ferusalem,  led  its  monarch,  Jehoahaz,  away  captive,  and  placed 
Jehofakim  upon  the  throne. 

The  Chaldean  dynasty  in  Bab'ylon  ro;ie  into  power  on  the  ruins  of 

•  The  navi2:ation  of  the  northern  part  of  Ihe  Red  sea  is  so  very  dangeroiu 
ihat  this  canal  was  never  of  much  use.  Vessels  usually  stopped  at  My'os  Har 
.Tios,  now  Cosseir,  whencf  them  was  a  frood  caravan-road  to  t.'ie  Nile 

t  2  Chron.  i\xv.  21. 


10  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

iLe  Ass)Tian  empire.  Nebucluulnez'zar,  its  mightiest  monircli,  resolved 
v)n  tlie  conquest  of  western  Asia ;  and  one  of  his  earhest  efforts  was 
the  expulsion  of  the  Eg}'ptians  from  Car'chemish.  Necho  tried  to 
check  the  progress  of  this  formidable  opponent ;  but  he  was  defeated 
with  great  slaughter,  and  stripped  of  all  his  possessions  in  Syria  and 
Judea^  to  the  very  walls  of  Pelusium.  .Teremiah's  prophetic  descrip- 
tion of  this  important  battle  has  all  the  minute  accuracy  of  history.* 

During  his  wars  in  Syria,  Necho  did  not  neglect  the  improvement 
of  navigation.  A  Phoenician  fleet,  equipped  at  his  expense,  sailed 
down  the  Red  sea,  passed  the  straits  of  liab-el-Man^eb,  and,  coasting 
the  African  continent,  discovered  the  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  two  thousand  years  before  the  rediscovery  of  it  by  Diaz  and 
Vasco  de  Gama.  The  expedition  returned  to  Egypt  through  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  the  Mediterranean,  after 
an  absence  of  three  years. 

During  the  reign  of  Psam'mis,  the  son  of  Necho,  a  remarkable  cir- 
(.umstance  occurred  (b.c.  600),  tending  to  prove  the  ancient  connexion 
between  the  institutions  of  Greece  and  Egypt,  which  has  been  denied 
by  tuQ  modern  historians  of  the  German  school.  An  embassy  was 
sent  from  the  city  of  E'lis  to  obtain  directions  for  the  management  of 
the  Olympic  games ;  and  the  regulations  suggested  by  the  Egyptian 
priests  were  hnplicitly  obeyed. 

A'pries,  the  Pharaoh-Hoph'ra  of  Scripture,  immediately  after  his 
accession  (u.c.  594),  attacked  the  Phoenician  states,  and  conquered 
Sidon.  He  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  Zedekidh,  king  of  Judah, 
promising  to  aid  him  in  his  revolt  against  Nebuchadnez'zar.  A'pries, 
in  fulfilment  of  his  engagement,  led  an  army  into  Judea,  and  Nebuchad- 
iiez'zar,  on  receiving  intelligence  of  his  approach,  broke  up  the  siege 
of  Jerusalem,  and  hastened  to  meet  him :  but  the  Egyptians  were 
afraid  to  encounter  the  Babylonian  forces,  and  retired,  without  strikuig 
a  blow,  to  their  own  country,  leaving  their  allies  to  bear  the  brunt  of 
Nebuchadnez'zar's  vengeance.  For  this  act  of  perfidy,  God,  by  the 
mouth  of  his  prophet  Ezekiel,t  denounced  severe  vengeance  on  the 
Egy"i)tians  and  their  sovereign.  Not  less  distinct  is  the  prophecy  of 
Jeremiah :  "  Beliold,  I  will  give  Pharaoh-Hoj)h'ra,  king  of  Egypt,  into 
the  hands  of  his  enemies,  and  into  the  hand  of  them  that  seek  hj.s  lite  , 
as  I  gave  Zedekiah,  king  of  Judah,  into  the  hand  of  Nebuchadnez'zar, 
his  enemy,  and  that  sought  his  lile."  j 

The  accomplishment  followed  close  upon  the  latter  prediction.  A 
Grecian  colony,  established  at  Gyrene,  being  strengthened  by  fresh 
bodies  of  their  countrymen,  under  their  third  king,  Bat'tus  the  Happy 
attacked  the  neighboring  Libyans,  and  seized  their  land.  An'dicaii 
one  of  the  dispossessed  princes,  applied  for  aid  to  Pharaoh-Hoph'ra 
who  sent  a  large  army  to  his  relief.  The  Egj-ptians  were  routed  with 
great  slaughter  by  the  CjTeneans ;  and  the  fugitives,  to  excuse  their 
defeat,  averred  that  they  had  been  designedly  betrayed  by  their  mon- 
arch. This  calumny  was  the  pretext  for  a  universal  revolt.  After  a 
long  civil  war,  of  wliich  Nebuchadnez'zar  took  advantage  to  devascatt 
Lower  Eg}q;)t,  A'pries  was  dethroned  by  Ama'sis,  and  strangled  ir 
prison  (b.c.  5G9). 

•  Juemiah  xivi.  1-  10.  t  Ezekiel  xxLx.  8-15.  t  Jeremiali  xhv.  30 


EGYPT,  11 

Thti  usurper  wa^  a  man  of  mean  birth,  but  liis  great  al)ilitiefa  enabled 
nim  to  o-vercome  tlie  Egyptian  prejudice  of  caste,  especially  as  he  had 
the  Avisdoni  to  conciliate  the  affection  of  the  priesthood.  Followino 
the  policy  of  his  predecessors,  he  tried  to  establish  his  supremacy  in 
western  Asia,  on  the  decline  of  the  Babylonian  power,  and  entered 
into  close  alliance  with  Crce'sus  against  Cy'rus.  He  was  defeated, 
and  compellled  to  become  ti-ibutary  to  the  conqueror.  On  the  death  of 
Cyrus,  he  attempted  to  assert  his  independence,  and  thus  provoked  the 
rage  of  Camby'ses,  that  monarcli's  successor.  At  the  very  moment 
when  the  Persian  invaders  were  approaching,  Ama'sis  quarrelled  with 
Phanes,  the  commander  of  the  Greek  mercenaries,  and  his  ally.  Poly' 
crates,  the  king  of  Samos,  both  of  whom  tendered  their  aid  to 
Gamby'ses.  But  before  the  evil  hour  of  the  Persian  invasion  arrived, 
Ama'sis  died  (b.c.  525),  bequeathing  to  his  son  Psammeni'tus  a  king- 
dom torn  by  internal  dissensions,  and  menaced  by  a  formidable  enemy. 

Scarcely  had  Psammeni'tus  ascended  the  throne,  when  Camby'sea 
appeared  on  the  frontiers  of  Egypt,  and  laid  siege  to  Pelusium.  Thi? 
important  garrison  was  taken,  after  a  very  weak  resistance  ;  and  the 
Persians  advanced  into  the  open  country.  Psammeni'tus  led  an  army, 
chiefly  composed  of  mercenaries,  against  them  ;  but  was  so  completely 
Dverthrov/n,  that  he  was  no  longer  able  to  save  his  capital.  Camby'ses 
provoked  by  the  murder  of  one  of  his  ambassadors,  put  to  death  th(' 
chief  of  the  Egyptian  nobles,  and  reduced  their  wives  and  children  to 
slavery.  He  was  at  first  inclined  to  spare  the  life  of  the  unfortunate 
king ;  but  subsequently  learning  that  he  had  incautiously  expressed  a 
dasire  for  revenge,  the  cruel  conqueror  condemned  him  to  drink 
poison, 

(yamby'ses  was  the  deadly  enemy  of  the  religion  and  the  priestly 
caste  of  the  Egj'ptians  :  he  slew  their  sacred  animals,  destroyed  their 
Idols,  scourged  their  priests  as  slaves,  and  pillaged  their  temples. 

The  Egyptians,  instigated  by  the  heads  of  the  sacerdotal  caste, 
frequently  rebelled  against  the  Persians,  but  were  never  alile  to  estab- 
lish their  independence  ;  these  insurrections  were  puinshed  with  the 
most  relentless  severity,  and  thus  the  awful  prophecy  of  E/eikel  was 
fulfilled  to  the  letter.* 

Section  V. — Egyptian  Manufactures  and  Cotnmercc. 

The  monuments  show  us  that  the  progress  of  the  Egyptians  in  the 
mechanical  arts  was  much  greater  than  had  been  usually  supposed,  and 
that  an  accurate  examination  of  their  machinery  might  suggest  useful 
hints  for  the  present  day. 

Weaving  was  an  important  branch  of  industry,  the  cotton  and  flax 
being  indigenous.  It  is  uncertain  whether  silk  was  used.  The  stuffs 
wore  woven  in  large  manufactories,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
priests,  who  had  a  monopoly  of  all  the  cloths  used  for  sacred  purposes, 
especially  for  the  mummies.  These  stutTs  were  generally  died  in  the 
wool,  and  many  of  them  embroidered  with  thread  of  gold  aiid  silvei 
'vire ;  f ome  of  them  are  striped,  others  stained  or  flowered,  and  the 

•  Ezek.  XXX.  13-19. 


12  ANCIENT   HISTORY 

colors  of  .'ill  exhibit  those  dazzling  hues  of  the  East,  wliicli  we  are 
unable  to  rival  in  Emope. 

The  manufactures  in  metal  rank  next  in  importance.  Iron  appears 
o  have  been  but  little  known :  nearly  all  the  implements  not  made  of 
gold  or  silver,  were,  it  would  seem,  either  copper  or  brass.  The 
workmanship  of  the  Egyptians,  both  in  metal  and  wood,  was  superior 
to  that  of  any  other  ancient  nation.  The  forms  of  their  couches, 
harps,  &c.,  the  elegance  of  the  spindles  and  work-baskets  of  thr 
ladies,  inspire  a  high  idea  of  the  refinement  of  their  domestic  life. 

Egypt  produced  excellent  clay  for  pottery,  and  earthen  ware  was 
used,  not  only  for  domestic  purposes,  but  for  ])reserving  the  mummies 
of  the  sacred  animals.  Their  vases,  in  the  indescribable  variety  &,nd 
beauty  of  their  shapes,  rival  the  choicest  specimens  of  Grecian  or 
Etruscan  art. 

Ship-building  did  not  become  common  in  Egypt,  until  its  rulers 
became  masters  of  the  Phcenician  forests ;  but  they  manufactured 
vessels  of  burden  for  navigating  the  Nile 

The  Theb'aid  was  the  central  point  of  trade  between  southern  Asia 
and  the  wesiern  regions,  and  between  Ethiopia  and  northern  Africa. 
Besides  the  advantages  of  its  position,  the  most  ancient  and  productive 
gold  mines  in  the  world  were  in  its  neighl)orhood.  From  Etliiopia 
and  the  Negro  countries  were  brought  gold,  ivory,  ebony,  skins,  and 
slaves ;  from  Arabia,  incense,  and  from  India,  spices ;  and  these  were 
sold  to  the  Greek  and  Phoenician  merchants.  The  native  commodities 
exported  were  principally  corn  and  cloths :  the  corn-trade  must  havo 
been  particularly  valuable,  for  Egypt  was  regarded  as  the  graraiy  of 
the  adjticont  countries. 


THE  ETHIOPIANS.  13 


CHAPTER  IT. 
THE  ETHIOPIANS. 

Section  I  — Geographical  Outline.     Natural  History. 

The  eastern  districts  above  the  Nile,  now  called  Nubia  and  Sennaar 
have  been  possessed  from  a  remote  age  by  two  different  races  tho 
Ethiopian  and  the  Arabian,  which  are  even  now  but  partially  blended. 
The  country  is  ^ull  of  historical  monuments,  chiefly  erected  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile.  There  were,  in  these  countries  above  Egypt,  all  the  grada- 
lions  from  the  complete  savage  to  the  hunting  and  fishing  tribes,  and 
from  them  to  the  wandering  herdsman  and  sh*i;pherd ;  but  there  was 
also  a  civilized  Ethiopian  people,  dwelling  in  cities,  possessing  a  gov- 
ernment and  laws,  acquainted  with  the  use  of  hieroglyphics,  the  fame 
of  whose  progress  in  knowledge  and  the  social  arts  had,  in  the  earliest 
ages,  spread  over  a  considerable  portion  of  the  earth. 

The  Nile,  before  its  confluence  with  the  Astab'oras  (Mugrum),  runs 
through  a  very  irregular  valley  formed  by  two  chains  of  hills,  which 
sometimes  retire  back,  and  sometimes  advance  to  the  very  margin  of 
the  river.  The  soil  of  this  valley  was  once  as  fertile  as  the  richest 
part  of  Egypt,  and  where  protected,  it  still  continues  so ;  but  the  hills 
on  both  sides  are  bordered  by  sandy  deserts,  against  which  they  afford 
but  a  scanty  protection.  The  Nubian  valley  below  the  junction  of  the 
Nile  and  the  Astab^oras  appears  to  have  been  sometimes  subject  to  the 
Ethiopians  of  Mer'oe  and  sometimes  to  the  Egyptians.  The  naviga- 
tion of  the  Nile  is  here  impeded  by  the  windings  of  the  river,  and  by 
the  intervention  of  cataracts  and  rapids  ;  so  that  intercourse  is  more 
generally  maintained  by  caravans  than  by  boats.  At  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  valley,  the  river  spreads  itself,  and  encloses  a  number  of 
fertile  islands.  Along  the  whole  course  of  the  Nubian  valley  is  a. suc- 
cession of  st'ipendous  monuments,  rivalling  those  of  Thebes  in  beauty, 
and  exceeding  them  in  sublimity. 

The  productions  of  the  Ethiopian  and  Nubian  valleys  do  not  differ 
materially  from  those  of  Egypt.  The  island  of  Mer^oe  as  it  was  called 
from  being  nearly  surrounded  with  rivers,  possessed  an  abundance  of 
camels,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  were  little  used  in  Eg}']it ;  but  the 
ivorj'  ebony,  and  spices,  which  the  Ethiopians  sent  down  the  river, 
were  probably  procured  by  traffic  wath  the  interior  of  Africa.  Mer^oe 
had  better  harbors  for  Indian  commerce  than  Egypt :  not  only  were 
her  ports  on  the  Red  sea  superior,  but  the  caravan-routes  to  them  were 
shorter,  and  the  dangerous  part  of  the  navigation  of  that  sea  was  wholly 
avoided. 

The  wild  tracts  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mer'oe  are  tenanted  by  an- 
iinals  whose  chase  afforded  employment  to  the  ancient,  as  it  does  new 


14  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

lu  the  moJern  liimting  tribes;  especially  that  singular  creature  the 
giraffe,  or  camelopard,  so  recently  known  in  Europe.  The  elephant  is 
found  in  Abyssiiiia,  not  far  from  the  southern  confines  of  the  state  of 
Mer'oe 

Skction  II. — History  of  the  Ethiopians. 

The  early  history  of  Meroe  is  involved  in  impenetrable  obscurity 
Its  monuments  bear  evident  m;.rks  of  being  the  models  for  the  wondroiu 
edifices  of  Egypt ;  but,  shut  out  from  all  intercourse  with  civilized  na- 
tions bv  the  intervention  of  the  Egyjitians,  it  is  Oiily  when  they  were 
invaded,  or  became  invaders,  that  we  can  trace  the  history  of  the  Ethi- 
opians. It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  several  of  the  Egyptian 
inonarchs  carried  their  arms  into  Ethiopia,  and  became  for  a  time  mas 
ters  of  the  country.  In  the  eleventh  century  before  the  Christian  era, 
the  Assyrian  heroine  Semir'amis  is  reported  to  have  attempted  its  con- 
quest ;  but  there  is  some  doubt  of  the  truth  of  this,  as  indeed  of  many 
other  exploits  attributed  to  this  wonderfid  queen.  But  we  have  certain 
information  of  the  Ethiopians  being  a  powerful  nation  ^b.  c.  971)  when 
they  assisted  Shishak  in  his  war  against  Judaea  "  with  very  many 
chariots  and  horsemen."  Sixteen  years  after  this,  we  have  an  account 
of  Judsea  being  again  invaded  by  an  army  of  a  million  Ethiopians,  un- 
accompanied by  any  Egyptian  force.*  From  the  Scripture  narrative, 
it  appears  that  the  Ethiopians  had  made  considerable  progress  in  the 
art  of  war,  and  were  masters  of  the  navigation  of  the  Red  sea,  and 
at  least  a  part  of  the  Arabian  peninsula.  The  kingdom  must  have  been 
also  in  a  very  flourishing  condition,  when  it  was  able  to  bear  the  cos. 
of  so  vast  and  distant  an  expedition. 

The  Ethiopian  power  gradually  increased  until  its  moiiarchs  were 
enabled  to  conquer  Egj^t,  where  three  of  them  reigned  in  succession 
Sab'bakon,  Sev'echus,  and  Tar'akus,  the  Tirhakah  of  Scripture.! 
Sev'echus,  called  So  in  Scripture,  was  so  powerful  a  monarch,  that 
Hoshea,  king  of  Israel,  revolted  against  the  Assyrians,  relying  on  his 
assistance  ;  %  but  was  not  supported  by  his  ally.  This,  indeed,  was  the 
immediate  cause  of  the  captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes  ;  for  "  in  the  ninth 
year  of  Hoshea,  the  king  of  Assyria  took  Samaria,  and  carried  Israel 
away  into  Assyria,"  as  a  punishment  for  unsuccessful  rebellion.  Tir- 
hakah was  a  more  warlike  prince :  he  led  an  army  against  Senriach'- 
erib,  kin^  of  Assyria,^  then  besieging  Jerusalem ;  and  the  Egyptian 
traditions,  preserved  in  the  age  of  Herod'otus,  give  an  accurate  account 
of  the  providential  interposition  by  which  the  pride  of  the  Ass}Tians 
was  humbled. 

In  the  reign  of  Psammet'ichus,  the  entire  warrior-casit  of  the  Egyp- 
tians migrated  to  Ethiopia,  and  were  located  at  the  extreme  southern 
frontier  of  the  kingdom.  These  colonis.s  instriicted  the  Ethiopians  in 
tne  recent  improvements  made  in  the  art  of  war,  and  prepared  them  foi 
resisting  the  fonnidable  invasion  of  Camby'ses. 

•2  Chron.  xiv.  8-13. 

t  Mr.  Hawkins,  in  his  recent  work  ou  Meroe,  iuenudes  Iirhakah  'wil'i  :tie  pries' 
Si'thos,  on  what  we  deem  very  insutScient  grounds. 

i  2  Kings,  xvii.  4.  §  2  Kings,  xis.  9. 


THE  ETHIOPIANS.  16 

Scarcely  had  the  Persian  dynasty  been  estabushed  in  Egypt,  when 
Camby'ses  set  out  to  invade  Ethiopia,  without  preparing  any  store  of 
provisions,  apparently  ignorant  of  the  deserts  through  which  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  pass.  Before  he  had  gone  over  a  fiftli  part  of  the 
route  from  Thebes,  the  want  of  provisions  was  felt ;  yet  he  madly  de- 
termined to  proceed.  The  soldiers  fed  on  grass,  as  long  as  any  could 
De  found ;  but  at  length,  when  they  reached  the  deserts,  so  dreadful 
was  the  famine,  that  they  were  obliged  to  cast  lots,  that  one  out  of 
every  ten  might  be  eaten  by  his  comrades. 

It  is  said  that  the  king  of  Ethiopia  was  always  elected  from  the 
priestly  caste ;  and  there  was  a  strange  custom  for  the  electors,  when 
weary  of  their  sovereign,  to  send  him  a  courier  with  orders  to  die. 
Ergam'enes  was  the  first  monarch  who  ventured  to  resist  this  absurd 
custom  :  he  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  second  Ptol'emy,  and  was  instruct- 
ed in  Grecian  philosophy.  So  far  from  yielding,  he  marched  against 
the  fortress  of  the  priests,  massacred  most  of  them,  and  insiituted  a 
new  religion. 

Queens  frequently  ruled  in  Ethiopia :  one  named  Candace  made  war 
on  Augus'tus  Cee'sar  about  twenty  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
though  defeated  by  the  superior  discipline  of  the  Romans,  obtained 
Deace  on  very  favorable  conditions.  During  the  reign  of  another  of  the 
same  name,  we  find  that  the  Jewish  religion  was  prevalent  in  Mer'oe, 
probably  in  consequence  of  the  change  made  by  Ergam'enes  ;  for  the 
queen's  confidential  adviser  went  to  worship  at  Jerusalem,  and  on  his 
return  (a.  d.  53)  was  converted  by  St.  Philip,*  and  became  the  means 
of  introducing  Christianity  into  Ethiopia. 

These  are  the  principal  historical  facts  that  can  now  be  ascertained 
respecting  the  ancient  and  once  powerful  state  of  Mer'oe,wl)ich  has  now 
sunk  into  the  general  mass  of  African  barbarism. 

Section  III. — Arts,  Corn?uerce,  and  Mamifacturcs  of  Mer'oe. 

The  pyramids  of  Mer'oe,  though  inferior  in  size  to  those  of  Middle 
Egypt,  are  said  to  surpass  them  in  architectural  beauty,  and  the  sep- 
ulchres evince  the  greatest  purity  of  taste.  But  the  most  important 
and  striking  proof  of  the  progress  of  the  Ethiopians  in  the  art  of  build- 
ing, is  their  knowledge  and  employment  of  the  arch.  Mr.  Hoskins  ha? 
stated  that  these  pyramids  are  of  superior  antiquity  to  those  of  Egj-pt. 

The  Ethiopian  vases  depicted  on  the  monuments,  though  not  richly 
ornamented,  display  a  taste  and  elegance  of  form  that  has  never  been 
surpassed.  In  sculpture  and  coloring,  the  edifices  of  Mer'oe,  though 
not  so  profusely  adorned,  rival  the  choicest  specimens  of  Egyptian  art 

We  have  already  noticed  the  favorable  position  of  Mer^oe  for  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  India  and  the  interior  of  Africa :  it  was  the 
entrepot  of  trade  between  the  north  and  south,  between  the  east  and 
west,  while  its  fertile  soil  enabled  the  Ethiopians  to  purchase  foreigTi 
luxuries  with  native  productions.  It  does  not  appear  that  fabrics  were 
woven  in  Mer^oe  so  extensively  as  in  Egypt ;  but  the  manufactures  of 
metal  must  hav3  been  at  least  as  flourishing.  But  Mer'oe  owed  its 
gn^eatness  less  to  the  produce  of  its  soil  or  its  factories,  than  to  its  p(v 

•Acts  vii.  33. 


16  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

8itiou  on  the  intersection  of  the  leading  caravan-routes  of  ancient  com 
merce.  The  great  changes  in  these  hnes  of  trade,  the  devastations  of 
successive  conquerors  and  revolutions,  the  fanaticism  of  the  Sar'acens 
and  the  destruction  of  the  fertile  soil  by  the  encroachments  of  the 
moving  sands  from  the  desert,  are  causes  sufficient  for  the  ruin  of  such 
a  powerful  empire.  Its  decline,  however,  was  probably  accelerated  oy 
the  pressure  of  the  nomad  hordes,  who  took  advantage  of  its  weakneHP 
to  plunder  its  defenceless  citizens 


B.VBVLONIA  AND  ASSYHIA-  1^ 


CHAPTER   111. 
BABYLONIA   AND    ASSYRIA. 

Section  I. —  Geographical  OuLliiie. — Natural  History. 

Babylonia,  or  Chaldae^a.  was  situated  between  two  great  river-j,  the 
Euphrates  on  tlie  west,  and  the  Tigris  on  the  east.  The  bed  of  the 
Tigris  is  much  lower  than  that  of  the  Euphrates,  its  channel  much 
deeper,  and  the  banks  so  precipitous,  that  it  very  rarely  overflowfe 
ihem. 

Babylonia  was  properly  the  country  on  the  lower  Euphrates  :  north 
of  it  were  the  extensive  plains  of  Mesopotamia,  and  beyond  these,  the 
mountainous  districts  of  Armenia,  supposed  by  many  writers  to  have 
been  the  first  habitation  of  the  posterity  of  Noah,  after  the  Flood. 

Beyond  the  Tigris  was  the  region  properly  called  Assyr^ia,  a  table- 
land, bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  chains  of  mountains,  which 
have  afforded  shelter  to  plundering  nomad  tribes  from  the  remotest 
antiquity.  The  soil,  though  not  so  rich  as  that  of  Babylonia,  was 
generally  fruitful.  But  almost  ever  since  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian 
empire,  the  country  has  been  devastated  by  wars  between  poweri'iil 
monarchies  and  nations  ;  and  it  is  now  little  better  than  a  wilderness, 
save  that  some  patches  of  land  are  cultivated  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  few  inconsiderable  towns  within  its  precincts. 

Babylonia,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Euphrates,  rivalled  the  fertil 
ity  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile :  the  soil  was  so  peculiarly  suited  for 
corn,  that  the  husbandman's  returns  were  sometimes  three  hundred 
fold,  iid  rarely  less  than  two  hundred  fold.  The  rich  oily  grains  of 
the  ■parificum  and  ses'amum,  were  produced  in  luxuriant  abundance  ;  the 
fig-tree,  the  olive,  and  the  vine,  were  wholly  wanting  ;  but  there  were 
large  groves  of  palm-tre  s  on  the  banks  of  the  river.  From  the  palms 
chey  obtained  not  only  fruit,  but  wine,  sugar,  and  molasses,  as  the 
Arabs  do  at  the  present  time.  Dwarf  cypress-trees  were  scattered 
over  the  plains  ;  but  these  were  a  poor  substitute  for  other  species  of 
wood  To  this  deficiency  of  timber  must  be  attributed  the  neglect  of 
the  river  navigation,  and  the  abandonment  of  the  commerce  of  the 
Indian  seas,  by  the  Babylonians. 

Stone  and  marble  were  even  more  rare  in  this  country  than  wood 
but  the  clay  was  well  adapted  for  the  manufacture  of  bricks.  These, 
whether  dried  in  the  sun  or  burnt  in  kilns,  became  so  hard  and 
durable,  that  now,  after  the  lapse  of  so  many  centuries,  the  remains  of 
ancient  walls  preserve  the  bricks  uninjured  by  their  long  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere,  and  retaining  the  impression  of  the  inscriptions  in  the 
iiTow-headed  character  as  perfectly   as  if  they  had  only   just  beer 

2 


IR  ANCIENT   HlBTOaV. 

iuaiiu:acti:red.  Naphtha  and  bitumen,  or  earthy  oil  and  pitch,  wou- 
produced  iu  great  abundance  above  Bab  ylon,  near  the  modern  town  of 
Hit :  these  served  as  substitutes  for  mortar  or  cement ;  and  so  lasting 
were  they,  that  the  layers  of  rushes  and  palm-leaves  laid  between  the 
courses  of  bricks  as  a  binding  material,  are  found  at  this  day  in  the 
ruins  of  Bab'ylon,  as  perfect  as  if  a  year  had  not  elapsed  since  they 
were  put  together. 

Section  IT. — Political  and  Social  Condition  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians. 

DESPOTiSiM,  in  its  most  severe  form,  was  established  in  the  Assyrian 
monaroi.y,  and  in  those  by  which  it  was  succeeded.  The  king's  will 
was  the  law ;  no  code  existed  to  restrict  his  judgments ;  and  even 
ancient  customs  were  set  aside  at  his  pleasure.  He  was- the  head  of 
the  church  as  well  as  the  state,  and  claimed  divine  worship.  His 
palace  was  crowded  with  as  many  wives  and  concubines  as  he  chose 
to  collect,  and  these  were  placed  under  the  guardianship  of  eunuchs, 
an  unfortunate  race,  first  brought  into  use  in  Assyr'ia. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  whether  the  priests,  usually  called 
Chaldeans,  were  a  caste  or  an  order ;  but  it  is  most  probable  that,  like 
the  Egyptians,  the  Jews,  and  the  Persians,  the  Babylonians  had  an 
hereditary  priesthood.  Their  religion  was  the  kind  of  idolatry  usually 
called  Sabian ;  that  is,  they  worshipped  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the 
starry  host.  In  a  later  age,  they  added  to  this  the  worship  of  deified 
mortals,  whom  they  supposed  to  be  in  some  way  connected  with  the 
celestial  luminaries,  just  as  Eastern  monarchs  of  the  present  day  call 
themselves  "  brothers  of  the  sun  and  moon."  Their  supreme  deity 
was  named  Baal,  or  Bell,  which  signifies  Lord :  the  mixture  of  the 
astronomical  with  the  historical  character  of  the  idol  has  rendered  the 
Assyrian  mythology  complicated  and  obscure  ;  and  the  double  character 
of  their  deities  generally,  has  brought  confusion  not  oidy  into  mythol- 
ogy,  but  history ;  for  many  of  the  fabulous  legends  respecting  Ninus 
and  Semir'aniis  are  manifestly  imperfect  astronomical  theories.  Cru- 
elty and  obscenity  were  the  most  marked  attributes  of  the  Babylonian 
and  Assyrian  idolatry ;  human  victims  were  sacrificed,  and  prostitution 
was  enjoined  as  a  religious  duty.  It  had  also  much  of  the  absurdity  that 
belongs  to  the  Brahminism  of  the  present  day  ;  monstrous  combinations 
3f  forms  were  attributed  to  the  gods  ;  their  idols  had  many  heads,  and 
jumbled  the  limbs  of  men  and  the  memljers  of  animals  together  ; 
hese  had  probably  at  first  a  symbolic  meaning,  which  the  priests  pre- 
served by  tradition,  but  which  was  carefully  concealed  from  the  vulgai 
herd. 

The  condhion  of  women  was  more  degraded  in  Bab'jdon  than  in  any 
other  Eastern  country.  No  man  had  a  right  to  dispose  of  his  daugh- 
ters in  marriage ;  when  girls  attained  mature  age,  they  were  exposed 
for  sale  in  the  public  markets,  and  delivered  to  the  highe.'-t  bidder.  The 
m(juey  thus  obtained  for  beauty  was  applied  to  portioning  ugliness. 
Debauchery  and  gross  sensuality  were  th<;  i.atural  results  of  such  o 
system,  and  these  evils  were  aggravated  by  the  habitual  intoxication 
if  ev'iy  class  vS  sf>cietv.    This  dissolute  people  were  as  superstitious  a."? 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  lU 

cliey  were  depraved,  and  were  the  slaves  of  the  CUialdtjsn  priests  and 
jugglers. 

The  Babylonians  had  made  considerable  progress  in  the  mechanicu 
irts,  and  in  mathematical  science :  their  astronomical  knowledge  was 
"ery  extensive,  but  it  was  so  disfigured  by  astrological  absurdities  as  to 
bs  nearly  useless.  The  arts  of  weaving  and  working  in  metal  were 
nractised  in  Babylon ;  the  naphtha  and  petroleum  furnished  excellent 
fuel  for  furnaces ;  and  the  accounts  given  of  their  skill  in  metal- 
founding  show  that  they  had  made  many  ingenious  contrivances,  which 
supplied  their  natural  wants  of  stone  and  wood. 

The  Babylonian  language  belongs  to  that  class  called  Semil'ic,  of 
which  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Syriac,  are  branches.  They  possessed 
an  alphabetic  character,  and  wrote  on  bricks  and  earthen  cylinders.  It 
is  not  certain  that  they  possessed  books,  their  country  producing  no 
materials  from  which  paper  could  be  manufactured. 

Section  III. — History  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians. 
FROM    B.C.    2204    TO    B.C.    538. 

Assyrian  history,  according  to  Grecian  authorities,  particularly 
Ctesias  and  Diodorus,  is  nothing  more  than  traditions  of  the  heroes  and 
heroines,  who,  at  some  early  period,  founded  a  kingdom  in  the  coun- 
tries bordering  on  the  Euphrates — traditions  without  any  chronological 
lata,  and  in  the  ordinary  style  of  Eastern  exaggeration.  The  Assyrian 
history  contained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  is  that  of  a  distinct  nation  of 
conquerors  that  founded  an  empire.  This  history  is  however  conlined 
to  incidental  notices  of  the  wars  between  the  Assyrians  and  the  Isra- 
elites and  Jews.  Herod'otus  briefly  toviches  on  the  Assyrian  empife ; 
but  his  narrative,  so  far  as  it  goes,  confirms  the  narrative  given  in  the 
Old  Testament.  We  shall  endeavor  to  deduce  from  all  these  sources 
the  most  authentic  account  of  the  Assyrian  monaixhv. 

The  miraculous  interruption  of  the  building  of  Babel  led  to  the  aban- 
donment of  that  spot  by  the  followers  of  Nim'rod,  who  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  nomad  chief  that  founded  a  permanent  monarchy.  He 
was  the  Ninus  of  profane  history — a  warrior,  a  conqueror,  the  builder 
of  cit'es,  and  the  founder  of  an  empire.  Tradition  has  based  a  long 
romanje  on  these  few  facts,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  detail.  The 
Assyrian  empire  appears  to  have  been  founded  b.  c.  1237,  and  Nin'eveh 
was  its  metropolis.  Ninus  chose  for  his  principal  queen  Semir'ainis, 
the  wiie  of  one  of  his  officers,  to  whose  pruder  counsels  he  is  said  to 
have  been  indebted  for  many  of  his  victories. 

Or  the  death  of  Ninus,  Semir'ainis  assumea  the  administration  of 
the  empire  as  regent.  She  is  said  to  have  founded  the  city  of  Bab'y- 
lon ;  but  this  is  clearly  erroneous.  The  additions,  however,  that  slie 
made  to  the  city,  and  the  stupendous  edifices  with  which  she  adorned 
it,  in  some  degree  justified  the  tradition.  Her  wars  were  waged  in  the 
most  remote  countries ;  she  is  said  to  have  conquered  Egypt,  and 
invaded  Ethiopia,  on  one  side,  and  to  have  attacked  India,  on  the  other. 
Semir'ainis  was  succeeded  by  her  son  Nin'yas,  who  gave  himself  up 
to  indolence  and  debauchery,  keeping  himself  secluded  in  his  palace 
and  ini  rusting  the  entir<^  f:are  o1   the  administration  to  his  ministers 


20  AXCIENT  HISTORY 

lIis  iiuccussors  for  several  jjcnerations  followed  his  basf^  exampk: ;  and 
the  Assvrian  monarchy  gradually  decayed. 

Leaving  the  traditions  re.sj)ecting  NIuiis  and  Semir'amis,  in  -which 
a  few  historical  facts  are  quite  obscured  under  a  cloud  of  fableo  and 
•istronomical  allegories,  we  come  to  the  portion  of  Assyrian  /ustory 
tounded  on  the  authentic  records  of  the  Old  Testament.  Tlie  Assyr- 
ians began  to  extend  their  empire  westward  beyond  the  Eup/jrates  in 
the  reign  of  Pul  (b.  c.771).  He  approached  the  confines  of  tne  king- 
dom of  Israel,  then  ruled  by  the  usurper  Men'ahem,  and  inspired  so 
much  terror,  that  his  forbearance  was  purchased  by  a  thousand  talents 
of  silver.* 

Tiglath-pul-as'sur  succeeded  to  the  throne  (b.c.747),  and  prepared 
to  pursue  the  plans  of  conquest  that  Pul  had  sketched.  He  concjuereJ 
the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  transplanted  a  great  number  of  the  inhabi- 
tants to  the  remote  parts  of  his  empire. f  Invited  by  A''iiaz,  king  of 
Judah,  he  made  war  against  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Syiia,  stormed  its 
celebrated  metropolis,  Damas'cus,  and  removed  the  vanquished  people 
beyond  the  Euphrates. 

Shalman-as'sur  was  the  next  monarch  (b.  c.  728).  lie  invaded  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  took  Samaria  after  a  siege  of  thrct;  years,  and  led 
the  grcHter  part  of  the  ten  tribes  into  captivity,  supplying  their  place 
with  colonies  from  other  states.  After  the  conquest  of  Israel,  Shal- 
man-as'sur invaded  Phoenicia,  and  subdued  all  the  puucipal  cities  ex- 
cept T}Te. 

San-her'ib,  or  Sennach'erib,  was  the  next  monarch.  He  led  an  army 
against  Hezeki'ah,  king  of  Judah  (b.  c.  714),  and  also  attacked  Egypt. 
His  impious  blasphemies  against  the  God  of  the  Jews  were  punished 
by  the  miraculous  destruction  of  his  army ;  and  he  relumed  home  mor- 
tified and  disgraced.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  and  he 
was  slain  by  his  own  sons. 

Assar-had'don-pul,  the  Esarhad'don  of  Scripture,  and  Sardanapalus 
of  profane  history,  was  the  third  son  of  San-her'ib,  and  was  cho.sen  his 
successor,  in  preference  to  the  parricides,  Adram-mel'ek  and  Shar- 
oz'er.  The  accounts  given  of  this  prince  are  so  very  inconsistent,  thai 
many  have  siqiposed  that  there  were  two  of  the  name  ;  but  it  is  more 
probable  thai  he  was  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign  an  active  conqueror, 
and  that  he  subsequently  sunk  into  sensuality  and  sloth.  He  conquered 
ihe  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  made  some  impression  on  Egypt;  but,  re- 
luming to  Nin'eveh,  he  became  the  slave  of  intemperance,  and  thus 
disgusted  the  hardy  warriors  whom  he  had  so  often  led  to  victory. 
The  satraps  of  Media  and  Babylonia  revolting,  besieged  Sardanapalus 
in  his  capital ;  and  he,  finding  himself  deserted  by  his  subjects,  and 
unable  to  protract  his  defence,  made  a  huge  pile,  on  which  he  placed 
his  wives  and  his  treasures ;  then  setting  it  on  fire,  he  threw  himself 
i\ito  the  midst  of  the  flames  (b.  c.  6G7).  Thus  ended  the  Assyriar 
monarchy ;  and  the  supremacy  of  "central  and  western  Asia  was  trans 
fcrred  to  the  Babylonians. 

The  Kasdim,  or  Chaldeans,  a  northern  nomad  tribe  from  the  mount 
Lin-chains   of  Tau'rus  and   the   Cau'casus,  s,])pear  to  have   u^tm  em 

2Kin.a;s  X.'.  19.  t  2  Kings  xv.  29 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA,  21 

ployed  as  mercenaries  by  the  Assyrian  monarcLs,  and  to  have  been  sta- 
tioned in  Babylonia.  As  is  not  unusual  in  the  East,  these  soldiers  re- 
volted against  their  masters,  and  prepared  to  carve  out  an  empire  for  tlieni  • 
selves.  That  they  were  a  conquering  horde  which  settled  in  the  country, 
is  proved  by  the  express  testimony  of  Isaiah.  "  Behold  the  land  of  the 
Chaldeans  [Kasdim] ;  this  people  was  not,  until  the  Assyrian  founded  it 
for  them  that  dwell  in  the  wilderness :  they  set  up  the  towers  thereof, 
they  raised  up  the  palaces  thereof."  *  The  chronology  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Chaldeans  commences  with  the  reign  of  Nabonas'sar,  February 
26th  (b.  c.  '74'7),  a  remarkable  era  in  history,  because  the  introduction 
of  the  Egyptian  solar  year,  during  the  reign  of  that  prince,  first  sup- 
plied the  Chaldeans  with  an  accurate  mode  of  measuring  time.  There 
is  nothing  worthy  of  note  in  the  history  of  Nabonas'sar,  and  his  twelve 
immediate  successors.  During  their  reigns,  indeed,  Babylonia  appeare 
again  to  have  become  dependant  upon  Assyr'ia',  and  not  to  have  re- 
covered its  freedom  until  the  general  insurrection  against  Sardana- 
palus. 

Nabupolas'sar,  or  Nebo-pul-as'sar,  became  king  of  Bab'ylon  soon 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Assyrian  empire  (b.  c.  627).  Pharaoh- 
Necho  took  advantage  of  the  distracted  state  of  central  Asia  to  extend 
his  dominions  to  the  Euphrates.  He  gained  possession  of  Car'chemish 
(Circesiinn),  and  induced  the  governors  of  Coele-Syria'and  Phcanicia  to 
revolt  against  Nabopolas'sar.  In  the  reduction  of  these  provinces,  the 
Babylonian  monarch  was  greatly  assisted  by  his  son,  Nebuchadnez'zar 
or  Nebo-kal-as'sar,  who  subsequently  raised  the  empire  to  the  summit 
of  its  greatness.  Nebuchaduez'zar  obtained  a  brilliant  victory  over 
Pharaoh-Necho,  at  Car'chemish  (b.  c.  604) ;  and  was  about  to  follow 
up  his  success  by  invading  Egypt,  when  he  was  recalled  to  Bab'yior. 
in  conseq^uence  of  his  father's  death. 

Nitoc'ris  was  probably  the  queen  of  Nebuchaduez'zar.  She  seeme 
CO  have  acted  as  regent  while  the  king  was  employed  in  foreioii  wars, 
and  her  name  is  associated  with  the  splendid  buildings  erected  in 
Babylon  in  this  reign. 

Before  invading  Egypt,  Nebuchadnez'zar  had  conquered  the  kingdom 
.,>f  Juduh,  and  brought  several  of  its  princes  to  Bab'ylon  as  captives  oi 
hostages.  Among  these  was  the  prophet  Daniel. f  Soon  afterward  the 
Scythians,  probably  some  Tartar  horde,  invaded  the  Assyrian  provinces, 
and  the  Jews  embraced  this  opportunity  of  asserting  their  independence 
Nebuchaduez'zar  was  then  br«ieging  in  conjunction  with  Cyax'ares  the 
Mede  ;  but  having  taken  and  destroyed  this  ancient  rival  of  Bab'ylon, 
he  marched  against  Jerusalem  with  a  resistless  force.  The  holy  city 
was  taken  and  plundered,  its  monarch  slain,  his  son  sent  prisoner  to 
Bab'ylon,  and  a  new  king  appointed  as  deputy  to  the  conqueror.  The 
Jews  again  revolted,  relying  on  the  promised  aid  of  the  Egyptians,  bu 
were  once  more  subdued,  and  treated  with  barbarous  cruelty.  Their 
city  was  laid  desolate,  their  lands  wasted,  and  the  bulk  of  the  nation 
led  into  captivity.  The  conqueror  then  proceeded  into  Phosnicia,  which 
he  completely  subdued;  whence  he  advanced  to  Egypt,  and  plundered 
lie  bwer  valley  of  the  Nile.  It  was  after  his  return  from  this  expedi- 
tion, that  Nebuchadnez'zar  erected  the  golden  image  in  the  plai!  s  of 
•Isaiah  xxiii,  13.  fDMiiel  ii.  ],  &c. 


22  ANCIENT  HISrORY. 

Duia.*  Toward  the  close  of  his  n  if^n,  the  impiety  of  Nebuchadiiez'zai 
was  punished  by  a  (It  of  hiiiacy ;  d'lring  which  "  he  Avas  driven  from 
men,  and  did  eat  grass  as  oxen,  and  his  body  was  wet  with  the  dew 
of  heaven,  till  his  hairs  were  grown  like  eagles'  feathers,  and  his  nails 
like  birds'  claws. "'f 

Evil-Merodach  succeeded,  and  after  a  short  reign  was  murdered  by 
his  sister's  husband,  Neriglis'sar.  But  the  young  prince-  Belshaz'zar, 
was  saved  from  the  conspirators.  He  continued  several  years  in  ob- 
scurity, but  did  not  profit  by  the  stern  lessons  of  adversity.  At  this 
time  the  power  of  the  Medes  had  reached  a  formidable  height,  and  the 
Babylonians  summoned  the  kings  of  western  Asia  to  aid  in  preventing 
its  further  extension.  The  Medes  were  commanded  by  Cyax'ares  and 
his  nephew  Cy'rus.  After  a  fierce  engagement,  the  Babylonians  were 
totally  defeated,  and  their  sovereigni  slain. 

Labosoar'chad  succeeded  his  father  Nerighs'sar  (b.  c.  555) ;  but  on 
account  of  his  tvTanny  was  dethroned,  after  a  reign  of  only  a  few 
months,  and  the  legitimate  line  restored  in  the  person  of  Nebo-an-dal, 
called  also  Nabonadius  and  Labynetus,  who  took  the  surname  of  Bel- 
shaz'zar,  that  is,  the  "  mighty  prince  of  Bel."  As  he  was  a  youth,  the 
regency  was  intrusted  to  Queen  Nitoc'ris.  She  coii.pleted  the  works 
which  Nebuchadnez'zar  had  commenced,  and  is  said  to  have  connected 
the  eastern  and  western  banks  of  the  Euphrates  both  by  a  bridge  and  a 
tunu'^1.  To  complete  the  last  work,  it  was  necessary  to  turn  the  river 
for  a  time  into  a  new  channel ;  and  for  this  purpose  a  lake  and  canal 
•vere  constructed  to  the  north  of  Bab'ylon.  When  Belshaz'zar  assumed 
the  reins  of  government,  he  deserted  the  prudent  line  of  policy  by 
which  Nitoc'ris  had  delayed  the  fate  of  the  tottering  empire ;  not  only 
abandoning  himself  to  licentious  pleasures,  but  provoking  the  hostility 
t)f  the  warlike  Medes.  Cyax'ares,  the  "  Darawe'sh"  (Dari'us),  that  is, 
king  of  the  Medes,  accompanied  by  his  nephew  Cy'rus,  invaded  Bab- 
ylonia, and  soon  laid  siege  to  the  metropolis.  Confiding  in  the  strengdi 
of  the  walls,  Belshaz'zar  laughed  his  enemies  to  scorn ;  and  while  the 
eneiny  was  still  before  the  walls,  gave  a  great  feast  in  honor  of  his  ex- 
pected success.  Cy'rus,  on  the  same  evening,  sent  a  detachment  tc 
open  the  canal  leading  to  the  lake  that  had  been  dug  by  Nitoc'ris,  or- 
dering his  soldiers,  as  soon  as  the  water  should  be  drawn  from  the  bed 
of  the  river,  to  enter  the  city  through  the  deserted  channel. 

Meantime  'he  revelry  of  the  feast  was  disturbed  by  the  supernatural 
handwriting  in  erpreted  by  Danicl,|  announcing  the  impending  de- 
struction o'  the  empire.  Guided  by  the  lights  that  gleamed  from  tht 
chambers  of  revelry,  the  Medes  penetrated  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
city,  and  attacked  tlie  guards  before  the  palace.  The  guests  within, 
startled  by  tin-  clash  of  arms,  flung  the  gates  open  to  ascertain  the  cause 
of  the  tmnult,  and  thus  gave  admission  to  the  enemy.  Belshaz'zar,  in 
this  hour  of  despair,  behaved  in  a  manner  worthy  of  his  illustrious  de- 
scent :  he  drew  his  sword,  and  at  the  head  of  a  few  friends  attempted 
to  drive  back  the  enemy;  but,  "flushed  with  success,  and  drunk  with 
gore,  whole  multitudes  poured  in:"  he  fell  in  his  own  hall;  and  with 
Kim  foil  the  empire  of  Bab'ylon  (b.  c.  538). 

•  Daniel  iii.  1,  &c.  f  Daniel  iv.  33.  f  Daniel  v,  3,  &e. 


HAiJYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  23 

Skction  IV. — Description  of  Nineveh  and  Bahyion. 

The  city  of  Nin'eveh,  probably  so  named  from  Ninus,  its  foundei 
.■^tood  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tigris,  nearly  three  hundred  miles  nortli 
of  Bab'ylon.  Like  all  the  ancient  cities  of  Asia,  it  was  of  a  rectangular 
form,  and  retained  the  traces  of  the  nomad  encampment  in  which  it 
originated.  It  was  of  enormous  dimensions,  being  fifteen  miles  in 
length,  nine  in  breadth,  and  forty-eight  in  circumference.  Nor  will 
tliis  great  extent  seem  incredible,  when  we  reflect  that  the  houses  were 
not  built  in  continuous  streets,  but  stood  apart,  as  the  tents  formerly 
did,  each  surrounded  by  gardens,  parks,  and  farms,  whose  size  varied 
according  to  the  rank  and  wealth  of  the  respective  proprietors.  Nin'- 
eveh, in  short,  was  less  a  city,  according  to  the  modern  European  no- 
tions, than  a  collection  of  villages,  hamlets,  and  nol)lemen's  seats,  en- 
closed within  one  wall  as  a  common  defence.  The  fortifications,  ac- 
cording  to  the  historians,  were  constructed  on  a  stupendous  scale.  The 
walls  were  two  hundred  feet  in  height,  and  so  wide  that  three  chariots 
might  drive  on  them  abreast,  and  they  were  further  secured  by  fifteen 
hundred  lofty  towers.  After  the  destruction  of  the  city  by  the  Medes, 
Nin'eveh  appears  to  have  long  remained  desolate ;  several  villages 
were  subsequently  erected  from  its  ruins,  the  largest  of  which  pre- 
served the  name  of  the  ancient  metro]>olis.  It  is  now  a  desert  waste  ; 
even  the  wild  vegetation  that  usually  veils  the  ruins  of  fallen  greatness 
has  disappeared,  and  desolation  is  spread  over  the  entire  landscape 

BAB'YL0>f  steod  in  a  plain,  and  was  perfectly  square  ;  the  river 
Euphrates  ran  through  the  centre  of  the  town,  and  also  supplied  water 
to  the  ditches,  Avhich  were  dug  in  front  of  the  walls.  The  streets 
were  perfectly  straight,  and  crossed  each  other  at  right  angles. 

On  the  western  bank  of  the  river,  stood  the  tower  of  Belus,  ^vhicii 
was  probably  built  on  the  foundations  of  Babel.  When  completed  by 
Nebuchadnez'zar,  each  of  the  sides  of  the  city  was  about  fifteen  miles 
in  length,  and  consequently  the  whole  circumference  was  sixty  miles 
The  eastern  division  was  the  most  recent :  it  was  built  by  the  Kasdfm 
or  Chaldeans ;  and  there  Nebuchadnez'zar  ^rected  the  great  palace 
whose  circuit  was  equal  to  that  of  a  moderate-sized  city.  Like  the 
generality  of  steppe  regions,  the  country  between  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  produced  neither  stone  nor  wood  fit  for  building ;  but  the 
acinity  of  Bab'ylon  furnished  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  clay,  which, 
dried  in  the  sun  or  burnt  in  kilns,  became  so  firm  and  duial)le,  that  the 
remains  of  ancient  walls,  which  have  been  thrown  down  lor  centuries, 
have  withstood  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  to  the  present  day ;  and, 
IS  may  be  seen  by  the  specimens  in  the  British  Museum,  retain  the 
a^^ixjw-headed  inscriptions  with  which  they  were  impressed.  Nature 
also  provided  a  plentiful  supply  of  naphtha  or  bitumen,  which  served 
mstead  ol  lime.  Layers  of  ru'shes  and  palm-leaves  weie  laid  between 
the  strata  of  brick ;  and  the  traveller  Niebuhr  found  specimens  of 
these  in  the  ruins  of  Bab'ylon,  so  perfect  that  it  might  have  been  sup- 
posed that  they  had  not  been  placed  together  longer  than  a  few  months. 

The  walls  of  Bab'ylon  wero  made  of  brick,  cemented  by  bitumen. 
eighty-se-''en  feet  thick,  and  more  than  three  hundred  high;  they  wer*" 


24  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

siinoundcd  I)y  a.  deep  ditch,  and  pierced  by  a  hundred  gates,  all  mad( 
nf  solid  brass.  Towers  were  erected  for  the  defence  of  the  gatefe  and 
ihe  corners  of  the  walls,  except  where  a  morass  protected  the  wall? 
and  prevented  tlie  approach  of  an  enemy.  Wide,  straight  streets,  o. 
rather  roads,  from  each  of  the  gales,  crossed  each  other  at  right  angles, 
which,  with  the  four  half-streets  that  fronted  to  the  walls,  divided  the 
city  into  six  hundred  and  seventy-six  squares,  each  of  four  furlongs  and 
a  hall  on  each  side,  or  two  miles  and  a  quarter  in  circiunference. 
These  squares  were,  in  fact,  separate  villages,  and  many  of  them  were 
wholly  untenanted,  being  used  as  parks  or  pleasure-grounds  by  the  king 
and  his  nobles. 

A  bridge  passed  over  the  Euphrates  between  the  two  palaces  on  the 
opposite  banks,  which,  we  are  assured,  were  further  connected  bv 
meb  IS  «)f  a  tunnel.  The  length  of  the  bridge  was  about  a  furlong,  but 
its  breadth  only  thirty  feet ;  a  long  causeway  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
made  the  bridge  appear  of  much  greater  extent  than  it  really  was. 

The  temple  of  Belus  was  the  most  wondrous  structure  of  the  city. 
It  was  at  its  foundation  a  furlong  in  length,  and  about  the  same  in 
breadth :  its  height  is  said  to  have  exceeded  six  hundred  feet,  which  is 
more  than  that  of  the  Egyptian  pyramids.  It  was  built  in  eight  stories, 
gradually  diminishing  in  size  as  they  ascended.  Instead  of  stairs, 
there  was  a  sloping  terrace  on  the  outside,  sufficiently  wide  for  car 
riages  and  beasts  of  burden  to  ascend.  Nebuchadnez'zar  made  great 
additions  to  this  tower,  and  surrounded  it  with  smaller  edifices,  enclosed 
by  a  wall  somewhat  more  than  two  miles  in  circumference.  The  whole 
was  sacred  to  Bel  or  Belus,  whose  temple  was  adorned  with  idols  of 
gold,  and  all  the  wealth  that  the  Babylonians  had  acquired  by  the 
plunder  of  the  East.  Next  to  the  temple  was  the  old  palace,  strongly 
fortified  and  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  v/as  the  new  palace, 
whose  enclosures  and  pleasure-grounds  covered  a  space  of  eight  miles 
round.  Within  its  precincts  were  the  celebrated  hanging  gardens, 
consisting  of  terraces  one  above  another,  raised  upon  pillars  higher 
than  the  walls  of  the  city,  well  floored  with  cement  and  lead,  and 
covered  with  earth,  in  which  the  most  beautiful  trees  and  shrubs  were 
planted. 

From  the  time  of  its  conquest,  Eab'ylon  gradually  declined.  Alex-- 
an^der  the  Great  designed  Bab'ylon  to  be  the  capital  of  his  empire,  and 
was  preparing  to  restore  its  ancient  splendor  when  he  was  prematurely 
nut  off.  Thenceforward,  its  decay  was  rapid ;  and  it  is  now  a  vast 
heap  of  ruins,  tenanted  oidy  by  the  beasts  and  birds  that  love  to  haunt 
solitary  places.  Thus  literally  has  the  prediction  of  tlie  prophet  been 
fulfilled :  "  Bab'ylon,  the  glory  of  kingdoms,  the  beauty  of  the  Chal- 
dees'  excellency,  shall  be  as  when  God  overthrew  Sodom  and  Gomor 
rah.  It  shall  never  be  inhabited,  neither  shall  it  be  dwelt  in  from  gen- 
eratioi,  to  generation :  but  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  lie  there ; 
and  ostriches  shall  fill  their  houses,  and  the  daughters  of  the  owl  shall 
dwell  there  and  satyrs  shall  dance  there.  And  the  howlers  [jackals] 
8hall  cry  in  their  desolate  houses,  and  wild  hounds  in  their  pleasa.i 
palaces  "  * 

*  liaiah  xi'i    t^  22.  (Gesenius's  Trauslalion.) 


BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA.  '^^ 

Sect(o.n  v.  —Commerce  and  Manufactures  of  the  Bahylomans. 

AVeavixg  of  cotton,  woollen  stuffs,  and  carpets,  were  the  principaj 
aianufactiires  established  in  Bab'ylon ;  and  the  cotton  robes  called 
sindones,  probably  a  species  of  muslins,  were  so  highly  esteemed  for 
their  delicacy  of  texture  and  brilliancy  of  color,  that  they  were  appro- 
priated to  royal  use.  We  read  in  the  book  of  Joshua,  that  a  "  Baby- 
lonish garment"  formed  part  of  the  sacrilegious  spoil  wliich  A'chan  hid 
ill  his  tent  after  the  conquest  of  Jer'icho.  Amcles  of  luxury,  such  as 
perfumed  waters,  carved  walking-canes,  engraved  stones,  and  seal 
rings,  were  made  in  the  city ;  and  the  art  of  cutting  precious  stones 
was  carried  to  a  perfection  not  exceeded  by  our  modern  lapidaries,  ^s 
is  manifest  from  the  collection  of  Babylonian  gems  in  the  British 
Museum. 

The  Babylonians  had  an  extensive  commerce  eastward  with  Persia 
and  northern  India,  whence  they  obtained  gold,  precious  stones,  rich 
dye-stuffs,  and  the  best  hounds.  From  Kandahar  and  Kashmir  they 
procured  fine  wool,  and  the  shawls  which  are  still  so  highly  valued 
Emeralds,  jaspers,  and  other  precious  stones,  procured  from  the  desert 
of  Bac'tria,  the  modern  Gobi,  were  brought  in  great  abundance  to 
Bab'ylon,  and  thence  transmitted  to  western  Asia  and  Europe.  Cochi- 
neal, or  rather  the  Indian  lac,  was  imported  in  considerable  quantities ; 
indeed,  the  Greeks  confess  that  they  derived  their  knowledge  of  the 
insect  which  produces  this  dye  from  the  Babylonians.  Gold  and  gold- 
dust  were  also  obtained  from  northern  India,  but  more  as  articles  of 
tribute  than  of  commerce.  It  is  uncertain  whether  any  commerce  was 
opened  with  Ghina  before  the  latter  ages  of  the  Persian  empire ;  but 
the  Babylonians  had  certainly  intercourse  with  Tibet  and  the  countries 
round  the  Hindu  Kiish. 

It  was  chiefly  through  their  commercial  allies,  the  Phoenicians,  that 
\he  Babylonians  had  any  trade  in  the  Indian  seas,  though  Isaiah  plainly 
states  that  they  had  a  navy  of  their  own  ;  for  he  mentions  "  the  Chal- 
deans, whose  cry  [exultation]  is  in  their  ships."*  The  trade  by  sea. 
was  between  the  mouths  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  the  western 
coasts  of  India  and  the  island  of  Ceylon.  From  these  countries  they 
imported  timber  of  various  kinds,  sugar-canes,  spices,  cinnamon,  and 
pearls.  This  trade  was  completely  destroyed  by  the  Persians,  through 
fear  of  the  pirates  who  infested  those  seas,  and  who,  by  a  sudden  dash 
up  the  great  rivers,  like  the  Normans  and  Danes  of  Europe,  might  sur- 
prise and  plunder  the  chief  cities  of  the  empire.  To  prevent  this 
misfortune,  they  blocked  up  the  Tigris  with  immense  dams,  which 
effectually  put  an  end  to  all  navigation  on  the  river,  and  to  the  inter- 
course between  Bab'ylon  and  southern  India. 

At  a  very  early  period  the  Babylonians  formed  commercial  estab- 
lishments on  the  Bahrein  islands  in  the  Persian  gulf  whence 
they  obtained  large  quantities  of  tlie  finest  pearls.  Pearl-oysters  are 
found  on  almost  all  the  coasts  in  this  gulf,  but  the  most  considerable 
bank  is  that  which  extends  along  the  western  coast,  from  the  Bahrein 
'slands  nearly  as  far  as  Cape  Dsiulfar.  The  pearls  are  both  white  and 
/ellow  they  are  also  as  hard  as  rock,  and  are  therefore  preferred  to 

•  Lsaiah  xlii.  14. 


26  ANCIENT  HISTUllY. 

the  pearls  of  Ceylon,  which  sliiver  to  pieces  when  struck  with  a  ham 
mer.  The  cotton  plantations  on  these  islands  weie  very  extensive,  and 
the  staple  of  the  cotton  wool  they  produced  was  remarkahle  for  its 
length  and  llnencss,  surpassing  in  this  respect  the  cotton  of  India. 
From  these  islands  the  Babylonians,  and  after  them  the  Phoenicians; 
obtained  the  best  timber  for  ship-building,  probably  some  species  ol  the 
Indian  teak-wood,  which  continues  to  be  highly  valued  for  this  puipose 
They  also  imported  various  kinds  of  ornamental  timber,  used  m  thr 
manufacture  of  walking-canes  and  inlaid  work,  for  which  the  Babylo- 
nians worn  deseivndly  colebratpd. 


"WESTEHN  ABlA 


iriTAPTER  IV 
WESTERN  ASIA 

IXCLUDINO 

ASIA.   MINOR,    SYRIA,    AND    PALKSTiNG 

Sp.r;Tfo.\  I.—rAsia  Minor. — Geograpliica.  Outline. 

Asia  Minor  is  a  term  not  used  by  classical  writers  :  it  was  inverted 
in  the  middle  ages,  to  describe  the  peninsula  between  the  ^Egean, 
the  Black  sea,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Levant,  which  by  more  recent 
authors  is  called  Anatolia.  It  included  a  great  number  of  petty  states, 
whose  boundaries  varied  at  different  periods.  In  the  northern  part  of 
:tie  peninsula,  beginning  from  the  western  side,  the  chief  countries 
were  My'sia,  Bithyn'ia,  Paphlagonia,  and  Pon'tus.  In  the  centre 
Lyd'ia,  Phry'gia,  Galatia,  Lycaonia,  Isauria,  Cappadocia,  and  Armenia 
In  the  south  were  Caria,  Ly'cia,  Pisid'ia,  Pamphy'lia,  and  Cilic'ia. 

The  western  part  of  My'sia,  on  the  seacoast,  was  called  Lesser 
Phry'gia,  or  Troas.  It  was  celebrated  for  the  Trojan  plains  and  the 
city  of  Troy,  immortalized  by  Homer. 

Bithjm'ia,  Paphlagonia,  and  Pon'tus,  skirt  the  Black  sea,  and  were 
studded  tvith  Greek  colonies  during  the  flourishing  age  of  Grecian 
commerce.  The  Halys  and  'San'garis,  the  principal  rivers  of  Asia 
Minor,  fall  into  the  Black  sea. 

The  entire  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor  was  colonized  by  the  Greeks, 
whose  commercial  cities  in  Ionia,  iEolia,  and  Caria,  were  the  most 
flourishing  free  states  o''  antiquity,  before  they  were  conquered  by  the 
Persians. 

Lyd'ia,  called  also  Majonia,  besides  the  Greek  cities  on  its  coasts^ 
contained  the  ce'  ebrated  metropolis  Sar'dis,  which  stood  on  the  banks 
of  the  Pactolus  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tniolus.  It  was  the  capital  of 
the  Lydian  kingdom,  and,  after  its  conquest  by  the  Persians,  was  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  their  empire. 

The  boundaries  of  Phry'gia  were  almost  constantly  varying ;  its 
chief  cities  were  Gor'dium  and  Celfe'nse  in  ancient  times  ;  but  many 
others  were  erected  when  the  Macedonians  became  masters  of  the 
country  ;  of  which  the  chief  were  Apamea,  Laodicea,  and  Colosse. 

Galatia  received  its  name  from  a  body  of  Gauls  who  entered  that 
country  in  the  third  century  before  the  Christian  era.  Isauria  and  Ly- 
caonia were  intersected  by  the  chain  of  Mount  Taurus.  Cappadocia 
lay  between  the  Halys  and  Euphrates :  its  chief  town  was  Maz'aca, 
Armenia  was  the  name  of  the  mountainous  districts  bordering  ou  thr 
Caapian   sea:  its  chief  ri-veis  w<^re  the  Cv'nis   and  Arax'es.  both  of 


'4i<  AXCIENI    HISTORY. 

ounsideruble  inagnmule.      For  a  long  lime  it  was  wiihout  cities  ;  but  at 
length  Tigrunes,  one  of  its  monarchs,  erected  Tigranocer'ta. 

Caria  was  cliiefly  remarkable  for  the  Greek  colonics  on  the  coabt. 
Lye  ia,  Pisidia,  and  Pam'phylia,  were  mounlainous  districts.  Cilieia 
bordered  upon  Syria,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  Mount  Ani'anus : 
its  chief  cities  were  Tar'sus  and  Anchiale,  both  founded  by  Sardanri- 
lulus. 

Section   II. — Ancient  History  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  three  kingdoms  of  Asia  Minor  that  best  deserve  notice  were  the 
Trojan,  the  Phrygian,  and  the  Lydian.  The  history  of  Troy  consists 
of  mere  traditions  preserved  by  the  Greek  epic  and  dramatic  poets ,  its 
chronology'  is  very  uncertain,  and  the  entire  narrative  very  doubtful. 
Troy  is  said  to  have  been  originally  founded  by  Dar'danus,  a  native  of 
Samothrace  (about  b.  c.  1400).  To  hhn  succeeded  Erichthonius,  cel- 
ebrated for  his  splendid  herds  of  horses  ;  Tros,  who  named  the  city 
Troy  ;  Plus,  who  changed  the  name  to  Plium  ;  Laom'edon,  during 
whose  reign  the  city  was  sacked  by  Iler'cules  ;  and  Podar'kes,  who 
was  also  called  Priam.  Alexander,  or  Paris,  the. son  of  Priam,  being 
sent  as  ambassador  into  southern  Greece,  carried  off  Helen,  the  wife 
of  Menelaiis,  king  of  Sparta.  The  Grecian  kings  espoused  the  cause 
of  the  injured  husband,  and  with  their  united  ibrces  warred  against 
Trov  The  city  was  taken  after  a  siege  that  lasted  ten  years,  and  was 
pillaged  and  bm-ned  by  the  conquerors. 

Pheygian  history  is  also  composed  of  obscure  traditions  ;  but  that 
me  Phrygians  were  originally  a  very  powerful  people,  appears  from  the 
great  diffusion  of  their  national  worship  throughout  Europe.  The  in- 
vestigations of  modern  travellers  have  brought  to  light  new  preofs  of  the 
greatness  of  the  Phrygians  in  their  tombs  and  temples  excavated  from 
the  solid  rock.  Their  chiet  deity  was  Cybele,  who  seems  to  have  been 
a  personification  of  the  prolific  powers  of  the  earth :  her  priests  were 
named  Coryban'tes  ;  celebrated  for  their  frantic  dances,  in  which  they 
beat  and  cut  themselves.  Most  of  the  Phrygian  kings  were  named 
either  Midas  or  Gor'dius  ;  but  the  order  of  their  succession  can  not  be 
ascertained.  Gor'dius  I.,  the  founder  of  the  city  Gor'dium,  was  origi- 
nally a  p<_asant ;  when  raised  to  the  throne,  he  consecrated  his  cart  to 
the  gods.  The  beam  was  fastened  to  the  yoke  by  a  complicated  kno* 
and  a  traditional  oracle  declared,  li..at  whoever  untied  the  knot  should 
be  king  of  Asia.  When  this  was  told  to  Alexander  the  Great,  he  cu* 
it  through  with  his  sword.  In  the  reign  of  Midas  V.,  Phrygia  became 
u  province  of  the  Lydian  empire. 

The  LvDiANs,  called  also  Maeonians,  were  a  brancli  of  the  Carians. 
Three  dynasties  reigned  over  therri  successively.  That  of  the  Aty'adse 
lerminated  (b.  c.  1232)  in  the  person  of  Om'phale,  who  was  said  to  be 
'he  wife  of  Hercvdes.  The  race  of  the  Ileraclidae  terminated  with 
Candaiiles,  who  was  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  his  queen,  by  Gy'- 
^es,  a  Lydian  nobleman  (b.  c.  727).  Gy'ges  founded  the  dynar.ty  of  tho 
Merm'nadas,  under  whose  sway  Lyd'ia  rose  to  great  power.  During 
the  rei^  of  Ar'Jys,  the  second  of  the  dynasty,  Asia  Minor  was  c*> 


SYRIA.  29 

va3t:ued  by  hordes  of  northern  barbarians,  called  Ciiomerians,  who  had 
been  expelled  from  their  original  seats  by  the  Scythians.  Their  rav- 
ages were  continued  for  about  half  a  century :  but  they  were  finally 
driven  oui  by  Alyattes,  the  grandson  of  Ar'dys.  Encouraged  by  hii 
success  against  the  Cimmerians,  Alyat'tes  endeavored  to  check  the 
growing  power  of  the  Medes,  and  for  six  years  waged  war  against 
Cyax'ares.  The  contest  was  at  length  about  to  be  decided  by  a  great 
battle,  when  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  so  terrified  both  armies  in  the  midst 
of  the  fight,  that  they  separated  in  consternation  (b.  c.  601).  This  re- 
markable eclipse  was  predicted  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  and  is  th*^  first 
recorded  to  have  been  calculated  by  astronomers. 

Crce'sus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alyat'tes,  subdued  all  the  Grecian 
states  in.  Asia  Minor,  and  extended  his  empire  on  the  (astein  side  to 
the  river  Halys.  The  magnificence  of  his  court  at  Sardis  attracted 
visiters  from  different  countries  ;  but  Croe'sus  was  more  anxious  to  •.  n- 
tertain  philosophers  and  men  of  learning  from  Greece.  The  illustrious 
Solon  was  once  his  guest,  and  with  honorable  freedom  refused  to  de- 
clare Croe'sus  perfectly  happy  until  he  knew  the  termination  of  his 
career.  The  Lydian  monarch  was  deeply  offended ;  but  ere  long  he 
had  reason  to  admire  the  wisdom  of  the  Athenian  sage.  Seduced  by 
the  pretended  oracles  of  Delphi,  he  waged  war  against  the  rising  Per- 
sian empire  ;  but  was  defeated  by  Cy'rus,  and  taken  prisoner.  Being 
c^entenced  to  death  by  the  barbarous  victor,  he  exclaimed,  when  placed 
on  the  funeral  pile,  "  0  Solon,  Solon !"  Cy'rus  asked  the  meaning  of 
this  invocation ;  and  was  so  struck  by  the  impressive  example  of  the 
philosopher's  wisdom,  that  he  not  only  spared  the  life  of  Crce'sus,  bui 
made  him  his  friend  and  counsellor  (b.  c.  549). 

Lydia,  and  the  rest  of  Asia  Minor,  remained  subject  to  the  Persian 
empire  until  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Section  III. — Syna. — Geograpliical  Outline. 

The  name  of  Syria-was  loosely  given  by  the  Greeks,  as  that  of 
A'ram  was  by  the  Hebrews,  not  only  to  the  country  now  caF  >d  by  that 
name,  but  also  to  Mesopotamia  and  part  of  Asia  Minor ;  but  it  is  prop- 
erly restricted  to  the  region  between  Mount  Am'anus  on  tlie  nortii, 
the  Euphrates  on  the  east,  Arabia  on  the  south,  and  Phcpnicia  on  the- 
west.  It  has  been  variously  divided,  but  the  most  convenient  division 
is  into  three  unequal  portions — Syria  Proper,  which  includes  the  prov- 
mces  of  Commagene,  Seleucis,  and  Coele-Syria ;  Ph'jeuicia  and  the 
^'Duntry  of  the  Philistines  ;  and  Palestine,  of  which  we  sliall  treat  in  a 
separate  chapter. 

The  principal  city  of  Commagene  was  Samosata  on  the  Euphrates  . 
there  were  several  trading  towns  of  minor  importance,  all  in  the  vicin- 
ity.  Seleucis  was  adorned  with  many  splendid  cities  during  the  reign? 
Df  the  successors  of  Alexander,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  werfc 
Antioch  and  Seleucia.  It  contained  also  Hierap'olis,  dedicated  to  the 
Syrian  godd(!ss  Beroea,  the  modern  Aleppo,  and  Heliop'olis  (Baal'bec) 
whose  magnificent  ruins  still  attract  admiration.  Coele-Syria,  or  Hol- 
low Syria,  was  so  called  because  it  lies  between  two  parallel  chains 
of  mountains    J^iib'anus  and  Antilib'anus  :   it  contained    Damascus,  th^ 


so  ANCIENT    HISTORY 

iucieni  metropolis  of  Syria,  which  existed  as  a  city  in  the  days  ol 
Abraham,  Ab'ila,  and  Laodicea.  The  Syrian  desert  adjoins  this  divis 
ion,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  a  fertile  oasis,  on  which  the  city  of  Tad 
mor,  or  Paimy'ra,  was  founded  by  Solomon,  lis  ruins  rival  those  of 
Baalbec  in  magnitude  and  beauty.  Southeast  of  this  was  Thap'sacu3 
opposite  to  which  the  Euphrates  was  fordable. 

Phoenicia,  or  Phoenice,  skirted  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, but  its  boundaries  were  almost  perpetually  varyino;.  It  contained 
Sid'iii,the  most  ancient  commercial  city  in  the  world;  T)Te,  commonly 
called  "  the  daughter  of  Sidon  ;"  Ar'adus,  also  an  insular  city  ;  Trip'- 
oli.s,  so  called  because  it  was  colonized  by  the  three  preceding  cities 
conjointly :  Byb'lus  and  Bcry'tus,  the  modern  Beiroot,  which  is  still  a 
good  harbor. 

TjTe  was  originally  a  Sidonian  colony,  but  rose  rapidly  above  the 
parent  state,  and  became  a  flourishing  commercial  city.  After  its  cap- 
Lure  by  Alexander  the  Great,  Tyre  gradually  declined,  less  in  conse- 
quence of  the  'conqueror's  vengeance  than  of  the  founding  of  Alexan- 
dria in  Egj'pt,  which  soon  became  the  seat  of  the  commerce  that  had 
previously  centred  in  Tyre. 

otcxio.N  J  V, — Social  and  Political  Condilion  of  the  Syrians  and 
Phoenicians. 

Syria  contained  but  one  large  river,  the  Oron^tes,  a  turbid  and  rapid 
stream,  whose  navigation  is  impeded  by  rapids,  and  whose  waters  can 
not  be  used  for  domestic  purposes.  But  there  are  several  minor  rivers 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Damascus,  which,  as  well  as  their  tributary 
stream^,  are  remarkable  for  their  limpid  waters  and  abundance  of  fish 
The  f^oil  is  generally  better  suited  to  pasturage  than  agriculture.  Two 
large  valleys  of  mineral  salt  added  greatly  to  the  natural  wealth  of  the 
country ;  and  the  mountains  of  Leb'anon  supplied  abundance  of  excel- 
lent tmiber  both  for  house  and  ship-building.  SjTia  was  consequently 
partly  suited  to  a  nomad,  and  partly  to  a  commercial  people  ;  and  this 
mixture  of  the  two  opposite  characters,  with  scarcely  any  trace  of  the 
intermediate  agricultural  class,  led  to  many  revolutions  in  the  Syrian 
goveniinent ;  the  cities  were  more  or  less  repub'ican,  while  the  rural 
districts  were  subject  to  petty  despots.  The  Syrian  religion  appears 
to  have  been  elementary ;  that  is,  the  objects  of  worship  were  the 
personifications  of  some  powers  of  nature :  their  most  celebrated 
deity,  Astar'te,  or  the  SjTian  goddess,  represented  both  the  moon  and 
the  prolific  power  of  the  earth,  and  was  worshipped  with  the  same 
licentious  ceremonies  as  the  Babylonian  ^lylit'ta. 

The  Phceniciaxs,  like  the  Syrians,  belonged  to  the  great  Aramean, 
or  Semitic  family  of  nations.  Tlieir  narrow  and  short  line  of  coast, 
indented  with  excellent  bays  and  harbors,  was  covered  with  lofty  and 
wooded  mountains,  that  jut  out  into  the  sea,  and  form  bold  promonto- 
ries. Several  islands  stud  the  coast,  on  which  cities  and  commercia' 
establishments  were  founded,  as  well  as  on  the  mainland.  Each  ot 
these  cities  was  an  independent  stale  ;  but  they  were  generally  united 
Dy  a  federative  'eague,  under  the  presidency  of  Sidon,  and  aftorwarc 


svaiA.  31 

of  Tyre.  I  he  religion  oi  the  Phosuicians  appears  to  haie  bet'n  niore 
sanguinary  than  that  of  most  other  nations.  Tham''muz,  or  Adonie, 
was  worshipped  with  very  licentious  rites,  which  were  supposed  to 
have  a  mystic  signification. 

Section  V. —  History  of  the  Syria^is  and  Phanidans. 

Syria  was  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  states,  most  of  which 
were  subdued  by  the  Jewish  king,  David  (b.  c.  1044).  Toward  the 
close  of  Solomon's  reign,  Rezon,  who  had  been  originally  a  slave, 
threw  off  the  yoke,  and  founded  the  S}Tian  kingdom  of  Damascus. 
Ben-hadad,  the  most  powerful  of  his  successors,  waged  a  long  and 
sanguinary  war  against  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  during  the  reigns  of 
Ahab  and  Jehoram.  He  was  finally  murdered  by  Hazael,  one  of  his 
servants  (b.  c.  884)  who  usurped  the  vacant  throne.  Hazael  was  a 
warlike  prince  ;  he  gained  several  brilliant  victories  over  the  forces  of 
Israel  and  Judah,  compelling  the  monarchs  of  both  to  resign  several 
important  provinces,  and  pay  him  tribute.  He  also  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  E'lath  on  the  Red  sea,  and  greatly  increased  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  his  dominions.  But  these  advantages  were  lost  under 
the  reign  of  his  inglorious  son,  Ben-hadad  II. 

The  Syrians  recovered  some  of  their  power  under  Rezm ,  .oward 
the  close  of  his  reign,  he  entered  into  alliance  with  Pekah,  king  of 
Israel,  against  A^haz,  king  of  Judah.  The  Syrians  and  Israelites 
gained  so  many  advantages,  that  A'haz  sought  the  protection  of  Tig- 
lath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  who  marched  against  Damascus,  cap- 
tured the  city,  dragged  the  inhabitants  away  captive,  and  put  an  end  to 
the  kingdom  (e.  c.  740). 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  most  of  the  Phcenician  cities 
vtere  independent  states.  'TyxQ  is,  however,  the  only  one  whose  his- 
tory can  be  satisfactorily  traced.  Its  first  sovereign  was  Ab'ical  (about 
B.  c.  1050),  who  was  contemporary  with  David.  His  son  and  succes- 
sor, Hiram,  was  united  by  the  strictest  bonds  of  friendship  to  the  great 
Jewish  king,  and  also  to  his  son  Solomon.  Daring  the  reign  of  Hfram, 
Tyre  acquired  the  supremacy  of  Phcenicia,  and  became  the  most  flour- 
ishing emporium  of  commerce  in  the  ancient  world. 

The  most  remarkable  successors  of  Hiram  were  Ethbaal  I.,  the 
father  of  the  wicked  Jez'ebel,  wife  of  Ahab,  in  whose  reign  some  im- 
portant colonies  were  planted  ir  Africa  ;  and  Pygmalion,  whose  murder 
of  Sichae'us  led  to  the  foundation  of  Carthage  (about  b.  c.  900).  Dido, 
the  wife  of  Sichae'us,  aided  by  numerous  Tyrians,  escaped  by  sea  with 
her  husband's  treasures,  and  sought  a  new  country  on  the  northern 
shores  of  Africa.  Here  she  erected  the  city  of  Carthage,  which  soon 
rivalled  Tyre  itself  in  commercial  prosperity. 

The  Tyrians  exercised  their  supremacy  over  the  surrounding  citiea 
with  so  much  cruelty,  that  the  Phoenicians  applied  for  protection  to  the 
A.ss\Tians,  and  afterward  ta  the  Babylonians.  The  Assyrians,  unable 
U)  cope  with  the  T)Tians  by  sea,  retired,  leaving  the  city  uninjured. 
Hut  Nebuchadnez'zar  so  exhausted  Tyre  by  a  constant  blockade,  tha' 
it  was  almost  wholly  abandoned  by  its  inhabitants,  who  erected  the  city 


32  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

of  New  Tyre  upon  a  neigliboriiig  island.  Soon  after  this  event,  a 
change  was  made  in  the  form  of  government ;  annual  magistrates, 
called  Shopheti'm,  or,  according  to  the  Greek  orthography,  Sulfetes, 
being  chosen  instead  of  kings.  After  Cyrus  had  conquered  Babylon, 
the  Phu?nician  cities  sulnnittcd  of  their  own  accord  (b.  c.  538)  ;  but 
though  they  became  dependancies  of  the  Persian  empire,  they  were 
permitted  to  retain  their  native  governments.  Tjtc  again  became  sub 
ject  to  kings,  and  supplied  the  strength  of  the  Persian  naval  power. 
It  was  taken  by  Alexander  the  Great  (b.  c.  332),  and  from  that  time  il 
sunk  into  hopeless  decay. 

Section  VI. — Phoenician  Colonies  and  Foreign  Possessions. 

The  system  of  colonization  in  commercial  states  has  been  always 
the  greatest  aid  to  the  progress  of  civilization :  colonies  are  founded 
by  trading  nations  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  lucrative  commerce, 
by  establishing  a  market  for  the  manufactured  produce  of  the  parent 
state,  and  a  carrying-trade  for  its  merchants  and  seamen.  Such  colo- 
nies, unlike  the  military  establishments  of  despotic  states,  require  to  be 
placed  under  the  guidance  of  persons  advanced  in  political  knowledge 
who  know  how  to  vary  the  institutions  derived  from  the  government  at 
home,  so  as  to  suit  the  altered  circumstances  of  their  position  and  for- 
eign relations :  hence  civil  liberty  has  always  advanced  more  rapidly 
in  commercial  colonies  than  in  the  states  from  which  they  were 
derived,  and  the  science  of  legislation  has  attained  greater  perfection 
than  in  more  ancient  establishments. 

In  commercial  states,  the  distinction  between  the  citizen  and  the 
soldier  is  very  strongly  marked  ;  and  most  commercial  states,  in  ancient 
and  modern  times  employed  foreign  mercenaries.  The  prophet  Eze- 
kiel,  whose  account  of  Tjtc  is  the  most  perfect  record  of  its  ancient 
condition,  enumerates  the  countries  that  supplied  the  Tyrian  armies 
and  navies  with  warriors.* 

The  Ph(enician  colonies  proceeded  from  east  to  west  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  occupying  the  principal  islands.  Cy'prus, 
called  in  Scripture  Kittim,  or  Chittim,  was  not  only  a  colony  but  a 
province  of  the  Tyrians,  and  vestiges  of  their  establishments  on  the 
island  still  exist,  from  Cyprus  they  extended  their  settlements  to 
Crete  and  some  of  the  islands  in  the  Arctiipelago.  Thence  they  pro- 
ceeded to  Africa,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  spreading  their  cities  imequally 
along  the  coasts,  and  very  rarely  attempting  the  conquest  of  the  inte- 
rior. Their  establishments  in  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  indeed,  appear  to 
have  been  only  naval  stations  for  the  vessels  employed  in  the  trade 
with  wpstern  Europe,  especially  with  Spain,  which  was  the  Mexico  or 
Peru  of  the  ancient  world.  The  Spanish  peninsida,  called  in  Scrip- 
ture Tar'shisli,  from  the  city  Tartes'sus,  was  the  country  with  which 
the  Tyrians  had  the  most  lucrative  trade  ;  and  the  colonies  they  estab- 
lished there  soon  became  independent  states.  It  would  seem  that  the 
T}Tians  were  by  no  means  anxious  to  retain  supremacy  over  their  col- 
■mies,  w'.5(!ly  preferring  a  close  alliance,  cemented  by  common  descent. 

•  Ezekiel  xxvii.  8-1  J. 


SYRIA.  ^-i 

lana^iiage,  and  leligion,  to  a  hollow  dependance.  Colonies  were  also 
planted  beyond  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  or,  as  they  were  called  by  the 
ancients,  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  Trade  was  extended  to  the  British 
islands  and  the  coasts  of  the  North  sea,  which  must  have  led  to  the 
(establishment  of  colonies  and  naval  stations  along  the  western  and 
northern  coasts  of  Spain. 

The  colonies  in  northern  Africa,  Leptis,  Carthage,  Utica,  &c., 
attained  greater  splendor  than  any  of  the  other  Phoenician  cities,  and 
rivalled  Tyre  itself  in  wealth  and  magnificence.  It  is  exceedingly 
probable  that  they  had  also  settlements  in  western  Africa,  and  that  they 
had  even  reached  the  island  of  Madeira.  But  to  prevent  any  interfer- 
ence with  their  lucrative  commerce,  they  designedly  cast  a  veil  of 
mystery  over  their  intercourse  with  the  western  regions,  of  which  the 
Greek  poets  took  advantage  to  embellish  their  narratives  of  fictitious 
voyages  and  travels  with  the  most  fanciful  inventions. 

It  is  known  that  the  Phoenicians  preceded  the  Greeks  in  forming 
commercial  establishments  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  shores 
of  the  Black  sea ;  but  we  have  no  account  of  the  mode  in  which  they 
were  deprived  of  these  possessions  by  the  Greeks.  It  is  probable  that 
the  Phoenicians  resigned  this  branch  of  commerce  to  attend  more 
closely  to  their  lucrative  trade  with  the  western  regions. 

In  the  eastern  seas  they  had  establishments  on  the  Persian  and  Ara- 
bian gulfs  ;  but  their  settlements  on  the  latter  were  probably  not  made 
until  David  had  conquered  their  commercial  rivals,  the  Edomites,  or 
Idunieans.  From  that  time  they  paid  great  attention  to  their  southern 
trade,  and  seem  to  have  become  close  allies  of  the  Egyptians. 

Section   V^IJ. — Phcenician  Manufactures  and  Commerce. 

The  textile  fabrics  of  the  Sidonians,  and  the  purple  cloths  of  the 
Tyriaus,  were  celebrated  from  the  earliest  antiquity. 

The  Tyrian  purple  was  not  a  single  color,  but  was  a  generic  name 
for  all  the  shades  of  purple  and  scarlet.  The  dye  was  obtained  from 
a  shell-fish  found  in  great  abundance  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Vegetable  dyes  of  great  beauty  and  variety  were  also  used ; 
the  dyeing  was  always  ])erformed  in  the  raw  materials  ;  and  the  Phoe- 
nicians alone  understood  the  art  of  producing  shot  colors  by  using 
threads  of  different  tints.  Glass  Avas  very  anciently  manufactured  both 
at  Sidon  and  Sarepta :  tradition,  indeed,  ascribes  the  invention  of  glass 
to  the  Phoenicians ;  but  the  Egyptians  seem  to  have  a  claim  at  least  as 
good  to  the  discovery.  Carvings  in  wood  and  ivory,  manufactures  of 
jewelry  and  toys,  complete  all  that  has  been  recorded  of  the  products 
of  Tyrian  industry ;  and  it  seems  probable  that  their  commerce  con- 
sisted more  in  the  interchange  of  foreign  commodities  than  in  the  ex- 
port of  their  own  wrought  goods. 

The  land-trade  of  the  Phoenicians  may  be  divided  into  three  great 
branches  :  the  Arabian,  which  included  the  Egyptian  and  that  with  the 
Indian  seas ;  the  Babylonian,  to  which  is  referred  the  commerce  with 
central  Asia  and  north  India  ;  and  the  Armenian,  including  the  overland 
trade  with  Scythia  and  the  Caucasian  countries. 

From  Yem'en,  called  Arabia  the  Happy,  the  southern  division  of  the 

3 


?4  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

A'"abian  peninsula,  caravans  brought  througli  the  desert  frankincense, 
niyrrh,  cassia,  goltl,  and  precious  stones,  the  gold  being  probabh 
obtained  from  the  opposite  shores  of  Africa.  But  before  the  Phoeni- 
cians had  a  port  on  the  Red  sea,  they  obtained,  through  Arabia,  the 
produce  of  southern  India  and  Africa,  more  especially  cinnamon,  ivory, 
and  ebony.  This  trade  is  fully  described  by  Ezekicl,*  by  whom  the 
irafric  in  the  Persian  gulf  is  also  noticed.! 

The  Arabian  trade  appears  to  have  been  principally  carried  on  bj 
caravans.  The  northern  Arabs,  especially  the  princes  of  Kedar  and  the 
Midianites,  were  in  ancient  times  great  travelling  merchants :  and  the 
kingdom  of  Edom,  or  Idumaea,  in  the  north  of  the  Arabian  peninsula, 
attained  a  very  high  degree  of  commercial  prosperity.  On  the  seacoast 
the  Idumeans  possessed  the  ports  of  E'lath  and  E'zion-geber  (Ak'aba) ; 
in  the  interior,  they  had  for  their  metropolis  Petra,  whose  magnificent 
remains  have  been  but  recently  discovered.  So  permanent  and  almost 
immutable  is  the  aspect  of  civilization  in  Asia,  that  the  commercial 
caravans  of  the  present  day  scarcely  difier  in  any  particular  from  those 
which  were  used  in  the  flourishing  days  of  Tyre.  The  merchants  trav- 
elled in  bands  organized  like  an  army,  having  their  goods  on  the  back? 
of  camels,  the  only  animals  which  can  endure  the  fatigues  and  priva- 
tions of  the  desert.  They  were  escorted  by  armed  forces,  sometimes 
supplied  from  home,  but  more  frequently  consisting  of  one  marauding 
tribe,  hired  at  a  large  price,  to  save  the  caravan  from  the  exactions  and 
attacks  of  the  rest.  The  greater  part  of  the  Phoenician  trade  with 
Egj'pt  was  overland,  at  least  so  long  as  the  seat  of  government  was  at 
Thebes  in  Upper  Egypt :  when  Mem'phis  rose  into  power,  an  entire 
quarter  of  the  city  was  assigned  to  the  Phoenician  merchants,  and  the 
trade  by  sea  to  the  mouths  of  the  Nile  grew  into  importance.  The 
first  branch  of  the  eastern  Phoenician  trade  was  with  Judaea  and  Syria 
Proper. I  The  dependance  of  the  Phoenicians  on  Palestine  for  grain 
fully  explains  the  cause  of  their  close  alliance  with  the  Jewish  king- 
dom in  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon. 

But  the  most  important  branch  of  eastern  trade  was  that  through 
Bab'ylon  with  the  interior  of  Asia.  A  great  part  of  the  route  lay 
through  the  Syrian  desert ;  and  to  facilitate  the  passage  of  the  caravans, 
two  of  the  most  remarkable  cities  of  the  ancient  world,  Baal'bec  and 
Palmy'ra,  were  founded.  They  were  both  built  by  Solomon  :  "  he 
founded,"  says  the  Scripture,  "  Baalath  (Baal'bec)  and  Tadnior  (Pal- 
my'ra) in  the  desert. "§  They  were  erected  by  that  wise  monarch  to 
procure  for  his  subjects  a  share  in  this  lucrative  traffic  ;  but  this  object 
was  frustrated  by  the  subsoqiicut  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  and  the  ware 
between  Israel  and  Judah. 

The  northern  land-trade  of  the  Phoenicians  is  described  by  no  an 
cient  writer  but  the  prophet  Ezekiel :  "  Javan  [Ionia,  and  the  Greek 
colonies],  Tubal,  and  ^leshech  [the  countries  around  the  Black  and 
north  Caspian  seas],  they  were  thy  merchants  :  they  traded  the  persons 
of  men  and  vessels  of  brass  in  thy  markets.  They  of  the  house  of  To- 
gar'mah  [Armenia  and  Cappadocia],  traded  in  thy  fairs  with  horses  and 
horsemen  and  mules. "|| 

Ezekiel  xxvii.  19-23.  f  lb.  xxvii.  15. 

JKzekiel  xxvii.  17,  IS.         §  1  Kings  ix.  18.         |I  Ezekiel  xxvii.  13,  J4 


'  SYRIA.  35 

But  the  Mediterranean  sea  v/as  the  great  high  road  of  Phoenician 
commerce  :  it  probably  commenced  with  piracy ;  for  in  the  infancy,  of 
Grecian  civilization,  we  find  frequent  mention  of  the  kidnapping  prac- 
tised i)>  corsairs  from  Tyre  and  Sidon.  But  when  Greece  advanced 
in  power,  Hiid  Athens  and  Corinth  had  fleets  of  their  own,  the  Greeks 
became  tue  liTals  and  political  enemies  of  the  Phoenicians,  purchasing 
from  them  only  such  articles  as  could  not  be  procured  from  their  own 
colonies  in  Asia  iVrinoi.  Spain  was  the  richest  country  of  the  ancient 
world  in  the  precious  iiieials.  The  Phoenician  colonies  enslaved  the 
natives,  and  compelled  tneni  lO  woik  in  the  mines  :  these  metallic  pro- 
ductions are  eniunerated  by  Ezewiei.  ''  Tar'shish  [Tartes'sus,  or  south- 
western Spain],  was  thy  niei chant  by  reason  of  the  multitude  of  all 
kind  of  riches :  with  silver,  iron,  tin,  and  lead,  they  traded  in  th^ 
fairs."*  From  Spain  the  Phceniciaua  entered  the  Atlantic  ocean,  and 
proceeded  to  the  south  of  the  British  islands,  where  they  procured  the 
tin  of  Cornwall ;  and  probably  to  the  coasts  of  Prussia  for  amber,  which 
in  the  ancient  world  was  deemed  more  precious  than  gold.  In  the 
eastern  seas,  the  Phoenicians  had  establishments  on  the  Arabian  and 
Persian  gulf,  whence  they  traded  with  the  coasts  of  India  and  Af- 
rica, and  the  island  of  Ceylon.  During  the  reign  of  Pharaoh-Necho, 
king  of  Egypt,  they  discovered  the  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  ;  but  this  led  to  no  important  results,  on  account  of  the  calamities 
that  Tyre  endured  from  the  invasion  of  Nebuchadnez'zar.  Though 
their  voyages  did  not  equal  in  daring  those  of  modern  times,  yet,  wh&r, 
we  consider  that  they  were  fgnorant  of  the  mariner's  compass,  and  of 
the  art  of  taking  accurate  astronomical  oljservations,  it  is  wonderful  to 
reflect  on  the  conmiercial  enterprise  of  a  people  whose  ships  were  to 
be  seen  ir  the  harbors  of  Britain  and  Ceylon. 

*  Ezekiel  xivii.  12. 


36  ANCIENT  IflBTORV 


CHAPTER  v. 

PALESTINE. 

SECxro.x  I. — Geographical  Outline 

Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land,  lies  between  Ph(jeiiicia  on  the  iiortli. 
and  Idumae'a  on  the  south,  separated  from  both  by  chains  of  loftv 
mountains ;  to  the  east  its  boundaries  were  the  Asphaltic  lake,  th«e 
river  Jordan,  and  the  sea  of  Galilee  ;  on  the  west  it  extended  to  the 
Mediterranean.  The  mountains  are  the  most  remarkable  features  in 
the  geography  of  Palestine.  These  mountains  divided  Palestine  into  a 
series  of  valleys  and  tablelands,  leaving  two  great  plains,  called  "  the 
region  about  .lordan,"  and  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  or  Jez'reel.  These 
valleys  and  plains  were  of  very  ilnequal  value  ;  some  were  so  unpro- 
ductive as  to  be  called  deserts,  others  were  the  most  fertile  spots  in 
western  Asia. 

Jordan  was  tlie  only  great  river  of  Palestine ;  it  falls  into  the  As 
phaltic  lake,  or  Dead  sea,  which  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  cities 
Sod'om  and  Gomor'rah.  There  is  no  outlet  from  the  Asphaltic  lake, 
and  its  waters  are  bitter  and  unwholesome.  The  sea  of  Galilee, 
through  which  the  Jordan  flows,  is  a  beautiful  fresh-water  lake,  abound- 
ing in  fish. 

The  principal  cities  were  Jerusalem,  the  metropolis  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  and  Samaria,  the  capital  of  Israel.  Idumas'a  lay  south  of 
Palestine,  beyond  the  chain  of  Mount  Seir :  it  was  in  general  a  rocky 
and  barren  country ;  but  being  the  high  road  of  Arabian  trafllic,  its  nat- 
ural capabilities  were  improved  to  the  utmost,  and  it  contained  liie 
great  city  of  Petra,  whose  commercial  wealth  was  deservedly  celebra- 
ted. Idumae'a,  or  Edom,  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  the 
reign  of  David. 

The  valleys  of  Palestine  were  in  general  very  fruitful ;  and  the  va- 
ried elevations  of  the  country,  causing  so  many  difierent  climates,  gave 
the  country  a  greater  j'ariety  of  natural  productions  than  is  usually 
found  in  so  confined  a  space. 

A  series  of  calamities,  unparalleled  in  any  other  portion  of  the  globe 
has  now  reduced  Palestine  almost  to  sterility ;  but  v^ven  now  there  are 
spots  to  be  found  whose  luxurig,nce  revives  the  meimry  of  the  verdure 
and  beauty  that  once  covered  the  entire  country. 

Sfction  II. — History  of  Palestine. 

I  Roji  B.  c.  1920  TO  B.  c.  975. 

God  called  Abram  from  the  land  of  the  CbaMees  to  Palestine,  then 
named  Canaan,  to  be  the  founder  of  a  nafirr.  that  should  be  his  peculiar 


PAl  ESTINE.  o  I 

people  (ri.  c.  1920).  Abraham,  at  his  death  (h.  c.  1821),  transmitted 
the  inheritance  of  the  divine  promise  to  his  son  Isaac ;  and  he  was  de- 
ceived into  making  his  second  son  Jacob,  or  Israel,  the  heir  of  thi? 
glorious  privilege.  The  sons  of  Jacob  sold  their  brother  Joseph 
as  a  slave  to  some  Arabian  merchants,  by  whom  he  was  carried  into 
Egypt.  There  he  became  the  chief  minister  of  the  Pharaoh  of  Eg}^pt ; 
his  brethren  having  come  into  that  country  to  purchase  corn,  he  made 
himself  known  to  them,  and  invited  his  father,  with  his  whole  family, 
to  dwell  to  the  rich  district  of  Goshen  (b.  c.  1705).  In  process  of 
time,  the  Israelites  became  so  ruimerous  as  to  excite  the  envious  alarm 
of  the  Egyptians :  they  were  in  consequence  cruelly  persecuted,  until 
God  raised  up  Moses  as  their  deliverer.  The  miraculous  plagues  he 
inflicted  on  the  land  of  Egypt  induced  the  reigning  Pharaoh  to  consen; 
to  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  (b.  c.  1491).  Hepenting  of  his  per- 
mission, he  pursued  them  with  a  mighty  host;  but  he  and  all  his  fol- 
lowers perished  in  the  Red  sea. 

After  the  miraculous  deliverance  of  the  Hebrews  from  the  Eg^'ptian 
army,  and  their  safe  passage  through  the  Red  sea,  it  seemed  as  if  their 
v:hief  difficulties  had  been  overcome  ;  that  with  Jehovah  ■^or  their  pro- 
tector, and  Moses  for  their  guide,  they  would  soon  reach  the  frontiers 
of  Canaan,  and  find  no  difficulty  in  subduing  its  idolatrous  inhabitants. 
Were  there  no  other  difficulties  to  be  overcome  than  the  ruggedness  of 
the  way,  and  the  hostility  of  the  various  warlike  races  in  and  round 
Palestine,  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites  would  soon  have  terminated, 
but  during  their  protracted  bondage  they  had  been  deeply  imbued  with 
all  th(}  vices  of  slavery ;  they  had  become  stubborn,  rebellious,  and  in- 
constant ;  they  vacillated  between  the  extremes  of  cowardice  and 
rashnciss,  and  they  had  acquired  an  almost  invincible  fondness  for  idol- 
atry and  superstition,  which  proved  a  constant  source  of  misfortunes  to 
themselves  and  of  the  most  harassing  vexations  to  their  leader. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  third  month  after  the  departure  from  Goshen, 
the  Israelites  reached  the  plains  around  Sin'ai,  where  amid  the  most 
awful  manifestations  of  the  Divine  presence,  Moses  ascended  the 
mountain,  and  received  from  the  Lord  the  sacred  code  of  laws  by  which 
the  Israelites  were  thenceforth  to  bd  ruled  under  God's  immediate  gov- 
erniiif.nt,  and  which  was  moreover  designed,  both  by  its  moral  and 
ceremonial  institutions,  to  be  "  a  schoolmaster  to  the  Jews  to  bring 
ihem  unto  Christ."  The  constitution  thus  given  to  the  Israelites  may 
be  described  as  a  theocracy  ;  that  is,  a  government  in  which  God  him- 
self was  the  sovereign,  communicating  his  will  by  certain  authorized 
ministers.  The  priests  through  whom  the  Divine  commands  were 
made  known,  could  only  be  chosen  from  the  descendants  of  Aaron  ;  and 
all  the  inferior  ministers  of  religion  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Levi.  A'l 
the  institutions  appointed  for  the  people  were  directed  to  one  great  ob- 
ject, the  preservation  of  the  purity  of  religious  worship :  the  Israeliter. 
were  not  chosen  to  be  the  most  wealthy  or  most  powerful  of  nations- 
but  to  be  the  guardians  of  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  until  the  ar* 
rival  of  that  divine  Savior  who  was  to  unite  both  Jews  and. Gentiles  as- 
one  flock,  under  one  shepherd.  While  Moses  continued  on  the  mount 
the  Israelites,  impatient  at  his  long  absence,  formed  a  golden  calf,  O! 
representation  of  a  young  bull,  as  an  object. for  their  idolatrous  worship 


4.32744 


38  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

When  Moses,  who  had  l)ecn  now  forty  days  on  the  mount,  learnec 
from  the  Lord  the  crime  of  which  the  people  had  been  guilty,  lie  hastilj 
descended  tow  ard  the  camp ;  as  he  approached,  the  sight  of  the  people, 
dancing  round  the  object  of  their  stupid  veneration,  filled  him  with  such 
wrath  that  he  broke  the  tallies  of  stone  on  which  the  Ten  Command- 
ments had  been  graven  by  "  the  finger  of  God."  The  tribe  of  Levi, 
whi'^h  seems  not  to  have  participated  in  the  national  guilt,  slew  three 
thousand  of  the  worst  criminals  ;  tlie  idol  was  broken  to  pieces,  and  the 
people  compelled  to  drink  the  water  with  which  its  dust  had  been  min.- 
gled ;  and  atonement  having  been  made  for  the  sin,  Moses  again 
ascended  the  mountain,  and,  after  an  absence  of  forty  days,  returned 
with  two  new  tables  of  commandments,  in  place  of  those  that  had  been 
broken. 

Having  broken  up  the  encampment  at  Sin'ai,  the  Israelites  directed 
their  march  to  the  frontiers  of  Cr.naan  ;  but  notwithstanding  all  the 
signs  and  wonders  that  had  been  wrought  in  their  favor,  they  broke  out 
into  acts  of  rebellion  against  Moses,  and  on  every  trifling  occasion  pro 
voked,  by  their  seditions,  severe  chastisements  from  the  righteous  anger 
uf  the  Almighty  ;  until,  at  length  upon  the  very  borders  of  the  promised 
land,  for  their  rebellious  murmurings  at  the  report  of  the  spies,  the  Lord 
urdained  that  none  of  the  existing  generation  should  enter  the  promised 
land,  except  Joshua  and  Caleb.  Forty  years  of  wandering  in  the  Des- 
ert were  to  expiate  the  national  crime,  after  which  a  new  generation 
was  to  inherit  the  promise  made  to  Abraham. 

In  their  wanderings,  the  miraculous  pillar,  which  had  guided  them 
from  Egypt,  continued  still  to  direct  them,  and  the  manna  to  nourish 
them ;  their  raiment  and  their  shoes  sufl"ered  no  decay,  and  their  feet 
were  unhurt,  by  their  long  and  frequent  marches.  Notwithstanding 
these  signal  proofs  of  the  Divine  protection,  the  children  of  Israel  fre- 
quently rebelled  against  Moses,  and  provoked  severe  chastisements 
from  their  oflended  God. 

Thirty-eight  years  after  their  departure  from  Egypt,  the  march  tu 
Canaan  was  resumed ;  but  being  defeated  in  their  first  attempt,  and, 
though  more  successful  on  a  second  trial,  finding  the  western  frontiers 
of  Palestine  difficult,  the  Israelites  resolved  to  make  a  circuit,  and  at- 
tack the  country  more  to  the  eastward  On  this  march,  Moses  and 
Aaron,  having  evinced  a  want  of  confidence  in  the  divine  power,  were 
included  ii  the  sentence  of  not  being  permitted  to  enter  the  promised 
land. 

Commanded  by  God  to  regard  the  descendants  of  Esau  as  their 
brethren,  the  Hebrew  army  avoided  the  land  of  Edom,  turning  their 
course  northward,  encountering  varioUvS  enemies,  who  tried  to  impede 
their  passage.  They  gained  signal  victories  over  Sfhon,  king  of  the 
Amorites,  and  Og,  the  gigantic  ruler  of  Basan,  and  spread  the  terror  ot 
heir  name  through  the  surrounding  nations.  In  a  pitched  battle,  which 
i,he  Israelites  fought  also  against  five  kings  of  Mid''ian,  the  confederate 
monarchs  fell ;  a  terrible  slaughter  was  made  of  their  subjects,  the 
jities  of  the  land  were  taken  and  sacked,  and  a  considerable  booty 
Drought  to  Moses  and  Eleazar,  the  latter  of  whom  had  succeeded  Airor 
n  the  priesthood. 

Immediately  a<\er  the   punishment  of  the   Midianites.  Moses.,  bv  t!if 


PALESTINE.  39 

liviiie  direction,  took  a  census  of  the  people,  and  assigned  to  the  tribea 
by  lot  their  future  irJieritance  in  Canaan.  He  found  that  all  the  old 
Tiurmuring  generation,  save  .Joshua  and  Caleb,  had  disappeared,  as  God 
had  foretold.  Being  warned  that  his  own  end  was  app^-oaching,  he 
solemnly  constituted  Joshua  his  successor,  and  assembling  the  people 
recapitulated  all  the  miracles  which  God  had  wrought  in  their  favoi 
since  their  departure. from  Egypt,  and  exhorted  them  to  be  firm  in  their 
allegiance  to  Jehovah,  setting  before  them  the  blessings  promised  for 
obedience,  and  the  curses  denounced  against  idolatry.  Having  thua 
completed  his  task,  he  ascended  Mount  Nebo,  by  God's  command, 
whence  he  was  gratified  with  a  view  of  the  promised  land  ;  after  which 
lie  breathed  his  last,  in  the  one  hundredth  and  twentieth  year  of  his 
age  (b.  c.  1451).  The  place  of  his  burial  vvas  carefully  concealed, 
probably  to  prevent  the  Israelites  from  making  his  tomb  an  object  of 
idolatrous  veneration. 

Section  III. —  The  Conquest  of  Canaan  by  Joshua. 

Nothing  less  than  the  strongest  assurance  of  divine  aid  could  have 
supported  Joshua's  courage  in  so  arduous  an  enterprise.  He  was  now 
ninety-three  years  of  age,  and  wanted  neither  experience  nor  sagacity 
to  foresee  the  perils  which  he  had  to  encounter.  Though  at  the  head 
of  six  hundred  thousand  fighting  men,  his  army  was  encumbered  by  a 
multitude  of  old  men,  women,  and  children,  beside  servants  and  cattle  ; 
before  liim  was  a  large  river,  which  he  was  to  cross,  equally  exposed  to 
the  arms  of  those  he  went  to  attack,  and  those  he  left  behind.  The  na- 
tions he  had  to  subdue  were  warlike,  remarkable  for  their  personal 
strength  and  gigantic  stature  ;  their  towns  were  well  fortified  by  nature 
and  art ;  their  forces  and  interests  cemented  by  mutual  treaties ;  they 
had  long  been  aware  of  the  meditated  invasion,  and  had  made  formi- 
dable preparations  for  the  defence  of  their  country. 

The  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  pre- 
ferred settling  in  th-j  land  east  of  the  Jordan,  but  they  sent  a  contingent 
of  forty  thousand  men  to  aid  their  brethren  in  the  subjugation  of  Ca- 
naan. 

Passing  over  the  river  Jordan  by  a  miraculous  passage,  the  Israelites 
celebrated  the  feast  of  the  passover,  which  had  been  intermitted  since 
their  encampment  on  Sin'ai,  from  the  want  of  corn  to  prejiare  unleav- 
ened bread  ;  now,  also,  that  they  were  in  a  productive  land,  the  mirac- 
ulous supply  of  manna  ceased,  being  no  longer  necessary.  So  great 
was  the  alarm  of  the  Canaanites,  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  interrupt 
the  Israelites  while  celebrating  this  solemn  feast ;  when  it  was  conclu 
ded,  they  advanced  against  the  tortitied  city  of  Jer'icho,  which  was 
straightly  shut  up  because  of  the  children  of  Israel, — "none  went  out. 
and  none  came  in.  By  divine  command,  Joshua  made  no  military 
preparations  for  the  siege  of  this  important  place,  but  led  the  army 
round  the  city  once  a  day  for  six  days,  preserving  strict  silence,  broken 
only  by  the  sound  of  the  sacred  trumpets  which  accompanied  the  Ark 
-jf  the  Covenant.  On  the  seventh  day,  the  people  "  compassed  the 
city,  after  the  same  manner,  seven  times  ;  and  it  came  to  pass  at  the 
seventh  time,  wh<m  the  piiests  blew  with  the  trumpets,  Joshua  said  un 


10  AISCIENT  HISTORY 

1.0  the  people,  Shout,  for  the   Lord  hatli  given  you  the  city.  Aiid 

the  people  shouted  with  a  great  shout,  that  the  wall  fell  down  flat,  so 
that  the  people  went  up  into  the  city,  every  man  straight  belbre  liiin, 
and  they  took  the  city." 

The  king  of  A'i  next  became  the  victim  of  a  stratagem  devised  by 
.Toshua,  and  its  citizens  were  utterly  exterminated.  Great  fear  spread 
over  the  land  of  Canaan  in  consequence  of  the  destruction  of  Jer'icht 
and  A'i ;  the  Gibconites,  anxious  to  escape  from  impending  ruin,  sought 
a  treaty  of  peace  from  Joshua,  and  obtained  it  by  pretending  to  l)e  na- 
tives of  a  distant  country. 

Adonizcd'ec,  king  of  Jerusalem,  was  greatly  enraged  when  be  heard 
ihat  the  Gibeonitcs  had  deserted  the  common  cause  ;  he  sent  jnbas- 
sies  to  four  of  the  neighboring  princes  to  aid  him  in  pimishing  their 
defection  ;  they  readily  assented,  and  "  went  up,  they  and  all  their  hosts, 
and  encamped  before  Gibeon,  and  made  war  against  it."  Joshua  imme- 
diately marched  to  their  deliverance.  The  five  kings  were  completely 
routed  ;  at  Joshua's  command  "  the  sun  stood  still  and  the  moon  stayed, 

until  the  people  had  avenged  themselves  upon  their  enemies 

And  there  was  no  day  like  that  before  it  or  after  it,  that  the  Lord 
hearkened  unto  the  voice  of  a  man  ;  for  the  Lord  fought  for  Israel." 

During  the  space  of  seven  years,  the  Israelites  were  almost  inces- 
santly engaged  in  completing  the  conquest  of  Canaan,  but  they  met 
with  no  very  formidable  resistance  after  the  memorable  battle  against 
the  five  kings  before  Gibeon.  They  did  not  however  wholly  extermi- 
nate the  idolatrous  tribes,  as  the  Lord  had  commanded ;  they  became 
weary  of  the  protracted  warfare,  and  the  warriors  of  Re\iben,  Gad,  and 
Manasseh,  were  naturally  anxious  to  return  to  their  families  beyond 
Jordan.  This  impolitic  act  of  disobedience  was  subsequently  produc- 
ive  of  fatal  consequences,  for  the  surviving  Canaanites  eagerly  sought 
and  embraced  every  opportunity  of  taking  revenge  for  the  extermina- 
tion of  their  brethren.  Even  in  peace  they  were  scarcely  less  danger- 
ous to  the  prosperity  of  the  chosen  people  than  in  war,  for  they  fre- 
quently seduced  the  Israelites  to  join  in  the  impure  and  impious  rites 
of  their  licentious  idolatry. 

Soon  after  tranquillity  had  been  established  in  Palestine,  and  the  dif- 
ferent tribes  and  families  had  taken  possession  of  their  allotted  portions, 
Joshua  died,  at  the  advanced  age  of  one  hundred  and  ten,  having  ruled 
the  country  as  wisely  as  he  had  conquered  it  bravely :  "  And  Israel 
served  the  Lord  all  the  days  of  Joshua,  and  all  the  days  of  the  elders 
that  overlived  Joshua,  and  «  nich  had  known  all  the  works  of  the  Lord 
tliat  he  had  done  for  Israel." 

Section   IV. — History  of  Israel  under  the  Ji^lgcs. 

Under  the  theocracy,  as  established  by  Moses,  the  civil  governmem 
of  Israel  was  to  be  administered  by  Shophetim,  or  Judges,  nominated 
by  the  divine  oracle,  the  mysterious  Urim  and  Thummim,  which  were 
in  the  custody  of  the  high-priest ;  but  after  the  death  of  Joshua  the 
Israelites  frequently  apostatized  to  idolatry,  the  oracles  of  God  were 
neglected,  the  ap  ^ointment  of  chief  magistrates  omitted.  The  tribe  of 
Judah  at  first  actively  engaged  in  completing  the  conquest  which  had 


PALESTINE.  41 

been  left  iinperfcel,  )ut  otners  entered  into  compact  with  the  Canaan 
ites,  and  were  so  insnared  by  the  beauty  of  their  women  as  to  contrac 
affinities  with  them.  These  intermarriages  soon  reconciled  them  to  the 
worship  of  the  false  gods  of  the  heathen,  and  provoked  the  Almighty 
to  deliver  them  over  to  the  hands  of  their  enemies.  God  permitted 
the  idolatrous  Israelites  to  be  subdued  by  the  king  of  Mesopotamia, 
who  held  them  in  subjection  for  nearly  eight  years  ;  but  on  their  repent- 
ance,  Oth'niel  was  raised  up  to  be  their  deliverer,  and  under  his  admin- 
istration "  they  had  rest  forty  years."  A  second  defection  was  pun- 
ished by  a  servitude  to  the  Moabites  for  eighteen  years,  at  the  end  of 
vvhich  time  E'hud  slew  the  king  of  Moab,  delivered  Israel,  and  restored 
peace.  Sham'gar,  the  third  judge,  repelled  the  incursions  of  the  Phil- 
istines, and  slew  six  hundred  of  them  with  an  ox-goad.  But  the 
children  of  Israel  again  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  when  E'hud 
was  dead.  And  the  Lord  sold  them  into  the  hand  of  Jabin,  king  of 
Canaan."  For  twenty  years  the  Israelites  groaned  under  the  yoke  of 
this  despot,  but  they  were  at  length  delivered-  by  the  prophetess  Deb''- 
orah,  aided  by  Barak,  a  leader  of  established  reputation. 

A  new  apostacy  was  punished  by  a  more  severe  servitude  ;  "  the 
Lord  delivered  them  into  the  hand  of  Midian  seven  years.  And  the 
band  of  Midian  prevailed  against  Israel ;  and  because  of  the  Midian- 
ites,  the  children  of  Israel  made  them  the  dens  which  are  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  cave.s.  and  strongholds."  The  liberator  chosen  to  deliver  the 
Israelites  from  this  miserable  bondage  was  Gid'eon,  who,  with  only 
three  hundred  men.  made  a  night  attack  on  the  camp  of  the  Midianites. 
Thrown  intc  confusion  by  the  unexpected  assault,  and  deceived  as  to 
the  number  of  their  enemies,  the  Midianites  turned  their  arms  against 
each  other,  and  finally  fled  in  disorder.  They  were  vigorously  pur- 
sued, great  numbers  were  slain,  an  immense  quantity  of  valuable  spoils 
taken,  and  the  freedom  of  Israel  restored. 

Under  Gid'eon's  administration,  "  the  land  had  rest  for  forty  years ;" 
but  after  hjs  death  the  people  of  Shechem,  at  the  instigation  of  Abin/- 
elech,  a  natural  son  of  Gid'eon,  slew  all  the  legitimate  children  of 
Gid'eoD  except  the  youngest,  and  proclaimed  Abnn'elech  king.  This 
dreadtul  crime  produced  a  civil  war,  and  the  fratricide  was  himsell 
afterward  killed  by  a  woman. 

There  was  nothing  remarkable  in  the  administration  of  the  judges 
Tola  an(?  Jair ;  but  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  idolatry  of  the 
Israelites  became  so  gross,  that  God  delivered  them  into  the  hands  of 
the  Philistines  and  the  Ammonites.  In  their  distress,  the  children  of 
Israel,  probably  by  divine  direction,  applied  to  Jeph'thah,  the  natural 
son  of  Gil'ead,  who,  having  been  refused  a  share  of  his  father's  inher- 
itance, had  become  the  chief  of  a  predatory  band  beyond  Jordan. 

.leph'thah  was  succeeded  by  Ib'zan,  E'lon,  and  Ab'don,  of  whom 
nothing  remarkable  is  recorded.  They  were  followed  by  E'li,  who 
united  in  his  person  the  office  of  high-priest  and  judge.  Under  his 
administration,  the  apostacy  of  the  Israelites  was  punished  by  their 
be.iig  delivered  over  to  the  Philistines,  who  harassed  them  for  near'y 
forty  years.  These  oppressors  deprived  the  Israelites  of  all  theii 
K-eapoiis  of  war,  and  of  the  means  of  procuring  others. 

During  this  period  appeared  Sam'son,  the  most  extraordinary  of  the 


i2 


ANCIENT   HISTORY 


Jrwish  heroes,  whose  birth  and  prowess  were  miiaculously  foretold  to 
both  his  parents.  During  his  hie  he  harassed  the  Phihstines,  slaush- 
rering  them  with  wonderful  displays  of  strength  ;  and  by  his  last  act," in 
pulling  upon  rdmself  and  upon  his  enemies  the  temple  of  their  national 
god,  in  which  a  general  assembly  of  tiie  people  were  gathered,  the  dead 
which  "he  slew  at  his  death  were  more  than  they  which  he  slew  i'j 
his  life." 

The  Israelites  were  too  disorganized  to  take  advantage  of  this 
extraordinary  slaughter  of  the  Philistine  lords ;  E'li,  their  judge,  was 
nearly  one  hundred  years  old,  and  his  two  sons,  Hoph'ni  and  Pliin' 
ehas,  who  acted  under  him,  took  advantage  of  his  weakness  to  comnii- 
the  most  profligate  abominations.  Samuel,  whom  God  had  called  iii 
his  youth  to  become  a  prophet  and  the  future  judge  of  Israel,  wah 
commanded  by  the  Lord  to  denounce  divine  vengeance  against  E'li ; 
after  which  he  became  generally  known  as  an  inspired  person,  divineh 
chosen  to  be  E'li's  successor. 

Samuel,  though  still  a  youth,  was  chosen  judge  of  Israel  after  the 
death  of  E'U.  He  assembled  the  people,  and  impressed  upon  them  the 
criminality  and  folly  of  their  idolatry ;  they  were  convinced  by  his 
leasoning,  and  put  away  their  strange  deities,  promising  to  serve  the 
Lord  alone.  They  were  rewarded  by  a  signal  victory  over  the  Philis- 
tines ;  after  which  the  land  had  rest  during  the  remainder  of  Samuel'.s 
administration. 

When  Samuel  had  judged  Israel  twenty  years,  he  a])puinted  his  two 
sons  to  assist  him ;  but  these  young  men,  like  the  soiio  of  E'li,  per- 
verted justice,  and  the  elders  of  Israel  unanimously  demanded  a  king 
to  rule  over  ihem  like  other  nations.  Samuel  remoustrated  with  them 
for  thus  abandoning  their  peculiar  distinction  of  havnig  the  Lord  for 
their  king ;  but  when  the  demand  was  renewed  more  urgently,  on  a 
threatened  invasion  of  the  Ammonites,  he  was  directed  by  the  Lord  to 
comply  with  the  popular  request.  According  to  the  divine  instructions 
he  selected  Saul,  the  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  to  be  the 
first  monarch  of  the  Israelites  (b.  c.  1095).  He  was  presented  to  the 
tribes  at  Miz'pch,  "  and  Samuel  said  to  all  the  people,  See  ye  him 
whom  the  Lord  hath  chosen,  that  there  is  none  like  him  among  all  the 
people  ?     And  all  the  people  shouted  and  said,  God  save  the  king  ■'" 

Section  V. — History  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Israel. 

Maxy  of  the  Israelites  were  discontented  with  the  choice  that  had 
been  made  of  a  monarch.  But  these  symptoms  of  discontent  were 
iHOon  checked  by  the  signal  proof  which  Saui  gave  of  his  military 
r^ualifications.  Nahash,  king  of  the  Ammonites,  invaded  Isr'i'^l,  and  laid 
biege  to  Jabesh-Gil'ead ;  the  inhabitants  proposed  to  capitulate,  bur. 
Nahash  sternly  replied,  "  On  this  condition  will  I  make  a  covenant 
v/ith  you,  that  I  may  thrust  out  all  your  right  eyes,  and  lay  it  as  a 
leproach  upon  Israel."  When  this  intelligence  reached  the  general 
assembly  of  the  Israelites,  they  burst  into  loud  lamentations ;  but  Saul 
commanded  an  instant  levy  of  the  people.  A  numerous  body  of  sol- 
Jiers  obeyed  the  summons ;  Saul  marched  against  the  Ammonites,  and 
defeated  them  so  elieclually,  that  not  two  of  them  were  left  together 


PALESTlWiii.  4;j 

So  delighted  were  the  people  with  this  victory,  that  they  proposed  to 
punish  with  death  all  who  had  resisted  the  elevation  of  their  young 
monarch ;  but  Saul  said,  "  There  shall  not  be  a  man  put  to  death  this 
liay  ;  for  to-day  the  Lord  hath  wrought  salvation  in  Israel."  A  solemn 
assembly  of  the  tribes  was  then  convoked  at  Gil'gal,  in  order  that  the 
people  should  renew  their  allegiance.  Here  Samuel  resig"ned  his  office. 

Saul  was  aided  in  his  government  by  his  son  Jonathan,  a  young  man 
of  heroic  valor  and  the  most  geneious  disposition.  With  a  select  baud, 
he  attacked  and  stormed  the  Philistine  garrison  at  Geba,  which  neces- 
sarily led  to  war.  The  Israelites  were  badly  prepared  for  hostilities, 
and  when  the  tribes  met  at  Gil'gal,  they  showed  the  greatest  timidity 
and  confusion.  They  were  also  disheartened  by  the  absence  of  Sam- 
uel, whose  duty  it  was  to  uifer  the  solemn  sacrifice,  and  began  to  dis- 
perse J  Saul,  alarmed  lest  he  should  be  entirely  deserted,  offered  the 
solemn  sacrifice  himself;  but  the  ceremony  was  not  concluded  when 
Samuel  appeared,  and  aunoimced  to  the  too  hasty  monarch,  that  for  this 
wilful  violation  of  the  law,  the  kingdom  should  not  be  hereditary  in  his 
family.  The  Philistines,  advancing  with  an  immense  army,  blockaded 
Saul,  who  had  only  about  six  hundred  men  under  his  command  in  the 
mountains  of  Gib'eah,  but  he  was  unexpectedly  liberated  from  his  dif- 
ficulties by  the  daring  valor  of  his  son  Jonathan,  who,  accompanied  only 
by  his  armor-bearer,  attacked  a  Philistine  outpost,  and  spread  such  a 
panic  through  the  whole  army  that  they  were  easily  routed  by  Saul. 

After  this  victory,  Saul  led  his  forces  against  the  different  nations 
that  harassed  the  frontiers  of  his  kingdom  ;  when  these  had  been  re- 
strained from  their  incursions,  Samuel,  by  the  direction  of  the  Lord, 
commanded  Saul  to  execute  divine  vengeance  on  the  Amalekites,  who 
aad  been  long  the  most  bitter  enemies  of  the  chosen  people.  Saul 
smote  the  Amalekites  with  great  slaughtci  ;  but,  in  direct  violation  of 
the  Divine  prohibitions,  he  spared  the  life  of  A'gag,  their  king,  and 
brought  away  with  him  a  vast  booty  of  cattle.  Samuel  bitterly  re^ 
proached  the  king  for  his  ingratitude  to  God,  and  announced  to  Saul 
that  his  disobedience  should  be  punished  by  the  loss  of  his  kingdom, 
which  the  Lord  would  transfer  to  a  more  worthy  person. 

Samuel  departed  from  Saul,  whom  he  never  again  visited  :  directed 
by  God,  he  went  to  the  family  of  Jes'se,  in  Bethlehem  of  Judah, 
where  he  anoirued  David,  Jes'se's  youngest  son,  who  thenceforth  was 
gifted  with  supernatural  endowments.  In  the  meantime,  Saul  became 
subject  to  fits  of  phrensy  and  melancholy,  which  his  servants  supposed 
could  be  best  dispelled  by  the  influence  of  music  :  they  therefore  sent 
for  Da\ir  whose  skill  on  the  harp  was  already  celebrated,  and  his  ex- 
quisite skill  frequently  enabled  him  to  dispel  the  gloom  that  depressed 
the  king's  spirits.  The  Philistines,  probably  encouraged  by  secret  in- 
formation of  Saul's  unhappy  condition,  renewed  the  war  against  Israel, 
and  Saul  led  out  an  army  to  protect  the  frontiers.  While  the  hostile 
forces  were  encamped  in  sight  of  each  other,  the  gigantic  Goliath  of 
Gath  came  forth  as  champion  of  the  Philistines,  and  challenged  any 
Israelite  warrior  to  contend  against  him ;  all  were  daunted  by  the  stat- 
ure, strength,  and  ferocity  of  the  giant.  At  length  David  presented 
himself  to  the  combat,  armed  only  with  his  staff  and  a  sling  :  the  vaunt- 
ing  Philistine  treated  the  youuir  hero  with  contempt,  but  a  sto^e  from 


44  A.NC1ENT  IIIrflORY. 

ihb  sline,  striking  ]iim  full  in  the  foroliead,  penetrated  to  the  biaja,  ai.d 
laid  him  prostrate  on  the  earth  Disheartened  by  the  loss  of  iheii 
champion,  the  Philistines  fled  in  confusion,  and  were  pursued  with 
great  slaughter  beyond  the  frontiers  of  their  own  country. 

David's  distinguished  valor  led  to  a  warm  and  sincere  friendship  be- 
tween him  and  Jonathan,  but  it  excited  biiter  jealousy  in  the  mind  o*" 
Saul.  'J'he  marriage  of  David  to  Michal.  Saul's  daughter,  did  not  allay 
the  king's  jealous  hatred ;  he  openly  declared  his  intention  of  putting 
his  son-in-law  to  death,  and  took  active  measures  for  the  purpose 
Once  David  was  saved  by  the  stratagem  of  his  wife,  and  again  by  the 
vigilant  friendship  of  Jonathan;  but  he  saw  tijat  he  was  no  longer  sure 
cf  his  life,  if  he  remained  within  the  reach  of  Saul,  and  therefore  sought 
safety  in  exile.  After  a  brief  residence  among  the  Philistines,  he  re- 
turned to  Palestine,  and  became  the  leader  of  a  band  of  men  of  broken 
fortmies,  compelled  to  endure  all  the  vicissitudes  of  such  a  perilous 
life.  He  was  closely  pursued  by  his  vindictive  enemy,  Saul,  and  twice 
had  it  in  his  power  to  destroy  his  persecutor.  But  he  was  too  loyal 
"  to  lift  his  ]iand  against  the  Lord's  anointed  ;"  he  therefore  only  in- 
formed Saul  of  the  danger  to  which  he  had  been  exposed,  and  thus 
proved  his  own  innocence.  These  ev^ents  led  to  a  temporary  recon- 
ciliation ;  but  David,  having  reason  to  fear  that  Saul  meditated  treach- 
ery, withdrew  to  the  court  of  A'chish,  one  of  the  kings  of  the  Philis- 
tines. 

The  death  of  Samuel  left  Saul  in  a  most  wretched  condition ;  the 
prophets  fled  from  him,  the  priests  were  slaughtered,  "  and  when  Saul 
inquired  of  the  Lord,  the  Lord  answered  him  not,  neither  by  dreams, 
nor  by  Urim,  nor  by  prophets."  At  this  crisis,  the  Philistines  invaded 
the  country  with  a  numerous  army.  Saul  was  encamped  on  Mount 
Girboa,  with  forces  far  inferior  to  the  enemy.  Eager  to  learn  some- 
thing of  his  fate,  he  resolved  to  consult  one  of  those  unlawful  diviners 
who  had  been  in  better  times  severely  proscribed ;  he  was  conducted 
by  his  servants  to  a  woman  residing  near  En'dor,  "  who  had  a  familiar 
spirit,"  and  he  persuaded  her  to  evoke  Samuel  from  the  tomb.  The 
image  of  the  prophet  appeared,  and  predicted  to  the  terrified  monarch 
the  fatal  news  of  his  approaclung  defeat  and  death  (b,  c.  1055).  On 
the  second  morning  after  this  vision,  Saul  entered  the  last  of  his  fields ; 
the  Israelites  had  long  neglected  the  use  of  the  bow,  and  to  their  su 
periority  in  this  weapon  the  Philistines  chiefly  owed  their  victory : 
"  the  battle  went  sore  against  Saul,  and  the  archei^  hit  him,  and  he  was 
sore  woui.led  of  the  archers."  Afraid  of  falling  alive  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemies,  he  fell  upon  his  own  sword ;  his  gallant  sons  had  pre- 
nously  fallen,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Hebrew  army  v  as  complete. 

David  had  just  returned  to  Zik'lag  from  pursuing  the  Amalekites, 
when  he  heard  of  the  calamitous  result  of  the  battle  on  Mount  Gilboa. 
Having  consulted  the  Lord  as  to  his  future  proceedings,  he  was  di- 
rected to  go  to  Heb'ron,  where  he  was  anointed  king  over  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  who  regarded  him  as  the  champion  of  their  race.  In  the  mean- 
time, Ab'ner,  Saul's  general,  prevailed  upon  the  northern  tribes  to  elect 
ish'bosheth,  Saul's  son,  their  monarch,  and  he  removed  him  to  Ma* 
hanaim,  which  was  beyond  Jordan,  in  order  that  he  might  have  time  to 
recruit  his  shattered  army.     One   of   David's  earliest  measures  was  U 


PALESTINE  45 

send  a  message  of  thanks  to  the  inhabitants  of  Jabesh-GiVead,  for  tneii 
honorable  conduct  to  the  deceased  king  and  his  sons :  he  next  caused 
the  young  men  of  Judah  to  be  instructed  in  the  use  of  the  bow,  and 
they  soon  rivalled  the  Philistines  in  archery. 

War  was  soon  declared  between  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  : 
Joab,  who  commanded  David's  forces,  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on  A^- 
ner,  Ish'bosheth's  general,  and  from  that  time  David's  power  began 
rapidly  to  increase.  Ab'ner,  while  exerting  himself  to  strengthen  Ish'- 
bosheth,  incurred  the  displeasure  of  that  prince ;  he  therefore  resolved 
to  seek  a  reconciliation  with  David,  whom  he  visited  in  the  character 
of  a  mediator,  but  on  his  return  he  was  treacherously  slain  by  Joab, 
who  probably  feared  that  Ab'ner  would  become  a  powerful  rival.  The 
death  of  Ab'ner  disheartened  the  supporters  of  Ish'bosheth  ;  two  of  his 
captains  murdered  him  in  his  bed,  and  brought  the  new:  to  David,  but 
instead  of  being  rewarded  as  they  hoped,  they  suffered  the  punishment 
of  treason.  No  other  claimant  appearing  for  the  throne,  the  heads  of 
all  the  tribes  of  Israel  came  to  Heb'ron,  and  recognised  David  as  their 
sovereign.  But  the  breach  which  had  taken  place  between  the  north- 
ern "vnd  southern  tribes  was  never  completely  healed  ;  they  continued 
to  regard  themselves  as  distinct  in  policy  and  interest,  until  they  were 
finally  divided  into  separate  states  by  the  folly  of  Rehoboam. 

The  city  of  Jerusalem  had  long  been  held  by  the  Jebusites,  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  traditions  of  the  east,  were  a  tribe  of  the  wandering  and 
plundering  Hyk'sos.  David  resolved  to  besiege  this  important  city 
with  all  the  forces  of  his  kingdom  ;  the  place  was  carried  by  storm, 
and  David  was  so  pleased  with  the  situation  of  the  place  that  he  madp 
it  the  capital  of  his  dominions. 

The  Philistines  were  alarmed  at  the  increasing  power  of  David ;  as- 
sembling all  their  forces,  they  crossed  the  frontier,  took  Bethlehem  by 
storm,  and  compelled  David  for  a  while  to  seek  shelter  in  the  cave  of 
Adul'lam  ;  but  the  Hebrew  king  soor^  gathered  his  forces,  and  he  so 
utterly  routed  the  Philistines  in  two  successive  engagements  that  they 
never  more  were  able  to  compete  with  him  or  any  of  his  successors. 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  entered  into  a  firm  alliance  with  the  victorious 
monarch,  and  supplied  him  with  workmen  and  materials  to  erect  a 
palace  in  his  new  city.  David's  next  care  was  to  remove  the  ark  from 
Kir'jath-jearim  to  Jerusalem.  The  pious  monarch  was  also  anxious  to 
build  a  temple  for'  the  national  worship,  but  the  prophet  Nathan  de- 
:;lared  to  him  tha  't  was  not  fit  for  a  warrior,  whose  hands  were  so 
often  stained  with  blood,  to  erect  a  temple  to  the  God  of  ])eace,  but  thai 
this  glorious  duty  would  devolve  uix)n  his  son  and  successor. 

David  now  directed  his  attention  to  the  surrounding  nations  ;  he 
overthrew  the  Philistines,  the  Moabites,  and  the  Amalekites ;  he  com- 
pelled the  Syrians  and  Edomitets  lo  become  tributary,  and  he  amassed 
a  prodigious  quantity  of  spoil,  a  large  portion  of  which  he  dedicated  ar 
a  sacred  treasure  to  defray  the  future  expenses  of  building  the  temple 
The  Ammonites  and  Syrians  soon  renewed  the  war,  but  they  were 
again  vanquished,  and  the  dominions  of  David  were  extended  to  the 
Euphrates.  But  while  this  war  was  continued  David  provoked  the 
anger  of  the  Lord,  by  taking  Bath'sheba,  the  wife  of  Uriah,  one  of  his 
bravest  captains,  to  himself  and  exposing  her  husband  to  certain  death 


46  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

The  proy)het  Nathan  was  sent  to  reprove  liis  guilt ;  David  liunibly  con 
fessed  his  sin,  and  his  remorse  and  repentance  procured  him  pardoi; 
from  his  oflended  God.  Domestic  calamities  interrupted  the  prosperity' 
of  David's  reign ;  Amnon,  his  eldest  son,  was  slain  by  iiis  brother  Ab'- 
salom,  in  revenge  for  a  gross  insult  oflered  to  his  sister,  and  the  youn^ 
prince  was  no  sooner  pardoned  and  taken  into  favor,  than  he  began  to 
plot  the  dethronement  and  probable  death  of  his  indulgent  father.  Tlie 
standard  of  revolt  was  raised ;  but  a  numerous  army  headed  by  Joab 
and  his  brothers  marched  against  Ab'salom,  and  completely  routed  lii:3 
forces  in  the  forest  of  Ephraim.  The  unfortunate  prince,  attempting  to 
escape,  was  entangled  by  his  long  hair  in  the  branches  of  an  oak ;  in 
this  situation  he  was  slain  by  Joab,  contrary  to  the  express  commands 
of  David,  who  was  fondly  attached  to  hi*  rebellious  Ey."n.  The  northerr 
tribes  again  revolted,  under  the  command  of  Sheba,  but  they  were  soon 
subdued,  and  their  leader  punished  with  death. 

David  next  turned  his  arms  against  the  Philistines,  whom  he  over- 
tlirew  in  four  successive  battles  ;  but  the  joy  inspired  by  these  victories 
was  soon  changed  into  mourning,  for  David,  having  presumed  "to  num 
ber  the  people,"  was  punished  by  a  pestilence,  Avhich  swept  away 
seventy  thousand  of  his  subjects.  Shortly  afterward,  David,  being  in- 
formed that  his  son  Adonijah  was  tampering  with  some  of  the  nobles, 
in  order  to  obtain  the  throne,  gave  orders  that  Solomon,  his  son  by 
Bath'sheba,  should  be  proclaimed  king.  When  this  ceremony  was 
performed,  David  tranquilly  prepared  to  meet  the  approach  of  death. 
He  died  after  a  troubled  but  glorious  reign  of  forty  years. 

Sol'omon  commenced  his  reign  by  putting  to  death  Adonfjah  and 
Joab.  In  order  to  strengthen  himself  against  foreign  enemies,  he  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  the  Egyptian  Pharaoh,  receiving  as  her  dowry  a 
portion  of  Canaan  which  had  been  subdued  by  that  monarch.  The 
Lord  appeared  to  Sol'omon  in  a  dream,  and  promised  to  grant  him 
whatever  he  should  ask  ;  the  young  king  chose  wisdom,  and  not  only 
was  his  request  granted,  but  riches,  honor,  and  length  of  days,  were  ad- 
ded, on  condition  of  his  persevering  in  obedience  to  the  divine  com- 
mandments. The  proofs  which  Sol'omon  gave  of  his  wisdom  and  dis- 
cernment were  so  celebrated  throughout  the  east,  that  the  most  power- 
ful monarchs  entered  into  alliance  with  him  ;  thus  tranquillity  was  es- 
tablished, and  leisure  afforded  for  th^  erection  of  the  temple.  Seven 
years  and  a  haF  were  spent  in  the  bunding  of  this  magnificent  edifice  ; 
the  costliness  of  its  materials  could  only  be  surpassed  by  the  beauty  of 
the  workmanship  ;  all  the  resources  of  wealth  and  ingenuity  were  ex- 
hausted on  the  wondrous  stnicture.  When  completed  it  was  dedicated 
to  Jehovah  in  a  solemn  festival,  and  the  Shekinah,  or  cloud  of  glory, 
which  announced  the  visible  presence  of  the  Lord,  overspread  the  en- 
tire edifice. 

Opposite  Mount  Moriah,  on  which  the  temple  stood,  Sol'omon  erect- 
ed a  magnificent  palace,  and  furnished  it  with  unrivalled  splendor.  He 
was  the  first  who  introduced  the  use  of  chariots  and  horses  for  warlike 
purposes  in  Israel ;  these  he  procured  from  Egypt,  through  his  alliance 
with  the  Pharaoh;  and  as  cavalry  was  then  scarcely  known  in  western 
A.sia,  his  power  appeared  so  formidable  that  his  authority  was  recog 
niBcd  in  all  the  countries  between  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates.     Sol'o 


I'ALESTINE. 


47 


moil  was  a  distinguished  patron  of  commerce  ;  he  opened  a  lucratlrfc 
trade  with  Egypt,  not  only  in  chariot-horses  but  in  linen-yarn  and  cot- 
ton manufactures  ;  to  facilitate  the  commercial  intercourse  between 
western  and  central  Asia,  he  erected  the  city  of  Tad'mor,  which,  in  a 
later  age,  became  so  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Palmy'ra ;  finally 
he  built  a  navy  at  Ez'ion-geber,  a  convenient  harbor  on  the  gulf  of 
Ak'aba,  in  tlie  northern  part  of  the  Red  sea,  whence  liis  subjects,  aided 
by  the  experienced  mariners  of  Tyre,  carried  on  a  lucrative  traffic  with 
the  rich  countries  of  soutliern  Asia  and  Africa.  The  learning  of  Sol'o- 
mon  was  not  less  conspicuous  than  his  wealth. 

In  his  old  age,  SoFomon,  seduced  by  his  numerous  "  strange  wives," 
forsook  the  Lord,  by  whom  he  had  been  protected,  and  not  oiily  per- 
mitted, but  practised  the  rites  of  an  impious  and  licentious  idolatry. 
Enemies  were  raised  up  against  him  on  every  side  ;  a  revolt  was  or- 
ganized in  E'dom.  Damascus  was  seized  by  an  independent  adventu- 
rer, and  Jeroboam,  to  whom  the  prophet  Ahijah  had  predicted  his  future 
greatness,  began  openly  to  aspire  at  the  government  of  the  northern 
tribes ;  but  being  unprepared  for  revolt  he  sought  shelter  in  Egypt, 
where  he  was  protected  by  King  Shishak.  It  is  generally  beUeved 
that  Sol'omon,  before  his  death,  repented  of  his  guilt.  He  died,  after  a 
reign  of  forty  years  (b.  c.  975),  and  was  buried  in  the  city  of  David  his 
father. 

Sfxtiox  Yl.—The  Revolt  of  the  Ten  Trihcs.— The' History  of  the  Kingdom 

of  Israel. 

Rehoboam  succeeded  his  father  Sol'omon,  and  immediately  after  his 
accession  went  to  Shechem,  in  order  to  receive  the  homage  of  the 
northern  tribes.  They  had  suffered  severely,  in  the  close  of  the  late 
reign,  from  the  pressure  of  taxation,  and  from  the  loss  of  trade  conse- 
quent on  the  revolt  of  the  Syrians ;  they  now  deputed  Jeroboam,  and 
tlieir  elders,  to  demand  a  redress  of  grievances,  promising  implicit  ooe- 
dience  if  their  burdens  were  remove  1.  His  father's  aged  and  experi- 
enced ministers  recommended  compliance  with  the  popular  demands, 
but  the  king  instigated  by  his  rash  associates,  returned  a  haughty  and 
threatening  reply.  Such  an  answer  was  the  signal  for  rebellion.  The 
northern  tribes  inmiediately  chose  Jeroboam  for  their  king  ;  and  thence- 
forward Israel  and  Judah  became  separate  kingdoms.  Rehoboam 
levied  a  large  army  to  subdue  the  insurgents,  but  the  Lord  sent  the 
prophft  Shemaiah  to  forbid  his  march,  and  he  was  forced  thenceforth 
to  rest  contented  with  reigning  over  the  tribes  of  Judah  nnd  Benjamin. 

Jeroboam,  "  the  son  of  Ncbat,"  immediately  after  his  elevation,  pre- 
pared to  break  off  all  connexion  with  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  as  the 
luiity  of  the  national  worship,  and  the  custom  of  going  up  three  times  a 
a  year  to  Jerusalem,  greatly  impeded  his  plan,  he  resolved  to  establish 
idolatrous  sanctuaries  in  his  own  kingdom,  and  ac-;ordingly,  in  imitation 
of  the  Egyptians,  with  whom  he  had  so  long  resided,  erected  two 
golden  calves,  one  at  Beth'el,  and  the  other  at  Dan.  The  choice  of 
these  places  was  not  the  result  of  caprice  ;  Beth'el  had  long  been  ven- 
erated as  the  place  in  which  Jacob,  the  father  of  the  Hebrew  race,  had 
his  miraculous  vision,  and  Dan  had  been  the  seat  of  idolatrous  worship 
since  the   days  of  the  Judges.     The  Levites  refused  to  countenance 


•lb  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

iliis  impious  innovation,  and  sought  shelter  in  the  iiingchim  of  JudaL 
Jeroboam  supj)lied  their  phice  by  selecting  priests  for  his  now  deities 
from  the  lowest  of  the  people.  A  desultory  warfare  was  maintained 
between  the  kinjidoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  tln-ough  the  whole  of  Jero- 
boam's reign,  wliich  lasted  twenty-two  years  ;  but  in  the  nineteenth 
year  Jeroboam  received  so  severe  a  defeat  that  he  never  again  dis- 
played his  former  spirit  of  enterprise. 

Nadab  succeeded  his  father  Jeroboam  in  hie  kingdom,  and  his  idola- 
trous courses.  His  brief  reign  of  two  years  produced  no  event  of  im- 
portance ;  he  was  assassinated  by  Baasha,  one  of  his  generals.  Baasha 
put  all  that  remained  of  Jeroboam's  family  to  death. 

Baasha  adopted  the  wicked  policy  of  Jeroboam,  and  though  the 
prophets  of  the  Lord  forewarned  him  that  similar  vengeance  would 
overtake  his  family,  obstinately  persevered  in  his  giult.  But  many 
of  the  Israelites  were  secretly  attached  to  the  pure  worship  of  their 
fathers,  and  secretly  Avent  up  annually  to  offer  their  devotions  at 
Jerusalem.  Baasha  built  a  fortress  at  Ramah  to  intercept  the  pilgrims, 
but  this  was  desti'oyed  by  A'sa,  king  of  Judah,  who  also  bribed  the 
Syrians  to  invade  the  territories  of  his  rival.  Baasha's  reign  of  twenty- 
three  years  was  feeble  and  inglorious,  and  the  warlike  s])irit  of  the  Is- 
raelites seemed  extinct. 

E'lah,  a  weak  and  luxurious  prince,  succeeded  Baasha ;  at  the  end 
of  two  years  he  was  assassinated,  while  feasting  in  the  house  of  hig 
steward,  by  Zim'ri,  the  captain  of  his  chariots.  When  the  Israelite 
army,  which  was  besieging  Gib'bethon,  heard  of  the  murder,  they  ele- 
vated Om'ri,  their  leader,  to  the  vacant  throne,  and  marched  against  the 
usurping  assassin.  Zim'ri,  hopeless  of  escape,  fled  into  the  palace 
and  setting  it  on  fire,  perished  in  the  flames.  Om'ri  had  still  to  con- 
tend against  another  rival,  named  Tib'ni,  whom  he  easily  subdued 
The  most  important,  act  of  his  reign  was  building  the  city  of  Samaria 
so  named  from  Shemer,  the  proprietor  of  the  hill  on  which  it  was 
erected.  Samaria  became  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and 
long  after  the  fall  of  that  kingdom  continued  to  be  a  place  of  great  im- 
portance. "  Om'ri  wrought  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and  did 
worse  than  all  that  went  before  him  ;"  but  even  his  iniquities  were  sur- 
passed by  those  of  his  son  and  successor. 

A'hab  commenced  his  reign  by  marrying  Jez-'ebel,  the  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Si'don,  and  at  her  instigation  introduced  the  worship  of  the  Si- 
donian  deities,  which  consisted  in  the  offering  of  human  sacrifices,  and 
•  other  ceremonies  too  abominable  for  description.  Those  who  adhered 
to  the  religion  of  Jehovah  were  bitterly  persecuted,  the  schools  of  the 
irophels  were  closed,  and  many  of  the  teachers  murdered.  Elijah, 
indaunled  by  danger,  denounced  Divine  vengeance  against  such  iniquity, 
hut  he  was  forced  to  fly,  and  seek  concealment  in  the  fastnesses  on  the 
frontier.  God  punished  the  iniquity  of  the  land  by  fearful  drought  and 
famine.  A'hab,  in  his  distress,  sent  for  Elijah,  who  challenged  the 
priests  of  Baal  to  appear  in  sight  of  all  the  people  on  Mount  Carmef, 
and  there  del  ermine  which  deity,  Baal  or  Jehovah,  was  the  most  pow 
erful  protector  of  the  nation.  The  challenge  was  accepted  ;  the  supe- 
riority of  the  Lord  was  proved  by  the  most  signal  miracles,  and  the 
niultiiude,  enraged  at  those  by  whom  they  had  been  duped,  put  to  death 


PALESTINE.  49 

all  tlie  prophets  of  Baal,  by  command  of  Elijah,  at  the  brook  Kiblion 
The  curse  was  then  removed  from  the  land,  plenteous  rain  descended, 
and  the  famine  ceased.  Jez'ebel  was  greatly  enraged  at  the  defeat  of 
iier  national  deity,  and  Elijah  once  more  fled  into  the  wilderness.  Af- 
i«r  having  witnessed  some  wondrous  manifestations  of  Divine  power, 
he  was  commanded  to  announce  to  Haz'ael  that  he  should  be  king  of 
Syria,  to  Jehu  that  he  should  be  king  of  Israel,  and  to  Elisha  that  he 
should  be  his  successor  in  the  office  of  prophet. 

When  A'hab  had  reigned  eighteen  years,  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria, 
at  the  head  of  thirty-two  tributary  princes,  and  a  numerous  army,  laid 
siege  to  Samaria.  Encouraged  by  a  prophet  of  the  Lord,  A'hab  at- 
tacked this  immense  host  with  a  mere  handful  of  men,  and  gained  i 
signal  victory.  Benhadad  attempted  to  retrieve  his  losses  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  but  was  routed  with  terrible  slaughter.  A  new  crime  pro- 
voked God's  wrath  against  A'hab  and  his  family  ;  he  was  anxious  to 
obtain  a  vineyard  belonging  to  Naboth,  a  native  of  Jez'reel,  in  order  to 
enlarg-e  his  garden.  The  wicked  Jez'ebel  contrived  that  the  innocent 
nian  should  be  stoned  to  death,  and  A'hab  took  possession  of  the  vine- 
yard. In  the  moment  of  his  triumph  the  prophet  Elijah  appeared,  and 
denounced  fearful  vengeance  for  this  crime,  but  A'hab,  hy  timely  re- 
pentance, obtained  a  gracious  respite,  so  that  the  evils  impending  over 
his  house  did  not  happen  until  after  his  death,  which  took  place  in  a 
batrle  against  the  Syrians,  in  which  the  allied  forces  of  A'hab  and  of  Je- 
hoshaphat,  king  of  Judah  were  defeated. 

Ahaziah  succeeded  A'hab,  and  like  him,  was  devoted  to  idolatry.  A 
fall  from  a  window,  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  so  severely  injured 
him,  that  fears  were  entertained  for  his  life,  and  he  sent  his  servants  to 
consult  the  oracle  of  Baalzebub,  in  Ek'ron.  On  their  road  the  messen- 
gers were  met  by  Elijah,  who  predicted  the  approaching  death  of  the 
king,  as  a  punishment  for  having  consulted  false  gods.  Ahaziah  sent 
two  detachments,  of  tifty  men  each,  to  arrest  the  prophet,  but  both  com- 
panies were  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven.  A  third  captain  of  fifty 
interceded  with  the  prophet ;  Ehjah  accompanied  him  to  the  king's 
presence,  where  he  repeated  his  denunciation,  which  was  soon  accom 
plishei'  by  Ahaziah's  death. 

Jehoram,  another  son  of  A'hab  succeeded,  but  was  less  prone  to  idol- 
alVf-  'than  his  father  and  brother,  for  he  prohibited  the  worship  of  the 
Sidonian  Baal,  though  he  did  not  remove  the  golden  calves  which  Jero- 
boam had  set  up  at  Dan  and  Bethel.  It  was  about  this  time  that  Elijah 
was  taken  up  into  heaven,  without  enduring  the  pangs  of  death,  and  his 
successor,  Elisha,  began  to  prove  his  mission  by  a  series  of  stupendous 
miracles.  Benhadad,  the  Syrian  monarch  of  Damascus,  defeated  in 
several  attacks  on  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  attributed  his  ill  success  to 
the  prophet,  and  sent  a  body  of  his  soldiers  to  make  him  prisoner  ;  hu 
the  Syrian  troops  were  smitten  with  bUndness,  and  in  this  helpless  con- 
dition easily  taken  captive.  The  Syrian  monarch  was  not  daunted;  h« 
assembled  a  large  army,  advanced  against  Samaria,  blockaded  the  city, 
ind  reduced  the  inhabitants  to  the  greatest  extremities  of  famhie.  Je- 
horam menaced  vengeance  against  Elisha,  but  the  prophet  assuied  him, 
that  by  the  next  day  Samaria  would  have  abundance  of  provisions. 
On  that  night,  under  the   infiuence  of  supernatural   terror,  they  fled 


50  ANCIENT  HIisTOltY 

The  rich  pi  unci er  of  the  vacant  tents  soon  restored  plenty  tt  the  houath 
:)f  the  besieged  ;  Benhadad,  after  his  return,  was  niurdcred  by  his  sei- 
vant  Haz'ael,  who  usurped  the  throne,  and  became  a  most  forinidabk' 
bnemy  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  Jehoram  entered  into  alliance  with 
Ahazlah,  king  of  Judah,  in  order  to  recover  Ramoth-Gil'ead,  but  tlieii 
joint  forces  were  routed  by  the  Syrians  ;  the  king  of  Israel  was  severely 
wounded,  and  retired  to  Jez'reel  to  be  healed.  In  the  meantime,  Eli- 
3l:a,  by  command  of  the  Lord,  sent  a  prophet  to  anoint  Jehu  king  of 
Israel ;  and  the  new  sovereign  who  was  a  great  favorite  with  the  army, 
advanced  toward  .lez'reel.  Hearing  of  his  approach,  Jehoram  went 
..>ut  to  meet  him,  accompanied  by  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah.  Their  con- 
ference was  brief;  Jehu  shot  Jehoram  through  the  heart,  with  an  arrow, 
and  ordered  his  body  to  be  cast  into  the  vineyard  of  Naboth,  as  the 
Lord  had  foretold.  Ahaziah  was  overtaken  and  slain ;  but  his  servants 
conveyed  his  body  to  Jerusalem,  and  buried  it  in  the  sepulchre  of  hi.s 
fathers. 

Jehu  advanced  to  Jez'reel  without  opposition ;  as  he  came  near  the 
palace,  Jez'ebel  looked  out  from  the  window,  and  reproached  him  with 
his  treason ;  the  servants,  by  Jehu's  direction,  threw  her  headlong 
down  on  the  pavement,  and  her  mangled  body  was  trampled  under  the 
feet  of  the  horses.  In  the  evening  orders  were  given  for  her  inter- 
ment, but  it  was  foimd  that  the  greater  part  of  the  body  had  been 
devoured  by  dogs  and  beasts  of  prey,  as  the  prophet  Elijah  had  fore- 
told. A'hab's  family  was  very  numerous  ;  seventy  of  his  sons  were  in 
Samaria,  but  they  were  all  beheaded  by  the  citizens,  who  dreaded  the 
power  of  Jehu  ;  and  forty-two  of  the  family  of  the  king  of  Judah  shared 
the  same  fate.  Jehu  completely  extirpated  the  worship  of  Baal,  but 
he  continued  the  idolatry  which  Jeroboam  had  established,  and  there- 
fore the  duration  of  his  dynasty  was  limited  to  his  descendants  of  the 
fourth  generation. 

The  Syrians,  under  Haz'ael,  grievously  afllicted  the  Israelites  during 
tlie  reigns  of  Jehu  and  his  son  Jehoahaz  ;  but  these  visitations  failed 
[o  turn  the  princes  or  the  people  from  their  impious  idolatries.  In  the 
reign  of  the  latter  Elisha  died,  but  his  miraculous  powers  did  not  cease 
with  his  life,  for  a  dead  body  was  restored  to  life  by  touching  his  bonea 
m  the  tomb.  The  Israelites  gained  three  victories  over  the  Syrians, 
and  thus  recovered  the  ancient  frontiers  of  their  kingdom ;  they  also 
conquered  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah,  plundered  Jerusalem,  and  brough' 
it?  rich  spoils  to  Samaria. 

The  kingdom  of  Israel  continued  to  flourish  during  the  long  reign  of 
Jeroboam  II. ;  he  enlarged  his  hereditary  dominions  by  the  conquest 
of  several  cities  belonging  to  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Judah,  and  made 
his  kingdom  respected  among  surrounding  nations.  His  death  was 
followed  by  a  period  of  great  confusion  ;  there  was  an  interregnum  of 
eleven  years  before  Zachariah,  his  son,  succeeded  him ;  and  he,  after 
a  I)rief  reign  of  six  months,  was  murdered  by  Shal'lum,  who  was  in 
his  turn  slain  by  Men'ahem.  In  the  reign  of  this  usurper  the  Israel- 
ites were  attacked  by  a  .lew  enemy  ;  the  Assyrians  under  Pul,  supposed 
by  some  to  be  the  Sardanapalus  of  profane  writers,  came  against  ho 
land  and  Men'ahem  was  forced  to  purchase  his  forbearance  by  thn 
payment  ol  a  large  tribute.     The  conqueror,  however,  in  return,  pro 


PALESTINE.  51 

tected  Men'' ahem  against  all  other  enemies,  and  the  remair  der  of  his 
reign  was  passed  in  tranquillity.  His  son  Pekahiah  succeeded,  but  aJ 
the  end  of  two  years  he  was  nmrdered  by  Pekah,  one  of  his  generals 
who  usurped  the  throne. 

Though  Pekah  was  a  wicked  and  sanguinary  prince,  yet  on  account 
of  the  sins  of  A'haz,  God  permitted  him  to  prevail  over  the  rival  king- 
dom of  Judah.  In  conjunction  with  Rez'in,  king  of  Damascus,  he 
invaded  southern  Palestine,  and  brought  away  a  vast  number  of  cap- 
tives, who  were,  however,  restored  to  tiieir.  country  upon  the  injunction 
(>f  a  prophet  of  the  Lord.  But  notwithstanding  this  single  act  of  obe- 
dience, the  sins  of  the  Israelites  continued  to  increase,  and  the  threat- 
ened punishments  began  to  be  inflicted.  The  Assyrian  hosts  ravaged 
aU  the  country  beyond  Jordan ;  the  interior  of  the  kingdom  was  con- 
vulsed by  factions,  and  in  tlie  midst  of  these  tumults  Pekah  was  slain 
bv  Hoshea,  a  general  of  some  reputation. 

After  nine  years  of  civil  war,  Hoshea  succeeded  in  establisiring  him- 
self upon  the  throne,  but  during  the  interval,  the  Assyrians  under  Tig- 
lath-pileser,  and  liis  son  Shahnaneser,  overran  the  kingdom,  and  ren- 
dered it  tributary.  As  soon  as  his  title  was  established,  Hoshea  became 
anxious  to  regain  independence,  and  for  tliis  purpose  entered  into  alli- 
ance with  So  or  Sab'aco,  an  Ethiopian  prince  who  had  subdued  Egypt. 
Shalmaneser  immediately  invaded  the  country,  and  laid  siege  to  Samaria. 
After  a  brave  resistance  of  three  years,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm, 
and  treated  with  the  most  ferocious  cruelty  by  the  barbarous  conquerors 
(b.  c.  719).  Shalmaneser  carried  the  Israelites  captives  into  some  dis- 
tant region  beyond  the  Euplirates,  and  divided  their  country  among 
Assyrian  colonies.  In  consequence  of  tlie  signs  by  which  the  Lord's 
wrath  against  idolatry  was  manifested,  the  new  settlers  adopted  a  cor- 
rupted form  of  the  true  religion.  From  them,  and  a  portion  of  the  old 
inhabitants  which  remained  in  the  land,  the  Samaritans  descended,  be- 
tween whom  and  the  Jews  there  was  always  the  most  bitter  national 
enmity. 

Section  VII. — History  of  tlie  Kingdon:  of  Judah. 

Kehoboam's  kingdom  was  not  so  much  injured  by  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribe's  as  might  be  supposed.  When  idolatry  was  established  by 
Jeroboam,  the  priests,  the  Levites,  and  a  multitude  of  persons  who  stiii 
adhered  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  emigrated  to  Judah,  where 
they  were  received  as  brethren.  Rehoboam  introduced  the  worst 
■abominations  of  Ammonite  idolatry,  and  the  great  body  of  the  people 
participated  in  his  guilt.  His  guilt  was  punished  by  an  invasion  of  the 
Egyptians :  "  in  the  fifth  year  of  King  Rehoboam,  Shishak  king  of 
Egypt  came  up  against  Jerusalem,  because  they  had  transgressed 
against  the  Lord,  with  twelve  hundred  chariots  and  threescore  thou- 
sand horsemen :  and  the  people  were  without  nuiuber  that  came  with 
him  out  of  Egypt;  the  Lub'ims,  the  Sukklim,  and  the  Ethiopians. 
And  he  took  the  fenced  cities  which  pertained  to  Judah,  and  came  to 
Jerusalem."  The  account  here  given  of  Shishak's  power,  and  of  his 
ruling  over  the  Libyans,  the  Ethiopians,  and  the  Sukk'iiin,  or  Trog''lo- 
dytic,  is  contirmed  by  the  Egyptian  monuments,  for  the  sculptiures 
ascribed  to  him  on  the   walls  ol  Carnak,  exhibit  him  oiler'.ng  to  the 


52  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

deity  a  great  number  of  captives  belonging  to  different  iiati()ns  I'e/u> 
boam  purchased  the  forbearance  of  Shishak  by  the  payment  of  a  largf 
ransom.  "  Shishak  took  away  the  treasures  of  the  house  of  the  Lord, 
and  the  treasures  of  the  king's  house  ;  he  took  all :  he  carried  awav 
also  the  shields  of  gold  which  Solomon  made.  Instead  of  which,  King 
Rehoboam  made  shields  of  brass,  and  committed  them  to  the  handf^ 
of  the  chief  of  the  guard  that  kept  the  entrance  of  the  king's  house." 
Abijah,  the  son  of  Rehoboam,  soon  after  his  succession,  had  to  do 
fend  his  kingdom  against  the  usurper  of  Israel,  whose  army  greatly 
outnumbered  that  of  Judah.  The  Lord  gave  the  victory  to  .ludah 
This  victory  greatly  depressed  the  Israelites,  and  exalted  the  glory  of 
Judah ;  but  before  the  king  could  improve  his  advantages,  he  was  pre- 
maturely cut  oir  by  disease. 

A'sa,  who  succeeded  his  father,  was  a  wise  and  pious  prince.  "  He 
look  away  the  altars  of  the  strange  gods  .  .  .  and  commanded  Judah 
to  seek  the  Lord  God  of  tlicir  fathers,  and  to  do  the  law  and  the  com- 
mandment." He  expelled  the  Egyptians  from  their  recent  conquests, 
and  secured  his  frontiers  by  a  chain  of  fortresses  judiciously  placed  and 
strongly  garrisoned.  His  piety  was  rewarded  by  Divine  protection  in  the 
hour  of  danger.  A  vast  horde  of  invaders  approached  the  southern 
boundary  of  Judea :  in  the  original,  these  enemies  are  called  Cushim,  a 
word  usually  rendered  Ethiopians.  A'sa  prayed  to  the  God  of  his  fa- 
thers for  aid  against  this  enormous  host;  his  prayers  were  heard 
'*  The  Lord  smote  the  Ethiopians  before  A'sa  and  before  Judah,  and  the 
Ethiopians  fled." 

A'sa  afforded  every  encouragement  to  the  emigrants  from  Israel,  wImj 
fled  from  the  idolatry  and  wickedness  which  prevailed  in  that  country. 
Baasha,  who  then  reigned  in  Israel,  erected  a  fortress  at  Riimah  to 
check  the  emigration,  and  made  such  formidable  preparations  for 
war,  that  A'sa,  with  culpable  distrust  of  the  Divine  favor,  paid  a 
iar"-e  sum  to  the  king  of  Syria  for  support  and  assistance.  When  re- 
proved for  his  crime  by  the  prophet  Hau'ani,  he  thrust  his  honest  ad- 
viser into  prison,  and  thenceforward  became  tyrannical  and  oppressive. 
BeiuT  subsequently  attacked  by  a  disease  in  the  feet,  "  he  sought  not  tc 
the  Lord  but  to  the  physicians,'^  and  died  in  the  prime  of  manhood. 

Jehosh'aphat  succeeded  his  father  A'sa,  and  in  the  commencement 
of  his  reign  used  the  most  vigorous  exertions  to  root  idolatry  from  the 
land.  Under  this  wise  administration  the  kingdom  of  Judah  became  so 
prosperous,  that  not  only  the  Philistines,  but  the  distant  Arabians  paid 
tribute.  Unfortunately,  he  contracted  affinity  with  the  wicked  A'hab, 
and  gave  his  son  in  marriage  to  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  that  monarch, 
a  princess  whose  character  was  scarcely  less  depraved  than  that  of 
her  mother  Jez'ebel.  In  consequence  of  this  unfortunate  alliance,  Je- 
hosh'apha'  was  present  at  the  disastrous  battle  of  Ramoth-Gil'ead, 
where  A'hab  was  slain  ;  he  was  surrounded  by  the  enemy,  and  would 
have  been  killed,  had  he  not  "  called  upon  the  Lord,"  who  rescued  him 
from  his  imminent  peril.  .  Shortly  after  his  return  from  the  Assyrian 
-ampaign,  Jehosh'aphat  v\'as  attacked  by  the  united  forces  of  the  Aloab- 
lies,  the  Amorites,  and  the  Edomites  of  Mount  Seir.  Jebosh'aphai 
threw  liimself  on  the  protection  of  Jehovah,  and  the  Lord  sent  a  spiril 
of  di'niniop.  among  the  invaders,  which  led  them  to  destroy  each  othni 


PALESTIIvE.  o3 

by  mutual  slaughtei.  The  people  of  Judah  came  upon  their  civemics 
thus  broken,  a,nd  obtained  a  great  quantity  of  valuable  spoil. 

Anxious  to  restore  the  commerce  which  Sol'omon  had  established 
on  the  Red  sea,  Jehosh'aphat  entered  into  close  alliance  with  the  wicked 
Ahaziah,  the  son  of  A'hab  ;  and  a  navy  was  prepared  at  their  joint  ex- 
pense, in  E'zion-geber.  But  the  unhallowed  alliance  was  displeasing 
to  the  Lord,  and  the  ships  were  destroyed  in  a  storm.  At  his  death  Je- 
hosh'aphat left  the  kingdom  of  Judah  in  a  more  prosperous  condition 
than  it  had  been  since  the  days  of  Sol'omon. 

Jehoram  commenced  his  reign  by  the  slaughter  of  his  brethren,  after 
which  he  legally  established  the  abominations  of  the  Sidonian  idolatry 
in  Judah.  His  iniquity  was  punished  by  the  revolt  of  the  Edomites, 
who  maintained  their  independence,  and  by  invasions  of  the  Philistines 
and  Arabians,  who  carried  away  his  wives  and  most  of  his  childrer* 
into  captivity.  He  Avas  finally  smitten  by  a  loathsome  and  incurable 
disease,  of  which  he  died  in  great  tortures. 

Ahaziah,  the  youngest  of  Jehoram's  children,  and  the  only  one  spared 
by  the  Arabians,  succeeded  to  the  throne.  During  his  brief  reign  of 
one  year,  he  followed  the  evil  courses  of  his  father  and  mother.  He 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Jehoram,  king  of  Israel,  and  joined  with 
him  in  the  unsuccessful  attempt  to  recover  Ramoth-Gil'ead  from  Hazael, 
king  of  Syria.  Having  gone  to  meet  Jehoram,  while  he  lay  sick  of 
his  wounds  at  Jez'reel,  just  at  the  time  of  Jehu's  insurrection,  he  was 
involved  in  the  fate  of  his  ally,  and  slain  by  command  of  Jehu. 

Alhaliah,  the  queen-mother,  having  heard  of  Ahaziah's  death,  usurp- 
ed the  royal  authority,  and  to  secure  her  power,  murdered  all  the  royal 
family,  save  the  infant  Jehoash,  who  was  saved  by  his  paternal  aunt, 
wife  to  the  chief  priest  Jehoiada,  and  for  six  years  secretly  educated  in 
.he  temple.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  Jehoiada  gathered  together  the 
priests,  the  Levites,  and  the  chief  princes  of  Judah,  to  whom  he  re- 
vealed the  existence  of  the  young  heir  to  the  throne.  "  And  Jehoiada 
and  his  sons  anointed  him,  and  said,  God  save  the  king."  The  accla- 
mations of  those  who  witnessed  the  ceremony  alarmed  the  wicked 
queen  ;  she  rushed  into  the  assembly,  rending  her  garments,  and  ex- 
olaiming,  "  Treason !  treason !"  but  she  was  forsaken  by  all  her  parti- 
sans, and,  at  Joh  Mada's  command,  was  put  to  death  beyond  the  precincts? 
of  the  temple. 

Under  the  regency  of  Jehoiada,  the  worship  of  the  true  God  was  re- 
stored, the  administration  of  justice  purified,  and  the  prosperity  of  the 
land  re-established.  He  died  at  the  great  age  of  one  hundred  and  thir- 
ty years.  After  the  death  of  the  regent,  Jehoash  yielded  to  the  evil 
counsels  of  the  profligate  young  nobles  of  Judah,  and  restored  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Sidonian  Baal,  with  all  its  licentious  abominations.  Several 
prophets  were  sent  to  denounce  his  transgressions,  but  he  persecuted 
them  for  their  fidelity,  and  even  put  to  death  Zechariah,  the  son  of  hie 
benefactor,  Jehoiada,  "  in  the  court  of  the  house  of  the  Lord."  His 
crime  was  soon  punished  :  "  the  army  of  the  Syrians  came  with  a  small 
company  of  men,  and  the  Lord  delivered  a  very  great  host  into  theii 
hands."  They  had  scarcely  departed,  when  he  was  seized  with  "  grea 
diseases,"  and  in  the  midst  of  his  agonj  was  murdered  by  his  own  ser 
v;mts.     His  subjects  were  so  displeased  by  the  calamities  of  his  reigii 


54  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

that  they  would  not  allow  his  reiniiins  to  be  buried  in  the  tombs  of  <.t»e 
kings,  an  insult  which  had  been  previously  ofTered  to  the  body  of  Je- 
horam.  Amaziah's  first  care,  after  his  elevation  to  the  throne,  A'as  tc 
punish  the  murderers  of  his  father.  He  then  marched  against  the 
Edomites  with  an  auxiliary  force  which  he  had  hired  from  the  kingdom 
of  Israel.  On  the  recommendation  of  a  prophet,  he  dismissed  his  al- 
lies, by  which  they  were  so  grievously  offended,  that  they  committed 
the  most  savage  excesses  on  their  way  home.  In  the  meantime,  Am- 
aziah  routed  the  Edomites  with  great  slaughter,  and  subdued  all  the 
country  round  Mount  Seir.  With  strange  perversity,  he  adopted  the 
idolatry  of  the  nations  he  had  just  subdued.  The  prophets  warned  him 
of  the  fearful  consequences  of  his  apostacy ;  but  their  remonstrances 
were  vain,  and  he  was  delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies.  Je« 
hoash,  king  of  Israel,  was  the  chosen  instrument  of  Amaziah's  punish- 
ment ;'he  defeated  the  men  of  Judah  in  a  decisive  engagement,  took 
the  king  prisoner,  captured  Jerusalem,  destroyed  a  large  extent  of  his 
fortifications,  and  returned  laden  with  spoil  to  Samaria.  A  conspiracy 
was  subsequently  organized  against  Amaziah ;  he  fled  from  Jerusalem 
to  Lachish,  but  was  overtaken  by  some  of  the  emissaries  of  the  rebels, 
and  put  to  death. 

Uzziah,  the  son  of  the  murdered  king,  though  only  sixteen  years  of 
age  when  he  ascended  the  throne,  displayed,  in  the  commencement  of 
his  reign,  the  wisdom  of  mature  age.  He  restored  the  worship  of  the 
true  God,  and  reformed  the  abuses  which  had  crept  into  every  depart- 
ment of  the  administration.  God  prospered  his  imdertakings  ;  he  sub- 
dued the  Philistines,  the  Arabians,  and  the  most  warlike  of  the  nomad 
tribes  that  border  on  the  desert.  To  secure  his  conquests  he  erected  a 
chain  of  fortresses,  and  to  render  them  profitable,  he  excavated  a  great 
number  of  tanks  or  cisterns,  by  which  means  large  tracts  of  land,  hith- 
erto unprofitable,  were  brought  into  cultivation.  "  But  when  he  wae 
strong,  his  heart  was  lifted  up  to  his  destruction ;"  he  attempted  tc 
usurp  the  priestly  office  by  "  burning  incense  upon  the  altar  of  incense,' 
and  persevered  in  spite  of  every  warning.  But,  at  the  very  moment 
that  he  was  about  to  consummate  this  act  of  impiety,  he  was  struck  b} 
a  leprous  disease,  which  at  once  severed  him  from  all  society  with  hi& 
fellow-men.  Compelled  to  reside  in  a  separate  house,  and  unable  tc 
transact  p  'blic  affairs,  he  transferred  the  reins  of  government  to  hiK 
son.  On  his  death,  his  disease  was  assigned  as  a  reason  for  refusing- 
his  body  admission  to  the  royal  sepulchre,  and  it  was  inteired  in  tht 
adjoining  field. 

Jotham  had  been  accustomed  to  affairs  of  state  during  the  lifetim< 
of  his  father,  whose  piety  he  emulated,  without  imitating  his  faults 
His  fidelity  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah  was  rewarded  by  the  conques 
cf  the  Ammonites,  who  paid  him.  a  large  tribute  ;  and  thus  "  Jotham  be- 
came mighty  because  he  established  his  ways  before  the  Lord  hif' 
God."  No  particulars  are  recorded  of  his  death,  which  took  pb,ce  in 
th?  seventeenth  year  of  his  reign. 

The  most  wicked  king  which  had  yet  occupied  the  throne  of  Judah, 
was  A'haz,  the  successor  of  the  pious  Jotham.  He  not  only  deserted 
iho  worship  of  the  true  God,  but  adopted  those  abominable  supersti- 
tions which  many  of  the  heathen  viewed  with  horror;  "he  burnt  in 


PALESTINE.  65 

cense  in  the  valley  of  ilie  sons  of  Hin'noni,  anil  burnt  liis  clulJren  in 
the  fire,  after  the  abominations  of  the  heathen  whom  the  Lord  had  caal 
out  before  the  children  of  Israel."  His  dominions  were  invaded  by  ihu 
kings  of  Syria  and  Israel,  who  carried  multitudes  into  captivity ;  bul 
the  Israelites  generously  released  their  prisoners,  as  has  been  aheady 
related.  The  Edomites  and  Philistines  next  attacked  the  kingdom  of 
.Tudah :  A'haz,  unable  to  meet  them  in  the  field,  sought  to  purchase  aid 
from  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria ;  but  that  monarch  received  the 
tribute,  and  withheld  any  effectual  assistance.  In  his  distress,  A'haz 
Munk  deeper  into  idolatry  ;  "  he  sacrificed  unto  the  gods  of  Damascus 
which  smote  him,  and  he  said,  because  the  gods  of  the  kings  of  Syria 
help  them,  therefore  will  I  sacrifice  to  them  that  they  may  help  me. 
But  they  were  the  ruin  of  him  and  of  all  Israel."  A'haz  went  further ; 
he  shut  up  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  broke  the  sacred  vessels  in  pieces, 
and  erected  idolatrous  altars  "  in  every  corner  of  Jerusalem:"  The 
country  was  thus  brought  to  the  brink  of  ruin ;  but  its  fall  was  arrested 
by  the  death  of  the  impious  monarch.  His  subjects  showed  their  re- 
sentment for  the  evils  of  his  administration  by  refusing  his  body  admis- 
sion to  the  sepulchres  of  their  kings. 

Hezekiah  commenced  his  reign  by  a  thorough  reformation  of  the 
abuses  which  had  so  nearly  brought  destruction  on  Judah.  The  chief 
ad^-iser  of  the  pious  king  was  the  prophet  Isaiah,  who  had  proclaimed 
the  future  advent  of  the  Messiah,  and  denounced  the  national  sins  in  the 
two  preceding  reigns.  All  the  vestiges  of  idolatry  were  destroyed,  the 
images  were  broken,  the  groves  cut  down,  and  the  polluted  altars  over- 
thrown ;  even  the  brazen  serpent,  which  had  been  preserved  since  the 
days  of  Moses,  was  demolished,  because  it  had  become  the  object  of 
idolatrous  veneration.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  soon  acquired  such 
strength,  that  Hezekiah  ventured  to  shake  off  the  Assyrian  yoke,  to 
which  his  father  had  submitted.  Shalmaneser,  who  had  just  conquered 
Israel,  would  have  immediately  marched  against  Judah,  had  not  the 
wealthy  cities  of  Phffinicia  offered  a  more  tempting  prize  to  his  avarice 
and  ambition.  His  son,  Sennacherib,  inherited  his  revenge  againsi 
Judah  :  he  advanced  to  Lachish  with  a  powerful  army,  but  Hezekiah, 
with  culpable  timidity,  attempted  to  purchase  his  forbearance  by  a 
larg  •  bribe.  This  rich  tribute  only  served  to  stimulate  the  cupidity  of 
Sennacherib  ;  he  sent  a  large  army  directly  against  Jerusalem,  but 
Hezekiah,  encouraged  by  the  gracious  promises  of  Divine  protection, 
communicated  to  him  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  made  the  most  judicious 
preparations  for  a  vigorous  defence.  Rab'shakeh,  the  Assyrian  gen- 
eral, summoned  the  city  to  surrender,  in  a  haughty  and  insolent  tone, 
speaking  in  the  Hebrew  language,  that  his  threats  might  be  understood 
by  the  people.  Hezekiah,  who  was  suffering  under  severe  illness, 
sought  protection  from  the  Lord,  and  his  wavering  faith  was  confirmed 
by  the  shadow  of  the  sun  retrograding  on  the  dial  at  the  command  of 
Isaiah.  In  a  few  days,  the  Assyrians  were  summoned  away  to  defend 
their  dominions  against  Tirhakah,  the  king  of  Meroe,  or  Ethiopia,  who 
had  conquered  Egypt,  and  was  endeavoring  to  extend  his  empire  to  tht 
Euphrates.  Sennacherib  defeated  the  Ethiopians,  and,  flushed  with 
victory,  renewed  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  threatening  death  and  destruc- 
tion to  the  entire  kingdom.  But  his  vaunts  were  suddenly  checked  : 
"  the  angel  of  the  Lord  went  forth  and  smote  in  the  camp  of  the  Assvri 


5G  ANCIENT  HISTOllY. 

"ins  a  luu.dred  fourscore  and  live  thousaiul  ;  and  when  th(;y  arose;  earh 
'n  the  morning,  behold  they  were  all  dead  corpses."  Senndcheiib  fled 
CO  Nin'eveh  with  the  miserable  remnant  of  his  forces,  and  was  soon  af- 
ter murdered  by  his  own  sons,  "  as  he  was  worshipping  in  the  house 
of  Nis'roch,  his  god." 

The  imclligonce  of  this  Avondrous  deliverance  was  spread  over  the 
east ;  Ber'odach-Bal'adan,  king  of  Babylon,  sent  ambassadors  to  con- 
gratulate Hezckiah,  and  also  to  inquire  into  the  phenomenon  of  thf> 
retrogression  of  the  solar  shadow.  Ilezekiah,  with  foolish  pride,  dis- 
played all  Iris  treasures  to  the  ambassadors.  Isaiah  was  sent  to  re- 
prove his  ostentation,  and  to  inform  him  that  these  Babylonians  wouM 
destroy  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  The  repentant  monarch  heard  the  re- 
buke with  pious  resignation,  and  submissively  yielded  himself  to  the 
dispensations  of  Providence.  His  death  was  sincerely  lamented  by  hi.s 
subjects  ;  "  they  buried  him  in  the  chiefest  of  the  sepulchres  of  the  sons 
of  David ;  and  all  Judah  and  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  did  him  hon- 
or at  his  death." 

Manas'seh  was  scarcely  less  remarkable  for  iniquity  than  his  father 
for  piety ;  He  even  exceeded  A'haz  in  impiety,  for  he  revelled  in  the 
grossest  abominations  of  eastern  idolatry.  His  subjects  too  readily  im- 
itated his  example  ;  they  joined  him  in  persecuting  the  prophets  of  the 
Lord,  who  remonstrated  against  their  transgressions ;  there  is  a  con- 
stant tradition  among  the  Jews,  that  Isaiah  was  sawn  in  sunder  during 
the  reign  of  this  merciless  tyrant.  But  an  avenger  was  at  hand  ;  the 
Assyrians  invaded  Judah  with  overwhelming  forces,  stormed  Jerusa- 
lem, and  carried  the  impious  Manas'seh  in  chains  to  Babylon  (b.  c. 
676).  The  imfortunate  monarch  was  treated  witli  savage  cruelty  by 
his  captors ;  he  w^as  so  loaded  with  iron  bands,  that  he  could  not  move 
his  head.  But  "  when  he  was  in  affliction,  he  besought  the  Lord  his 
God,  and  humbled  himself  greatly  before  the  God  of  his  fathers ;  and 
prayed  unto  him,  and  He  was  untreated  of  him,  and  brought  him  again 
to  Jerusalem  into  his  kingdom."  Manas'seh,  thus  restored,  applied 
himself  diligently  to  extirpate  idolatry  ;  and  the  remainder  of  his  reigr 
was  spent  in  peace  and. comparative  tranquillity. 

Notwithstanding  the  fearful  punishment  inflicted  on  Manas'seh,  and 
bis  example  of  sincere  penitence,  A'mon,  tiis  son  and  successor,  re- 
vived all  the  infamous  rites  of  idolatry.  In  a  brief  reign  of  two  years, 
ihe  kingdom  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  destruction  ;  corruption  spread 
through  every  department  of  the  administration,  and  crimes  at  which 
nature  revolts  were  not  only  permitted,  but  encouraged.  At  lengtli 
Bome  of  the  officers  of  the  household  slew  the  licentious  monarch  ;  they 
wt^re  however  put  to  death  for  their  treason ;  and  Josfah,  the  son  ol 
A'mon,  at  the  early  age  of  eight  years,  was  raised  to  the  throne. 

From  the  moment  of  his  accession,  Josiah  eagerly  applied  himselt 
',0  restoring  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  and  reforming  the  abuses  of 
the  kingdom.  Josiah  travelled  through  his  kingdom,  and  through  some 
•)i  the  adjoining  cities  of  Israel  which  lay  almost  desolate,  removin;^ 
from  them  every  vestige  of  idolatry  ;  and  having  thus  purified  his  king- 
dom, he  celebrated  the  feast  of  the  Passover  with  the  utmost  solemnity 
..nil  splendor.  The  greater  part  of  Josiah's  reign  was  spent  in  tran- 
]uillity ;  but  when  he  had  been  rather  more  than  thirty  years  upon  the 
tnrone,  the  o  srtbrow  of  the  Assyrian  empire  by  the  Medes  and  Bal>- 


PALESTINE.  57 

ylonians,  iiiduced  Pliaraoli-Xeclio,  the  powerful  king  of  Egypt,  to  at- 
tempt the  extension  of  his  dominions  to  the  Euphrates.  Josiah  rashly 
attacked  the  Egyptian  forces  in  the  valley  of  Megid'do,  and  was  mor 
tally  wounded.  His  servants  brought  him  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  died 
'  And  all  Judah  and  Jerusalem  mourned  for  Josiah." 

The  people  of  Jerusalem  raised  Jehoahaz.the  youngest  son  of  Josiah, 
•0  the  tlirone ;  but  he  was  set  aside  by  the  victorious  Pharaoh-Neeho, 
who  gave  the  kingdom  to  the  elder  prince  Eliakim,  and  changed  his 
name  to  Jehoiakim.  A  complete  revolution  in  the  affairs  of  Asia  was 
effected  by  the  victorious  career  of  Nebuchadnez^zar,  king  of  Babylon. 
Tie  overthrew  the  Egyptians  at  Car'chemish,  "  and  took  from  the  river 
of  Eg^'pt  unto  the  river  Euphrates,  all  that  pertained  to  the  king  of 
Egypt."  Jehoiakim  submitted  to  the  conqueror,  and  agreed  to  pay 
tribute  for  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  but  afterward  planning  a  revolt,  Neb- 
uchadnez'zar  returned  to  Jerusalem,  plundered  the  city,  sent  the 
treasures  and  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple  as  trophies  to  Babylon,  put 
Jehoiakim  to  death  as  a  rebel,  and  lelt  his  unburied  corpse  a  prey  to 
the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  the  beasts  of  the  fields.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Jehoiachin,  who  after  a  brief  but  profligate  reign  of  three 
months,  was  deposed  by  the  imperious  conqueror,  and  sent  in  chains 
to  Babylon,  with  a  multitude  of  other  captives. 

Zedekiah,  the  uncle  of  the  deposed  monarch,  was  chosen  his  succes 
sor  ;  but  he  did  not  take  warning  by  the  fate  of  his  predecessors,  and 
abstain  from  intrigues  with  Egypt.  Instigated  by  Pharaoh-Hoph'ra, 
and  encouraged  by  false  prophets,  he  renounced  his  allegiance  to  the 
king  of  Babylon.  When  the  forces  of  Nebuchadnez'zar  approached, 
Pharaoh-Hoph'ra  made  but  a  faint  effort  to  assist  his  unfortunate  ally ; 
on  the  first  repulse,  he  retreated  within  the  frontiers  of  his  own  king- 
dom, leaving  Zedekiah  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  Assyrians'  rage.  Neb- 
•ichadnez'zar,  after  a  short  siege,  compelled  Jerusalem  to  surrender 
unconditionally.  Zedekiah  and  his  family  fled,  but  were  overtaken  by 
the  pursuers  in  the  plains  of  Jericho  ;  the  degraded  king  was  dragged 
m  chains  before  the  cruel  conqueror ;  his  wives  and  children  were 
slain  in  his  presence,  his  eyes  were  put  out,  and  he  was  sent  in  chains 
to  terminate  his  miserable  existence  as  a  captive  in  Bab'ylon.  Jeru- 
salem and  its  temple  were  razed  to  the  ground ;  the  wretched  inhab- 
itants were  transported  to  Bab'ylon  ;  and  for  seventy  years  the  holy 
city  had  no  existence  save  in  the  memory  of  heart-broken  exiles  (b.  c. 
56G).  The  day  on  which  Jerusalem  was  taken,  and  that  on  which  its 
destruction  was  completed,  are  observed  even  in  our  age,  as  days  of 
fasting  and  humiliation,  by  the  scattered  remnant  of  the  Jewish  nation. 
The  former  event  occurred  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  fourth  month ;  the 
latter  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  fifth  month. 

Oriental  conquerors  subjected  their  captives  to  the  most  cruel  treat- 
ment. They  were  bound  in  the  most  painful  attitudes  and  driven  like 
cattle  to  the  slave-markets,  where  families  were  divided,  by  their  mem- 
uers  being  sold  to  different  masters.  It  is  probable  that  the  Babyloni- 
ins  were  not  less  severe  task-masters  than  the  Egyjitians  had  been  , 
/or  we  find  in  the  later  prophets  that  the  memory  of  what  the  Jews  had 
suffered  ever  rankled  in  the  mind  of  the  nation  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  thai 
after  their  deliverance  they  never  again  lapsed  into  idolatry 


58  ANCIENT  HI8TOHV 


CHAPTER  VI. 
THE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  MEDES  AND  PERSIAiNfl 

Section  I. — Geographical  Outline. 

The  boundaries  of  Iran,  which  Europeans  call  Persia,  have  under- 
gone many  changes :  in  its  most  prosperous  periods,  its  limits  wure  tht 
Persian  gulf  and  Indian  ocean  on  the  south,  the  rivers  Indus  and  Ox'uf 
on  the  east,  the  Caspian  sea  and  Caucasian  mountains  on  the  north, 
and  the  Euphrates  on  the  west.  The  most  striking  features  of  this  ex- 
tensive country  are  numerous  chains  of  mountains,  and  extensive  tracts 
of  desert,  interspersed  with  fertile  valleys  and  rich  pasture-lands.  The 
southern  coast  along  the  Persian  gulf  is  a  sandy  plain,  desolated  by  pes- 
tilential winds  from  the  desert  of  Kerman,  and  scarcely  possessing  any 
indentation  or  navigal)le  river  which  could  serve  as  a  harbor.  Thence 
to  the  Caspian  sea  and  the  Ox'us  there  is  a  succession  of  mount- 
ains and  valleys  of  different  elevation  and  extent.  Few  of  the  mount- 
ains are  of  extraordinary  height,  though  some  of  the  ranges  are  capped 
with  perpetual  snoAV.  None  of  the  valleys  are  wide,  but  some  of  them 
extend  to  the  length  of  one  hundred  miles. 

Persia  Proper,  the  modern  province  of  Phars,  contained  the  sacred 
metropolis  of  the  empire,  known  to  us  only  by  its  Greek  name,  Per- 
sep'olis.  This  celebrated  city  was  destroyed  by  Alexander ;  but  its 
ruins  testify  that  it  must  have  rivalled  the  most  splendid  cities  of  anti- 
quity. 

The  province  of  Susiana  (Khuzistan)  separated  Persia  Proper  from 
Babylonia ;  between  the  two  provinces  was  a  range  of  mountains,  iii- 
habited  by  warlike  pastoral  tribes,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  were 
the  Ux'ii,  who  compelled  the  Persian  kings  to  pay  them  trioute  when 
tney  went  from  Siisa  to  Persep'olis.  Susiana  was  a  fertile  province, 
watered  by  several  small  streams,  that  supplied  a  vast  number  of  canals 
and  water-courses.  Siisa,  the  capital  of  this  district,  once  the  favorite 
residence  of  the  Persian  mbnarchs,  is  now  a  vast  desert,  where  the  ruiup 
of  a  city  can  with  difficulty  be  traced. 

Media  was  divided  into  two  provinces ;  Atropatene  or  Media  Minor 
(^Azerbijan),  and  Media  Major  (Irak  Ajemi).  Ecbatana  (Ham'adan)  was 
the  capital  of  Media,  and  rivalled  Siisa  and  Persep'ohs  in  magnificence, 
while  it  exceeded  them  in  extent  and  the  strength  of  its  fortifications. 
The  eastern  districts  of  Media,  named  A'ria,  formed  an  extensive  steppe, 
which  merged  in  the  desert  of  Carmania  (Kerman).  The  capital  was 
named  A'ria,  and  occupied  the  site  of  the  modern  Herat 


MEDES  AND  PERc^IANS.  59 

North  of  Media  lay  Par'thia  and  Hyrcania  (To.beristai"i  and  Mazen 
jeran)  ;  mountainous  regions,  with  some  fertile  valleys.  Northeast  of 
these  were  the  sandy  deserts  now  called  Khirwan,  tenanted  by  nomade 
♦ribes,  who  then  and  now  practised  alternately  the  arts  of  merchants, 
herdsmen,  and  robbers.  East  of  A'ria  was  Bactriana,  divided  by  the 
Ox'us  from  Sog'diana :  its  capital  city  was  Bac'tra,  which  is  usually 
identified  with  the  modern  city  of  Baikh.  The  metropolis  of  Sogdiana 
'.vas  Maracan'da,  now  called  Samarcand,  one  of  the  most  ancient  com- 
:nercial  cities  in  the  world. 

East  of  the  province  of  Phars  were  Carmania  (Kerman)  and  Gedroaia 
fMekran) ;  flat  and  sandy,  but  interspersed  with  some  very  fertile  tracts. 

The  hills  in  the  interior  of  Persia  are  but  thinly  clad  with  vegetation, 
and  none  but  those  of  Mazenderan  and  Georgia  possess  forests  ;  there 
ar«  but  few  rivers  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  be  navigable  :  the  most  re- 
markable are  the  Ulai  or  Eulas'us  (Karun),  the  Ar'ras  or  Afax'es,  and 
the  Etyman'der  (Her'mund). 

The  valleys  of  the  centre  of  Persia  abound  in  the  rarest  and  most 
valuable  vegetable  productions.  The  orchards  produce  all  the  fruits  of 
ihe  temperate  zone,  and  the  most  beautiful  flowers  of  our  gardens  grow 
wild  in  the  fields.  The  horses  and  dogs  are  of  uncommon  size,  strength, 
and  beauty ;  and  no  country  possesses  a  more  robust,  active,  and  well- 
shaped  race  of  men.  In  short,  Persia  possesses  every  natural  advantage 
for  becoming  a  powerful  and  prosperous  empire  ;  but  from  the  remotes! 
ages  it  has  been  subjected  to  a  blighting  despotism,  by  which  its  re- 
sources have  been  not  merely  neglected,  but  wasted  and  destroyed. 

Section    II. —  Tke   Sources   and  Extent  of  our   Knowledge  respecting   the 
Ancient  Persians. 

The  sources  of  Persian  history  are  either  native  or  foreign  ;  the  lat- 
ter including  the  accounts  both  of  the  Greek  historians  and  the  Jewish 
prophets. 

The  first  native  authority  is  the  Zend-a-vesta,  a  collection  of  the 
sacre'l  books  of  the  ancient  Persians.  In  this  work  are  contained  thp 
early  traditions  of  the  nation,  the  religious  system  and  moral  code 
ascribed  to  Zerdusht,  or  Zoroas'ter,  the  great  Persian  legislator,  and 
the  liturgy  still  used  by  the  "  worshippers  of  fire."  Connected  with 
this  is  the  Dabistan,  written  by  a  Mohammedan  traveller  about  two  cen- 
tuiies  ago,  in  which  the  author  treats  very  fully  of  the  ancient  religioii 
of  Persia,  professedly  deriving  his  information  from  original  sources. 
To  these  must  be  added  some  minor  Parsi  works,  collected  by  oriental 
lots  in  India. 

Next  in  importance  to  these  ranks  the  Shah  Nameh,  or  Book  of  Kings, 
an  immense  epic  poem,  written  by  Ferdousi,  the  greatest  poet  of  Persia, 
about  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century.  This  historical  poem  was  com- 
piled from  vagae  traditions,  and  from  the  few  fragments  of  ancient  Per- 
sian literature  that  survived  the  political  destruction  of  national  records 
by  the  Greeks  and  Parthians,  and  the  fanaticism  of  the  first  Moham- 
medan conquerors  ;  and,  consequently,  facts  are  so  disguised  by  a  mui- 
titnde  of  fictions,  that  it  is  always  difficult,  and  frequently  impossible,  tc 
arrive  at  the  truth  of  1  is  representations.     Mirkhond  and  his  son  Khon 


60  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

demfr  both  wrote  histories  of  Persia,  about  the  close  of  the  fifieeiith 
century  ;  they  have,  however,  in  general  followed  the  narrative  of  Fcr- 
dousi ;  but  in  some  places  IMirklioud  undoubtedly  has  used  the  same 
authorities  as  the  compiler  of  the  Dabistan. 

Herodotus,  Xen'ophon,  and  the  fragments  of  Ct»^sias,  are  the  piijici- 
pal  Greek  author 'ties  for  the  history  of  ancient  Persia .  of  these  tlie 
first  is  by  far  the  most  valuable,  and  his  account  of  the  Persian  wars 
with  Greece  is  entitled  to  our  confidence.  It  must  also  be  added,  thai 
many  parts  of  his  narrative  are  singularly  confirmed  by  the  legends  pre- 
served in  the  works  of  Mirkhond  and  Ferdousi. 

In  the  Bible,  the  Book  of  Est'her  is  altogether  a  Persian  history,  and 
much  important  information  is  given  incidentally  in  the  Books  of  Dan'iel, 
Ez'ra,  and  Nehemiah. 

Finally,  much  light  has  been  thrown  on  ancient  Persian  history  by 
the  writings  of  modern  oriental  scholars ;  especially  the  philological 
researches  of  E^^pp,  Burnouf,  and  Schlegel,  which  have  shown  how 
closely  allied  the  ruling  people  of  Hindustan  was  with  the  ruling  nation 
of  Iran,  by  pointing  out  the  close  resemblance  between  the  original  lan- 
guages of  both,  the  Sanscrit  and  the  Zend. 

SkctioiX  III. — Social  and  Political  Condition  oj  Ancient  Persia. 

Cextral  Asia,  from  the  most  remote  ages,  has  been  exposed  to  the 
invasions  of  nomad  hordes  from  the  north  and  east,  most  of  which,  ac- 
cording to  their  native  legends,  descended  from  the  mountainous  tracts 
extending  fi"om  the  great  Altaian  chain  to  the  borders  of  India.  Recent 
investigations  have  rendered  it  probalile  that  this  was  also  the  native 
country  of  the  Brahmins  and  Hindus,  at  least  of  the  higher  castes  ;  but 
it  is  impossible  *.o  discover  at  what  period  migrations  commenced  to  the 
south  and  west.  The  colonists  who  came  into  Media  called  themselves 
A'rii,  manifestly  the  same  word  as  the  Sanscrit  Ar'ya,  which  signifies 
pure  men,  in  opposition  to  the  Mlechas,  or  barbarians.  They  were  a 
mixed  priestly  and  warrior  caste,  who  treated  their  subjects  as  beings 
of  an  inferior  nature.  Their  eariy  success  was  chiefly  owing  to  their 
skill  in  horsemansliip  ;  if  not  the  first  nation  of  the  East  that  employed 
cavaliy,  they  were  the  first  to  make  that  military  body  the  main  strength 
of  their  army.  A  cognate  race,  the  Persians,  having  nearly  the  same 
institutions  proceeded  further  to  the  southwest,  and  formed  a  nation 
of  herdsmen  and  shepherds.  A  monarch  named  Jemshid,  the  Achaj' 
mencs  of  the  Greeks,  first  instructed  his  subjects  in  agriculture,  and 
they  gratefully  made  royalty  the  inheritance  of  his  family.  The  Medes, 
having  long  held  dominion  as  he  ruling  caste,  were  overthrown  in  an 
insurrection  of  the  agricultural  and  shepherd  tril)es :  this  political  revo- 
lution was  efTected  by  Cy'rus;  and  it  was  followed  necessarily  by  a 
ryligious  change,  consequent  on  the  altered  position  of  the  priestly 
caste. 

Under  the  Medes,  or  rather  the  Magi,  as  their  priests  were  called,  a 
species  of  the  Sabian  superstition  seems  to  have  prevailed  :  the  suUt 
moon,  and  planets,  received  divine  worship,  while  the  more  ancient  be- 
lief in  one  supreme  God  though  obscured,  was  not  wholly  lost.  When 
the  Persians  triumphed  the  priestly  caste  lost  much  of  its  influence 


MEDES  AND  PERSIANS.  GJ 

•ind  seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  naturally  hostile  to  the  new  d}'nastv : 
hence  we  find  the  Persian  monarchs  bitter  persecutors  of  the  priestf? 
wherever  they  established  their  sway,  destroying  the  Chaldeans  in 
Babylon,  and  the  sacerdotal  caste  in  Egypt.  The  nature  of  the  reli- 
gious changes  made  by  Cy'rus  can  not  now  be  determined  ;  but  the 
revolution  was  completed  by  Zoroaster,  whose  system  is  the  most  pei- 
fect  devised  by  unassisted  human  reason.  God,  he  taught,  existed  from 
all  eternity,  and  was  like  infinity  of  time  and  space.  There  were,  he 
averred,  two  principles  in  the  universe — good  and  evil :  the  one  was 
named  Hormuzd,  the  other  Ahriman.  Each  of  these  had  the  power  of 
creation,  but  that  power  was  exercised  with  opposite  designs  ;  and  it 
was  from  their  co-action  that  an  admixture  of  good  and  evil  was  found 
in  every  created  thing.  But  the  source  of  good  alone,  the  great  Hor- 
muzd, was  eternal,  and  must  therefore  ultimately  prevail.* 

With  these  speculative  tenets  was  combined  a  system  of  castes, 
which  are  described  by  Ferdousi,  who  attributes  their  introduction  to 
Jemshid. 

The  conservation  of  the  ordinances  that  regulated  public  morals  was 
i.itrusted  to  the  Magi,  who  were,  as  we  have  said,  originally  a  caste  oi 
tribe  of  the  Medes.  Zoroas'ter  reformed  the  institutions  of  this  body, 
and  appears  to  have  opened  the  priestly  dignity  to  persons  of  every 
caste,  though  few  entered  on  the  functions  of  public  worship  who  were 
not  of  the  Magian  descent.  Thus  the  sacerdotal  rank  in  Persia  par- 
took of  the  nature  both  of  a  caste  and  an  order.  It  was  high  in  power: 
the  court  was  principally  composed  of  sages  and  soothsayers.  The 
priests  also  were  judges  in  civil  cases,  because  religion  was  the  basis 
'^f  their  legislation ;  but  they  were  strictly  bound  by  the  ancient  code. 
No  circumstances  were  deemed  sufficiently  strong  to  warrant  a  depar- 
ture from  ancient  usages  ;  and  hence  "  the  laws  of  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians" were  proverbial  for  their  strictness  of  execution. 

The  king  was  as  much  bound  by  the  national  code  as  his  meanesi 
subject ;  but  in  every  other  respect  his  power  was  without  control ; 
and  the  satraps,  or  provincial  governors  under  him,  were  equally 
despotic  in  their  respective  provinces.  The  court  scarcely  diO'ered  in 
any  material  point  from  the  oriental  courts  of  the  present  day.  It  wag 
a  hea\';.  tax  on  the  nati  :nal  resources  to  support  the  barbarous  splendor 
witn  wluv-h  the  kings  and  satraps  deemed  it  necessary  to  surround  their 
dignity ;  and  the  exactions  wrung  from  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  al- 
ways made  the  Persian  peasantry  the  most  miserable  even  in  Asia. 
The  army  was  another  source  of  wretchedness  to  the  country :  a  vast 
amount  of  standing  forces  was  always  maintained,  and  hordes  of  the 
wandering  tribes  on  the  borders  of  Persia  kept  in  pay :  beside  this,  in 
case  of  any  emergency,  every  man  capable  of  bearing  arms  was  en- 
rolled in  his  own  district,  and  forced  to  become  a  soldier  on  the  first 
summons.  This  constitution  enabled  the  Persians  to  make  rapid  con- 
t^uests,  but  it  prevented  their  empire  from  becoming  permanent :  the 
*ioldiers  fought  for  pay  or  plunder,  and  were  held  together  by  no  com- 
mon principle,  save  attachment  to  their  leader ;  hence  the  fall  or  tlighl 
nf  the  commander-in-chief  instantly  decided  the  fate  of  a  Persian  army 

*  Sir  John  Malcolm's  Persia,  vol.  i.,  p.  194.  The  Jews  have  a  tradition  'Jiti' 
7,oTo^alcr  was  instructed  in  the  true  religion  by  one  of  the  prophets. 


f>2  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

however  great  its  numbors  ;  and  when  the  army  was  cicfeatcJ,  the 
kingdom  was  subdued.  The  great  oriental  monarchies  were  liable  tci 
vicissitudes  scarcely  known  in  European  states.  There  was  no  pafii- 
otic  spirit  in  the  people,  no  love  of  independence  in  the  nation ;  it" 
the  invader  prevailed  -n  the  battle-field,  he  had  no  further  enemies  to 
dread;  the  mass  of  the  population  cared  little  for  a  change  of  rule, 
vvhich  left  unaltered  the  miseries  of  their  situation. 

Sr.c;Tio.\   IV. — History  of  the  Medes  and  Persians  under  the  Kuianum 

Dijnastj. 

FROM    B.  C.    710    TO    B.  C.    522. 

Media  and  Persia  were  provinces  of  the  great  AsLyrian  empire  ; 
and  their  native  legends  preserve  the  memory  of  the  cruelty  with 
which  they  were  treated  by  the  monarchs  of  Nineveh.  When  that 
empire  was  broken  to  pieces  after  the  death  of  Sardanapalus,  Media 
fell  into  a  state  of  anarchy,  from  which  it  was  delivered  by  Deioces 
(b.  c.  710),  the  Kai  Kobad  of  oriental  writers :  he  built  the  city  of 
Ecbatana,  and  greatly  strengthened  his  new  kingdom  by  inducing  hia 
subjects  to  form  permanent  settlements  ;  but  in  the  midst  of  his  useful 
career,  he  was  summoned  to  check  the  rising  power  of  the  Babylonians 
and  fell  in  battle.  The  Median  power  was  restored  by  Phraor'tes, 
who  succeeded  his  father ;  but  it  attained  its  highest  glory  under  Cy- 
ax'^ares,  the  third  monarch  of  this  dynasty. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  Cyax'ares  had  to  encounter  many  for- 
midable difficulties.  While  he  was  engaged  besieging  Nineveh,  the 
Scythian  hordes  from  the  north  entered  Media,  and  overran  the  greater 
part  of  central  and  western  Asia.  Their  ravages  were  continued  for 
twenty-eight  years,  and  they  had  compelled  the  Medes  to  give  them 
free  admittance  to  their  houses,  when  they  were  simultaneously  de- 
stroyed by  a  conspiracy  of  their  hosts,  which  Cyax'ares  had  organized. 
A  party  that  had  escaped  the  general  massacre  entered  into  the  service 
of  the  Median  monarch ;  but  finding  reason  to  dread  the  fate  of  their 
countrymen,  they  transferred  their  allegiance  to  the  king  of  Lydia,  and 
thus  caused  a  war  between  the  two  monarch«-.  The  most  memorable 
event  o*"  this  war,  which  lasted  five  years,  vvas  the  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun,  tiat  took  place  in  the  midst  of  a  battle,  and  so  alarmed  the  con- 
tending parties,  that  both  the  Medes  and  Lydians  fled  in  confusion 
from  the  field.  A  peace  was  soon  after  concluded  between  the  two 
crowns,  and  Cyax'ares  renewed  his  war  against  the  Assyrians.  Aided 
by  the  king  of  Babylon,  he  besieged  and  took  Nineveh,  and  totally  de- 
Btroyeu  that  ancient  city  (b.  c.  601).  The  allies  next  attacked  the  dis- 
tricts that  the  Egyptians  possessed  in  Syria,  defeated  Pharaoh-Necho 
at  Car'chemish,  and  subdued  the  principal  part  of  western  Asia.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  supremacy  of  the  Medes  over  the  Persian 
principalities  was  first  established  during  the  reign  of  Cyax'ares,  who 
is  generally  identified  with  the  Kai  Kaoos  of  Mirkhond  and  Ferdousl. 

Asty'ages,  called  in  the  book  of  Daniel  Ahasuerus,*  that  is,  "  the 
mighty  hero'  (Achash  Zwerosh),  an  epithet  gii-en  to  several   oriental 

•  Diniel  ix.  J. 


MEDES  AND  PERSIANS.  03 

niotmrchs.  was  the  next  king.  To  reconcile  the  Persians  lo  his  au- 
thority, he  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Camby'ses,  of  the  family 
of  the  Achgemen'idss,  and  the  royal  tribe  of  the  Pasar'gadaj.  The  issue 
nf  this  union  was  Agrad'ates,  subsequently  named  Cy'rus,  Khoresh,  oi 
Khosrau,  different  forms  of  a  Persian  word  which  signifies  the  sun. 

Tlie  main  facts  of  the  romantic  legend  that  Herodotus  has  preserved 
respecting  the  early  years  of  Cyrus,  are  confirmed  by  the  oriental  his- 
torians ,  and  when  stripped  of  some  embellishments,  can  scarcely  be 
deemed  incredible.  The  following  are  the  facts  in  which  the  Greek 
and  Persian  historians  confirm  each  other's  testimony ;  the  Persian 
names  of  the  principal  actors  are  enclosed  in  parentheses.  Camby'ses 
(Siyawesh)  is  said  to  have  sought  refuge  at  the  covnt  of  Asty'ages 
(Afrasiab),  king  of  a  country  north  of  Persia  (Turan),  to  avoid  the  ef- 
fects of  his  father's  jealousy.  He  obtained  the  hand  of  his  host's 
daughter  Mandane  (Ferangiz)  in  marriage.  Envious  courtiers  preju- 
diced the  Median  king  against  his  son-in-law  ;  he  resolved  to  destroy 
him,  and  the  child  of  which  his  own  daughter  was  pregTiant.  The 
Persian  prince,  according  to  the  oriental  historians,  was  murdered ; 
but  the  princess  and  her  unborn  child  were  saved  by  Har'pagus  (Piran 
Wisah),  the  tyrant's  prime  minister.  The  posthumous  child  of  Cam  - 
by'seswas  the  celebrated  Cyrus  :  he  was  brought  up  in  obscurity  until 
he  approached  the  age  of  manhood,  when  he  learned  the  secret  of  his 
birth.  With  all  the  courage  of  enthusiastic  youth,  he  went  among  his 
countrymen,  who  revered  the  memory  of  his  father,  and  were  weary 
of  the  tyranny  of  Asty'ages  ;  they  flocked  to  his  standard,  and  the 
young  prince,  entering  Media,  dethroned  Asty'ages,  and  threw  him  into 
prison.  Instead,  however,  of  seizing  the  crown  for  himself,  he  sub- 
mitted to  '^he  rule  of  Cyax'ares  II.  (Kai  Kaoos),  his  maternal  uncle 
whom  the  Persians  describe  as  his  paternal  grandfather. 

Cyax'ares,  immediately  after  his  accession  to  the  dignity  of  Dara- 
wesh,  or  king  of  Media  (b.  c.  560),  sent  his  nephew  to  invade  the 
Babylonian  empire,  which  had  now  fallen  from  its  high  estate.  Cy'ru.s 
invested  the  city  of  Bab'ylon,  and,  after  a  long  siege,  took  it,  in  the 
manner  that  has  been  already  related.  Cyax'ares,  whose  title  of  Dara- 
wesh,  or  Darius,  is  frequently  mistaken  for  a  proper  name,  removed 
the  seat  of  his  government  to  the  newly-acquired  city,  where  becoming 
acquainted  with  the  merits  of  the  prophet  Dan^iel,  he  took  him  into  hisi 
spirvice,  and  appointed  him  his  chief  vizier.  Some  envious  courtiers  at- 
tempted to  ruin  him  by  means  of  his  well-knowp  piety,  and  procured 
an  edict  from  the  Darawesh,  forbidding  any  one,  lor  thirty  days,  to  offer 
lip  prayers  to  any  one  but  the  king,  under  penalty  of  being  exposed  to 
lions.  Dan'iel  disobeyed  the  impious  command,  and  was  thrown  into 
the  lions'  den  ;  but  God  closed  the  mouths  of  the  ferocious  animals,  and 
he  was  taken  out  uninjured.  He  was  immediately  restored  to  his 
office,  which  he  retained  to  the  end  of  his  life ;  and  it  deserves  to  be 
added,  than  in  consequence  of  his  fidelity  to  the  Median  and  Persian 
kings,  he  is  described  as  a  renegade  in  some  ancient  Jewish  traditions. 

Cy'rus  succeeded  Cyax'ares  in  the  kingdom  ;  and  thus  the  suprem- 
licy  was  transferred  from  the  Medes  to  the  Persians  (b.  c.  531).  But 
lotjg  before  he  reigned  alone,  he  had  been  associated  with  his  uncle  in 
the  government,  and  had  the  sole   command  of  the  nriiiy  that  subd'jei! 


64  ANCIENT  IIIfeTOKY. 

(jy'dia,  Assyr'ia,  Babylonia,  and  western  Asia,  to  the  confines  of 
Egypt.  Tminediately  after  his  accession,  he  issued  an  edict  permitting 
the  Jews  to  return  to  their  native  land,  and  rebuild  the  walls  and  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem,  as  the  prophet  Isaiah  had  predicted  a  hundred  years 
before  his  birth.  For  seven  years  he  ruled  his  empire  in  peace  and 
prosperity,  directing  his  attention  to  establishing  a  stable  government 
in  his  extensive  dominions,  and  endeavoring,  as  we  have  good  reason 
to  believe,  to  restrict  the  extravagant  privileges  claimed  by  the  Magi, 
or  priestly  caste. 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  manner  of  his  death,  about  which  there 
is  some  doubts,  it  is  certain  that  he  was  buried  at  Pasargadae,  where 
the  remains  of  his  tomb  may  still  be  see.  In  the  age  of  Strabo,  it  bort 
the  following  inscription,  "  O  man,  I  am  Cyprus,  who  founded  the  Per- 
sian empire:  envy  me  not  then  the  little  earth  which  covers  my  re 
mains." 

Camby'ses  (Lohoriisp)  succeeded  to  the  throne  (b.  c.  529),  and  im- 
mediately prepared  to  invade  Egypt.  He  soon  made  himself  mastei 
of  Pelusium,  and,  being  aided  by  the  local  information  of  Ph:ines,  a 
Greek  deserter,  he  overthrew  Psammenitus,  the  last  Egyptian  monarch, 
and  subdued  the  entire  country.  His  fierce  hostility  to  the  sacerdotal 
caste,  which  he  inherited  from  his  father,  made  him  a  persecutor  of 
the  Egyptian  priests,  who,  in  revenge,  have  portrayed  him  as  the  worst 
of  tyrants.  After  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  he  resolved  to  annex  Ethio- 
pia to  his  dominions,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  plunder  the  Ammonium, 
or  great  temple  of  Jupiter  Am'mon,  built  on  an  oasis  in  the  midst  of 
the  desert.  In  the  midst  of  the  desert  the  Persians  were  deserted  by 
their  perfidious  guides,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  were  finally  over- 
whelmed by  the  moving  sands  that  winds  sometimes  rtiise  in  the  desert 

Camby'ses  intended  to  have  carried  his  arms  into  western  Africa ; 
but  his  designs  were  frustrated  by  the  refusal  of  the  Phtpnician  mar- 
iners to  serve  against  their  Carthagenian  brethren.  To  secure  his 
throne,  he,  with  the  cruel  precaution  so  common  in  Asia,  put  his  brother 
Smer'dis  to  death ;  but  was  soon  alarmed  by  hearing  that  a  usurper, 
under  his  lirother's  name,  had  seized  the  Persian  crown.  On  his  re- 
turn home,  Camby'ses  died  of  an  accidental  wound  from  his  own  sword, 
having  first  solemnly  assured  his  officers  of  the  falsehood  practised  by 
the  pretended  Smer'dis.  As  Camby'ses  died  without  heirs,  the  Kaian- 
ian  dynasty,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  included  both  Medes  and  Per- 
sians, became  extinct  (b.  c.  522). 

Sectio.v   V. — History  of  Ihc  Persians  under  the  Hystasjpid  Dynasty. 
FROM  B.  C.  522  TO  B.  c.  330. 

The  real  history  of  the  false  Smer'dis  appears  to  be  slightly  dis- 
guised in  the  narratives  of  the  Grecian  writers :  he  was  manifestly 
raised  to  the  throne  by  a  conspiracy  of  the  priestly  caste,  who  were  de- 
sirous of  restoring  their  own  supremacy,  and  that  of  their  allies,  the 
Medes.  The  Persian  nobles  coinl)ined  to  prevent  sucli  a  calamity,  de- 
stroyed the  usurper,  and  chose  for  their  sovereign,  or  darawesh,  Hys- 
las'pes  (Gushtasp),  who  appears  to  have  been  a  member  of  the  family 
of   the   Acluvmen'ibee.     Daruis   Hvstas'pes    appears  to  have  been  ih*> 


THE  PERSIANS.  65 

hrst  who  used  the  old  title  of  royalty  (Daravvesh  or  Dariu&)  as  a  propel 
nainjB,  "When  fixed  upon  the  throne,  he  persecuted  the  magi  with 
creat  severity,  and  patronised  the  religious  system  ascril)cd  to  Zcrdusht, 
01  Zoroas'ter.  The  Persian  legends  describe  this  philosopher  as  his 
contemporary ;  and  this  is  rendered  exceedingly  probable  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  various  accounts  given  of  this  great  reformer.* 

To  secure  his  title,  Darius,  for  henceforth  he  will  be  best  known  by 
this  name,  united  himself  in  marriage  with  the  two  surviving  daughters 
of  Cy'rus,  and  then  prepared  to  punish  the  Babylonians,  who,  in  con- 
eequence  probably  of  the  ancient  connexion  between  the  Chaldeans 
and  the  sacerdotal  caste  of  the  Medes,  had  not  only  revolted  but  mur- 
dered all  whom  they  regarded  as  useless  mouths,  to  prove  their  d*^ 
termined  obstinacy.  Baby'lon  sustained  a  siege  of  twenty  months ; 
and  might  have  baffled  its  besiegers,  had  not  a  Persian  noble  mutilated 
himself,  and  gone  over  to  the  citizens  as  a  desertti  who  had  escaped 
from  the  inhuman  cruelty  of  his  sovereign.  His  wounds  gave  credit 
to  his  words  :  he  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  an  important  post, 
which  he  betrayed  to  Darius,  and  thus  enabled  that  monarch  lo  become 
master  of  the  rebellious  city.  The  attention  of  the  conqueror  was  next 
directed  to  quelling  an  insurrection  of  the  Greek  commercial  cities  of 
western  Asia ;  he  adde-d  Thrace  to  his  dominions,  and  undertook  an 
invasion  of  Scythia.  The  Danube  was  passed  on  a  bridge  of  boats  ; 
and  the  Persians  advanced  without  opposition  through  a  difficult  and 
barren  country,  until  they  had  advanced  beyond  the  reach  of  their  sup- 
plies. Darius  was  forced  to  retreat,  and  his  safety  was  purchased  by 
the  loss  of  the  greater  part  of  his  followers. 

Having  severely  punished  a  subsequent  revolt  of  the  Greeks  of  Asia 
Minor,  Darfus  resolved  to  extend  his  vengeance  to  their  Grecian  allies, 
and  collected  a  large  naval  and  military  force,  which  he  intrusted  to 
the  command  of  his  son-in-law  Mardonius.  Mardcniius  crossed  the 
Hellespont  into  Thrace,  whence  he  passed  into  Macedonia,  at  that 
time  a  Persian  province.  All  the  neighboring  countries  submitted; 
but  his  fleet  was  shattered  in  a  storm,  while  doubling  Mount  A'thos, 
and  his  army  soon  afterward  was  attacked  unexpectedly  by  the  bar- 
barous Thracian  tribes,  who  slew  a  great  many  of  the  soldiers,  and 
severely  wounded  Mardonius  himself.  A  second  expedition  was  seni 
to  Greece,  under  the  command  of  Datis  and  Artapher'nes,  who  forced 
a  passage  into  the  northern  parts  of  that  country,  stormed  Eret'ria,  and 
v/ere  menacing  Athens,  when  they  Avere  totally  routed  by  the  Atheni- 
ans undei  Miltiades,  at  the  memorable  battle  of  Mar'athon  (b.  c.  490). 
To  avenge  these  losses,  Darius  resolved  to  invade  Greece  in  perst,>n  ; 
but  an  insurrection  of  the  Eg}'ptians,  and  disputes  among  his  children 
respecting  the  succession,  and  not  long  after  his  own  death,  frustrated 
his  designs. 

Xer'xes,  immediately  after  his  accession  (b.  c.  485),  marched  against 
the  Egyptian  rebels,  whom  he  completely  subdued.  Elated  by  this 
success,  he  prepared  to  invade  Greece,  and  collected  the  largest  army 
that  had  ever  beer  assembled.  His  naval  preparations  were  on  an 
equally  extensive  scale.  But  on  the  very  threshold  of  Greece,  at  the 
Tiour.tain-pass  of  Thermopylae,*  his  countless  hordes  were  checked  anW 

•Sec  Professor  Shea's  admirable  translation  of  Mirkhond,  p.  271. 
5 


66  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

repulsed  by  a  liaiidlul  of  men  under  the  coiniuand  of  Leonidat.,  king  ui 
Sparta.  Treachery  enabled  him  to  turn  the  flank  of  tfie  gallant  war 
riors,  and  he  entered  Greece  ;  but  the  account  of  his  campaigns  be- 
longs properly  to  Grecian  history.  It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  aftel 
having  suffered  unparalleled  losses  by  sea  and  land,  he  returned  to 
Persia  covered  with  disgrace.  The  forces  that  he  left  behind  him  un- 
der Mardonius  were  annihilated  at  the  battle  of  Plateae  ;  and  the  Greeks, 
following  L'p  their  success,  destroyed  the  power  of  the  Persians  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  made  them  tremble  for  the  security  of  their  provin 
ces  in  Asia  Minor. 

Xer'xes  is  unknown  by  name  to  the  oriental  historians  ;  they  name 
him  Esfendiar,  and  ascribe  to  him  the  most  eminent  qualities  of  a  gen- 
eral and  soldier.  It  is  probable  that  the  memory  of  Xer'xes's  exploits  in 
youth  were  alone  preserved  in  eastern  Persia.  It  is  generally  thought 
that  Xer'xes  was  the  Ahasuerus  (Achash  Zwerosh,  that  is,  "  brave 
hero")  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Est'her. 

Xer'xes  was  murdered  by  a  captain  of  his  guards,  named  Artabaniis 
(B.C.  470),  and  his  eldest  son  shared  his  fate.  The  assassin  conferred 
the  crown  on  Artaxer'xes,  the  third  son  of  the  deceased  monarch,  sur- 
named  Macrocheir,  or  "  the  long-handed,"  called  by  the  native  histori- 
ans Ardeshir  Bahman,  who  is  celebrated  for  his  just  and  beneficent 
administration.  But  his  virtues  were  insufficient  to  check  the  decline 
of  the  empire,  which  began  to  exhibit  signs  of  weakness  in  every  quar- 
ter. After  countless  humiliations,  Artaxer'xes  was  forced  to  sign  a  dis- 
graceful peace,  by  which  he  recognised  the  independence  of  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  ;  consented  that  his  fleet  should  be  wholly  excluded  from  the 
.-Egean  :  and  that  the  Persian  army  should  not  come  within  three  days' 
march  of  the  coast  (b.  c.  449). 

Internal  wars  and  rebellions  were  of  frequent  occurrence  ;  the  royal 
forces  were  often  defeated  and  the  empire  kept  in  a  state  of  turbulence  and 
confusion.  On  the  death  of  Artaxer^xes  (b.  c.  424),  his  only  legitimate 
son,  Xer'xes,  ascended  the  throne  ;  but  within  forty-five  days  was  mur- 
dered by  his  natural  brother,  Sogdianus  ;  and  he  again  was  deposed  by 
another  illegitimate  prince,  O'chus,  who,  on  his  accession,  took  the 
name  of  Darius  II. 

Under  the  administration  of  Darius  II.,  sumamed  Nothus,  that  is, 
'•  illegitimate,"  the  empire  declined  rapidly,  chiefly  owing  to  the  in- 
creased power  and  consequent  turbulence  of  the  provincial  satraps.  On 
the  death  of  Darius,  his  son  Artaxer'xes,  sumamed  Mnemori,  from  the 
strength  of  his  memory,  ascended  the  throne  (b.  c.  405) ;  but  was  op- 
posed by  liis  brother  Cy'rus,  who  had  the  support  of  the  queen-mother, 
Parysatis,  and  of  an  amiy  of  Greek  mercenaries,  which  he  was  enabled 
to  levy  through  his  connexion  with  Sparta.  Cy'rus,  at  first  successful, 
was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Cunax'a  (b.  c.  401);  but  his  ten  thousand 
Greek  auxiliaries,  under  the  guidance  of  Xen'ophon,  a  renegade  Athe- 
nian, though  a  delightful  historian,  succeeded  in  forcing  a  safe  passage 
to  their  native  land.  During  the  remainder  of  his  reign,  the  weak  Ar- 
:axer'xes  was  the  mere  puppet  of  his  mother,  Pary'satis,  whose  in- 
veterate hatred  against  Queen  Statira,  and  all  whom  she  suspected  of 
having  contributed  to  the  overthrow  of  her  favorite  son,  Cy'rus,  filled 
.he    palace    with  murders,   treasons,   and  assassinations.     While    th«! 


THE  PERSIANS  0", 

20\.n  was  chus  disgraced,  Agesil;ius,  king  of  Sparta,  joined  with  the 
Asiatic  Greeks,  was  making  rapid  conquests  in  western  Persia ;  and 
he  would  probably  have  dismembered  the  empire,  had  not  the  troubles 
excited  in  Greece  by  a  lavish  distribution  of  Persian  gold,  compelled 
him  to  return  home. 

The  remainder  of  the  reign  of  Artaxer'xes  was  singularly  unfortu- 
nate :  he  attempted  to  reduce  Eg^^pt,  but  his  efforts  failed,  owing  to  u 
disagreement  between  the  Athenian  auxiliaries  and  the  Persian  com- 
manders ;  Cy'prus  regained  its  independence  ;  and  the  spirit  of  revolt 
spread  through  all  western  Asia.  His  domestic  calamities  were  still 
more  afflicting :  he  was  obliged  to  punish  his  oldest  son  Darius  with 
death,  for  conspiring  against  him ;  O'chus,  his  youngest  son,  murdered 
his  brother,  to  open  a  path  to  the  succession ;  and  Artaxer'xes,  over- 
come by  such  a  complication  of  miseries,  died  of  a  broken  heart. 

O'chus,  on  the  accession  (b.  c.  360),  took  the  name  of  Artaxer'xes 
III. ;  and,  to  secure  himself  on  the  throne,  put  to  death  no  fewer  than 
.eighty  of  the  royal  family.  Artabazus,  the  satrap  of  Asia  Minor,  at- 
tempted to  take  advantage  of  the  unpopularity  which  those  crimes 
brought  on  the  monarch ;  and,  aided  by  the  Thebans  and  Athenians, 
made  a  vigorous  effort  to  seize  the  throne.  O'chus,  however,  was  as 
conspicuous  for  liis  military  prowess  as  for  his  crimes ;  he  defeated 
Artabazus,  and  forced  him  to  seek  refuge  in  Greece.  He  next  marched 
against  the  Phoenician  insurgents,  who  were  supported  by  the  Cypri- 
ots  and  Egyptians  :  the  treason  of  the  general  of  the  confederates 
gave  O'chus  an  easier  victory  than  he  had  expected,  and  he  levelled 
the  city  of  Sidon  with  the  ground.  Being  joined  by  a  powerful  body 
of  Greek  auxiliaries,  he  recovered  the  island  of  Cy'prus,  and  once 
more  reduced  it  to  a  Persian  province.  But  the  king's  cruelties  were 
not  compensated  by  his  victories ;  and  he  was  at  length  poisoned  by 
the  eunuch  Bagoas,  who  placed  Ar'ces,  the  youngest  son  of  O'chus,  on 
the  throne. 

Ar'ces,  after  a  bi'af  reign,  suffered  the  fate  of  his  lather;  and  the 
treacherous  Bagoas  transferred  the  crown  to  Darius  Codoman'nus,  a 
descendant  of  Darius  Nothus  (b.  c.  336).  The  eunuch  hoped  that  by 
raising  so  remote  a  branch  to  the  throne,  he  would  be  permitted  to  re- 
tain royal  power  in  his  hands  ;  but  Darius  soon  asserted  his  indepen 
dence,  and  Bagoas  prepared  to  remove  him  by  poison.  The  treachery 
was  discovered ;  and  Darius  compelled  the  baffled  eunuch  to  drink  the 
medicated  portion  that  he  had  prepared.  But  the  faie  of  the  Persian 
empire  was  now  at  hand ;  Alexan'der  the  Great  of  Macedon  appeared 
in  Asia,  and  his  brave  little  army  scattered  the  myriads  of  Persia  like 
chaff  before  the  wind.  After  the  loss  of  the  two  battles  of  Is'sus  and 
Arbela,  Darius,  while  seeking  refuge  in  a  remote  part  of  his  empire, 
was  murdered  by  the  eunuch  Bes'sn-s ;  and  Asia  received  a  new  mas- 
ter.* 

The  Persians  inherited  the  commercial  power  of  the  Babyloniant^ 
and  Phcrnicians  ;  but  they  opened  no  new  branch  of  trade,  and  scarce- 
ly maintained  those  they  found  already  established.  It  is  not,  there- 
fore, necessary  to  repeat  here  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding 
chapters  on  the  commerce  of  central  Asia. 

•  See  the  history  of  Macedon  in  a  following  chapter. 


08  ANCIENT  HlfiTOIlV 


CHAPTER  VII. 
PHCENICIAN  COLONIES  IN  NORTHERN  AFRICA, 

ESPECIALLY 

CARTHAGE. 

Section  I. — Geograpldcal  OuUine  of  Northern  Africa. 

Although  iVfrica  was  circumnavigated  at  a  period  of  very  remote 
antiquity,  the  interior  of  the  country  still  remained  unexplored,  and  the 
southern  part,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  navigation  in  the  ocean, 
was  neglected  until  the  knowledge  of  i^s  discovery  was  forgotten.  But 
the  northern  coast  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  became  the  seat  of 
flourishing  Greek  and  Phoenician  colonies.  This  extensive  district 
was  diWded  by  nature  into  three  regions,  or  bands,  of  unequal  breadth, 
nearly  parallel  with  the  sea-line :  1 ,  the  maritime  country,  consisting 
generally  of  very  fertile  districts,  whence  it  was  called  Inhabited  Africa, 
is  now  named  Barbary ;  2,  a  rugged  mountainous  country,  whose  loft- 
iest peaks  form  the  chain  of  Mount  Atlas,  abounding  in  wild  beaste 
and  palm-groves,  whence  it  was  called  by  the  ancients  the  Land  of 
Lions,  and  by  the  moderns  Beledulgerid,  or  the  Land  of  Dates  ;  the 
Romans  usually  named  it  Gsetulia ;  3,  a  vast  sandy  desert,  which  the 
Arabs  call  Sahara. 

From  the  chain  of  Mmmt  Atlas  several  small  rivers  flow  into  thi- 
Mediterranean  by  a  short  northern  course  ;  but  there  are  no  streams  of 
importance  on  the  south  side  of  these  mountains,  and  no  great  river  in 
the  interior  until  we  reach  the  remote  Niger,  concerning  which  the 
ancients  had  very  imperfect  information  ;  indeed,  nothing  was  known 
with  certainty  of  its  true  course,  until  the  recent  discovery  of  its  mouth 
by  the  Landers. 

Proceeding  westward  along  the  shore  from  Egypt,  Africa  presented 
the  following  political  divisions  :  1,  Mannar'ica,  a  sandy  tract  tenanted 
by  nomad  tribes ;  2,  CjTenaica,  a  fertile  territory,  occupied  by  Greek 
colonics,  extending  to  the  greater  Syr'tis  ;  its  chief  cities  were  Gyrene, 
and  Bar'ca  ;  3,  Regio  Syr'tica,  the  modern  kingdom  of  Trip'oli,  a  sandy 
tract  subject  to  the  Carthaginians,  but  almost  wholly  occupied  by  nomad 
hordes  ;  4,  the  domestic  territory  of  Carthage,  which  forms  the  modem 
kingdom  of  Tunis  ;  5,  a  very  fruitful  country  subject  to  the  Carthagin- 
ians, the  northern  part  of  which  was  named  Byzacena,  and  the  south- 
ern Zeugilana ;  and,  6,  Numid'ia  and  Mauritania,  occupied  during  the 
Carthaginian  age  by  nomad  hordes ;  but  having  some  Carthaginiar 
;utlonies  along  the  coasts. 


C  ARTIIAQE.  69 

Carthage  was  built  on  a  peninsula  in  the  interior  of  a  large  bay,  now 
:alled  the  gulf  of  Tunis,  formed  by  the  projection  of  the  Hermsean  prom- 
ontory (now  Cape  Bon)  on  the  east,  and  the  promontory  of  Apollo 
(now  Cape  Zebid)  on  the  west.  The  peninsula  was  about  midway 
between  U'tica  and  Tunis,  both  of  which  could  be  seen  from  the  walls 
of  Carthage  ;  the  former  being  about  nine,  and  the  latter  only  six  miles 
distant :  it  was  joined  to  the  land  by  an  isthmus  averaging  three  miles 
m  length ;  and  on  the  seaside  there  was  a  narrow  neck  of  land  project- 
ing westward,  which  formed  a  double  harbor,  and  served  as  a  mole 
or  breakwater  for  the  protection  of  shipping.  Toward  the  sea  the  city 
was  fortified  only  by  a  single  wall ;  but  the  isthmus  was  guarded  by 
the  citadel  Byr'sa,  and  a  triple  wall  eighty  feet  high  and  about  thirty 
wide. 

The  African  territory  of  Carthage  extended  westward  along  the 
coast  of  the  pillars  of  Hercules,  and  eastward  to  the  altars  of  the 
Pliilae'ni,  which  marked  the  frontier  between  the  territories  of  Cyrene 
and  Carthage.  Southward,  the  dominions  of  Carthage  extended  to  the 
Tritonian  lake ;  but  many  of  the  nomad  tribes  beyond  these  limits  paid 
nominal  obedience  to  the  republic. 

The  fertile  provinces  of  Carthage,  occupied  by  people  who  tilled  the 
soil,  extended  from  Cape  Bon,  in  a  direct  line,  to  the  most  eastern  angle 
of  the  Triton  lake,  a  distance  of  nearly  two  hundred  geographical  miles, 
[ts  average  breadth  was  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 

The  foreign  possessions  of  Carthage  included  the  Balearic  islands, 
Cor'sica,  Sardinia,  and  the  smaller  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  the 
southern  part  of  Sicily  and  Spain,  some  settlements  on  the  western 
coast  of  Africa,  and  the  Fortunate  islands  in  the  Atlantic,  which  are 
probably  the  Canaries,  and  the  fertile  Madeira. 

Secticj?  II. — Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Carthage, 

The  government  of  Carthage  was  formed  by  circumstances  ;  it  was 
originally  monarchii  al,  like  Tyre,  its  parent  state  ;  but  at  a  very  early 
period  it  assumed  a  republican  form,  in  which  aristocracy  was  the  pre- 
vailing element,  though  the  power  of  the  people  was  not  wholly  ex- 
cluded. Ther^  were  two  kings,  or  chief  magistrates,  called Sutfe'tes 
(the  shnphet'im,  ")r  judges,  of  the  Hebrews),  who  appear  to  have  been 
nominated  by  the  senate,  and  then  presented  for  confirmation  to  the 
general  assembly  of  the  people.  There  was  a  double  senate  ;  a 
syned'rium,  or  house  of  assembly,  and  a  select  council,  denominated 
gerusia,  which  was  composed  of  a  hundred  of  the  principal  member^; 
of  the  syned'rium,  and  formed  the  high  court  of  judicature. 

Public  atTairs  were  not  submitted  to  the  assembly  of  the  people,  ex 
ccpt  when  there  was  a  difierence  of  opinion  between  the  sutfetes  and 
the  senate,  when  the  decision  of  the  general  assembly  was  final. 

In  one  particular  the  Carthaginian  government  was  more  constitu- 
tional than  that  of  Rome,  or  most  of  the  Grecian  republics  ;  it  kept  dis- 
tinct the  civil  and  military  power :  the  dignity  of  chief  magistrate  was 
not  united  to  that  of  general  without  an  express  decree  for  the  purpose. 
When  a  king  was  sent  to  conduct  a  war,  his  military  powers  expired  ai 
ihe  close  of  the  campaign,  and  previously  to  a  new  one  a  fresh  nomina 


70  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

:iou  was  necessary.  There  are  also  instances  of  a  gcneial  bem^ 
elected  one  of  the  sufietes,  or  kings,  while  he  was  engiged  in  conduct- 
ino'  war.  Other  foreign  expeditions  were  sometimes  intrusted  to  the 
kincrs ;  for  Hanno,  Avho  conducted  an  armament  to  establish  colonies 
along  the  coast  of  western  Africa,  is  expressly  called  king  of  the  Car 
thaginians. 

The  religion  of  the  Carthaginians  was  the  same  as  that  of  their  an- 
cestors the  Phoenicians,  and  was  consequently  polluted  by  sanguinary 
rites  and  human  sacrifices.  But  the  Carthaginians  were  not  averse  to 
the  introduction  of  foreign  goods ;  they  adopted  the  worship  of  Ceres 
from  the  Sicilians,  and  sent  ambassadors  to  the  oracle  of  Delphi.  It  does 
not  appear  that  there  was  a  distinct  sacerdotal  caste,  or  even  order,  in 
Carthage  ;  the  priestly  functions  were  united  with  the  magisterial. 

A  species  of  national  banking  was  established  at  Carthage  which 
was  very  curious.  Pieces  of  a  compound  metal,  the  secret  of  whose 
composition  was  strictly  preserved,  in  order  to  prevent  forgery,  were 
sewed  up  in  leather  coverings,  and  marked  with  a  government  seal, 
which  declared  their  nominal  value.  This  money  was,  of  course,  cur- 
rent only  in  Carthage  itself.  The  public  revenues  of  Carthage  were 
derived  from  the  tribute  imposed  on  the  dependant  cities  and  African 
tribes,  from  the  customhouse  duties  collected  in  the  port,  and  from  the 
Spanish  mines,  the  richest  of  which  were  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Carthago  Nova,  the  modern  city  of  Carthagena. 

The  Carthaginians,  like  their  ancestors  the  Phffinicians,  paid  grea* 
attention  to  naval  affairs,  and  long  possessed  maritime  supremacy  over 
the  western  Mediterranean.  They  were  eminent  for  their  skill  in  ship- 
building, and  it  was  after  the  model  of  a  Carthaginian  galley,  accident- 
ally stranded,  that  the  Romans  built  their  first  fleet. 

The  Carthaginians  most  commonly  used  triremes,  or  galleys  with 
three  banks  of  oars,  but  we  read  of  their  using  ships  with  five  banks, 
and  in  one  instance  with  seven.  The  rowers  were  composed  of  slaves 
bought  by  the  state  for  this  particular  purpose,  and  as  they  reqiiired 
c  jnstant  practice,  formed  a  permanent  body,  which  was  not  disbanded 
in  time  of  peace.  The  office  of  admiral  was  rarely  united  to  that  of 
general,  and  the  naval  commanders,  even  when  acting  in  concert  with 
the  military,  received  their  orders  direct  from  the  senate. 

Carthage  supported  numerous  land  armies  ;  but,  unlike  most  other 
ancient  siatji,  its  forces  were  chiefly  composed  of  mercenaries  and 
slaves  ;  the  citizens  themselves,  engrossed  by  commercial  pursuits, 
were  unwilling  to  encounter  the  hardships  and  perils  of  a  campaign. 
There  was,  however,  always  one  Carthaginian  corps,  which  was  re- 
garded as  the  pride  of  the  army. 

Sectio.n   III. — History  of  Carthage  from  the  Foundation  of  the  City  to  the 
Commencement  of  the  Syracusan  Wars. 

FROM    B.    C.    880    TO    B.    C.    416. 

Di'do,  after  having  escaped  from  the  tyranny  of  her  brother  Pygma- 
lion, chose  for  her  new  country  the  Carthaginian  peninsula.  She  is 
3aid  to  have  acquired  by  a  fraudulent  purchase,  the  ground  on  which 
the  ■,'ity  was  built ;  but  this  legend  is  unworthy  of  serious  notice      A( 


CARTHAGE.  "^l 

first  the  Cartliaginiaus  were  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to  the  neighbor 
tng  barbarian  princes  ;  but  when  their  riches  and  strength  increased. 
they  shook  of  this  degrading  yoke,  and  extended  their  dominion  by  the 
subjection  of  the  nearest  native  tribes  in  the  interior,  and  by  new 
establishments  along  the  coasts.  The  more  ancient  Phoenician  colo- 
nies, such  as  U'tica  and  Lep'tis,  far  from  feeling  jealous  of  the  risinp 
power  of  Carthage,  joined  in  a  federation,  of  which  the  new  city  wae 
recognised  as  the  head.  The  Greek  settlers  at  Cyrene,  whose  state 
had  attained  great  commercial  prosperity,  viewed  the  Carthaginians  with 
more  jealousy,  and  war  soon  broke  out  between  the  rival  cities. 

^Vhilethe  Persian  empire  was  rising  into  importance  in  the  east,  Car- 
thage was  fast  acquiring  supremacy  over  the  western  world,  chiefly  by 
means  of  the  family  of  Mago — a  family  that  held  the  chief  power  of 
the  state  for  more  than  a  century.  But  just  as  they  were  rising  into 
eminence,  they  had  to  encounter  a  formidable  enemy  in  the  western 
Mediterranean,  whose  proved  skill  and  courage  threatened  dangerous 
rivalry.  This  led  to  one  of  the  first  naval  engagements  recorded  in 
history,  and  arose  from  the  following  circumstances  : — 

After  Cy'rus  had  overthrown  Croe'sus,  he  intrusted  the  subjugation 
of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  to  Har'pagus,  one  of  his  generals, 
and  returned  to  complete  the  conquest  of  Babylonia.  One  of  the  first 
places  against  which  Har^pagus  directed  his  efforts  was  Phocae'a,  the 
most  northern  city  of  Ionia  (b.  c.  546).  Its  inhabitants  were  celebra- 
ted for  their  commercial  enterprise  and  skill  in  navigation ;  they  had 
frequently  visited  the  coast  of  Spain,  and  ventured  beyond  the  pillars 
of  Hercules.  But  they  had  not  strength  to  resist  the  myriads  of  Per- 
sia ;  and  when  summoned  by  Har'pagus,  they  begged  for  a  short  inter- 
val to  deliberate  on  his  proposals.  During  this  period,  they  embarked 
their  wives,  children,  and  moveable  property,  on  board  their  galleys,  and 
abandoned  the  naked  walls  of  their  city  to  the  Persians.  They  pro- 
ceeded to  the  island  of  Cor'sica,  par:  of  which  was  already  occupied  bv 
the  Carthaginia.is,  and  prepared  to  establish  themselves  on  its  coasts 
The  Carthaginians  and  the  Tyrrhenians,  or  Tuscans,  dreading  the 
rivalry  of  the  enterprising  Phocaeans,  entered  into  an  alliance  for  their 
destruction,  and  sent  a  fleet  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  sail  to  drive 
them  from  Cor'sica.  The  Phocaeans,  with  half  the  number  of  vessels, 
gained  a  brilliant  victory ;  but,  conscious  that  their  numbers  were  too 
weak  to  sustain  repeated  attacks,  they  abandoned  Cor'sica  for  the 
L-hores  of  Gaul,  where  they  founded  the  city  of  Marseilles. 

In  the  year  that  the  Tarquins  were  expelled,  a  treaty  was  concluded 
oetween  the  republics  of  Rome  and  Carthage  (b.  c.  509) ;  from  the 
terms  of  which  it  appears  that  the  Carthaginians  were  already  supreme 
masters  of  the  northern  coast  of  Africa  and  the  island  of  Sardinia,  and 
that  they  possessed  the  Balearic  islands,  and  a  considerable  portion  of 
Sicily  and  Spain. 

Ever  since  the  seafight  oflf  Cor'sica,  the  Carthaginians  had  a  jeal- 
ous dread  of  Grecian  valor  and  enterprise,  Avhich  was  naturally  aggrar 
vated  by  the  increasing  wealth  and  power  of  the  Greek  colonies  in 
Sicily  and  southern  Italy.  When  Xor'xes,  tlierefore,  was  preparing  te 
invade  Hel'las,  they  readily  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Persian 
inonarc  h,  and  dgreed  to  anack  the  colonies,  while  he  waged  war  against 


72  anl'IENT  history 

.ne  parent  state.  An  armament  was  accordingly  prepared,  whose  mag 
aitude  shows  the  extensive  power,  and  resonrces  of  Carthage.  It  con- 
sisted of  two  thousand  ships  of  war,  three  thousand  transjiorts  and  ves- 
sels of  Inirden,  and  a  land  army  amounting  to  three  hundred  thousand 
:"nen.  The  command  of  the  whole  was  intrusted  to  Hamil'car,  the 
head  of  the  illustrious  family  of  M.igo.  This  immense  army  consisted 
cliielly  of  African  mercenaries,  and  was  composed  of  what  are  called 
bglit  troops.  They  were,  however,  wholly  undisciplined,  and  if  de- 
feated in  the  first  onset  could  rarely  be  persuaded  to  renew  the  attack, 

A  landing  was  eflected,  without  loss,  at  Panor'mus  (the  modern  Pal- 
ermo) ;  and  when  the  troops  were  refreshed,  Hamil'car  advanced  and  laid 
close  siege  to  Himera.  The  governor  Theron,  made  a  vigorous  defence, 
though  pressed  not  only  by  the  overwhelming  forces  of  the  enemy,  but 
by  the  still  more  grievous  pressure  of  famine.  Foreseeing  however, 
that  the  town,  unless  speedily  relieved,  must  be  forced  to  surrender,  he 
sent  an  urgent  request  for  assistance  to  Syracuse. 

Gelon,  king  of  Syracuse,  could  only  collect  about  five  thousand  horse 
and  fifteen  thousand  foot.  With  this  very  disproportionate  force  he 
marched  against  the  Carthaginians,  to  take  advantage  of  any  opportu- 
nity that  fortune  might  offer.  On  his  road  he  fortunately  captured  a 
messenger  from  the  Selinuntines  to  Hamircar,  promising  on  a  certain 
day  to  join  him  with  the  auxiliary  force  of  cavalry  that  he  had  demand- 
ed. Though  his  forces  were  formidable,  in  point  of  numbers,  Hamir- 
car was  too  prudent  to  trust  such  undisciplined  hordes,  unless  aided  by 
regular  soldiers,  and  had  therefore  offered  large  bribes  to  win  over  some 
of  the  Grecian  states  in  Sicily  to  his  side.  The  Selinuntines  alone 
listened  to  his  terms,  and  promised  to  aid  him  against  their  old  enemies 
the  Syracusans.  Gelon  sent  the  letter  forward  to  Hamil'car;  and  hav- 
ing taking  measures  to  intercept  the  treacherous  Selinuntines,  he  de- 
spatched a  chosen  body  of  his  own  troops  to  the  Carthaginian  camp  in 
their  stead  at  the  specified  time.  The  Syracusans  being  admitted  with- 
out any  suspicion,  sudderdy  galloped  to  the  general's  tent,  slew  Hamil'- 
car and  his  principal  officers,  and  then,  hurrying  to  the  harbor,  set  fire 
to  the  fleet.  The  blaze  of  the  burning  vessels,  the  cries  of  Hamil'car's 
.servants,  and  the  shouts  of  the  Syracusans,  threw  the  whole  Carthagin- 
ian army  into  confusion ;  in  the  midst  of  which  they  were  attacked  by 
Gelon  with  the  rest  of  his  forces.  Without  leaders  and  without  com- 
mand, tlie  Carthaginians  could  make  no  effective  resistance  ;  more  than 
half  of  the  invaders  fell  in  the  field ;  the  remainder,  without  arms  and 
without  provisions,  sought  shelter  in  the  interior  of  the  country,  where 
most  of  thr-n  perished.  It  is  remarkaljle  that  this  great  victory  was 
won  on  the  same  day  that  the  battle  of  Thermop'ylaj  was  fought,  and 
the  Persian  fleet  defeated  at  Artemis'ium  ;  three  of  the  noblest  triumphs 
obtained  in  the  struggle  for  Grecian  freedom  (b.  c.  480). 

The  miserable  remnant  of  the  Carthaginian  troops  rallied  under  Gis' 
gon,  the  son  of  Hamil'car ;  but  the  new  general  found  it  impossible  to 
remedy  the  disorganization  occasioned  by  the  late  defeat,  and  wa."^ 
'orced  to  surrender  at  discretion. 

For  seventy  years  after  this  defeat,  little  is  kno\»n  of  the  history  of 
Carthage,  except  that  during  that  period  the  state  greatly  extended  its 
power  over  the  native  tribes  of  Africa,  and  gained  important  acquis) 


CARTHAGE.  73 

dons  of  territory  I'rom  the  Cyrenians.  Sicily  was,  in  the  ireaiiliiiie 
.lie  scene  of  a  war  which  threatened  total  annihilation  to  Syracuse,  tht 
Athenians  having  invaded  the  island,  and  laid  siege  to  that  city.  Bu. 
when  the  Athenians  were  totally  defeated  (b.  c.  413),  the  Carthagin- 
ians had  their  attention  once  more  directed  to  Sicilian  politics  by  an 
embassy  from  the  Segestans,  seeking  their  protection  against  the  Syra* 
cusans,  whose  wrath  they  had  provoked  by  their  alliance  with  the 
/Athenians. 

Skction  IV. — History  of  Carthage  during  the  Sicilian  Wars- 
FROM  B.  c.  416   TO  B.  c.  264. 

The  Carthaginians  gladly  seized  the  pretext  afforSed  them  by  the 
Segestan  embassy ;  and  a  new  expedition  was  sent  against  Sicily, 
under  the  command  of  Han'nibal,  the  son  of  Gis'gon.  This  new  in- 
vasion was  crowned  with  success ;  Selinun'tum  and  Him'era  were 
taken  by  storm,  and  their  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword.  The  Sicilians 
solicited  a  truce,  which  was  granted  on  terms  extremely  favorable  to 
the  Carthaginians. 

So  elated  was  the  state  at  this  success,  that  nothing  less  than  the 
entire  subjugation  of  Sicily  was  contemplated.  In'ules,  the  son  of 
Han'no,  and  Han'nibal,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  armament,  proceeded 
to  besiege  Agrigen'tum,  the  second  city  of  the  island.  During  the 
siege,  which  lasted  eight  months,  the  assailants  suflered  severely  from 
pestilential  disease,  and  the  garrison  from  famine.  After  having  en- 
dured with  wonderful  patience  the  severest  extremities  of  famine,  the 
Agrigentines  forced  their  way  through  the  enemies'  lines  by  night,  and 
retreated  to  Gela,  abandoning  the  aged,  the  sick,  and  the  wounded,  to 
the  mercy  of  the  Carthaginians.  Himil'co,  who  had  succeeded  to  the 
cliief  command  on  the  death  of  his  father  Han'nibal,  ordered  these 
helpless  victims  to  be  massacred.  Gela  soon  shared  the  fate  of  Agri- 
gen'tum ;  and  Diony'sius  I.,  the  king  of  Syracuse,  who  had  taken  the 
command  of  the  confederated  Sicilians,  deemed  it  prudent  to  open  ne- 
gotiations for  peace.  A  treaty  was  concluded  (b.  c.  405),  which 
neither  party  intended  to  observe  longer  than  the  necessary  preparations 
fox  a  more  decisive  contest  would  require.  Scarcely  were  the  Cartha- 
ginians withdrawn,  when  Diony'sius  sent  deputies  to  all  the  Greek 
states  in  Sicil} ,  exhorting  them  by  a  simultaneous  effort  to  expel  all  in 
iruders,  and  secure  their  future  independence.  His  machinations  were 
successful ;  the  Carthaginian  merchants  who,  on  the  faith  ot  the  late 
treaty,  had  settled  in  the  principal  commercial  town,  were  pertidiously 
massacred ;  while  Diony'sius,  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  cap- 
tured several  of  the  m.ost  important  Carthaginian  fortresses. 

All  the  forces  that  the  wealth  of  Carthage  could  procure  were  speed' 
ily  collected  to  punish  this  treachery ;  and  Himil'co  advanced  against 
Syracuse,  and  laid  siege  to  it  with  the  fairest  prospects  of  success 
But  a  plague  -of  such  uncommon  virulence  broke  out  in  the  Carthagin- 
ian camp,  that  the  living  were  unable  to  bury  the  dead,  and  imbrmation 
of  tliis  state  of  things  being  conveyed  to  Sy'racuse,  Diony'sius  sallied 
forth  with  all  his  'brces,  and  assaulted  the  Carthaginian  camp.     Scarce 


V4  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

any  attempt  was  made  ;it  resistance:  night  alone  put  an  e.id  to  (ho 
slaughter;  and  when  morning  dawned,  Ilimil'co  found  that  nothing  but 
a  speedy  surrender  could  save  him  and  his  followers  from  total  ruin. 
He  stipulated  only  for  the  lives  of  himself  and  the  Carthaginians,  aban- 
doning all  his  auxiiiarics  to  the  ■•vengeance  of  the  Syracusans. 

The  Carthaginians  sent  another  armament,  commanded  by  Miigo,  a 
nobleman  of  high  rank,  to  retrieve  their  losses  in  Sicily ;  but  theii 
forces  were  routed  with  great  slaughter,  and  the  leader  slain.  The 
younger  Mago,  son  of  the  late  general,  having  received  a  strong  rein- 
forcement from  Africa,  hazarded  a  second  engagement,  in  which  the 
S}Tacusans  were  totally  defeated.  Diony'sius  was  induced  by  this 
overthrow  to  solicit  a  peace,  which  was  concluded  on  terms  honorable 
to  both  parties.    . 

The  conclusion  of  the  Sicilian  Avar  was  followed  by  a  plague,  which 
destroyed  multitudes  of  the  citizens  of  Carthage  (b.  c.  347) ;  and 
scarcely  had  this  visitation  passed  away,  when  insurrections  broke  out 
in  the  African  provinces,  and  in  the  colonies  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia. 
But  the  Carthaginian  senate  showed  itself  equal  to  the  crisis ;  by  a 
course  of  policy  in  which  firmness  was  tempered  by  conciliation,  these 
dangers  were  averted,  and  the  state  restored  to  its  former  vigor  and 
prosperity. 

In  the  meantime,  Sy'racuse  was  weakened  by  the  death  of  Diony'- 
sius  I.,  who,  thoijgh  stigmatized  as  a  tyrant  by  the  Greek  historians, 
appears  to  have  been  a  wise  and  prudent  sovereign.  "  No  one,"  said 
Scip'io  Africanuo,  "  ever  concerted  his  schemes  with  more  wisdom,  or 
executed  them  with  more  energy,  than  the  elder  Diony'sius."  His 
son,  Diony'sias  H.,  was  a  profligate  prince,  whose  excesses  filled  the 
state  with  tumult  and  distraction.  The  Carthaginians  eagerly  embra- 
ced the  opportunity  of  accomplishing  the  favorite  object  of  their  policy, 
the  conquest  of  Sicily ;  and  a  great  armament  was  prepared,  of  which 
Mago  was  appointed  the  chief  commander. 

Mago,  at  the  very  first  attack,  made  himself  master  of  the  harbor  of 
Sy'racuse.  The  Syracusans,  destitute  of  money,  of  arms,  and  almost 
of  hope,  solicited  the  aid  of  the  Corinthians  ;  and  Timoleon,  one  of 
the  greatest  generals  and  purest  patriots  ot  antiquity,  was  sent  to  theii 
assistance.  A  great  portion  of  the  Carthaginian  army  had  been  levied 
in  the  Greek  colonies ;  Timoleon,  hoping  to  work  on  their  patriotic 
feelings,  addressed  letters  to  the  leaders  of  these  mercenaries,  expos 
tv-lating  with  them  on  the  disgrace  of  bearing  arms  against  their  coun 
trymen  :  and  though  he  did  not  prevail  on  any  to  desert,  yet  Mago 
having  heard  of  these  intrigues,  felt  such  distrust  of  his  followers,  thai 
he  at  once  abandoned  Sy'racuse,  and  returned  home. 

Great  was  the  indignation  of  the  Carthaginians  at  this  unexpected 
termination  of  the  campaign  ;  Mago  committed  suicide  to  escape  theii 
wrath.  New  forces  were  raised  to  retrieve  their  losses  in  Sicily;  two 
generals,  Han'nibal  and  Hamil'car  were  appointed  to  the  command, 
and  were  intrusted  with  an  army  of  seventy  thousand  men,  and  a  fleet 
consisting  of  two  hundred  war-galleys,  and  a  thousand  ships  of  burden. 

Timoleon  hasted  to  meet  the  invaders,  though  his  forces  barelj 
amounted  to  seven  thousand  men.  He  unexpectedly  attacked  the  Car 
thaginian  armv  on  its  march  near  the  river  Crimlsus ;  and  the  confu 


CARTHAGE.  75 

jrion  produced  by  tlio  surprise  terminated  in  a  total  rout.  The  Syracu- 
sans  captured  town  after  town,  until  at  length  the  senate  of  Carthago 
was  forced  to  solicit  peace,  and  accept  the  ternis  dictated  by  the  con- 
queror. 

While  Carthage  was  thus  unfortunate  abroad,  her  liberties  at  home 
narrowly  escaped  destruction.  Han'no,  one  of  the  principal  leaders 
of  the  state,  resolved  to  make  himself  master  of  his  country  by  poison- 
ing the  leaders  of  the  senate  at  a  banquet.  This  diabolical  plot  was 
frustrated  by  a  timely  discovery,  and  the  exasperated  traitor  resolved  tc 
hazard  an  open  rebellion.  Having  armed  his  slaves,  to  the  number  of 
twenty  thousand,  he  took  the  field,  and  invited  the  native  African  tribes 
to  join  his  standard.  This  appeal  was  disregarded  ;  and  before  Han'no 
could  levy  fresh  forces,  he  was  surrounded  by  an  army  hastily  raised, 
his  followers  routed,  and  himself  made  prisoner.  He  was  put  to  death 
with  the  most  cruel  tortures  ;  and,  according  to  the  barbarous  custom 
of  Carthage,  his  children  and  nearest  relatives  shared  the  same  fate. 

New  dissensions  in  Sy'racuse  afforded  the  Carthaginians  a  fresh 
pretext  for  meddling  in  the  affairs  of  Sicily.  Agath'ocles,  an  intriguing 
demagogue  of  mean  birth,  had  acquired  great  influence  among  his 
countrymen,  and,  finally,  by  the  secret  aid  of  the  Carthaginians,  be- 
came master  of  the  state.  But  he  soon  showed  little  regard  for  the 
ties  of  gratitude,  and  declared  his  resolution  to  expel  his  benefactora 
from  the  island.  The  Carthaginian  senate  immediately  sent  Hamircar 
with  a  powerful  army  against  this  new  enemy.  Agath'ocles  was  com- 
pletely defeated,  and  forced  to  shut  himself  up  within  the  walls  of  Sy'- 
racuse. The  city  was  soon  closely  invested,  and  everything  seemed 
to  promise  Hamil'car  complete  success  at  no  distant  day,  when  Aga- 
th'ocles suddenly  baffled  all  his  calculations,  by  adopting  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  measures  recorded  in  history.  Having  assembled  the 
Syracusans,  he  declared  that  he  could  liberate  them  from  all  dangers, 
if  an  army  and  a  small  sum  of  money  were  placed  at  his  disposal , 
adding,  that  his  plan  would  be  instantly  defeated,  if  its  nature  was  di- 
vulged. An  army  of  liberated  slaves  was  hastily  levied,  the  sum  of 
fifty  talents  intrusted  to  his  discretion,  and  a  fleet  prepared  in  secret  -, 
when  all  was  ready,  Agath'ocles  announced  his  design  of  transporting 
his  forces  into  Africa,  and  compelling  the  Carthaginians,  by  the  dread 
of  a  nearer  danger,  to  abandon  Sicily. 

Having  eluded  the  vigilance  of  the  blockading  squadron,  Agath'ocles 
anived  safely  in  Africa  before  the  Carthaginians  had  received  the  sligli- 
eat  notion  of  his  intention  (b.  c.  309).  To  inspire  his  soldiers  with  g 
resolution  to  conquer  or  die,  he  cut  off  all  chance  of  retreat  by  burning 
hv3  transports  ;  then  fearlessly  advancing,  he  stormed  Tunis  and  sev- 
eral other  cities,  the  plunder  of  which  he  divided  among  his  soldiers, 
arjd  instigated  the  African  princes  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Carthage. 
TImi'no  and  Bomil'car  were  sent  to  check  the  progress  of  this  daring 
invader,  with  forces  nearly  four  times  as  great  as  the  Sicilian  army; 
but  Agath'ocles  did  not  decline  the  engagement.  His  valor  was  re- 
warded by  a  decisive  victory.  Following  up  his  success,  Agath'ocles 
stormed  the  enemies'  camp,  where  were  found  heaps  of  fetters  and 
chains,  which  the  Carthaginians,  confident  of  success,  had  prepared  for 
the  invading  anuy. 


'b  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Dreadful  consternation  was  produced  in  Carthage  Oy  the  news  cl 
this  unexpected  defeat  liamil'car,  who  was  vigorously  pressing  for 
ward  the  siege  of  Sy'racuse,  was  surprised  by  the  unexpefod  order  to 
return  home  and  defend  his  own  country.  He  broke  up  tne  siege,  and* 
sent  home  five  thousand  of  his  best  troops.  Having  supplied  theii 
place  by  hiring  fresh  mercenaries,  he  again  invaded  the  Syracusan  ter- 
ritories ;  but  was  unexpectedly  attacked,  defeated,  and  slain. 

Ophel'las,  king  of  C}Te'ne,had  joined  Agath'ocles  with  al-1  his  for- 
ces ;  but  the  SjTacusan  monarch,  jealous  of  his  influence,  had  him  pri- 
vately poisoned.  Having  thus  removed  his  rival,  he  thought  he  might 
safely  revisit  Sicily,  and  intrust  the  command  of  the  African  army  to 
his  son.  But,  during  his  absence,  the  fruits  of  all  his  former  labors 
were  lost :  the  army  under  a  young  and  inexperienced  general,  threw 
aside  the  restraii.ts  of  discipline ;  the  Greek  estates,  indignant  at  the 
murder  of  Ophel'las,  Avithheld  their  contingents ;  and  the  African 
princes  renewed  their  allegiance  to  Carthage.  Agath'ocles  hearing  of 
these  disorders,  hasted  to  remedy  them  :  but  finding  all  his  eflbrts  vain, 
he  fled  back  to  Sicily,  abandoning  both  his  sons  and  his  soldiers.  The 
army,  exasperated  by  liis  desertion,  slew  their  leaders,  and  surrendered 
themselves  to  the  Carthaginians ;  and  Agath'ocles  died  soon  after, 
either  from  grief  or  poison. 

After  the  death  of  this  formidable  enemy,  the  Carthaginians  renewed 
their  intrigues  in  Sicily,  and  soon  acquired  a  predominant  influence  in 
the  island.  Finding  themselves  in  danger  of  utter  ruin,  the  Greek  col- 
onies solicited  the  aid  of  Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  who  had  married  a 
daughter  of  Agath'ocles,  and  was  then  in  Italy  endeavoring  to  protect 
the  colonies  of  Magna  Grse'cia  from  the  increasing  power  of  the  Ro- 
mans (b.  C.  277).  Pji^rhus  made  a  very  successful  campaign  in 
Sicily,  every  Carthaginian  town,  except  Lilybae'um,  submitted  to  his 
arms.  But  he  was  soon  induced  to  return  to  Italy ;  and  the  fruits  of 
his  victories  were  lost  almos*;  as  rapidly  as  they  had  been  acquired, 
notwithstanding  the  heroic  ex»  vtions  of  Hiero,  king  of  Sy'racuse. 

Section   V. — From  the  Commencement  of  the  Roman  Wars  to  the  Destruction 

of  Carthage. 

FROM   B.  c.  264  TO   B.  c.  146. 

When  Pyr'rhus  was  leaving  Sicily,  he  exclaimed  to  his  attendante, 
"  What  a  fine  field  of  battle  ve  are  leaving  to  the  Carthaginians  and 
Romans  ?"  His  prediction  was  soon  verified,  though  the  circumstances 
that  precipitated  the  contest  were  apparently  of  little  importance,  a 
body  of  mercenaries  in  the  pay  of  Agath'ocles,  after  the  death  of  that 
monarch,  treacherously  got  possession  of  Messina,  and  put  all  the  in- 
habitants to  the  sword.  Hiero,  king  of  Sy'racuse,  marched  against  the 
Mamertines,  as  the  independent  comj-^nies  that  had  seized  Messina 
were  called,  and  defeated  them  in  the  field.  Half  the  Mamertines  in- 
voked the  aid  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  placed  them  in  immediate  pos- 
session of  the  citadel,  while  the  others  sought  the  powerful  protection 
)f  Rome.  After  much  hesitation,  the  Romans  consented  to  grant  the 
required  aid.  The  citadel  of  Messina  was  taken  after  a  brief  siege 
uid  the  Carthaginians  were  routed  with  gret..  slaughter.     Thus  conv 


OARTDAGE.  11 

/neuced  the  first  Punic  war,  which  lasted  twenty-three  years,  the  de- 
tails of  which  will  be  found  in  the  chapters  on  Roman  history. 

In  this  war  Carthage  lost  Sicily,  and  its  supremacy  in  the  western 
Mediterranean,  which  involved  the  fate  of  all  its  other  insular  posses- 
sions. The  treasury  was  exhausted,  and  money  was  wanting  to  pay  the 
arrears  due  to  the  soldiers.  The  mercenaries  mutinied,  and  advancing 
in  a  body,  laid  siege  to  Tunis.  Thence  they  marched  against  U'tica, 
while  the  light  African  cavalry  that  had  joined  in  the  rebellion  ravaged 
the  country  up  to  the  very  gates  of  Carthage.  The  revolters  were  sub- 
dued ;  but  not  until  they  had  reduced  the  fairest  provinces  of  the  repub- 
lic to  a  desert.  The  mercenaries  in  Sardinia  had  also  thrown  off  their 
allegiance ;  and  the  Romans,  in  violation  of  the  recent  peace,  took 
possession  of  the  island  ;  an  injury  which  Carthage  was  unable  to 
resent. 

Hamil'car  Bar'ca,*  grieved  to  see  his  country  sinking,  formed  a  pro- 
ject for  raising  it  once  more  to  an  equality  with  its  imperious  rival,  by 
completely  subduing  the  Spanish  peninsula.  His  son  Han''nibal,  then 
a  boy  only  nine  years  of  age,  earnestly  besought  leave  to  accompany 
his  father  on  this  expedition ;  but  before  granting  the  request,  Ham- 
il'car led  the  boy  to  the  altar,  and  made  him  swear  eternal  hostility  to 
Rome. 

During  nine  years  Hamil'car  held  the  command  in  Spain,  and  found 
means,  either  by  force  or  negotiation,  to  subdue  almost  the  entire 
countiy.  He  used  the  treasures  he  acquired  to  strengthen  the  influence 
of  the  Barcan  family  in  the  state,  relying  chiefly  on  the  democracy  for 
support  against  his  great  rival  Han'no,  who  had  the  chief  influence 
among  the  nobility. 

Has'drubal,  the  son-in-law  of  Hamil'car,  succeeded  to  his  power  and 
his  projects.  He  is  suspected  of  having  designed  to  establish  an  inde- 
pendent kingdom  in  Spain,  after  having  failed  to  make  himself  absolute 
in  Carthage.  He  built  a  new  capital  with  regal  splendor,  which  re- 
ceived the  name  of  New  Carthage  ;  the  richest  silver-mines  were  opened 
in  its  neighborhood,  and  enormous  bribes  were  sent  to  Carthage  to  dis- 
ann  jealousy  or  stifle  inquiry.  Unlike  other  Carthaginian  governors  of 
provinces,  he  made  every  possible  exertion  to  win  the  aflections  of  the 
native  Spaniards,  and  1.?  married  the  daughter  of  one  of  tlicir  kings. 
T^e  Romans  were  at  len^  di  alarmed  by  his  success,  and  compelled  him 
to  aign  a  treaty,  by  which  he  was  bound  to  abstain  from  passing  the 
Iberus  (Ebro),  or  attacking  the  territory  of  the  Saguntines. 

When  Has'drubal  fell  by  the  dagger  of  an  assassin,  the  Barcan  family 
had  sufRciem  influence  to  have  Han'nibal  appointed  his  successor, 
though  he  had  barely  attained  his  legal  majority  (b.  c.  221).  The 
youthful  general  having  gained  several  victories  over  the  Spaniards, 
boldly  laid  siege  to  Sagun'tum,  and  thus  caused  the  second  war  with 
the  Romans,  for  the  details  of  which  we  must  refer  to  the  chapters  on 
Roman  history. 

During  the  course  of  this  war,  the  Carthaginian  navy,  the  source  of 
Its  greatness  and  the  security  of  its  strength,  was  neglected.  The  spirit 
of  party  also  raged  violently  m  Carthage  itself.     At  the  conclusion  of  the 

*  Barca  sisniucs  "  thunder"  in  the  Phoenician  language,  and  also  in  Hebrew 
which  is  closely  allied  to  Phoenician.     The  Hebrew  root  is  i'1^  tr  thunder. 


78  ANCIENT    HISTORY. 

war,  Carthage  was  deprived  of  all  her  possessions  out  of  Africa,  anf! 
her  fleet  was  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans.  Thenceforward 
Carthage  was  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  commercial  city  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Rome.  A  powerful  rival  also  was  raised  against  the  repub- 
lic in  Africa  itself  by  the  alliance  of  the  Numidian  king  Massinis'sa 
with  the  Romans  ;  and  that  monarch  took  possession  of  most  of  the 
western  Carthaginian  colonies. 

Han'nibal,  notwithstanding  his  late  reverses,  continued  at  the  head 
of  the  Carthaginian  state,  and  reformed  several  abuses  that  had  crept 
ii\to  the  management  of  the  finances  and  the  administration  of  justice. 
Rut  these  judicious  reforms  provoked  the  enmity  of  the  factious  nobles 
who  had  hitherto  been  permitted  to  fatten  on  public  plunder  ;  they  joined 
with  the  old  rivals  of  the  Barcan  family,  and  even  degraded  themselves 
so  far  as  to  act  as  spies  for  the  Romans,  who  still  dreaded  the  abilities 
o(  Han'nibal.  In  consequence  of  their  machinations  the  oJd  general 
was  forced  to  fly  from  the  country  he  had  so  long  labored  to  serve  ; 
and,  after  several  vicissitudes,  died  of  poison,  to  escape  the  meaa  and 
malignant  persecution  of  the  Romans,  whose  hatred  followed  him  in 
his  exile,  and  compelled  the  king  of  Bithynia  to  refuse  him  protection. 
The  moimd  which  marks  his  last  resting-place  is  still  a  remarkable 
object. 

But  the  Carthaginians  had  soon  reason  to  lament  the  loss  of  their 
champion  :  the  Romans  were  not  conciliated  by  the  expidsion  of  Han'- 
nibal  ;  and  Massinis'sa,  relying  upon  their  support,  made  frequent  in- 
cursions into  the  territories  of  the  republic.  Both  parties  complained 
of  each  other  as  aggressors  before  the  Roman  senate  (b.  c.  162)  ;  bu* 
though  they  received  an  equal  hearing,  the  decision  was  long  previously 
tiettled  in  favor  of  Massinis'sa.  While  these  negotiations  were  pend- 
ing, Carthage  was  harassed  by  political  dissension  ;  the  popular  party 
— believing,  and  not  without  reason,  that  the  low  estate  of  the  repub.ic 
was  chiefly  owing  to  the  animosity  that  the  aristocratic  faction  had 
dhown  to  the  Barcan  family,  and  especially  to  Han'nibal,  on  accouui 
of  his  financial  and  judicial  reform — convened  a  tumultuous  assembly, 
and  sent  forty  of  the  pricipal  senators  into  banishment,  exacting  an  oath 
from  the  citizens  that  they  would  never  peraiit  their  return.  The  exiles 
bought  refuge  with  Massinis'sa,  who  sent  his  sons  to  intercede  with  the 
Carthaginian  poj)ulace  in  their  favor.  The  Numidian  princes  were  not 
only  refused  admittance  to  the  city,  but  ignominiously  chased  from  their 
ter^itor)^  Such  an  insult  naturally  provoked  a  fresh  war,  in  whicii 
the  Carthaginians  were  defeated,  and  forced  to  submit  to  the  most  oner- 
ous conditions. 

The  Roman  senat^;,  continually  solicited  by  the  elder  Cato,  at  length 
came  to  the  resolution  of  totally  destroying  Carthage  ;  but  it  was  diffi- 
cult to  discover  a  pretext  for  war  against  a  state  which,  conscious  of  its 
weakness,  had  resolved  to  obey  every  command.  The  Carthaginians 
gave  up  three  hundred  of  their  noblest  youths  as  hostages,  surrendered 
their  ships-of-war  and  their  magazines  of  arms ;  but  when,  after  all 
these  concessions,  they  were  ordered  to  abandon  their  city,  they  took 
courage  from  despair,  and  absolutely  refused  obedience.  War  was  in- 
stantly proclaimed ;  the  Romans  met  with  almost  uninterrupted  suc- 
cess ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  four  years  .hat  the  war  lap'ed,  Carthaef 


CARTHAGE.  "^fl 

was   taken   by  storm,  and   its   magnificent  edifices   levelled   U'l'.h  th«' 
ground. 

Sfxtion  VI. — Navigation,  Trade,  and  Commerce  of  Carthage. 

The  colonial  and  commercial  policy  of  tlie  Carthaginians  was  fai 
less  generous  than  that  of  their  ancestors,  the  PhcRnicians ;  the  harbora 
c<f  the  capital  were  open  to  the  ships  and  merchants  of  foreign  nations 
but  admission  was  either  wholly  refused  to  all  the  remaining  ports  in  tht 
territory  of  the  republic,  or  subjected  to  the  most  onerous  restrictions. 
This  selfish  system,  which  has  been  imitated  by  too  many  moderr 
commercial  states,  was  forced  upon  the  Carthaginians  by  peculiar  cir 
cumstances.  Their  trade  with  the  barbarous  tribes  of  Africa  was  car 
ried  on  principally  by  barter  ;  the  ignorant  savages  exchanged  valuable 
commodities  for  showy  trifles  ;  and  the  admission  of  competitit^n  would 
at  once  have  shown  them  how  much  they  lost  in  the  exciiange.  Had 
the  Carthaginians,  under  such  circumstances,  permitted  free  trade,  they 
would,  in  fact,  have  destroyed  their  own  market. 

The  principal  commerce  of  the  Carthaginians  in  the  western  Medit- 
erranean was  with  the  Greek  colonies  in  Sicily  and  the  south  of  Italy, 
from  which  they  obtained  wine  and  oil,  in  exchange  for  negro  slaves, 
precious  stones,  and  gold,  procured  from  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  also 
for  cotton  cloths  manufactured  at  Carthage  and  in  the  island  of  Malta. 
Cor'sica  supplied  honey,  wax,  and  slaves ;  Sardinia  yielded  abundance 
of  corn  ;  the  Balearic  islands  produced  the  best  breed  of  mules  ;  resin 
and  volcanic  products,  such  as  sulphur  and  pumice-stone,  were  obtained 
from  the  Lipari  islands  ;  and  southern  Spain  was,  as  we  have  already 
said,  the  chief  source  whence  the  nations  of  antiquity  procured  the 
precious  metals. 

Beyond  tire  pillars  of  Hercules  the  Carthaginians  succeeded  the 
Phoenicians  in  the  tin  and  amber  trade  with  the  south  British  islands 
and  the  nations  at  the  entrance  of  the  Baltic.  After  the  destruction  of 
Carthage,  this  trade  fell  into  the  hands  of  their  earliest  rivals,  the 
Phocaeans  of  Marseilles,  who  changed  its  route  ;  they  made  their  pur- 
chases on  the  north  shore  of  Gaul,  and  conveyed  their  goods  overland 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone,  in  that  age  a  journey  of  thirty  days. 

On  the  west  coast  of  Africa  the  Carthaginian  colonies  studded  the 
■shores  of  Morocco  and  Fez ;  but  their  great  mart  was  the  island  of 
Cer'ne,  now  Suana,  in  the  Atlantic  ocean  (29^  10'  N.  lat.,  10^  40'  W. 
long.).  On  this  island  was  the  great  depot  of  merchandise  ;  and  goods 
were  transported  from  it  in  light  barks  to  the  opposite  coast,  where  they 
were  bartered  with  the  native  inhabitants.  The  Carthaginian  exports 
were  trinkets,  saddlery,  linen,  or  more  probably,  cotton  webs,  potter)', 
and  arms  ;  for  which  they  received  undressed  hides  and  elephants' 
teeth.  To  this  trade  was  added  a  very  lucrative  fishery  :  the  tunny  fish 
{thynnus  scomber),  which  is  still  plentiful  on  the  northwestern  coast  of 
Africa,  was  deemed  a  great  luxury  by  the  Carthaginians.  There  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  these  enterprising  merchants  had  some  in- 
•ercourse  with  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  that  their  navigators  advanced 
•teyond  the  mouths  of  the  Senegal  and  Gambia  ;  but  the  caution  with 
which  everything  respecting  this  trade  was  concealed,  renders  it  iiu- 
fK'jssible  to  determine  its  natur*'  '^-rjd  extent  with  accuracy. 


80  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

It  is  very  dilRcult  to  discover  any  particulars  respecting  the  caravan 
trade  which  the  Carthaginians  carried  on  from  their  southern  settle- 
ments with  the  interior  of  Africa.  From  the  districts  bordering  on  the 
desert  the  chief  articles  obtained  were  dates  and  salt ;  but  from  beyond 
the  desert,  the  imports  were  negro  slaves  and  gold-dust.  The  nature 
ot'  this  lucrative  commerce  was  the  more  easily  concealed,  as  the  cara 
vans  were  formed  not  at  Carthage,  but  at  remote  tov/ns  in  the  interior, 
and  all  the  chief  staples  were  situated  on  the  confines  of  the  Greu' 
De.'-ert 


QH.ECIAN  STATE& 


81 


L'HAPTER  VITI. 

THE  FOUNDATION  OF 

THE    GRECIAN    STATES. 

Section  I. — Geographical  Outline  of  Hellas. 

(jREECE  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Cambunian  mountain>^, 
which  separated  it  from  Macedonia  ;  on  the  east  by  the  iEgean,  on  thr 
bouth  by  the  INIediterranean,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Ionian  seas.  Its 
extent  from  north  to  south  was  about  two  hundred  and  twenty  geo- 
graphical miles,  from  east  to  west  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles,  and 
consequently  its  area  was  about  34,000  square  miles  ;  making  a  small, 
indeed  too  small,  a  reduction  for  the  irregularity  of  its  outline.  No 
[European  country  was  so  advantageously  situated  ;  on  the  eastern  side, 
the  iEgean  sea,  studded  with  islands,  brought  it  into  close  contact  with 
Asia  Minor  and  the  Phoenician  frontiers  ;  the  voyage  to  Egypt  was 
neither  long  nor  difficult,  though  it  afforded  not  so  many  resting-places 
to  the  mariners  ;  and  from  the  west  there  was  a  short  and  easy  pas- 
sage to  Italy.  The  entire  line  of  this  extensive  coast  was  indented 
with  bays  and  harbors,  offering  every  facility  for  navigation ;  while  the 
two  great  gulfs  that  divided  Hel'las,  or  northern  Greece,  from  the 
Peloponnesus,  or  southern  Greece,  must  have,  in  the  very  earliest  ages, 
forced  naval  affairs  on  the  attention  of  the  inhabitants. 

Nature  herself  has  formed  three  great  divisions  of  this  very  remark- 
able country.  The  Saronic  and  Corinthian  gulfs  sever  the  Pelopon^ 
nesus  from  Hel'las ;  and  this  latter  is  divided  into  two  nearly  equal 
portions,  northern  and  southern,  by  the  chain  of  Mount  CE'ta,  which 
travers  's  it  obliquely,  severing  Thes'saly  and  Epiru?  froir  central 
Hel'las. 

Thes'j  iLY,the  largest  of  all  the  Grecian  provinces,  may  be  generalh 
described  as  an  extensive  table-land,  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  tht 
mountains,  and  by  the  ^Egean  sea,  close  to  whose  shores  rise  the  lofty 
peaks  of  Os'sa  and  Olym'pus.  Its  principal,  indeed  amiost  its  only  river 
is  the  Peneus,  which  rises  in  Mount  Pin'dus,  and  flowing  in  an  easterly 
iireclion,  falls  into  the  vEgean  sea.  Thes'saly  was  ruined  by  its  nat- 
ural wealth ;  the  inhabitants  rioted  in  sensual  enjojTiients  ;  anarchy 
and  tyrpimy  followed  each  other  in  regular  succession  ;  and  thus  Thes' 
saly  prepared  for  the  yoke  of  a  master,  was  the  first  to  submit  to  th« 
Persian  invaders,  and  afterward  to  the  Macedonian  Philip. 

Epirus  was,  next  to  Thes'saly,  the  largest  of  the  Grecian  provinces 
Dut  it  was  also  the  least  cultivated.     It  was  divided  into  two  provinces ; 
Molos'f'is,  and  Thesprotia-     The  interior  of  Epirus  is  traversed  by  will 


82  A^O[ENT  HISTORY 

ana  uncultivated  mountains.  The  wiklness-  of  the  country,  and  the 
rudeness  of  the  inhabitants,  have  given  occasion  to  the  Greeks  to  lep- 
resent  the  ri\  ers  Ach'eron  and  Cocytus,  which  flow  into  the  gulf  of 
Acherusia,  as  rivers  belonging  to  the  infernal  regions.  Its  oxen  and 
horses  were  unrivalled ;  and  it  was  also  celebrated  for  a  large  breed  of 
dogs,  called  Molossin,  whose  ferocity  is  still  remarked  by  the  traveller. 

Central  GanEce,  or  Hel'las,  contained  nine  countries  :  1,  At'tica  , 
2,  Meg'aris  ;  3,  Boeotia  ;  4,  Phocis  ;  5,  eastern  Locris ;  6,  westeni 
Locris ;  7,  Doris ;  8,  iEtolia ;  9,  Acarnania. 

Al'lica  is  a  headland  extending  in  a  southeasterly  direction  about 
sixty-three  miles  into  the  ^gean  sea.  It  is  about  twenty-five  miles 
broad  at  its  base,  whence  it  gradually  tapers  toward  a  point,  until  it 
ends  in  the  rocky  promontory  of  Sunium  [Cape  Colonna),  on  he  sum- 
mit of  which  stood  a  celebrated  temple  of  Minerva.  It  was  not  a  fer- 
tile country,  never  being  able  to  produce  sufficient  com  for  the  support 
of  its  inhabitants ;  but  it  had  rich  silver  mines  in  Mount  Larium,  ex- 
cellent marble  quarries  in  Mount  Pentel'icus,  and  the  ranges  of  hills,  by 
which  it  is  intersected  in  every  direction,  produced  abundance  of  ar- 
omatic plants,  from  which  swarms  of  industrious  bees  formed  the  most 
celebrated  honey. 

Mega'ris,  the  smallest  of  the  Grecian  territories,  lay  west  of  At'tica. 
close  to  the  Corinthian  isthmus.  It  capital  was  Mega'ra,  a  town  of 
considerable  strength. 

BoRotia  was  a  large  plain,  almost  wholly  surrounded  by  mountains ; 
It  was  divided  by  Cithae'ron  from  At'tica,  a  mountain  celebrated  by  the 
poets  for  the  mystic  orgies  of  Bac'chus,  the  metamorphosis  of  Actae'on, 
the  death  of  Pen'theus,  and  the  exposure  of  OE'dipus.  On  the  west 
were  the  chains  of  Parnas'sus  and  Hel'icon,  sacred  to  the  Muses,  sep- 
arating it  from  Phocis ;  and  on  the  north  it  was  divided  from  eastern 
Locris  by  a  prolongation  of  the  chain  of  Mount  Cnemis.  On  the  east 
was  Mount  Ptoiis,  extending  to  the  Euripus,  a  narrow  strait  that  divides 
the  island  of  Eubce'a  from  the  mainland.  The  climate  was  cloudy,  and 
the  soil  marshy,  as  might  be  conjectured  from  the  position  of  the  coun- 
try ;  but  it  was  a  fertile  and  well-watered  district,  and  the  most  densely 
populated  in  Greece. 

Phocis,  a  district  of  moderate  size  and  unequal  shape,  extended  from 
Ihe  mountain  chains  of  (E'ta  and  Cnemis,  southward  to  the  Corinthian 
gulf.  It  contained  several  important  mountain-passes  between  north- 
em  and  southern  Greece,  the  chief  of  which,  near  the  capital  city 
Elateia,  was  early  occupied  by  Philip  in  his  second  invasion  of  Hel'las. 
Mounts  Hel'icon  and  Parnas'sus,  and  the  fountains  of  Aganippe  and 
Hippocrene,  are  names  familiar  to  every  reader  of  poetry  ;  and  these, 
with  the  temple  and  oracle  of  Del'plii,  render  the  soil  of  Phocis  sacred. 
Uel'phi  ( Castri)  was  situated  on  the  south  side  of  Mount  Parnas'sus, 
overshadowed  by  its  double  peak ;  and  above  the  city  was  the  mag- 
nificent temple  of  Apol'lo.  Here,  under  the  patronage  of  the  god,  were 
collected  all  the  masterpieces  of  Grecian  art  in  countless  abundance, 
:ogether  with  costly  oflTerings  from  nations,  cities,  and  kings.  Here  the 
^mphictyonic  council  promulgated  the  first  maxims  of  the  law  of  na- 
dons  ;  ber(^  the  Pythian  g-ames,  scarcely  inferior  to  thop*i  of  Olympia 


GRECIAN  STATES.  83 

oxeicised  the  Grecian  youth  in  athletic  contests  ;  while  the  poets,  as 
eembled  round  the  CastaUan  fountain,  chanted  their  rival  odes  in  noble 
emulation. 

East  Locris  extends  along  the  Euripus :  it  was  inhabited  by  two 
tribes,  the  Opun'tii  and  Epicnemid'ii,  deriving  their  names  from  O'pus 
and  Mount  Ciemis.  The  most  remarkable  place  in  the  province  is  the 
pass  of  Thermop'ylae,  so  memorable  for  the  gallani  stand  made  there  by 
Leon'idas  against  the  Persian  myriads. 

Western  Locris,  separated  by  Phocis  from  the  eastern  province, 
joined  the  bay  of  Cor'inth ;  its  inhabitants  were  called  Ozolae. 

The  mountainous  district  of  Doris,  though  a  small  territory,  was 
the  parent  of  many  powerful  states.  The  province  was  enclosed  be- 
tween the  southern  ridge  of  ffi'ta  and  the  northern  extremity  of  Mount 
Parnas'sus. 

JBtolia  extended  from  Mount  CE'ta  to  the  Ionian  sea,  aaving  the 
Locrian  territory  on  the  east,  and  the  river  Acheloiis  on  the  west. 

Acarndnia,  the  most  western  country  of  Hel'las,  lay  wuot  of  the 
river  Acheloiis,  from  which  it  extended  to  the  Ambracian  gulf.  It  was 
very  thickly  covered  with  wood ;  and  the  inhabitants  remained  barba- 
rians after  other  branches  of  the  Hel'lenic  race  had  become  the  in- 
structers  of  the  world. 

Section  II. —  Geographical  Outline  of  the  Peloponnesus. 

Southern  Greece,  anciently  called  the  A'pian  land,  was  \iamed 
the  Peloponnesus  in  honor  of  Pelops,  who  is  said  to  have  introduced 
the  arts  of  peace  into  that  peninsula  from  Asia  Minor.  It  consists  of 
a  mountainous  range  in  the  centre,  v/hence  hills  branch  out  in  various 
directions,  several  of  which  extend  to  the  sea.  Its  modern  name,  the 
Morea,  is  derived  from  its  resemblance  to  a  mulberry  leaf,  which  that 
word  signifies.  It  was  divided  into  eight  countries,  1,  Arcadia, 
2,  Laconia  ;  3,  Messenia;  4,  E'lis  ;  5,  Ar'golis  ;  6,  Achaia  ;  7,  Sicyonia; 
and  8,  the  Corinthian  territory. 

Arcadia,  so  renowned  in  poetical  traditions,  occupied  the  central 
mountainous  district  of  the  PeLponnesus,  nowhere  bordering  on  the 
sea  It  resembles  Sw'^zerland  in  appearance  ;  and  this  similarity  may 
be  expended  to  the  character  of  the  inhabitants,  both  being  remarkable 
for  their  love  of  freedom  and  their  love  of  money.  Arcadia  is  sup- 
posed by  many  writers  to  have  been  the  cradle  of  the  Pelasgic  race ; 
but  though  this  is  doubtful,  it  certainly  was  retained  by  that  people  long 
after  the  Hel'lenes  had  occupied  every  other  part  of  Greece. 

Lacotua  occupied  the  southeastern  division  of  the  Peloponnesus :  il 
was  rugged  and  mountainous,  but  was  nevertheless  so  densely  inhabited, 
that  it  is  said  to  have  contained  nearly  a  hundred  towns  and  villages. 
The  chief  city,  Spar'ta,  on  the  river  Eurotas,  remaihed  for  many  ages 
without  walls  or  gates,  its  defence  being  intrusted  to  the  valor  of  its 
citizens ;  but  fortifications  were  erected  when  it  fell  under  the  sway  of 
icspotic  rulers. 

Messenia  lay  to  the  west  of  Laconia,  and  was  more  level  and  fruit 
ful  than  that  province.  Messe'ne  [Mai/rornali),  the  capital,  was  s 
otrongly-^'irtifi'^d  towi ;  and  wben  the  country  was  subjugated  by  Spar 


84  iiNClENT  HISTORY. 

i.a,  its  citizens  escaping  to  Sicily  gave  the  name  of  their  old  me:rop(<ii:; 
lo  the  principal  town  of  the  colony  they  formed,  which  it  still  retaint- 
with  very  slight  alteration. 

Ar'golis  was  a  foreland  on  the  south  side  of  the  Saronic  gulf,  oj)- 
posite  At'tica,  and  not  unlike  it  m  shape,  extending  southward  from 
Arcadia  fifty-four  miles  hito  the  iEgcan  sea,  and  terminating  in  the 
Scyllaean  promontory.  The  chief  chief  city  was  Argos,  on  the  river  In' 
achus,  a  stream  that  had  disappeared  even  in  ancient  times.  During 
the  reism  of  Perseus  the  seat  of  government  was  transferred  to  Mycente, 
the  celehrated  city  of  Agamem'non  ;  hut  soon  after  the  Trojan  war  it  was 
besieged  by  the  Argives,  and  levelled  to  the  ground. 

E'lis,  in  the  west  of  the  Peloponnesus,  was  the  holy  land  of  Greece. 
It  was  safe  from  the  din  of  arms  ;  and  when  bands  of  warriors  traversed 
the  sacred  soil,  they  laid  aside  their  weapons.  It  was  subdivided  into 
three  districts:  the  .northern,  named  E'lis  Proper,  from  the  chief  city 
of  the  province.  The  central  district,  Pisatis,  was  named  from  the  city 
of  Pisa,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  the  Olympic  games  were  cele- 
brated every  four  years. 

The  maritime  district  occupying  the  northwestern  portion  of  the 
Peloponnesus  was  originally  called  iEgi'lus,  or  ^gialeia,  either  from 
some  hero,  or  from  its  situation  on  the  coast.  Its  inhabitants  were 
afterward  blended  with  a  colony  of  lonians  from  Africa,  when  it  took 
the  name  of  Ionia ;  but  these  being  subsequently  expelled  by  the 
Achaeans,  it  received  and  retained  the  denomination  of  Achaia,  by 
which  it  is  best  known  in  history.  It  was  a  narrow  strip  of  country, 
watered  by  a  multitude  of  mountain-streams,  which  descended  from  the 
lofty  Arcadian  ridges  ;  but  it  was  not  eminent  either  for  fertility  or  pop- 
ulation. The  inhabitants  were  a  peaceful,  industrious  }>eople,  aspiring 
to  neither  eminence  in  war  nor  literature,  but  attached  to  liberty,  and 
governed  by  wise  laws. 

The  territory  of  Sici/onia,  frequently  regarded  as  a  part  of  Achaia 
'vas  remarkable  only  for  the  city  of  Sic'yon,  the  most  ancient  in  Greece 
havinff  been  founded  more  than  two  thousand  years  before  the  Chris 
iian  era. 

The  Peloponnesus  was  connected  with  Hel'las  by  the  Corinthiah 
isthmus,  having  the  Saronic  gulf  on  the  eastern  side,  and  the  Corinth- 
ian on  the  western.  Several  attempts  were  made  to  join  these  seas  by 
a  canal ;  but  the  nature  of  the  ground  to  be  cut  through  presented  insu- 
perable difficulties  ;  and  hence  "to  cut  the  Corinthian  isthnnis"  was  a 
proverbial  expression  for  aiming  at  impossibilities.  On  this  narrow 
pass  the  Isthmian  games  were  celebrated  in  honor  of  Neptune,  iiear  the 
national  temple  of  *^hat  deity,  which  stood  in  the  midst  of  agiove  of 
fir-trees.  Here  aLo  a  stand  has  frequently  been  made  in  defence  of 
the  liberties  of  Greece  ;  the  narrowness  of  the  isthmus  easily  admit- 
ting of  fortification.  At  the  south  of  the  isthmus  stood  the  wealthy  city 
of  Corinth,  anciently  called  Ephy're,  more  than  four  miles  in  extent ;  if 
was  erected  at  the  foot  of  a  lofty  hill,  called  the  Ac'ro-Corin'thus,  or 
which  the  citadel  was  built.  This  was  the  strongest  fortress  in  Greece 
and  perha.ps  no  other  spot  in  the  world  afforded  so  brilliant  a  prospect 
The  Coriuthian  territory  was  one  of  the  smallest  ir.  Greece  ;  but  com 
'Jierce.  net  dominion,  seemed  the  strength  of  Corinth,  and  trade  render 


GRECIAN  STATES.  85 

&!  it  rich  and  puxv^etl'ul ;  like  Venice,  whose  prosperity  was  nevci 
CTeater  than  when  the  republic  possessed  not  a  single  square  mile  on 
the  continent. 

Section  III. —  The  Grecian  Islands  in  the  JEgean  and  Mediterranean  Stab 

The  Thracian  islands  occupy  the  north  of  the  ^gean  sea  :  the  prin 
cipal  were,  Thasos,  Sam'othrace,  and  Im'brus. 

Opposite  to  Im'brus,  on  the  Asiatic  coast,  at  the  entrance  of  Helles- 
pont, was  the  island  of  Ten'edos,  remarkable  for  a  temple  dedicated  tc 
Apollo,  under  the  name  of  Smin'theus. 

Southwest  of  Ten'edos  was  Lem'nos  (S/aiime>(e),  dedicated  to  He- 
phajs'tus  or  Vulcan,  because  the  poets  asserted  that  Vulcan,  when  flun^ 
from  heaven  by  Jupiter,  had  fallen  in  this  island.  South  of  these  were 
Sciathus  {Sciatica).  Scop'elos  [Scopelo),  and  Scyros  {Ski~'i),  where 
Achilles  was  concealed  by  Thetis. 

South  of  Ten'edos,  and  opposite  the  city  of  Eph'esus,  on  if^e  Asiatic 
coast,  was  Lesbos  (Meteliti).  Further  to  the  south  was  Chios  (Scio), 
whose  wines  were  deemed  the  best  in  the  ancient  world.  It  also  con- 
tained quaries  of  beautiful  marble. 

The  largest  island  in  the  ^Egean  was  Eubce^a  {Egripo),  separated  from 
the  Boeotian  coast  by  a  narrow  strait  called  the  Eurlpus,  which  is  now 
choked  up. 

In  the  Saronic  gulf  were  the  islands  of  Sal'amis  and  ^gina. 

Southeast  of  Eubce'a  were  the  Cyc'lades,  a  cluster  of  islands  de- 
riving their  name  from  their  nearly  forming  a  circle  round  the  island 
of  Delos.  Oity'gia,  or  Delos,  is  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  birth- 
place of  Apol'lo  and  Dian'a. 

The  other  remarkable  islands  in  this  group  were  An'dros  ;  Ceos ; 
Paros,  celebrated  for  its  white  marble  ;  Melos  ;  Nax'os,  sacred  to  Bac'' 
chus  ;  and  I'os,  said  to  have  been  the  burial-place  of  Homer. 

East  of  the  Cyc'lades,  and  close  along  the  Asiatic  coast,  was  another 
cluster  of  islands  called  the  Spor'ades,  from  their  being  irregularly 
scattered  over  the  sea.  Tlie  chief  of  these  were,  Samos,  sacred  to 
Juno,  and  th*"  birthplace  of  the  philosopher  Pythag'oras ;  Pat'mos, 
where  St.  John  wrote  the  Revelations  ;  Cos,  the  native  country  of  the 
celebrate  1  physician  Hippocrates  ;  Car'pathus  [Scarpanto), -which,  gave 
name  to  the  Carpathian  sea  ;  and  Rhodes. 

Crete  (Candia),  the  largest  of  the  Grecian  islands  except  Eubcea, 
lies  at  the  entrance  of  tlie  iEgean.  In  ancient  times  it  was  celebrated 
for  its  hundred  cities.  Northeast  of  Crete  is  Cy'prus,  the  favorite 
island  of  Venus,  whose  Paphian  bower  is  not  yet  forgotten  in  song 
and  whose  loveliness  has  been  celebrated  by  poets  of  every  age  and 
nation. 

Section  IV. —  The  Ionian  Islands. 

Copcy'ra,  formerly  called  Drepane  (Corfu),  is  celebrated  by  Ho- 
iUPT  nndor  the  name  of  Pheeacia,  for  its  amazing  riches  and  fertility 
It  V7n«  opposite  tliat  part  of  Epirus  named  Thesprotia,  from  which  i' 
was  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  called  the  Corcyrean. 


86  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Leticadia  (Santa  Maura)  was  originally  a  peninsula,  bnt  the  is-lliii\u(- 
ihat  joined  it  to  the  mainlar.d  was  cut  through  to  facilitate  naA'igation. 

The  Echin'ades  (Curzolari)  were  a  small  cluster  of  islands  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Acheloiis,  of  which  the  most  celebrated  was  Du 
lichium,  part  of  the  ivingdom  of  Ulys'ses.  Near  it  was  the  little  island 
of  Ith'aca  (T/ieaki),  immortalized  by  Homer. 

Cephalonia,  anciently  called  Scheria,  was  the  largest,  of  th'^.  western 
Grecian  islands,  and  the  least  noted  in  history. 

South  of  this  was  Zacyn'thus  [Zante),  with  a  capital  of  the  same 
name,  celebrated  for  its  fertile  meads,  its  luxuriant  woods,  and  its  abun- 
dant fountains  of  bitumen. 

West  of  the  Peloponnesus  are  the  Stroph'ades  [Strivoli),  more  an- 
ciently called  Plot(E,  because  they  were  supposed  to  have  been  floating 
islands  ;  and  south  of  them  is  the  island  oi  Sphacteria  [Sphagics), 
which  guards  the  entrance  of  Py'los  (Navarino). 

South  of  the  Peloponnesus  is  the  island  of  Cyth'erea  (Cerigo),  sa- 
cred to  Venus,  and  celebrated  in  ancient  times  for  its  fertility  and 
beauty. 

Section  V. — Social  and  Political  Condition  of  Greece. 

It  is  useless  to  investigate  the  social  condition  of  the  Greeks  in 
what  are  called  the  heroic  ages,  because  we  have  no  credible  account 
of  that  period.  But  when  the  certain  history  of  Greece  commences, 
we  find  the  country  divided  between  two  races,  the  lonian  and  the  Do- 
rian, distinguished  from  each  other  by  striking  characteristics,  which 
were  never  wholly  ol)literated.  We  know,  also,  that  two  other  races' 
the  iEolian  and  Achaean,  existed ;  but  they  seem  to  have  become  in  a 
great  degree  identified  with  one  or  other  of  the  two  former. 

The  lonians  were  remarkable  for  their  democratic  spirit,  and  conse- 
quent hostility  to  hereditary  privileges.  They  were  vivacious,  prone  to 
excitement,  easily  induced  to  make  important  changes  in  their  institu- 
tions, and  proud  of  their  country  and  themselves.  Their  love  of  refined 
enjoyments  made  them  diligent  cultivators  of  the  fine  arts,  but  without 
being  destitut '  of  martial  vigor.  They  were  favorably  disposed  tow- 
ard com'nerce  ,  hut,  like  too  many  other  free  states,  they  encumbered 
it  with  short-sighted  restrictions,  and  they  were  cruel  masters  to  theii 
colonial  dependancies. 

The  Dorian  race,  on  the  contrary,  was  remarkable  for  the  seveie 
simplicity  of  its  manners,  and  its  strict  adherence  to  ancient  usages. 
It  preferred  an  aristocratic  form  of  government,  and  required  age  as 
a  qualification  for  magistracy,  because  the  old  are  usually  opposed  to 
innovation.  They  were  ambitious  of  supremacy,  and  the  chief  object 
of  their  institutions  was  to  maintain  the  warlike  and  almost  savage  spirit 
of  the  nation.  Slavery  in  its  worst  form  prevailed  in  every  Dorian 
state  ;  and  the  slaves  were  almost  deprived  of  hope — for  the  Dorian 
legislation  was  directed  chiefly  to  fix  every  man  in  his  hereditary  con- 
dition. Commerce  was  discouraged  on  account  of  its  tendency  to 
change  the  ranks  of  society,  and  the  fine  arts  all  but  prohibited,  be- 
cause they  were  supposed  to  lead  to  effemmacy. 

The  differences  between  these  two  races  is  the  chief  charactoristii 


GRECIAN  STATES.  87 

Ol  Grecian  politics  ;  it  runs,  indeed,  through  the  entire  history'  and 
was  the  principal  cause  of  the  deep-rooted  hatred  between  Athent^  and 
Sparta.  Next  to  this,  the  most  marked  feature  in  the  political  aspec' 
of  Greece  is,  that  it  contained  as  many  free  states  as  cities.  At'tica^ 
Meg'aris,  and  Laconia,  -were  civic  rather  than  territorial  states  .  bu* 
there  are  few  of  the  other  divisions  of  the  country  that  were  united 
under  a  single  government.  The  cities  of  A'chaia,  Arcddia,  and 
Boeotia,  were  independent  of  each  other,  though  the  Achaean  citiea 
were  united  by  a  federative  league  ;  and  Thebes  generally  exercised  a 
precarious  dominion  over  the  other  cities  of  Boeotia,  The  supremacy 
of  the  principal  state  was  called  by  the  Greeks  Hegem'ony  ;  it  included 
the  right  of  determining  the  foreign  relations  of  the  inferior  states,  and 
binding  them  to  all  wars  in  which  the  capital  engaged,  and  all  ti  eaties 
«)f  peace  which  it  concluded ;  but  it  did  not  allow  of  any  interkrence 
in  the  internal  administration  of  each  govf>rnment.  This  parcelling 
out  of  a  small  country,  added  to  the  frequent  revolutions,  facilitated 
by  the  narrow  limits  of  each  state,  necessarily  led  to  a  more  rapid  de- 
velopment of  political  science,  in  Greece  than  in  any  other  country. 

Divided  as  the  Greeks  were,  there  were  many  circumstances  that 
united  the  whole  Hellenic  race  by  a  common  bond  of  nationality.  Of 
these  the  chief  was  unity  of  religion,  connected  with  which  were  the 
national /estivals  and  games,  at  which  all  the  Hellenes,  and  none  others, 
were  allowed  to  take  a  share.  If,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  the 
Greeks  derived  the  elements  of  their  religion  from  Asia  or  Egypt,  they 
soon  made  it  so  peculiarly  their  own,  that  it  retained  no  features  of  its 
original  source.  All  Asiatic  deities  are  more  or  less  of  an  elementary 
character ;  that  is,  they  symbolize  some  natural  object,  such  as  the 
sun,  the  earth,  an  important  river ;  or  some  power  of  nature,  such  as 
the  creative,  the  preserving,  and  the  destroying  power.  In  many  in- 
stances both  were  combined,  and  the  visible  object  was  associated  with 
the  latent  power.  On  the  other  hand,  the  gods  of  Greece  were  humaii 
personages,  possessing  the  forms  and  the  attributes  of  men,  though  in  a 
higlily  exalted  degree.  The  paganism  of  Asia  was  consequently  a  re- 
ligion of  fear ;  for  it  was  impossible  to  conceive  deities  of  monstrous 
lorms  sympathizing  with  man  :  hence,  also,  the  priesthood  formed  a  pe- 
culiar .caste  ;  for  the  mystery  Avliich  veiled  the  god  was  necessarily 
extended  to  the  mode  in  which  he  should  be  worshipped. 

Instead  of  this  gloomy  system,  the  Greeks  had  a  religion  of  love ; 
they  regarded  their  gods  as  a  kind  of  personal  friends,  and  hence  thei) 
worship  was  cheerful  and  joyous.  The  priesthood  was  open  to  all ; 
the  office  was  commonly  filled  for  a  limited  time  only,  and  was  not 
deemed  inconsistent  with  other  occupations.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
the  Grecian  religion  received  its  peculiar  form  from  the  beautiful  iic- 
lions  of  the  poets,  especially  Homer  and  Hesiod ;  for  in  all  its  features 
>t  is  essentially  poetical.  We  need  scarcely  dwell  on  the  benellcial 
effects  produced  by  this  system  on  the  fine  arts,  or  its  facilitating  the 
progress  of  knowledge,  by  separating  religion  from  philosophy. 

The  oracles  of  Dodona  and  Del'phi,  the  temples  >f  Olym'pia  and 
Delos,  were  national ;  they  belonged  to  the  whole  Hellenic  race.  The 
resporses  of  the  o'acles  were  more  leverenced  by  the  Dorian  than  the 
Ionian  race,  for  the  latter  early  emancipated  itself  from  the  trammcid 


88  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Dl  suijois-ition.  The  worship  in  all  was  voluntary,  and  the  large  gii'-' 
L'liiuloiisly  sent  to  them  were  tlie  spontaneous  offers  of  patriotic  afiectioD. 
Del'phi  was  under  the  government  of  the  Amphictyon'ic  council ;  bir 
this  body  did  not  limit  its  attention  to  the  government  of  ihe  temple : 
by  its  influence  over  the  oracle,  it  acquired  no  small  share  in  the  af- 
fairs of  different  states  ;  and  it  superintended  the  administration  of  the 
law  of  nations,  even  when  the  states  represented  in  it  were  engaged 
in  war. 

The  great  public  games  were  the  Olympian,  the  Pythian,  the  Ne- 
mean,  and  the  Isthmian.  Foreigners  might  be  spectators  at  thes^: 
games,  but  Hellenes  alone  could  contend  for  the  prize.  This  right  be- 
longed to  the  colonies  as  well  as  to  the  states  in  the  mother-country ; 
and,  as  it  was  deemed  a  privilege  of  the  highest  value,  it  preserved  the 
unity  even  of  the  most  distant  branches  of  the  Hellenic  race. 

All  the  constitutions  of  the  Grecian  states  wore  republican  ;  crt  they 
•••aried  so  much  in  the  different  cities,  that  hardly  ar.y  two  were  alike. 
!n  general,  however,  it  may  be  stated,  that  in  all  the  most  severe  pub- 
Mc  and  private  labors  were  intrusted  to  slaves :  and  in  many,  as 
Laconia,  agriculture  was  managed  by  them  exclusively.  This  degraded 
manufacturing  industry,  and  led  to  an  undue  depression  not  only  of  ar- 
tisans and  retailers,  but  even  of  master  manufacturers.  Foreign  mer- 
chants were  treated  with  unwise  jealousy,  and  could  never  obtain  the 
privileges  of  citizens.  The  right  of  coinage  was  reserved  to  the  state  ; 
but  it  was  not  until  a  very  late  period  that  the  Greeks  began  to  pay 
attention  to  finance.  Little  or  no  taxation  was  necessarj' while  the 
citizens  served  as  voluntary  soldiers ;  and  the  magistrates  were  re- 
warded with  honor,  not  money.  But  when  mercenary  armies  were 
employed,  and  ambassadors  sent  into  distant  lands,  when  the  impor- 
tance of  a  na\'y  induced  cities  to  outbid  each  other  in  the  pay  of  their 
sailors,  heavy  taxes  became  necessary,  and  these  brought  many  of  the 
cities  into  great  pecuniary  embarrassment. 

Another  source  of  expense  was  the  provision  for  public  festivals  and 
theatrical  shows  ;  to  which  was  added,  in  Athens  and  other  places,  the 
payment  of  the  dicasts,  or  persons  analogous  to  our  jurpnen  ;  though,  in- 
stead of  their  number  being  limited  to  twelve,  they  frequently  amounted  tr 
several  hundreds,  and  had  no  presiding  judges.  This  was  doubly  injuri 
ous  ;  the  m  ;ltitude  of  the  dicasts  not  only  entailed  a  heavy  expense 
upon  the  state,  but  the  sum  paid  being  small,  few  save  those  of  the 
lower  classes  attended,  whose  decisions  were  not  unfrequently  guided 
by  prejudice  and  passion,  instead  of  law  and  justice. 

The  poetical  nature  of  its  religion,  and  the  free  constitution  of  its 
tstatt  s,  not  only  rendered  Greece  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  progress  of 
ii»'^.rature,  philosophy,  and  the  fine  arts,  but  gave  these,  in  turn,  a  de- 
cided influence  on  the  government.  The  tragic  and  lyric  poets  pro- 
luced  their  pieces  in  honor  of  the  gods  ;  the  comic  poets  at  Athena 
discussed  public  affairs  on  the  stage  with  a  freedom,  or  rather  licen- 
tiousness, which  the  wildest  excesses  of  the  modern  press  have  never 
equalled ;  and  the  influence  of  the  orators  at  Athens  rendered  them  tho 
kaders  of  the  state. 

The  seeds  of  dissolution  were  thickly  so>v~i  in  the  social  system  of 
the  Gr*>pk»      The  rivalry  between  the  Dorian  and  Ionian  :-aces '  tht 


GRECIAN  STATES. 


80 


/nvbulente  and  sedition  natural  to  small  republics ;  and  the  gradual  de- 
cline of  religion,  followed  by  a  consequent  corruption  of  morals — ■ 
rendered  the  duration  of  the  constitution  as  brief  as  it  was  glorious. 

Section  VI. —  The  Iraditional  History  of  Greece  from  the  earliest  Ages  to  the 
Conuuencement  of  the  Trojan  War. 

FROM    AN    UNKNOWN    PERIOD   TO    ABOUT    1200    B.    C. 

Sacred  history,  confirmed  by  uniform  tradition,  informs  us  thai 
Thrace,  Macedon,  and  Greece,  were  peopled  at  an  earlier  period  than 
the  other  portions  of  the  western  world.  The  first  inhabitants  were 
tribes  of  hunters  and  she])herds,  whose  earliest  approaches  to  civiliza- 
tion were  associations  for  mutual  defence  against  robber-tribes,  and  the 
Phoenician  corsairs  that  swept  the  coast  of  the  iEgean  to  kidnap  slaves. 
The  Pelas'gi  were  the  first  tribe  that  acquired  supremacy  in  Greece : 
they  were  probably  of  Asiatic  origin  ;  and  the  first  place  in  which  they 
appear  to  have  made  a  permanent  settlement  was  the  Peloponnesus, 
where  they  erected  Sic'yon  (*b.  c.  2000),  and  Argos  (*b.  c.  1800). 
In'achus  was  regarded  by  the  Pelas'gi  as  their  founder :  he  was  prob- 
ably contemporary  with  Abraham  ;  but  nothing  certain  is  known  of  his 
historv. 

To  the  Pelas'gi  are  attributed  the  remains  of  those  most  ancient 
monuments  generally  called  Cyclopian.  They  are  usually  composed 
of  enormous  rude  masses  piled  upon  one  another,  with  small  stones 
fitted  in  between  the  intervals  to  complete  the  work.  From  the  Pel- 
oponnesus the  Pelas'gi  extended  themselves  northward  to  Attica, 
BcBOtia,  and  Thessaly,  which  they  are  said  to  have  entered  under  three 
leaders,  Achfe'us,  Phthius,  and  Pelas'gus ;  though  by  these  names  we 
ought  probably  to  understand  separate  tribes  rather  than  individuals. 
Here  they  learned  to  apply  themselves  to  agriculture,  and  continued  to 
flourish  for  nearly  two  centuries.     (From  *b.  c.  1700  to  *b.  c.  1500.) 

The  Hellenes,  a  more  mild  and  humane  race,  first  appeared  on 
Mount  Parnas'sus,  in  Phocis,  under  Deucalion,  whom  they  venerated 
as  their  founder  (*b.  c.  1433).  Being  driven  thence  by  a  flood,  they 
migrated  into  Thessaly,  and  expelled  the  Pelas'gi  from  that  territory, 
From  this  time  forward  the  Hellenes  rapidly  increased,  and  extended 
their  dominion  over  the  greater  part  of  Greece,  dispossessing  the  more 
ancient  race,  which  only  retained  the  mountainous  parts  of  Arcadia  and 
the  land  of  Dodona.  Numbers  of  the  Pelas'gi  emigrated  to  Italy. 
Crete,  and  some  o*"  the  other  islands. 

The  1  [ellenic  race  was  subdivided  into  four  great  branches,  the 
iEolians,  lonians,  Dorians,  and  Achaeans,  which,  in  the  historic  age  of 
Greece,  were  characterized  by  many  strong  and  marked  peculiarities 
of  dialect,  customs,  and  political  government ;  we  may  perhaps  add, 
leligious,  or  at  least,  heroic  traditions,  only  tnat  these  appear  to  be  con- 
nected rather  with  the  localities  in  which  they  settled  than  with  the 
Jitock  from  which  they  sprung.  There  were  many  smaller  ramifications 
of  the  Hellenic  race  ;  but  all  united  themselves  to  one  or  other  of  the 
'bur  great  tribes,  whose  names  are  derived  from  Deucalion's  immediate 
poeterity.  It  is  the  common  attribute  of  ancient  traditions  to  describe 
tho  achievements  of  a  tribe  or  army  as  personal  exploits  of  the  leader* 


00  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

and  hence  we  find  the  histoiy  of  the  tribes  and  .heir  migrations  iuter- 
.voven  with  the  persoi.al  history  of  Deucalion's  descendants. 

Hel'len,  the.  son  of  DeucaUon,  gave  his  name  to  the  whole  H(  Heme 
race  :  he  had  three  sons,  /Eolns,  Dorus,  and  Xiithus  ;  of  whom  the 
first  settled  in  the  district  of  Thessaly  called  Phthiotis,  and  became 
the  founder  of  the  ^olian  tribe  ;  the  second  settled  in  Estiajotis,  and 
there  established  the  Dorian  tribe ;  the  third,  expelled  by  his  brethren, 
migrated  to  Athens,  wdiere  he  manied  Creusa,  the  daughter  of  king 
Erec'theus,  by  whom  he  had  two  sons,  I'on  and  Achseus.  After  the 
death  of  Erec'theus,  Xiithus  was  forced  to  remove  to  iEgialeia  (the 
province  of  the  Peloponnesus  afterward  called  Achaia),  where  he  died 
His  son  Pon,  the  founder  of  the  Ionian  race,  became  general  of  the 
Athenian  forces,  and  lord  of  iEgialeia,  to  which  he  gave  ihe  name  ol 
Ionia.  AchtBus,  the  founder  of  the  Acheean  race,  obtained  possession 
•jf  the  greater  part  of  the  Peloponnesus,  especially  Argolis  and  Laconia. 

The  iEolian  tribe  spread  itself  over  western  Greece,  Acarnania, 
.Etolia,  Phocis,  Locris,  E'lis  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  western 
islands.  The  Dorians,  driven  from  Estiajotis  by  the  Perrhaebians, 
spread  themselves  over  Macedonia  and  Crete ;  a  part  of  them  subse- 
quently returning,  crossed  Mount  (E'ta,  and  settled  in  Doris  on  the 
Doric  Tetrap'olis,  where  they  remained  until  they  migrated  into  the 
Peloponnesus  under  the  guidance  of  the  Heracleidee  ;  an  important  res- 
olution, v/hich  will  soon  engage  our  attention. 

The  lonians  inhabited  At'tica  and  ^'Egialeia  ;  but  they  were  expelled 
from  the  latter  by  the  Achaeans  at  the  time  of  the  great  Dorian  migra- 
tion, and  the  name  of  the  country  changed  to  Achaia.  The  Achsana 
retained  Argolis  and  Laconia  until  they  were  expelled  by  the  Dorians, 
when,  as  we  have  just  said,  they  established  themselves  in  ^gialeia. 

From  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  cen 
tur)'  before  Christ,  several  colonies  from  Egypt,  Phoenicia,  and  Phry'- 
gia,  settled  in  different  parts  of  Greece,  bringing  with  them  the  im- 
provements in  the  arts  and  sciences  that  had  been  made  in  their  re- 
spective countries,  and  thus  greatly  advancing  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion in  Greece.     The  chief  of  these  colonies  were  : — 

An  Egj^ptian  colony  was  led  from  Sais  in  the  Del'ta  to  At'tica  by 
Cecrops  (*b.  c.  1550) :  he  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  institution  of 
marriage  and  the  first  elements  of  civilization. 

A  second  colony,  from  Lower  Egypt,  was  led  by  Dan'aus,who  fled 
from  a  brother's  enndty,  and  settled  in  Ar'gos  (*b.  c.  1500).  The  fa- 
ble of  his  fifty  daughters  is  well  known ;  but  its  historical  foundation 
is  altogether  uncertain. 

A  Phcenician  colony,  under  Cad'mus,  settled  in  Bceotia,  and  founded 
Thebes,  nearly  at  the  same  time  that  Cecrops  established  himself  at 
At'tica.     He  was  the  first  who  introduced  the  use  of  letters  into  Greece 

Pelops  led  a  colony  from  Phrv'gia,  the  northwestern  kingdom  ol 
Asia  Minor,  into  the  Peloponnesus  (*b.  c.  1400) :  he  did  not  acquire 
BO  large  a  kingdom  as  ^he  settlers  mentioned  before  ;  but  his  descend 
ants,  by  intermarriages  with  the  royal  famines  of  Ar'gos  and  I/aceda;' 
(non,  acquired  such  paramount  influence,  that  they  became  supreme 
over  ihe  peninsula,  and  gave  it  the  name  ol  their  great  ancestor. 

Several  circumstances,  however,  impeded  the  progress  of  civiliz.ition 
The  coasts  of   Greece  were  temptingly  exposed  to   the  Phoenician?* 


GRECIAN  STATES.  91 

Cariaiis,  and  islanders  of  the  iEgean,  who  at  first  made  the  art  of  nav 
igation  subservient  to  piracy  rather  than  commerce  ;  and  the  Thracians 
the  Amazons,  and  other  barbarous  tribes  from  the  north,  made  frequen 
incursions  into  the  exposed  Hellenic  provinces.  To  resist  these  in- 
cursions the  celebrated  Amphictyonic  league  w^as  founded  by  Amphic- 
tyon,  a  descendant  of  Deucalion  :  the  federation  was  constantly  rc- 
ceivmg  fre?h  accessions,  until  it  included  the  greater  part  of  the  Gre- 
cian states  ;  deputies  from  which  met  alternately  at  Del'phi  and  Ther- 
mop'ylse. 

Like  Europe  in  the  middle  ages,  Greece  at  this  period  was  infested 
by  bands  of  robbers,  who  deemed  plunder  an  honorable  profession,  and 
some  of  whom  exercised  the  most  atrocious  cruelties  on  the  hapless 
passengers.  The  adventurers  who  acquired  most  fame  by  their  ex- 
ertions in  destroying  the  freebooters  were  Persc.is,  Hei-^cules,  Beller'- 
ophon,  Theseus,  and  the  Dioskoiiroi  Cas'tor,  and  Pol'lux,  whose  ro- 
mantic histories  form  a  very  large  portion  of  Grecian  mythology. 

The  most  celebrated  events  in  this  period  of  uncertain  history  are, 
the  Argonautic  expedition,  the  two  Theban  wars,  the  siege  of  Troy, 
the  return  of  the  Heracleidoe,  and  the  migration  of  the  Ionian  and 
iEolian  colonies  to  Asia  Minor.  It  is  not  easy  to  discover  the  real 
nature  and  objects  of  the  Argonautic  expedition  :  it  appears  certain 
that  in  the  thirteenth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  a  Thessalian 
prince,  named  Jason,  collected  the  young  chivalry  of  Greece,  and  sailed 
on  an  expedition,  partly  commercial  and  partly  piratical,  in  a  ship 
named  Argo,  to  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Euxine  sea.  The  Argonauts 
fought,  conquered,  and  plundered  ;  they  planted  a  colony  in  Col^chis, 
and  their  chief  brought  a  princess  of  that  country  home  to  Thessaly. 
But  though  impenetrable  darkness  veils  the  natiu'e  of  this  expedition, 
Jiere  can  be  no  doubt  of  its  results.  From  the  era  of  the  Argonauts, 
we  may  discover  among  the  Greeks  not  only  a  more  daring  and  more 
enlarged  spirit  of  enterprise,  but  a  more  decisive  and  rapid  progress 
toward  civilization  and  humanity. 

The  worship  of  Diony'sus  or  Bac'chus  was  established  at  Thebes 
by  Cad'mus  ;  and  the  Phoenician  mythology  is  full  of  the  miseries  and 
crimes  that  debased  and  ruined  the  family  of  Cad'mus.  ffi'dipus,  the 
most  remarkable  of  his  descendants,  having  been  remcrad  from  the 
throne  for  an  involuntary  series  of  crimes,  his  sons,  Ete'ocles  and 
Polynices,  seized  the  kingdom,  and  agreed  to  reign  in  turn.  Ete'ocles 
refused  to  perform  the  agreement ;  and  Pol}Tiices  being  joined  bj^  six 
of  the  most  eminent  generals  in  Greece,  commenced  the  memorabl*" 
war  of  "  the  Seven  against  Thebes"  (*b.  c.  1225).  The  result  was  fa 
tal  to  the  allies  ;  Ete'ocles  and  Polynices  fell  by  mutual  wounds ;  and 
Creon,  who  succeeded  to  the  Theban  throne,  routed  the  confederate 
forces,  five  of  whose  leaders  were  left  dead  on  the  field.  After  the  lapse 
of  about  ten  years,  the  sons  of  the  allied  princes,  called  the  Epig'oni, 
marched  against  Thebes  to  avenge  the  death  of  their  fathers  After  a 
sanguinary  conflict,  the  Thebans  were  routed  with  great  slaughter, 
their  leader  slain,  and  their  city  captured.  In  consequence  of  thes« 
wars  the  Thebans  were  lv)ng  odious  to  the  res",  of  the  Greeks,  and  they  re 
paid  this  hatred  by  infidelity  to  the  Hellenic  cause  during  the  Persiui 


92  ANCIENT    H/STORY. 

When  the  family  of  Pelops  became  powerful  in  soulheni  Greece,  thoy 
appear  to  have  atlempied  to  retaliate  the  injuries  that  had  dri^'en  theil 
ancestors  into  exile.  In  one  of  their  plunderir.g  expeditions  to  the 
Phrygian  coast,  a  youn*  jjrince  named  Podar'kes  was  carried  away  cap- 
tive, and  detained  until  a  large  ransom  had  been  paid  for  his  liberation. 
From  this  circumstance,  he  was  afterward  named  Priam,  or  "  the  pur- 
chased." At  a  subsequent  period,  Priam  having  become  king  ol"  Troy, 
sent  his  son  Paris,  or  Alexan'der,  as  an  ambassador  to  the  Peloponnesian 
princes,  probably  to  negotiate  a  peace.  He  seduced  Hel'en,  the  beau- 
tiful wife  of  Meneliius,  king  of  Sparta,  and  conveyed  her,  with  some 
valuable  treasures,  to  Troy.  The  injured  husband  applie'l  to  hi= 
countrymen  for  redress.  A  large  army,  raised  by  the  confederate 
kings,  was  placed  under  the  comiiiajid  of  Agamemnon,  the  brother  of 
Menelaus. 

Troy  was  at  this  time  the  capital  of  a  powerful  kmgdom,  possessing 
-'.nnerous  albes  and  subjects,  "t  mustered,  according  to  Homer,  an 
army  of  fifty  thousand  men  ;  its  v>  ills  could  defy  the  imperfect  machines 
then  used  in  sieges,  and  its  citadel  was  impregnable.  Against  this 
powerful  kingdom  the  Greek  princes  undertook  their  expedition,  with 
an  army  of  about  one  hundred  thousand  men,  conveyed  in  eleven  hui\- 
dred  and  eighty-six  ships.  These  vessels  were  of  very  rude  construc- 
tion, having  only  halfdecks,  and  stones  instead  of  anchors  ;  the  soldiers 
acted  as  rowers,  and  when  they  reached  their  destination  tlie  ships  were 
hauled  upon  land. 

The  war  was  protracted  ten  years,  during  which  several  battles  were 
fought  under  the  walls  of  Troy  ;  and  we  find  that  the  military  weapons 
used  were  in  every  respect  similar  to  those  employed  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  city  was  finally  taken  by  stratagem,  ^nd  razed  to  the 
ground ;  most  of  the  inhabitants  were  slain  or  taken,  and  the  rest  were 
forced  to  become  exiles  in  distant  lands.  The  victors,  however,  suffer- 
ed nearly  as  much  as  the  vanquished.  During  the  protracted  absence 
of  the  chiefs,  usurpers  had  seized  many  of  their  thrones,  aided  by  faith- 
less wives  and  the  rising  ambition  of  young  men.  These  circumstances 
necessarily  led  to  fierce  wars  and  intestine  commotions,  whi  rh  greatly 
retarded  the  progress  oi  Grecian  civilization 

Section  VII. — Grecian  Histori/  from  the  Trojan  War  to  the  H'itahlishmeiu 
of  the  Greek  Colonies  in  Asia. 

FROM  *B.  c.  1183  TO  B.  c.  994. 

We  have  seen  how  the  posterity  of  Pelops,  by  various  means,  ob 
lained  possession  of  the  entire  Peloponnesus,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
more  ancient  dynasties.  Their  rivals  were  the  Perseida;,  who  claimed 
through  their  ancestor  Per'seus,  the  honors  of  a  divine  descent,  anJ 
who  could  boast  of  having  in  their  family  such  heroes  as  Per'seus 
Beller'ophon,  and  ller'cules.  From  the  last-named  hero  a  powerful 
branch  of  the  Perseid  family  received  the  name  of  the  Heracleidae  • 
they  were  persecuted  by  the  Pelop'id  sovereigns,  and  driven  into  exile. 
After  having  been  hospitably  received  by  the  Athenians,  they  retired  to 
Jie  mountainous  district  of  Doris,  and  became  masters  of  that  wild  and 


GRECIAN  STATES.  93 

baircn  prownce  The  Dorian  mountains  were  ill-calculated  to  sat  sfj 
men  whose  ancestors  had  inherited  the  fertile  plains  of  the  Peloponnesus 
When  the  consequences  of  the  Trojan  war  filled  Greece  with  confusion^ 
the  HeracleidcE  were  encouraged  to  make  an  eftbrt  to  regain  their 
ancient  rights  ;  twice  they  attempted  to  break  through  the  Corinthian 
isthmus,  but  were  each  time  repulsed  with  considerable  loss.  Warned 
by  these  misfortunes,  they  abandoned  the  design  of  entering  the 
Peloponnesus  by  land,  and  resolved  to  try  their  fortune  in  a  naval  ex- 
pedition. 

Their  rendezvous  was  Naupac'tus  [Lfpanto),  on  the  Corinthian  gulf, 
where  they  were  joined  by  a  body  of  iEtolians,  and  by  several  of  the 
Dorian  tribes.  By  secret  intrigues,  a  party  was  gained  in  Lacedaj'- 
mon.  A  favorable  gale,  in  the  meantime,  wafted  their  armament 
to  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Pelopormesus.  Lacoija  was  betrayed 
to  the  invaders  ;  Ar'golis,  Messenia,  E'lis,  and  Corinth,  submitted  to 
their  authority ;  the  mountainous  districts  of  Arcadia,  and  the  coast 
province,  ^Egialeia  (afterward  Achaia),  were  the  only  parts  of  the  pen- 
insula that  remained  unsubdued.  The  revolution  was  efiected  with  lit 
tie  bloodshed  ;  but  not  witliout  great  oppression  of  the  ancient  inhab 
itants,  many  of  whom  emigrated,  while  those  who  remamed  were  re- 
duced to  slavery. 

The  associated  victors  divided  the  conquered  provinces  among  them- 
selves by  lot.  Aristodemus,  who  obtained  Laconia,  happening  to  die, 
the  kingdom  was  secured  for  his  twin  children,  Eurys'thenes  and 
Procles,  and  from. that  time  forth  Sparta  was  governed  by  two  kings, 
The  commander  of  the  Peloj/id  forces  at  the  isthmus,  instead  of  attempt- 
ing to  recover  his  kindgom,  invaded  iEgialeia,  expelled  the  lonians, 
and  gave  that  province  the  name  of  Achaia,  which  it  ever  after  retained! 
(b.  c.  1104).  Many  of  the  fugitives  sought  refuge  in  At'tica,  where  they 
were  hospitably  entertained  by  the  Athenians,  who  Avere  alarmed  by  the 
success  and  ambition  of  the  Dorians.  A  still  greater  number  passed 
over  into  Asia  Minor,  and  founded  the  colonies  of  Ionia,  iEolia,  "id 
Caria. 

The  jealousy  of  the  Athenians  was  soon  proved  to  be  derived  from 
reasonable  feur^  In  the  reign  of  Codrus  the  Dorians  passed  the  bound- 
aries of  At'tica,  and  seized  the  territory  of  Meg'ara,  on  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Saroiiic  gulf.  A  cruel  war  ensued  ;  Codrus  in  vain  at- 
tempted to  drive  the  intruders  from  their  stronghold  :  at  length,  hearing 
that  a  superstitious  rumor  prevailed  among  them,  that  they  woidd  be 
successful  ys  long  as  they  refrained  from  injuring  the  Athenian  king, 
he  entered  their  camp  in  disguise,  provoked  a  quarrel  with  a  Dorian 
soldier,  and  sutfered  himself  to  be  slain.  On  recognising  the  body,  the 
superstitious  Pelopoimesiaris,  despairing  of  success,  abandoned  theii 
hostilities  ;  and  the  Athenians,  out  of  respect  for  his  memory,  declared 
;hat  none  of  the  human  race  was  worthy  to  succeed  Codrus,  and  there- 
fore abolished  royalty  altogether  (b.  c.  1068). 

Two  of  th^  Pelop'idae,  having  unsuccessfully  traversed  the  northern  part 
of  Greecci  in  search  of  new  settlements,  finally  crossed  the  Hellespont 
eighty-eight  years  after  the  taking  of  Troy,  and  estal:)lished  themselves 
lilong  the  coast  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Priam.  Their  colonies  grad- 
ually extended  from  the  [)eninsula  of  Cyzious   on  the  Propontis  to  tho 


94  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

month  of  the  river  Her'mus,  which  delightful  country  together  with  iht 
island  of  Les'bos,  received  the  name  of  ^olia.  The  youngei  sons  of 
Codrus,  dissatisfied  with  the  abolition  of  royalty,  collected  a  numerous 
baud  of  Athenians  and  Ionian  exiles,  with  which  they  crossed  the  sea 
and  established  themselves  along  the  coast  from  the  river  Her'mus  tc 
rhe  promontory  of  Posideion,  expelling  the  ancient  inhabitants.  Th« 
islands  of  Chios  and  Samos  were  subsequently  seized,  and  all  these 
countries  were  united  by  the  common  rame  of  Ionia,  or,  as  it  was  some 
times  called,  the  Pan-Ionian  confederacy. 

The  renewal  of  hostilities  between  the  Athenians  and  Dorians  led  t-j 
*he  establishment  of  a  third  series  of  Greek  colonies  in  Asia  (b.  c.  994). 
The  Dorians  having  been  driven  from  their  stronghold  in  Meg'ara,  were 
ashamed  to  return  to  the  Peloponnesus  ;  part  of  them  sailed  to  the  islands 
of  Crete  and  Rhodes,  already  peopled  by  Doric  tribes  ;  the  rest  settled 
in  the  peninsula  of  Caria,  to  which,  in  honor  of  their  mother-country, 
they  gave  the  name  of  Doris. 

At  a  later  period,  the  tide  of  emigration  turned  toward  the  west,  and 
colonies  were  established  in  Sicily,  and  on  the  coasts  of  southern  Italy. 
The  Greeks  seldom  made  settlements  in  the  interior  of  the  country ;  foi 
most  of  their  colonies  were  designed  to  extend  commerce  rather  thar. 
conquests.  Most  of  these  colonies  were  independent  states,  and  theii 
institutions  were  generally  improvements  on  those  of  the  parent-country 
Owing  to  their  freedom  and  their  superiority  to  their  neighbors  in  tht 
urts  of  civilized  life,  many  of  the  colonies  not  only  equalled  but  greatly 
?nr]i?.t!.sed   their  parent  f>tates  in  wenlth  and  [jo^fCT. 


(iRECIAN  STATES  AND  COLONIES.  '  95 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE    HISTORY    OF 

THE   GRECIAN  STATES  AND  COLONIES, 

BEFORE    THE    PERSIAN    WAR. 

Section  I. —  Topography  of  Sparta. 

The  city  of  Spar'ta,  called  also  Lacedfe'mon,  a  name  properly  be- 
longing to  the  suburbs,  was  built  on  a  series  of  hills,  whose  outlines  are 
varied  and  romantic,  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Eurotas,  within  sight 
01  ihe  chain  of  Mount  Taygetum.  We  have  already  mentioned,  that  it 
was  not  originally  surrounded  by  walls  ;  but  the  highest  of  its  eminences 
seived  as  a  citadel,  and  round  this  hill  were  ranged  five  towns,  sep- 
arated by  considerable  intervals,  occupied  by  the  five  Spartan  tribes. 
Tlie  great  square  or  forum,  in  which  the  principal  streets  of  these  towns 
teindnated,  was  embellished  with  temples  and  statues  :  it  contained  also 
the  edifices  in  which  the  senate,  the  ephori,  and  other  bodies  of  Spartan 
magistrates,  were  accustomed  to  assemble :  there  was  besides  a  splen- 
did portico,  erected  by  the  Spartans  from  their  share  of  the  spoils  taken 
at  the  battle  of  Platae'a,  where  the  Persians  were  finally  overthrown. 
Instead  of  being  supported  by  pillars,  the  roof  rested  on  gigantic  statues, 
representing  Persians  habited  in  flowing  robes. 

On  the  highest  of  the  eminences  stood  a  temple  of  Miner'va,  which, 
as  well  as  the  grove  that  surrounded  it,  had  the  privileges  of  an  asylum. 
It  was  built  of  brr.ss,  as  that  at  Delphi  had  formerly  been. 

The  greater  part  of  these  edifices  had  no  pretensions  to  architectural 
beauty ;  they  were  of  rude  workmanship,  and  destitute  of  ornament. 
Private  houses  were  small  and  unadorned ;  for  the  Spartans  spent  the 
greater  part  of  their  time  in  porticoes  and  public  halls.  On  the  south 
side  of  the  city  was  the  Hippodromos,  or  course  for  horse  and  foot 
races  ;  and  at  a  little  distance  from  that,  the  Platanis'tae,  or  place  of  ex- 
ercise for  youth,  shaded  by  beautiful  palm-trees. 

bi-CTioN  II. — Legislation  of  Lycurgus,  and  Messenian   Wars. 

FRO.M  *B.  C.  880    TO    B.  C.  500. 

The  Dorian  conquerors  of  Laconia  formed  themselves  into  a  perma- 
nent ruling  caste,  and  reduced  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  tht- 
country  to  a  state  of  vassalage,  or  rather  perfect  slavery.  During  two 
centuries  the  Spartans  were  engaged  in  tedious  wars  with  il-.e  .-\rgive.« 


96  '  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

and  their  state  was  agitated  by  domestic  broils,  resulting  Irom  ihe  uu 
equal  division  of  property,  the  ambition  of  rival  nobles,  and  the  dimin 
ished  power  of  the  kings.  At  length,  Lycur'gus  having  o1)tained  tho 
supreme  authority,  as  a  guardian  ol'  his  nephew  Charihius,  directed  his 
attention  to  establishing  a  system  of  law,  which  might  prevent  the  re- 
currence of  such  disorders.  The  legislation  of  Lycur'gus  was  not  a 
written  code  ;  and  many  things  of  later  origin,  have  been  erroneously  at- 
tributed to  this  lawgiver.  His  great  object,  was  to  insure  the  coutinu- 
ince  of  the  Spartans  as  a  dominant  military  caste,  by  perpetuating  a 
race  of  athletic  and  warlike  men  ;  and  hence  his  laws  referred  rather  to 
domestic  life  and  physical  education  than  to  the  constitution  of  the  state, 
or  the  form  of  its  government. 

He  continued  the  relation  of  caste  between  the  Spartans  and  Laconi 
ans,  and  the  double  line  of  kings  as  leaders  irl  war  and  firsl  magistrates 
in  peace.  He  is  said  to  have  instituted  the  gerusia,  or  senate,  of 
which  no  one  could  be  a  member  who  had  not  passed  the  age  of  sixty  ; 
but  it  is  uncertain  whether  he  founded  the  college  of  the  five  eph'ori,  or 
inspectors,  chosen  anmially,  with  powers  somewhat  similar  to  those  of 
the  Roman  tribunes  ;  he  certainly  did  not  invest  them  with  the  power 
they  assumed  in  later  ages.  There  were  also  popular  assemblies  ;  but 
they  could  originate  no  law,  nor  make  any  alteration  in  the  resolutions 
submitted  to  them  by  the  kings  and  the  senate,  their  power  being  con- 
fined to  a  simple  approbation  or  rejection. 

The  chief  regulations  in  private  life  were,  the  equal  distribution  ol 
lands,  the  removal  of  every  species  of  luxury,  the  arrangement  of  do 
mestic  relations  so  as  to  insure  a  race  of  hardy  citizens,  and  the  com- 
plete establishment  of  slavery.  Thus  a  military  conmionwealth  wa^< 
CHtablished  in  Greece,  which  for  ever  banished  a  chance  of  tranquillity  ; 
siace  the  Spartan  citizens  must  have  been  impelled  to  war  by  the  rest- 
lessness common  to  man,  when  all  the  occupations  of  household  life 
and  of  agriculture  were  intrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Helots,  as  their 
slaves  were  usually  called.  The  strength  of  the  Spartan  army  lay  in 
its  heavy-armed  infantry  ;  they  usually  fought  in  a  phalanx  or  close  col- 
umn, and  were  remarkable  for  the  skill  and  rapidity  of  their  evolutions. 
Tliey  marched  to  the  charge  with  a  measured  regular  step,  and  never 
broke  their  ranks  either  to  plunder  or  pursue  a  flying  enemy.  After 
battle,  every  soldier  was  obliged  to  produce  his  shield,  as  a  proof  that 
he  had  behaved  bravely  and  steadily. 

The  first  great  war  in  which  the  Spartans  engaged  was  with  their 
neighbors  the  Messenians  (b.  c.  743).  After  a  long  series  of  sanguinary 
engagements,  whose  horrors  were  aggravated  by  cruel  superstitions,  the 
Messenians  were  totally  subdued,  and  forced  to  give  up  half  the 
revenue  of  their  lands  to  the  Spartans  (b.  c.  722).  During  tliis  war, 
the  Spartan  army,  consisting  of  the  greater  part  of  the  citizens  who  had 
attained  the  military  age,  bound  themselves  by  a  voluntary  oath  not  to 
return  home  until  they  had  subdued  their  enemies.  The  war  being  pro- 
tracted beyond  expectation,  the  senate,  fearing  that  the  Spartan  race 
would  become  extinct,  invited  the  young  men,  who  had  not  taken  the 
obligation,  to  return  home,  and  permitted  them  to  have  promiscuous  in- 
tercourse with  the  women.  The  olispring  of  these  irregular  connex- 
ions were  called  Parthen'iae  ;  they  had  no  certain  lather,  nor  were  thev. 


ATIISNS. 


97 


tJiaugh  citizens  of  Sparta,  entitled  to  aiiv  inheritance.  Finding  them- 
selves despised  by  the  other  Spartans,  they  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
with  the  Helots,  which  was  detected  at  the  moment  it  was  about  to  ex- 
plode. The  senate,  however,  was  afraid  to  pmiish  so  powerful  a  body ; 
sufficient  means  of  transport,  arms,  and  munitions,  were  supplied  to  the 
Parthen'iae,  who,  under  the  guidance  of  Phalan'tus,  proceeded  to  south 
em  Italy,  where  they  founded  the  city  of  Taren'tum. 

The  oppiession  of  the  Spartans  drove  the  Messenians  to  revolt,  and 
they  found  a  worthy  leader  in  Aristom'enes,  a  youth  descended  from  the 
ancient  line  of  Messenian  Idngs.  So  rapid  and  decisive  were  his  suc- 
cesses, hat  the  Spartans  sought  the  advice  of  the  oracle,  and  received 
the  mortifying  response,  that  they  should  solicit  a  general  from  the 
Athenians.  Ambassadors  were  sent  to  urge  this  request;  and  the 
Athenians  sent  back  the  poet  Tyrtos'us,  who  had,  indeed,  borne  arms, 
but  was  never  distinguished  as  a  warrior.  His  patriotic  odes  roused  the 
spirit  of  the  Spartan  soldiers,  and  they  renewed  the  war  with  more  zeal 
and  greater  success  than  ever.  Notwithstanding  these  advantages 
acquired  by  the  Spartans,  Aristom'enes  protracted  the  defence  of  his 
country  more  than  eleven  years  ;  but  at  length  Messene  was  taken  by 
treachery,  and  its  heroic  defenders  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  Arcadia. 
Here  Aristom'enes  planned  an  expedition  against  Sparta,  whose  citi- 
zens were  engaged  in  plundering  Messenia ;  but  he  was  betrayed  by 
the  Arcadian  monarch,  and  his  last  plan  for  the  redemption  of  his  coun- 
try frustrated  (b.  c.  671). 

Sparta  had  conquered,  but  the  struggle  had  greatly  weakened  the 
strength  of  the  state  ;  and  in  her  subsequent  wars  with  the  Tegeans  and 
Argives,  she  was  far  from  maintaining  her  ancient  superiority  in  arms 
The  important  island  of  Cythera  was,  however,  wrested  from  the  Ar- 
p^ives,  about  b.  c.  550. 

Section  III. —  Topography  of  Athens. 

Athens  was  situated  in  a  plain,  which  on  the  southwest,  extended 
for  about  four  miles  toward  the  sea  and  the  harbors,  but  on  the  other 
side  was  enclosed  by  mountains.  Several  rocky  hills  arose  in  the  plahi 
itself;  the  largest  and  highest  ol  which  was  fortified  by  Cecrops  as  the 
citadel,  or  Acropolis,  and  was  sometimes  called  Cecropia.  Around  this 
the  city  was  built,  most  of  the  buildings,  however,  spreading  toward  the 
sea.  The  summit  of  the  hill  was  nearly  level  for  a  space  of  about 
eight  hundred  feet  in  length  and  four  hundred  in  breadth ;  as  if  Nature 
herself  had  prepared  a  fit  locality  for  those  masterpieces  of  architec- 
ture which  announced  at  a  distance  the  splendor  of  Athens.  The  only 
road  that  led  ^o  the  Acrop'olis  passed  through  the  Propylaea,  a  magnificent 
giteway  adorned  with  two  wings,  and  two  temples  full  of  the  finest 
pieces  of  sculpture  and  painting.  It  was  erected  under  the  administra- 
tion of  Per'icles,  by  the  architect  Mnesic'les,  and  was  decorated  with 
admirable  sculptures  of  Phid'ias.  Through  these  splendid  portals  was 
an  ascent  by  marble  steps  to  the  summit  of  the  hill,  on  which  were 
erected  the  temples  of  the  guardian  deities  of  Athens.  On  the  left  was 
the  temple  of  Pallas  Athene  [Minerva),  the  protectress  of  cities,  con- 
taining a'  column   fabled  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  and  an  olive-tre*^ 


98  ANCIENT  HISTOKY. 

believed  to  liave  sprung  spontaneously  from  the  earth  at  the  infiudate  til 
ihc  goddess.  Beyond  this  was  a  temple  of  Neptune.  On  the  right 
side  arose  the  Par'thenon,  sacred  to  the  virgin  ^linerva,  the  glory  of 
Athens,  the  noblest  triumph  of  Grecian  architecture.  From  whatevei 
quarter  the  traveller  arrived,  whether  by  land  or  sea,  the  first  thing  he 
saw  was  the  Par'thenon  rearing  up  its  lofty  head  above  the  city  and 
ihe  citadel. 

At  the  foot  of  the  Acrnp'olis,  on  one  side,  was  the  Odeum,  or  music- 
hall,  and  the  Theatre  of  Bacchus,  where  the  tragic  contests  were  cel- 
ebrated on  the  festival  of  that  deity ;  on  the  other  side  was  the  Pry- 
laneum,  where  the  chief  magistrates  and  most  meritorious  citizens  were 
honorablv  entertained  at  a  table  furnished  at  the  public  expense. 

A  small  valley  called  Coele  {the  hollow)  lay  between  the  Acrnp'olis 
and  the  hill  on  which  the  court  of  Areop'agus  held  its  sessions  ;  and  it 
also  separated  the  Areop'agus  from  the  Pnyx,  a  small  rocky  hill  on  which 
the  general  assemblies  of  the  people  were  held.  It  was  remarkable 
only  for  the  meanness  and  simplicity  of  its  furniture,  which  formed  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  grandeur  of  the  neighboring  buildings.  Here 
the  spot  from  which  the  eminent  orators  addressed  the  people  may  still 
be  seen  :  for  it  is  imperishable,  being  cut  in  the  natural  rock,  and  it  has 
been  recently  cleared  from  rubbish,  as  well  as  the  four  steps  by  whicjj 
it  was  ascended. 

Beyond  the  Pnyx  lay  the  Ceramicus,  or  potterj'-grmuid,  containing 
the  market-place.  This  was  a  large  square,  surrounded  on  all  sides 
with  statues  and  public  buildings  ;  at  the  south  was  the  senate-house, 
and  the  statues  of  the  Epor/ymi,  ten  heroes  from  whom  the  tribes  of 
Athens  received  their  respective  names.  At  the  east  were  erected  two 
splendid  stoai,  or  porticoes  ;  that  of  the  Her'mae,  or  statues  of  Mercur\% 
on  which  were  inscribed  the  names  of  the  citizens,  allies,  and  slave.-', 
who  had  distinguished  themselves  in  the  Persian  war ;  and  that  called 
Poecile,  ornamented  with  many  splendid  paintings,  particularly  one 
representing  Miltiades  at  the  battle  of  Marathon.  Under  this  sloa  the 
philosopher  Zeno  used  to  lecture  his  pupils,  whence  his  followers  are 
called  Stoics. 

There  were  three  principal  gymnasia,  or  places  of  public  exercise,  near 
the  city,  where  philosophers  and  rhetoricians  delivered  their  lectures. 
The  most  celebrated  of  these  was  the  Academy,  deriving  its  name  from 
liaving  been  the  country-seat  of  the  weahhy  Academus,  who  spent  the 
greater  part  of  a  large  fortune  in  ornamenting  this  delightful  spot. 
Here  Plato  delivered  his  eloquent  lectures,  and  hence  his  followers  arc 
called  Academics.  The  Lyceum,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  city,  neai 
the  Ilys'sus,  was  chosen  by  Aristotle  for  his  school  after  his  return 
from  Macedon,  the  Academy  having  been  pre-occupied  by  Xen'ocrates 
He  generally  instructed  his  pupils  while  walking  about  the  groves  and 
avenues  of  this  highly-cultivated  place,  and  on  this  account  his  followers 
were  called  Peripatetics.  Cynosar'ges  was  about  a  mile  from  the 
Lyceum,  and  was  the  residence  of  Antis'thenes,  the  founder  of  the 
Cynic  sect. 

The  whole  country  round  Athens,  particularly  the  long  road  to  the 
Peiree'us,  was  ornamented  with  monuments  of  all  kinds,  especially  M'ith 
ombs  of  great  poets,  statesmen,  and  warriors.     This  r(>ad  was  enclosed 


ATHENS. 


99 


by  a  double  wall,  called  the  northern  and  southern,  elected  under  the 
administration  of  Themis'tocles  :  it  was  nearly  five  miles  in  length  on 
both  sides,  and  enclosed  the  two  harbors  Peirae'us  and  Pharereus.  It 
was  rather  more  than  eighty  feet  high,  built  entirely  of  freestone,  and 
so  broad  that  two  baggage-wagons  could  pass  each  other.  The  Pei- 
raj'us  and  Phal'ereus,  but  especially  the  former,  might  be  regarded  as 
little  cities,  with  public  squares,  temples,  market-places,  &c. ;  and  the 
uommercial  crowd  that  enliven  the  quays  gave  the  chief  harbor  a  more 
animated  appearance  than  Athens  itself.  The  Munychian  port  lay  exst 
of  Athens,  and,  like  the  others,  was  formed  naturally  by  the  bays  of  the 
coast.  It  was  a  place  of  considerable  natural  strength,  and  was  gar- 
risoned by  the  Lacedaemonians  after  they  had  subdued  Athens. 

'Section  IV. — The  History  of  Alliens  to  the  Beginning  of  the  Persian  War, 

FROM    *B.    C.   1300    TO    B.    C.    500. 

The  political  history  of  Athens  begins  properly  with  the  reign  c^ 
Theseus,  who  succeeded  his  father  iEgeus  about  b.  c.  1300.  Certain 
institutions,  such  as  the  court  of  Areop'agus,  and  the  division  of  the 
people  into  eupat'ridae  {iiobles),  georgi  [husbandmen),  and  demiur'gi  {me- 
chanics), are  so  manifestly  derived  from  the  Egyptian  system  of  caste, 
that  we  may  without  hesitation  assign  them  to  Cecrops.  Theseus, 
however,  deserves  to  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  state,  since,  in- 
stead of  the  four  independent  districts,  or  demoi,  into  which  Attica  was 
divided,  he  established  one  body  politic,  and  made  Athens  the  seat  of 
government.  Among  his  successors,  the  most  remarkable  were  Mnes^- 
theus,  who  fell  before  Troy,  and  Codrus,  whose  generous  devotion,  as 
has  been  already  related,  led  to  the  total  abolition  of  royalty.  After 
the  abolition  of  royalty  (b.  c.  1068),  thirteen  archons  of  his  family  ruled 
in  succession,  difiering  from  kings  only  in  being  accountable  for  their 
administration.  The  first  was  Medon,  the  last  Alcmeeon ;  after  his 
death  (b.  g.  752),  archons  were  chosen  every  ten  years  from  the  family 
of  Codrus.  There  were  seven  of  these,  the  last  of  whom  ceased  to 
rule  b.  c.  682.  Nine  annual  archons  were  then  appointed  by  the  pow- 
erful class  of  nobility,  consisting  not  only  of  the  descendants  of  such 
foreign  princes  as  had  taken  refuge  in  Athens,  but  of  those  Athenian 
families  which  time  and  accident  had  raised  to  opulence  ana  distinc- 
tion. The  powers  of  these  magistrates  were  not  equal ;  their  rank  and 
offices  wen  so  arranged,  that  the  prerogatives  of  the  former  kings  and 
the  preceding  archons  were  divided  among  the  farst  three  of  the  nine. 
Nothing  was  gained  by  the  great  body  of  the  people  during  these  rev- 
olutions. The  equestrian  order,  so  called  from  their  fighting  on  horse- 
back, enjoyed  all  authority,  religious,  civil,  and  military.  The  Athenian 
populace  were  reduced  to  a  condition  of  miserable  servitude ;  the  live? 
and  fortunes  of  individuals  were  left  at  the  discretion  of  magistrates, 
uho  were  too  much  disposed  to  decide  according  to  party  prejudice.s 
or  their  own  private  interests. 

In  this  confusion,  Draco  was  chosen  to  prepare  a  code  of  laws  "(b.  c 
622).  He  was  a  man  of  unswerving  integrity,  but  of  unexampled  severity. 
His  laws  bore  the  impress  of  his  character  ;  the  punishment  of  death 
»vas  denounced  against  all  crimes,  small  as  well  as  great  ;  and  this  i'> 


wo  ANCIENT  HISTOllV 

discrimiiiate  cruelty  rendered  the  whole  code  iuoperaiive.  Iliiinan  n;'. 
tiire  revolted  against  such  legal  butchery  ;  and  Draco,  to  avoid  the  piin- 
(ic  indignation,  fled  to  iEgina,  where  he  died  an  exile. 

This  ineffectual  effort  only  augmented  the  divisions  of  the  state  ;  tht; 
excesses  of  the  aristocratic  factions  produced  the  most  violent  ii  dig-nji- 
tion.  The  state  was  in  fact  reduced  to  perfect  anarchy.  To  remedy 
tiiese  disorders,  Solon,  who  had  already  won  the  confidence  of  his 
c(/untrymen  by  planning  and  accomplishing  an  enterprise  for  the  re- 
covery of  Sal'amis,  was  unanimously  raised  to  the  dignity  of  fir^■.t 
magistrate,  legislator,  and  sovereign  arliitor  (n.  c.  594).  He  was  em 
inently  qualified  for  this  important  station.  Descended  from  the 
ancient  kings  of  Athens,  he  applied  himself  in  early  life  to  commercial 
pursuits,  and  having  secured  a  competency  by  honorable  industry,  he 
travelled  to  distant  lands  in  search  of  knowledge.  Such  was  his  suc- 
cess, that  he  was  reckoned  the  chief  of  the  sages  commonly  called  the 
Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  who  in  his  age  laid  the  foundation  of 
Grecian  philosophy. 

The  chief  object  of  Solon's  legislation  was  to  restrain  the  excessive 
power  of  the  aristocracy,  without,  however,  introducing  a  pure  democ- 
racy. He  abolished  all  the  laws  of  Draco,  except  those  against  mur 
der.  The  state  of  debtors  calling  loudly  for  relief,  he  made  an  equita 
ble  adjustment  of  the  claims  of  creditors  ;  but  at  the  same  time  concil 
iated  capitalists  by  raising  the  value  of  money.  He  abolished  slavery 
and  imprisonment  for  debt,  which  had  led  to  great  abuses  and  cruelties 

Without  abolishing  the  ancient  local  divisions  he  arranged  the  cilizene 
in  four  classes,  according  to  their  property,  measured  in  agricultural 
produce.  1.  The  first  class  were  the  pentacos'i-medim'ni,  whose  annual 
income  exceeded  five  hundred  bushels  (medim'ni ;  2,  the  knights  (hip- 
peis),  whose  revenue  was  equal  to  four  hundred ;  3,  the  zeugitse,  who 
had  three  hundred ;  and  4,  the  thetes,  whose  yearly  revenue  fell  short 
of  that  sum.  Citizens  of  all  classes  had  a  right  of  voting  at  the  popular 
■dssemblies  and  in  the  coiu'ts  of  judicature  ;  but  magisterial  offices  were 
limited  to  the  first  three  classes.  The  archonship  was  left  unaltered , 
but  it  was  ordained  that  none  of  these  magistrates  should  hold  military 
command  during  his  year  of  office.  A  council  of  four  hundred  was 
chosen  from  the  first  three  classes,  possessing  senatorial  authority :  the 
members  were  selected  by  lot ;  but.  they  were  obliged  to  undergo  a  very 
strict  examination  into  their  past  lives  and  characters  before  they  were 
permitted  to  enter  upon  office.  The  archons  were  bound  to  consult  the 
council  ii  every  important  public  matter  ;  and  no  subject  could  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  general  assembly  of  the  people  which  had  not  previously 
received  the  sanction  of  the  four  hundred. 

The  popular  assemblies  consisted  of  all  the  four  classes,  and  usually 
met  on  the  rocky  hill  called  the  Pnyx,  described  in  the  proceeding  sec- 
iion.  They  had  the  right  of  confirming  or  rejecting  new  laws,  of  elect- 
ing the  magistrates,  of  discussing  all  public  affairs  referred  to  them  by 
the  council,  and  of  iudaing  in  all  state  trials. 

According  to  Solon's  plan,  the  court  of  Areop'agus  should  have  been 
:he  chief  pillar  of  the  Athenian  constitution.  Before  his  time  it  was  r, 
mere  engine  of  aristocratic  oppression  ;  but  Solon  modified  its  constitu- 
tion- ajul  enlarged  its   powers.     It  was   composed  of  persons   who  had 


ATHENS.  101 

rield  the  office  of  arcliou,  and  was  made-  tliq  supj:etne  vLv.«mI  in  ali 
capital  cases.  It  was  likewise  in'rusted  vvi'tli  jth'e>  super kjVjadence  of 
morals,  with  the  censorship  upon  the  Qonduct  of  the  archons  at  t];ie  ex- 
piration of  their  office  ;  and  it  had  besides' tlie  pr^'ulege;  (>f 'i^.ildn'Jjng  oi 
rescinding  the  measures  that  had  passed  the''  g'ehferai'as''semblies  oi  tht 
people. 

Soon  after  this  constitution  was  established,  Solon  was  sent  as  a 
deputy  to  the  Amphictyon'ic  council  at  Del'phi,  and  had  no  small  share 
in  stimulating  that  body  to  undertake  the  first  sacred  war  against  the 
Crisseans  who  had  in^'aded  the  sacred  territories,  and  not  only  ravaged 
the  country,  but  evei.  plundered  the  shrine  of  Apol'lo.  The  war  was 
protracted  ten  years ;  but  it  terminated  in  the  final  destruction  of  the 
Crissean  community,  and  the  dedication  of  their .  territory  to  the  deity 
whose  temple  they  had  sacrilegiously  plundered  (b.  c.  584).  "^"^he  ter- 
mination of  the  war  Avas  celebrated  by  the  revival  of  the  Pythia?  games. 
which  had  been  discontinued  duiing  the  contest. 

Scarcely  had  the  liberties  of  Athens  been  established,  when  the\ 
were  again  subverted  by  the  usurpation  of  Peisis'tratus.  Like  Solon, 
the  usurper  was  descended  from  the  ancient  kings  of  Athens.  He  was 
also  possessor  of  an  enormous  fortune,  which  he  distributed  to  the  poor 
with  lavish  munificence.  His  generosity,  his  eloquence,  and  his  cour- 
teous manners,  won  for  him  universal  favor  :  but  he  had  the  art  to  per- 
suade the  lower  ranks  of  his  countrymen,  that  his  popularity  had  ren- 
dered him  odious  to  the  nobles,  and  that  the  protection  of  a  body-guard 
was  necessary  to  the  safety  of  his  life.  Scarcely  had  this  been  granted, 
when  he  seized  on  the  Acrop'olis,  and  made  himself  absolute  master  of 
Athens  (b.  c.  561).  Solon  refused  the  usurper's  offers  of  favor  and  pro- 
tection :  he  v/ent  into  voluntary  exile,  and  died,  or  at  least  was  buried, 
at  Sal'amis.  Meg'acles,  the  chief  of  the  powerful  family  of  the 
Alcmseon'idje,  retired,  with  all  his  attendants  and  political  friends,  be- 
yond the  boundaries  of  At'tica ;  but  he  entered  into  a  secret  intrigue 
with  Lycur'gus,  the  chief  of  another  faction,  and  by  their  joint  efforts 
Peisis'tratus  was  driven  into  exile  about  twelve  months  after  he  had 
obtained  the  sovereignty. 

Meg'acles  soon  quarrelled  with  Lycur'gus,  and  opened  a  negotiation 
with  Peisis'tratus,  offering  to  restore  him,  if  he  would  become  his  son- 
in-law.  The  terms  were  accepted,  and  Peisis'tratus  was  again  sum- 
moned to  assume  sovereign  power,  amid  the  general  exultation  of  the 
people.  A  quarrel  with  Meg^acles  drove  him  a  second  time  into  ban- 
ishment ;  but  he  returned  again  at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  having 
recovered  the  reins  of  power,  held  them  without  interruption  to  the  day 
of  his  death.  The  power  thus  illegally  acquired,  was  administered 
with  equity  and  mildness.  Peisis'tratus  ceased  not  to  exert  himself  to 
extend  the  glory  of  Athens,  and  secure  the  happiness  of  the  Athenians 

On  the  death  of  Peisis'tratus  (b.  c.  528),  his  sons  Hippar'chus  and 
Hip'pias  succeeded  to  his  power,  but  not  to  his  prudence  and  abilities 
After  a  jr^int  reign  of  fourteen  years,  Hippar'chus  was  murdered  by  two 
young  Athenians,  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton,  whose  resentmen,t  he 
tiad  provoked  by  an  atrocious  insult  (b.  c.  514).  The  cruelty  with. 
which  Hip  pias  puni.shed  all  whom  he  suspected  of  having  had  a  shart 
in  his  brother's  death,  alienated  the  affections  of  the  people,  and  eucoux 


:W  ANCTENT  HiSTORY 

d-^(;d  Jhe  Alrnv^eonicl.e  to  niake  an  effort  for  hie  exi)ulsioa.  By  large 
bribes  to  tlie'  DelnHa:i  prf'os'lliopd,  they  obtained  a  respoi  se  from  the 
oracle  fpiymanfling  the  Spartans  to  expel  the  Peisistrat'idic  ;  and  that 
superstitious' people  iinmcdiateiy  sc'nt  an  army  for  that  purpose  (n.  c. 
510).  After  a  brief  struggle  ifip'pias  was  forced  to  abandon  Athens,  and 
thenceforward  lived  in  perpetual  exile. 

Scarcely  was  the  tyrant  expelled,  when  the  state  was  rent  in  sunder 
bv  the  riva'lry  of  contending  Mictions.  Clis'thenes,  the  son  of  Meg'acles, 
headed  one ;  the  other,  chiefly  composed  of  the  aristocracy,  was  led  by 
Isacr-'oras.  Isag'oras  received  armies  to  support  his  cause  from  the  Spar- 
tans, the  Corinthians,  the  BcEOtians,  the  Chalcidians,  and  the  ^gine- 
tans.  But  the  confederates  could  not  agree  ;  and  these  dissensions 
broke  up  the  alliance.  After  some  time,  the  Spartans,  having  discover 
ed  the  trick  played  upon  them  I7  the  Delphian  oracle,  wished  to  re 
store  Hip'pias  ;  but,  finding  their  allies  universally  opposed  to  the  proj- 
ect, they  abandoned  him  to  his  fate,  and  he  fled  to  the  court  of  Persia, 
where  his  exertions  greatly  contributed  to  the  forcing  Dlj-ius  into  a  war 
against  Greece. 

Section  V. — Historical  Notices  of  the  minor  Grecian  States  previous  to  the 

Persian  War. 

FROM  *B.   C.   1100  TO   B     C.  500. 

After  the  capture  of  Thebes  by  the  Epig'oni,  the  Boeotians  were  ex- 
pelled by  Thracian  hordes,  and  retired  to  Ar'ne  in  Thessaly,  but  about 
the  time  of  the  great  Dorian  migration  they  returned  to  the  land  of  their 
forefathers,  and  became  united  with  some  ^olian  tribes. 

Royalty  was  abolished  upon  the  death  of  Xiithus  (b.  c.  1 126),  and 
the  BcEOtians  formed  a  confederation  of  as  many  states  as  there  were 
cities  in  the  province  :  at  the  head  of  which  was  Thebes,  but  with,  very 
indefinite  privileges.  The  constitutions  of  the  states  were  unfixed; 
and  they  continually  fluctuated  between  a  licentious  democracy  and  a 
tyrannical  oligarchy.  This  great  evil,  combined  with  the  unsettled 
nature  of  the  confederation,  prevented  the  Boeotians  from  taking  a  lead- 
ing share  in  the  affairs  of  Greece. 

Acarnania,  iEtolia,  and  Locris,  offer  nothing  remarkable  ;  and  the 
most  important  event  in  the  history  of  Phocis  was  the  sacred  war,  which 
has  been  described  in  the  last  section.  The  states  of  Thessaly  were 
for  the  most  part  governed  by  arbitrary  individuals. 

In  the  Peloponnesus,  Corinth  was  the  most  remarkable  state  next  to 
Sparta.  At  the  time  of  the  Dorian  conquest  of  southern  Greece,  its 
tiffone  was  seized  by  Aletes,  whose  descendants  retained  the  power  and 
^ItIe  of  royalty  for  five  generations.  On  the  death  of  Teles'sus,  the  last 
of  the  Aletian  race,  Bac'chis  usurped  the  throne  (b.  c.  777),  and  his 
descendants,  called  BacchiadcC,  held  the  regal  authority  for  five  genera 
fions  more.  Teles'tes,  the  last  of  these  kings,  having  been  murdered, 
the  kingly  office  was  abolished,  and  a  species  of  oligarchy  established 
in  its  stead,  under  yearly  magistrates,  called  prytanes,  chosen  exclu- 
sively from  the  house  of  Bac'chis.  It  would  have  been  scarcely  possi- 
ble for  such  a  narrow  oligarchy  to  maintain  its  ground,  evfsn  if  it  ha(? 


PRINCIPAL  GRECIAN  ISLANDS.  ]  0;j 

used  its  power  with  moderation  and  wisdom  ;  but  the  Bacchiads,  proud 
of  their  race  and  great  commercial  wealth,  insulted  their  subjects  ;  and 
Cyp'solus,  an  opulent  citizen  of  iEolian  descent,  aided  by  the  com- 
monalty, usurped  the  government  (b.  c.  657),  and  held  the  supreme 
power  for  thirty  years.  On  his  death,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  soki 
Perian'der,  who  is  sometimes  ranked  among  the  Seven  Wise  Men  of 
Greece,  though  he  is  described  by  many  writers  as  a  rapacious,  oppres- 
sive, and  cruel  despot.  His  reign  lasted  forty  years,  and  yet  is  supposed 
to  have  been  shortened  either  by  violence  or  gilef  for  the  loss  of  his 
son.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Psammet'ichus,  whose  reign 
lasted  only  three  years,  when  he  was  expelled  by  his  subjecu?,  assisted 
by  a  Spartan  army  (b.  c.  584).  This  revolution  was  followed  by  the 
establishment  of  a  commercial  aristocracy,  whose  exact  constitution  is 
unknown,  but  which  long  kept  Corinth  in  close  alliance  with  Sparta. 
The  Corinthian  trade  consisted  chiefly  in  the  exchange  of  Asiatic  and 
Italian  merchandise,  for  which  her  position  gave  her  many  peculiar 
advantages.  The  period  of  Corinth's  highest  prosperity  clos-ed  with  the 
government  of  the  Cyp'selids  ;  and  the  loss  of  Corcy'ra  one  of  her  colonies 
which  had  been  kept  in  subjection  by  Per'iander,  but  revolted  after  his 
death,  proved  a  blow  to  her  power  which  she  never  recovered.  The 
naval  engagement  between  the  Corcyrians  and  Corinthians  (b.  c.  650) 
is  the  first  sea-fight  recorded  in  history. 

The  history  of  Sic'yon  and  the  other  Achsan  states  presents  a  series 
of  revolutions  similar  to  those  of  Corinth.  After  various  revolutions  and 
usurpations,  they  all  adopted  republican  institutions,  about.the  time  that 
the  Cyp'selids  were  expelled  from  Corinth. 

The  constitution  of  Arcadia  became  republican  when  Aristodemus^ 
its  last  king,  was  stoned  by  his  subjects  for  having  betrayed  Arislom'- 
enes  and  the  Messenians. 

The  regal  dignity  was  abolished  in  Argos  so  early  as  b.  c.  984  ;  but 
nothing  is  known  of  the  circumstances  that  led  to  the  change,  or  the 
peculiar  nature  of  the  republic  by  which  it  was  succeeded. 

E'lis  preserved  its  internal  peace,  owing  to  the  wise  laws  of  Ipn'- 
itus,  a  contemporary  of  Lycur'gus  ;  while  the  sanctity  of  its  soil  ensured 
its  '^xternaf  security.  After  the  abolition  of  royal  power  two  supreme 
magistrates  were  chosen,  called  Hellanodica^,  to  whose  ofiice  was  added 
„he  charge  of  superintending  the  Olympic  games.  Their  number  wa; 
subsequently  increased  to  ten,  one  being  chosen  from  each  of  the  Elia. 
tribes  ;  and  their  power  was  limited  by  a  senate  of  ninety,  whose  mem 
bers  were  chosen  for  life. 

Section  VI. — History  of  Ihe 'principal  Grecian  Islands. 

'1'he  revolutions  in  the  Grecian  islands  were  very  similar  to  those 
on  the  continent,  republican  constitutions  having  succeeded  to  mon- 
archy in  most  of  them.  After  the  Athenians  had  acquired  the  sover- 
eignty of  the  sea,  the  insular  states  lost  their  independence  ;  for  though 
ihey  were  called  confederates,  they  were  treated  as  subjects  ;  no  change, 
however,  was  made  in  the'r  internal  constitutions.  We  shall  only  no- 
lieu  the  islands  that  were  \  lost  remarkable  in  history. 

Corcy'ra  was  occupied  by  a  Corinthian  colony  under  Chersic'rate? 


104  ANCIENT  HISTOltV. 

fB.  c.  753),  n^ho  ( xpelled  or  subdued  the  former  inhabitants.  As  th' 
leader  and  most  of  his  companions  had  been  driven  into  exile  by  poJit- 
ical  commotions,  they  retained  but  little  affection  for  the  parent  state  : 
while  the  rapid  progress  of  the  Corcyrean  power  excited  the  commer- 
cial jealousy  of  Corinth.  These  circumstances  led  to  an  open  war. 
The  Corcyrean  constitution  appears  to  have  been  originally  aristocratic 
or  oligarchical,  like  that  of  most  Dorian  states ;  but  after  the  Persian 
wars  a  democratic  faction  arose,  powerfully  supported  by  the  Athenians, 
which  produced  the  most  violent  internal  commotions,  and  ended  in  the 
total  ruin  of  Corcy'ra. 

^Egma,  first  colonized  b.  c.  1358,  rapidly  grew,  by  commerce,  and 
navigation,  to  be  one  of  the  first  Grecian  states.  It  even  established 
colonies  of  its  own  in  Crete  and  Pontus.  JEgina.  was  long  the  suc- 
cessful rival  of  Athens;  it  was  subdued  by  Themis'tocles  (n.  c.  485). 

The  island  of  Euboe'a  received  many  different  colonies  from  the  main- 
land of  Greece  ;  but  its  cities  were  not  united  by  any  confederation, 
each  possessing  a  separate  constitution.  It  was  subdued  by  the  Athe- 
nians after  the  Persian  wars  ;  but  the  islanders  made  several  sanguin- 
ary struggles  to  regain  their  independence. 

The  Cyc'lades  were  all,  except  Delos,  rendered  tributary  to  Athens, 
when  that  state  acquired  the  supremacy  of  the  sea. 

Crete  was  celebrated  in  the  heroic  ages  for  the  laws  of  Minos  (*b.  c. 
1300).  After  the  death  of  Clean'thus  (*b.  c.  800),  republican  constitu- 
tions were  adopted  in  the  principal  cities,  which  thenceforth  became  in- 
Jependent  states.  The  Cretans  rarely  engaged  in  foreign  wars,  but 
ihey  were  almost  incessantly  involved  in  mutual  hostilities  ;  a  circum- 
stance that  tended  greatly  to  degrade  the  national  character. 

Cy'prus  was  only  partially  colonized  by  the  Greeks,  whose  principal 
settlement  v/as  at  Sal'amis,  founded  byTeucer,  a  little  after  the  Trojan 
war  (b.  c.  1100).  The  island  was  successively  subject  to  the  Phoeni- 
cians, Egyptians,  and  Persians.  The  kings  of  Sal'amis  frequently  re- 
volted against  their  Persian  masters,  and  always  maintained  a  qualified 
independence.  When  Alexander  the  Great  besieged  Tyre  (b.  c.  332), 
he  was  voluntarily  joined  by  the  nine  Cypriot  kings,  and  thencefortli 
the  island  was  annexed  to  the  Macedonian  monarchy. 

The  history  of  Rhodes  belongs  properly  to  the  portion  of  this  work 
which  treats  of  the  successors  of  Alexander,  to  which  we  refer  ou'. 
readers. 

aECTioN   VII. — History  oj  the  Greek  Colonies  in  Asia  Minor. 
FROM   B.    c.    1200   TO    b.   c.   500. 

The  colonies  founded  by  the  Greeks,  between  the  period  of  the  Dorian 
niigration  and  the  final  subversion  of  Grecian  liberty  by  the  triumph  of 
the  Macedonians,  were  the  most  numerous  and  important  established  by 
any  nation,  and  all  acted  a  very  conspicuous  part  in  accelerating  tlw 
progress  of  civilization. 

The  colonies  that  first  engage  our  attention  are  those  that  were  es 
tablished  along  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  from  the  Hellespont 
10  the  confines  of  Cilic'ia,  in  consequence  of  the  revolutions  produced 
by  the  Dorian  migration  and  conquest  of  *Jie  Peloponnesus.     They  weu 


GHEEK    COLONIE'o  IN  ASIA    MINOR.  105 

established  by  the  iEolians,  lonians,  and  Carians  ;  their  commerce  sooc 
exceeded  that  of  the  parent  states  ;  and  in  them  were  produced  the  firs; 
of  Grecian  poets,  Homer  and  Alcas'us  ;  and  the  first  of  Grecian  philo;^ 
ophers,  Thales  and  Pythag'oras. 

The  iEoLiANS,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus,  settled  for  u 
thne  in  Thrace,  whence  they  passed  over,  after  the  lapse  of  a  genera- 
tion, to  x\sia  (*B.  c.  1124),  and  occupied  the  coasts  of  Mysia  and  Caria 
giving  to  the  strip  of  land  they  colonized  the  name  of  ^Eolis.  They 
acquired  possession,  also,  of  the  islands  of  Les'bos,  Ten'edos,  and  the 
cluster  called  the  Hecatonnesi  (hundred  islands).  Twelve  cities  were 
erected  on  the  mainland  by  the  iEolians,  of  which  the  chief  we^e  Cynu'". 
and  Smyr'na.  The  latter  city  was  destroyed  by  the  Lydians  ^*b.  c. 
600),  and  was  not  restored  until  four  hundred  years  later,  when  it  be- 
came a  flourishing  Macedonian  colony.  The  iEolian  cities  maintained 
their  independence  until  the  age  of  Cy'rus,  when  those  on  the  mainland 
were  subdued  by  the  Persians.  When  Athens  acquired  supremacy  by 
sea,  the  insular  states  were  forced  to  submit  to  her  authority,  and  were 
in  general  ruled  with  great  severity. 

The  Ionian  migration  took  place  some  years  after  the  ^Eolian,  about 
B.  c.  1044.  It  was  the  largest  that  ever  left  Greece  ;  and  fortunately 
it  is  that,  with  whose  details  we  are  best  acquainted.  It  originated  in 
the  abolition  of  royalty  at  Athens  :  the  sons  of  Codrus  reluctant  to  live 
as  private  individuals,  declared  their  design  of  leading  a  colony  into 
Asia :  they  were  readily  joined  by  the  Ionian  exiles  from  the  northern 
Peloponnesus,  who  were  straitened  for  room  in  At'tica,  and  by  large 
bands  of  emigrants  from  the  neighboring  states,  actuated  by  political  dis 
content,  or  the  mere  love  of  change.  They  were  supplied  liberally 
with  ships  and  munitions  of  war.  They  pursued  their  voyage  tc 
Asia  Minor,  and  landed  on  the  coast  south  of  iE'olis.  After  a  long  se- 
ries of  sanguinary  wars,  the  native  barbarians  resigned  their  lands 
to  the  intruders ;  and  the  lonians  acquired  possession  of  the  whole  of 
the  valuable  district  between  Miletus  and  Mount  Sip'ylus. 

The  lonians  then  began  to  erect  cities  ;  they  established  twelve, 
united  by  an  Amphictyon'ic  confederacy ;  viz.,  Eph'esus,  Ery'three, 
Clazom'enae,  Colophon,  My'us,  Miletus,  Priene,  Phocce'a,  Leb'edos, 
Samos,  Teos,  and  Chios,  of  which  the  last  three  were  insular  stations. 

Miletus  was  the  chief  of  the  Ionian  colonies  :  but  Eph'esus  was  the 
mo.st  renowned  of  the  cities. 

All  the  Ionian  cities  were  united  by  an  Amphictyon'ic  confederacy. 
Deputies  from  the  different  states  met,  at  stated  times,  in  a  temple  of 
Nep'tune,  erected  on  the  headland  of  Mycale,  which  they  named  Heli- 
conean,  from  Helice,  the  chief  of  their  ancient  cities  in  the  northern 
Peloponnesus.  Here  they  deliberated  on  all  matters  that  affected  the 
Pan-Ionian  league ;  but  the  council  never  interfered  with  the  domestic 
government  of  the  several  cities.  They  also  celebrated  festivals  and 
public  games,  which  rivalled  in  magnificence  those  of  Greece.  In  the 
midst  of  their  prosperity,  the  Ionian  cities  became  engaged  in  a  long 
'ind  arduous  struggle  wHh  the  Lydian  kings,  which  continued  almosf 
without  intermission  until  both  were  absorbed  in  the  rising  greatness  of 
'.he  Persian  empire. 

Nf'ither  tlie  extent  nor  progress  of  the   Dorian  colonies  could  com 


100  A.-TCIENT   HISTOHY. 

pare  with  tl.ose  we  Itav;?  just  described.  Limi  ed  to  a  naiTOw  and  not 
V  ery  fruitful  territory,  their  confederation  always  continued  i)i  a  state  ot 
feebleness  ;  and,  with  the  exception  of  Ilalicarnas'sus,  which,  at  a  com- 
paratively recent  age,  became  the  capital  of  an  opulent  monarchy,  and 
the  isle  of  Rhodes,  whose  daring  navigators  rivalled  those  of  the  niosJ 
potent  commercial  states,  there  is  scarcely  a  Dorian  state  that  rose 
above  mediocrity. 

The  Dorians,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus,  meditated  new 
acquisitions  ;  but,  being  checked  by  the  Athenians  at  Meg'ara,  they  pro 
ceeded  in  detached  bauds  to  the  coast  of  Caria,  and  to  the  islands  of 
Cos  and  Rhodes.  It  is  impossible  to  assign  the  exact  age  of  these  mi 
grations ;  but  they  were  certainly  later  than  the  Ionian  and  ^^olian  , 
they  appear  also  to  have  been  conducted  without  any  definite  plan,  and 
*o  have  taiien  place  at  very  different  times.  The  six  cities  forming  the 
Doric  confederation,  called  Hexapolis,  were  Halicarnas'sus  and  Cnidus 
on  the  Carian  peninsula,  Cos  in  the  island  of  the  same  name,  and  Ha- 
lys'sus,  Camirus,  and  Lin'dus,  in  the  island  of  Rhodes. 

The  Dorians  submitted  without  a  struggle  to  the  Persian  power,  and 
seem  to  have  made  no  effort  to  regain  their  independence. 

Sfxtion  VIII. —  The  Greek  Colonies  on  the  Euxine  Sea,  ihc  Coasts  of  Thrnre, 

Macedon,  ^. 

Most  of  the  Greek  colonies  on  tlie  shores  of  the  Propon'tis,  tht 
Euxine  sea,  and  the  Palus  Majotis,  were  founded  by  the  citizens  of 
Miletus  between  the  eighth  and  sixth  centuries  before  the  Christian  era. 
That  city,  whose  commerce  occupied  four  harbors,  and  whose  naval 
power  amounted  to  eighty  or  a  hundred  galleys  of  war,  owed  its  great- 
ness to  its  possession  of  the  northern  trade  ;  and  to  secure  this  lucra- 
tive commerce,  it  planted  several  colonies,  all  of  which  became  pros- 
perous marts  of  trade.  Their  commerce  was  not  confined  to  the  sea- 
coasts  :  their  merchants  penetrated  into  southern  Russia,  and  advanced 
even  beyond  the  Caspian  to  the  countries  which  now  form  the  king- 
doms of  Khiva  and  Bokliara.  The  Phocaeans  shared  the  honor  of 
founding  these  important  colonies  ;  but  they  were  too  much  devoted  to 
the  western  trade  to  waste  their  energies  on  the  northern ;  aid  it  may 
be  generally  stated,  that  the  settlements  on  the  Euxine  depended 
chiefly  on  Miletus. 

On  the  Propon'tis  adjoining  the  Hellespont,  stood  Lamp'sacas, 
jriginally  founc'.ed  by  some  Phocsans,  who  obtained  a  grant  of  the 
site  of  the  city  from  one  of  the  native  prinv.-es  whom  they  had  assisted 
•n  war.  It  was  afterward  occupied  by  the  Milesians,  under  whom  it 
became  a  place  of  great  wealth  and  extensive  commerce. 

Cyz'icus,  erected  on  an  island  joined  by  bridges  to  the  Asiatic  coast, 
was  a  very  ancient  city ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  colonized  in  the  earli- 
est ages  by  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelas'gi,  and  afterward  by  the  Argonauts. 
About  B.  c.  751,  it  was  occupied  by  the  Milesians,  who  at  the  same 
time  took  possession  of  the  neighboring  island  of  Proconnesus  [Mar- 
mora). Cyz'icus,  in  a  la^e  age,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans 
uecaine  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  flourishing  cities  in  Asia. 

Opposite  to  Cyz'icus  on  the  Thracian  coast,  was  Perin'lhus,  at  a  la 


GREEK  COLONIES  ON  THE  EUXINE  SEa.  107 

ler  age  called  Heracleia,  founded  by  a  Samian  colony ;  on  the  Euro- 
pean side  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus  was  Byzan'tmm  [Constantinople); 
and  over  agamst  it,  on  the  Asiatic  coast,  ChaFcedon  [Scutari),  both 
colonized  from  Meg'ara. 

The  first  Greek  city  on  the  Black  sea  was  Heracleia,  on  the  Bithy- 
nian  coast,  which  appears  to  have  been  successively  colonized  from 
Meg'ara  and  Miletus. 

Sinope,  in  Paphlagonia,  was  the  most  powerful  of  the  Greek  states 
'm  the  Euxine  se  a.  Amjsus,in  Pon'tus,  was,  next  to  Sinope,  the  best 
harbor  on  the  Euxine  sea.  After  having  been  long  subject  to  Miletus, 
it  was  seized  by  the  Athenians  in  the  age  of  Per'icles,  and  its  name 
changed  to  Peirae'aeus.  During  the  days  of  its  prosperity,  Amisus  is 
said  to  have  become  the  parent  of  a  colony  that  soon  surpassed  itself 
m  importance,  Trap'ezus  [Trebisonde). 

On  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Euxine  were  Phasis,  Dioscurias,  and 
Phanagoria.  In  the  Macedonian  age,  Phanagoria  became  the  capital 
of  the  Greek  cities  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bos'phorus  :  its  prosperity 
was  owing  to  its  being  the  chief  mart  for  the  slave-trade,  which  has 
always  prevailed  in  the  countries  round  the  Caucasus,  and  also  to  its 
being  the  staple  for  the  goods  brought  from  central  and  southern  Asia 
by  the  route  of  the  Caspian  sea  and  the  Oxus. 

The  Milesians  formed  several  establishments  in  the  Tauric  Cher- 
sonese [Crimea),  and  wrested  the  greater  part  of  that  peninsula  from 
its  barbarous  inhabitants.  The  city  of  Panticapse'um  was  the  mos* 
important,  and  probably  the  most  ancient,  of  these  settlements.  It  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  little  Greek  kingdom  of  the  Bos'phorus,  and 
continued  to  maintain  its  independence  until,  in  the  Roman  age,  it  was 
seized  by  Mithridates  the  Great,  who  laid  there  the  foundations  of  hia 
•subsequent  power. 

The  coasts  of  Thrace  and  Macedon  were  covered  with  Greek  colo- 
nies, princip"Ily  derived  from  Corinth  and  Athens. 

On  the  coasts  of  Africa  was  the  celebrated  Greek  city  of  Cyrene, 
long  the  commercial  rival  of  Carthage,  founded  by  a  Dorian  colony 
from  the  island  of  Thera  (b.  c.  651),  in  obedience  to  the  directions  of 
ihe  Delphic  oracle.  The  government  was  at  first  monarchical,  the  crown 
being  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Bat'tus,  the  founder.  About  b.  c 
450,  royalty  was  abolished,  and  a  republic  formed ;  but  the  citizens  of 
Cyrene  never  were  able  to  form  a  permanent  constitution ;  and  their 
state  continued  to  be  rent  by  factions  until  it  was  annexed  to  the  Egyp- 
tian kingdom,  in  the  age  of  the  Ptolemies. 

The  history  of  the  Greek  states  in  Sicily  and  southern  Italy  being 
closely  connected  with  the  Roman  wars,  will  be  found  in  the  chapters 
on  Italy. 


108  ANCIENT  HISTOIty 


GQAPTER  X. 

HISTORY    OF    GREECE, 

PROM  THE  COMMENCEMENT  OF  THE  PERSIAN  WARS 
TO  THE  ACCESSION  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT 

FROM    B.  C.    500    TO    B.  c.    336. 

Section  I. —  The  First  Persian  War 
FROM  B.  c.  500  TO  B.  c.  490. 

When  Darius  Hystas'pes  invaded  Scythia,  he  intnasted  the  guard 
of  the  bridge  of  boats  that  he  had  constructed  over  the  Danube  to  the 
Greeks  of  Asia  and  Thrace,  who  had  been  so  recently  brought  under 
t<ubjection  to  the  Persians.  Many  of  those  were  anxious  to  recover 
their  freedom,  and  they  deliberated  seriously  on  the  propriety  of  de- 
stroying the  bridge,  and  leavin'g  the  Persians  to  perish  without  resource 
in  an  inhospitable  desert.  The  proposal  was  strenuously  advocated  by 
Miltiades,  the  king  or  tyrant,  as  he  was  called,  of  the  Thracian  Cher- 
sonese ;  but  he  was  opposed  by  Histife'us,  the  t\Tant  of  Miletus,  whose 
selfish  counsels  finally  prevailed.  Miltiades  retired  to  Athens,  his  na- 
tive city,  where  he  subsequently  rose  to  the  highest  honors  ;  Histiae'us 
accompanied  the  monarcli  he  had  saved  to  the  court  of  Persia.  But 
the  gratitude  of  absolute  princes  is  not  permanent :  Histias'us  soon 
found  that  the  very  magnitude  of  his  services  exposed  him  to  danger ; 
and  he  concerted  with  his  nephew,  Aristag'oras,  a  revolt,  which  in- 
cluded all  the  Ionian  colonies.  In  order  that  the  insurrection  should 
have  any  reasonable  prospects  of  success,  it  was  necessary  that  it  shuuld 
be  supported  by  the  Grecian  states  ;  and  to  engage  this  assistance, 
Aristag'oras  came  to  Lacedac'mon. 

Beiiff  repulsed  at  Spar'ta,  Aristag'oras  proceeded  to  Athens,  where 
he  was  more  generously  received  (b.  c.  500).  Twenty  ships  were 
prepared  for  him  with  all  convenient  speed;  and  these  being  rein- 
forced by  five  more  from  the  little  state  of  Eret'ria,  in  the  island  of 
Euboe'a,  sailed  over  to  the  harbor  of  Miletus,  and  commenced  the  war. 
The  allies  were  at  first  very  successful.  Sar'dis,  the  wealthy  capital 
of  Lydia,  was  taken  and  plundered ;  but  Aristag'oras  had  not  the  tal- 
ents of  a  general ;  the  fruits  of  success  were  lost  as  soon  as  won  ;  the 
several  divisions  of  the  army  quarrelled  and  separated  ;  and  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  were  left  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  vengeance  of  their  -neioiles.": 
masters.  Miletus  was  taKen,  its  walls  razed,  and  its  citizens  mas 
iacred     several  minor  cities  suflered  similar  calamities.     Aristag'oras 


GREECE  109 

fled  to  Thrace,  wliere  lie  was  murdered  bv  the  barbarians  ;  and  His 
tiae'us,  after  a  vain  attempt  to  escape,  was  crucified  at  Sar'dis  by  com 
maiul  of  the  Persian  satrap. 

Darius  next  turned  his  resentment  ag^ainst  the  Greeks,  who  had  aided 
this  revoh  ;  he  sent  ambassadors  to  demand  homage  from  the  Grecian 
states,  especially  requiring  the  Athenians  to  receive  back  Hip'pias, 
their  exiled  tyrant.  All  the  states,  insular  and  continental,  except 
Athens  and  Spar'ta,  proffered  submission  ;  but  those  noble  republics 
bent  back  a  haughty  defiance,  and  fearlessly  prepared  to  encounter  the 
wliole  strength  of  the  Persian  empire. 

Darius,  having  prepared  a  vast  armament,  intrusted  its  command 
to  his  son-in-law  Mardonius,  who  soon  subdued  the  island  of  Thasus, 
and  the  kingdom  of  Macedon  (b.  c.  493).  But  his  fleet,  while  doubling 
Mount  A'thos,  was  shattered  by  a  violent  st(>im  ;  three  hundred  vessels 
were  dashed  against  the  rocks,  and  twenty  thousand  men  are  said  to 
have  perishtJ  m  the  waves.  Mardonius  returned  home  to  excuse  his 
disgrace,  by  exaggerating  the  cold  of  the  climate,  and  the  dangers  of 
the  ^Egean  sea. 

A  second  and  more  })owerful  armament  was  prepared  (b.  c.  490), 
over  which  Darius  placed  his  two  best  generals,  Datis,  a  Mede,  and 
Artapher'nes,  a  Persian  nobleman.  The  fleet  passed  safely  through 
the  Cyc'lades,  and  arrived  at  the  island  of  Euboe'a.  Thence  the 
Persians  crossed  the  Euripus,  and,  by  the  advice  of  the  exiled  Hip'- 
pias,  encam{)ed  with  an  army  said  to  exceed  five  hundred  thousand 
men  on  the  plains  of  Mar'athon,  within  ten    miles  of  Athens. 

The  Athenians  could  only  muster  an  army  often  thousand  citizens,  and 
about  double  that  number  of  slaves,  who  were  armed  in  this  extremity. 
The  little  city  of  Platse'a  sent  an  auxiliary  force  of  a  thousand  men ; 
but  the  Spartans,  yielding  either  to  superstition  oi  jealousy,  refused  to 
send  their  promised  aid  before  the  full  of  the  moon.  Miltiades  dis- 
suaded his  countrymen  from  standing  a  siege,  because  the  immense 
host  of  the  Persians  could  completely  blockade  the  city,  and  reduce  it 
by  starvation.  He  led  the  army  to  Mar'athon  ;  but  when  the  Persian 
hosts  were  in  sight,  five  of  the  ten  generals,  commanding  jointly  with 
himself,  were  afraid  to  hazard  a  battle  ;  and  it  was  not  without  difliculty 
that  Callun'achus  was  prevailed  upon  to  give  his  casting  vote  in  favor 
of  fighting.  But  when  the  bold  resolution  of  engaging  was  adopted, 
all  the  genenils  exerted  themselves  to  forward  the  wise  plans  of  their 
leader  (b.  c.  490). 

Miltiades  formed  his  lines  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  that  protected  Ids  rear 
and  right  flank ;  his  left  was  secured  by  an  extensive  marsh,  and  his 
trout  protected  by  truiiks  of  trees,  strewn  for  some  distance,  to  break 
Hie  force  of  the  Persian  cavalry.  The  Athenian  citizens  occupied  the 
right  wing,  the  Plataeans  the  left,  while  the  raw  levies  of  slaves 
were  stationed  in  the  centre.  Datis  saw  the  advantages  of  thio 
position  ;  but  confident  in  his  superior  numbers,  he  gave  the  signal  foi 
battlfc.  '1  he  Greek  centre  was  broken  at  the  moment  that  the  two 
'vings  had  routed  the  divisions  opposed  to  them  :  tliis  had  been  fore- 
3feii ;  and  Miltiades  directed  the  victorious  wings  to  attack  the  Per- 
sian.s  rushi.\g  incautiously  through  the  broken  centre  on  both  flanks, 
^^urprise   is   t'aidl   to  an  oriental  army;  in  a  few  minutes  the  Asiatics 


110  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

"^erw  wholly  routed,  and  fled  in  confusion  to  their  ships.  Thn  Greekt 
pursued  them  vigorously,  and  destroyed  seven  of  their  vessels.  But  the 
Persian  fleet  was  still  powerful,  and  its  connuanders  deemed  it  possible 
tc  suprise  Athens  before  the  army  could  return.  Miltiades,  however 
batHed  this  attempt  by  rapidly  marching  from  the  field  of  battle  to  the 
city,  and  securing  the  posts  before  the  hostile  navy  could  get  round  the 
promontory  of  Siinium.  Thus  disappointed,  the  Persians  took  advan- 
tage of  a  favorable  gale,  and  returned  to  Asia. 

Miltiades  was  subsequently  accused  of  having  taken  a  bribe,  con- 
victed on  rather  doul)lful  evidence,  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy  fine 
which  not  being  able  to  pay,  he  was  throwu  ,Vito  prison,  where  he 
died  of  his  wounds. 

Themis'tocles,  the  most  able  statesman,  and  Aristides,  the  most 
uncorrupt  patriot  of  Greece,  for  a  time  shared  the  power  that  had  been 
previously  possessed  by  Miltiades.  Their  struggle  for  power  ended 
in  the  banislxment  of  Aristides ;  but  when  his  wise  counsels  were 
required  in  the  hour  of  emergency,  he  was  recalled  on  the  n.otion  of 
nis  successful  rival.  Themis'tocles  directed  all  his  efforts  to  improving 
ihe  naval  power  of  Athens,  and  he  succeeded  in  securing  for  his 
country  the  complete  supremacy  of  the  Grecian  seas. 

In  the  interval  between  the  two  Persian  wars  nothing  remarkable 
occurred  in  any  other  of  the  Grecian  states,  save  that  in  Spar'ta,  one 
of  it?  'vings,  Demaratus,  was  deposed  and  driven  into  exile  by  the  in- 
trigues of  the  other,  Cleom'enes.  Demaratus  sought  refuge  in  the 
court  of  Persia ;  Cleom'enes  perished  by  his  own  hand,  a  victim  tn 
remorse.     Leoty'chides  succeeded  the  former,  Leon'idas  the  latter 

Skctio.n  II. —  The  Second  Persian  War. 
FROM    B.  c.  480   TO   B.  c.  449. 

NiXE  years  after  the  battle  of  Mar'athon,  Xer'xes,  the  son  and  suc- 
cessor of  Darius,  resolved  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Greece,  and  foi 
this  purpose  collected  an  army,  which,  after  making  every  allowance 
for  the  exaggerations  of  historians,  appears  to  have  been  the  most 
numerous  ever  assembled.  When  he  reached  the  pass  of  Thermop- 
ylie,  through  which  lay  the  road  from  Thessaly  to  Greece,  he  found  a 
body  of  eight  thousand  men,  commanded  by  the  Spartan  Leon'idas, 
prepared  'o  dispute  the  passage.  The  haughty  Persian  instantly  sent 
a  herald,  com.^anding  these  warriors  to  surrender  their  arms,  and  was 
maddened  by  the  contumelious  reply,  "  Come  and  take  them." 

After  many  inefl'ectual  eflbrts  to  break  the  Grecian  lines,  all  of 
which  were  repulsed  with  grea  slaughter,  Xer'xes  was  on  the  point 
of  retiring  in  despair,  when  the  treachery  of  Ephial'tes,  a  Trachinian 
deserter,  revealed  to  him  a  patli  leading  to  the  top  of  the  mountain 
that  secured  the  Grecian  flank.  Leon'idas  advised  his  allies  to  retire, 
declaring  that  he  and  his  Spartans  were  forbidden  by  law  to  abandon 
their  po.sis.  Retaining  with  him  only  a  thousand  men,  no  resolved  to 
attack  the  Persian  camp  by  night,  hoping  in  the  confusion  and  darkness 
lo  reach  the  royal  tent,  and,  by  the  slaughter  or  capture  of  Xer'xes,  tc 
put  an  end  to  the  war.  The  plan  had  nearly  succeeded  when  morning 
dawned  on  tlie  assailants,  wearied  with  slaughter  ;  they  then  r*^*rnated 


QREECR  1  1 1 

to  the  uppe»  part  of  the  pass,  where  they  were  soon  surrouiided  Iv 
nmhitudes  ;  but  they  still  fought  with  all  the  energies  of  despair,  until 
they  sunk,  fatigued  rather  than  vanquished. 

About  the  same  time  the  Greeks  obtained  a  victory  over  the  Persian 
fleet  off  the  headland  of  Artemis'ium,  in  the  island  of  Euboe'a ;  but 
this  triumph  was  rendered  fruitless  by  the  loss  of  the  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae ;  and  Themis'tocles  persuaded  the  allies  to  remove  the  navy 
into  the  Saronic  gulf,  where  tliey  anchored  off  the  island  of  Sal'amis 

Xer'xes,  having  entered  Phocis,  divided  his  army,  sending  a  large 
detachment  to  plunder  and  destroy  the  temple  of  Del'phi.  They  were 
attacked  by  the  Phocians,  and  hewn  down  almost  without  resistance. 
A  miserable  remnant  escaped  to  Xer'xes,  who,  having  destroyed  Thes' 
piae  and  Platae'ee,  was  rapidly  advancing  against  Athens.  On  his 
approach,  the  Athenians,  by  the  persuasion  of  Themis'tocles,  abandoned 
their  beloved  city ;  those  capable  of  bearing  arms  retired  to  the  island 
of  Sal'amis,  while  those  whom  age  or  sex  rendered  unlit  for  war, 
found  shelter  in  the  hospitable  city  of  Troezene.  Athens  was  burned 
to  the  ground ;  and  Xer'xes,  in  the  pride  of  success,  resolved  to  anni- 
hilate the  last  hopes  of  Greece  in  a  naval  engagement. 

Eurybiades,  the  Spartan,  who  commanded  the  allied  fleet,  was 
induced  by  Themis'tocles  to  adopt  the  plan  of  hazardhig  an  engage- 
ment. Fearing,  however,  some  change,  the  crafty  Athenian  sent  u 
spy,  as  a  pretended  deserter,  to  Xer'xes,  informing  him  that  the  Greeks 
were  preparing  to  disperse  and  escape  ;  upon  which  the  whole  Persian 
navy  was  sent  to  blockade  the  harbor  of  Sal'amis.  Themis'tocles 
learned  the  success  of  his  stratagem  from  Aristides,  who  crossed  over 
from  iEgina  in  a  small  boat  with  the  intelligence ;  a  circumstance  that 
at  once  put  an  end  to  the  rivalry  between  these  great  men. 

Xer'xes  witnessed  the  battle  of  Sal'amis  from  iEgaleos,  a  rocky 
eminence  on  the  coast  of  At'tica :  he  had  the  mortification  to  see  his 
magnificent  navy  utterly  annihilated.  From  that  moment  Xer'xes 
resolved  to  return  into  Asia,  leaving  three  hundred  thousand  men  under 
Mardonius  to  prosecute  the  war.  When  he  reached  the  Hellespont, 
he  found  his  magnificent  bridge  broken  down,  and  he  v/as  forced  to 
cross  the  strait  in  a  common  fishing-boat. 

Mardonius  having  wintered  in  Thes'saly,  before  opening  the  next 
campaign,  sent  the  king  of  Macedon  as  an  ambassador  to  the  Atheni- 
ans, offering  them  the  rebuilding  of  their  city,  and  the  friendship  of  his 
master,  on  condition  of  their  seceding  from  the  alliance.  These  offers 
were  rejected.  The  confederates  encamped  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Cithse'ron,  in  front  of  the  Persian  lines.  Several  skirmishes  took 
place,  in  all  of  which  the  Greeks  had  the  advantage  ;  but  being  dis- 
tressed for  v/ant  of  water,  they  broke  up  their  camp  to  seek  a  belter 
position. 

Mardonius,  believing  that  his  enemies  were  in  full  retreat,  ordered 
his  soldiers  to  pursue  the  fugitives  and  complete  the  victory.  A  battle 
ensued  not  far  from  the  city  of  Platse'ae,  which  ended  in  the  total  defeat 
of  the  Persians,  and  the  aimihilation  of  their  army,  with  the  exception 
of  forty  thousand  that  escaped  to  the  Hellespont  under  Artabazus 
Two  hundred  thousand  of  the  barbarians  are  said  to  have  fallen  in  thi-^ 
memorable  battle,  and  the  value  of  the  plunder  found  in   t'.ie  Persian 


11'^  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

camp  exceeds  calculation.  On  tlie  very  same  clay  (September  22(1, 
R.  c.  479),  an  equally  important  victory  Avas  gained  by  the  confederate 
fleet,  commanded  by  the  Athenian  Xanthip'pus  and  the  Spartan  Leoty'- 
chides  at  Mycile,  on  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Dreading  the  heroism 
of  the  Greeks,  the  Persians  had  drawn  their  ships  on  shore,  surrounded 
them  with  fortificaUons,  and  protected  them  with  an  army  of  sixty 
thousand  men.  The  allied  Greeks,  with  far  inferior  numbers,  landed 
their  troops,  stormed  the  works,  destroyed  the  navy,  and  put  the  j^reatei 
part  of  the  Persians  to  the  sword.  The  plunder  taken  by  the  Greeks 
was  immense,  but  the  most  splendid  results  of  these  victories  were  the 
overthrow  of  the  Persian  power  in  the  iEgean  sea,  and  the  freedom 
of  the  islands.  It  is  probable  that  the  colonies  in  western  Asia  might 
have  regained  their  independence  if  they  desired  it ;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  the  lonians,  most  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks  preferred  the 
tranquil  supremacy  of  Persia  to  an  alliance  with  the  Grecian  republics 

During  the  half  century  which  followed  the  battle  of  Plataj'fc,  the 
Athenian  republic  attained  the  summit  of  its  greatness,  and  became  the 
first  state,  not  only  of  Greece,  but  of  the  civilized  world.  Themis'to- 
cles  rebuilt  the  defences  of  the  city,  fortified  the  harbor  of  the  Peirae'- 
us,  and  joined  it  to  Athens  by  what  were  called  "the  long  walls." 

In  the  meantime  the  Spartan  Pausanias,  at  the  head  of  the  confed- 
erate Greeks,  continued  to  wage  war  against  the  dependancies  of  tbo 
Persian  empire  in  the  iEgean  sea  and  on  the  coast  of  Thrace.  By- 
zan'tium,  already  regarded  as  a  strong  and  flourishing  city,  was  taken 
after  a  short  siege  (b.  c.  470),  and  its  vast  wealth  became  the  prey  of 
the  conquerors.  Among  the  captives  were  many  distinguished  Persian 
noblemen,  and  even  relations  of  the  king,  who  paid  large  sums  to  re- 
deem them  from  captivity.  But  this  sudden  influx  of  riches  proved  fa- 
tal to  Pausanias ;  he  resolved,  by  the  aid  of  the  Persians,  to  become 
supreme  master  of  Greece.  Secret  information  of  their  general's  trea- 
son was  conveyed  to  the  Spartan  senate  ;  he  was  recaUed,  and  brought 
to  trial  ;  but  escaped  the  first  time,  it  is  said,  by  bribing  his  judges. 
Fresh  evidence  being  obtained  against  him,  he  was  secretly  warned 
of  his  danger,  and  fled  for  safety  to  the  temple  of  Miner'va.  The  Spar- 
tans did  not  dare  to  drag  the  traitor  'from  the  sanctuary  ;  they  blocked 
up  the  door  of  the  temple  with  huge  stones,  stripped  off  its  roof,  strictly 
guarded  all  its  avenues,  and  left  the  wretch  to  perish  by  cold  and  hun- 
ger. In  consequence  of  the  tyranny  of  Pausanias,  the  Spartans  were 
deprived  of  the  supremacy  by  sea,  and  the  Athenians  were  chosen  to 
lead  the  naval  confederacy  of  the  islands  and  colonies.  Aristides  was 
elected  treasurer  of  the  allies,  and  to  prevent  any  complaints,  he  se- 
lected the  island  of  Delos  as  the  point  of  reunion,  and  the  sanctuary 
where  their  contributions  should  be  deposited  under  the  protection  of 
Apol'lo. 

Themis'tocles,  by  the  artifice  of  the  Spartans,  was  involved  in  the 
fate  of  Pausanias  :  he  appears  to  have  been  acquainted  wi'h  the  plot, 
but  he  strenuously  denied  that  it  had  ever  received,  his  sanction.  He 
was  banished  by  ostracism  for  ten  years  ;  but  the  malice  of  his  enemies 
j)ursued  him  in  his  exile,  and,  to  save  his  life,  he  was  forced  to  seek 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Persia.  He  soon  however  ended  his  life  by 
poison.     Nearly  at  the  same  time  Aristides  died  full  of  years  and  hon 


GREECE.  IK^ 

ors,  having  administered  the  public  finances  with  so  much  integrity, 
that  he  did  not  leave  beliind  him  a  sum  sufficient  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  his  funeral.  A  sum  was  issued  from  the  public  treasury  to  pay  fcr 
the  last  rites  to  his  corpse,  to  complete  his  son's  education,  and  to  por- 
tion his  daughters. 

Cimon,  the  son  of  Miltfades,  succeeded  Aristides  as  leader  of  thf 
Athenian  republic :  he  continued  the  war  against  the  Persians  with 
equal  vigor  and  skill,  reducing  all  their  cities  and  forts,  not  only  in 
Europe  and  the  islands,  but  even  on  the  coast  of  Asia.  At  length  h^ 
completely  destroyed  the  whole  Persian  navy  off  the  coast  of  Cy']/n?« 
(b.  c.  46G),  and  then  dressing  his  men  in  the  vestures  and  arms  of  hi." 
prisoners,  surprised  the  Persian  camp  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eurym'- 
edon  on  the  very  same  day,  and  before  the  barbarians  could  recovei 
from  their  confusion,  completed  their  destruction.  The  war  continued 
twenty-one  years,  daring  which  the  naval  power  and  commercial  wealth 
nf  the  Athenians  were  continually  increasing  ;  both  sides  at  length  began 
to  entertain  thoughts  of  peace.  The  articles  were  soon  arranged,  and 
they  were  worthy  of  the  valor  that  the  Greeks  had  shown  in  this  great 
struggle  (b,  c.  449).  It  was  stipvdated  that  the  independence  of  the 
Greek  cities  in  lower  Asia  should  be  restored ;  that  no  Persian  /esse! 
should  appear  between  the  Cyanean  rocks  and  Chelidoniaii  islands,  that 
is,  between  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Thracian  Bos'phorus  and  the 
southern  promontory  of  Lycia  ;  that  no  Persian  army  should  come  with- 
in three  days' journey  of  the  seacoast;  and  that  the  Athenians  should 
withdraw  their  fleets  and  armies  from  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Thu.« 
gloriously  were  terminated  the  Persian  wars,  which,  reckoning  from  the 
burning  of  Sar'dis,  had  lasted,  with  little  intermission,  during  fifty- 3ne 
years 

Section  III. —  TJie  First  Peloponncsian  War. 
FROM    B.    C.    431    TO    1!.    c.    422. 

While  the  Athenians  were  acquiring  wealth  and  glory  m  the  war 
against  Persia,  the  Spartans,  jealous  of  their  rival's  rising  fame,  were 
secretly  preparing  to  weaken  the  Athenian  power  by  a  sudden  war. 
But  their  animosity,  before  it  broke  into  action,  was  diverted  by  a  ca- 
lamity equally  great  and  unexpected.  Laconia  was  laid  waste  by  an 
earthquake,  which  destroyed  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  of  its 
inhabitants,  and  overwhelmed  the  city  of  Sparta  (b.  c.  469).  The  op- 
pressed Helots  and  the  remnant  of  the  Messenians  took  advantage  of 
this  caia.nity  to  make  a  vigorous  effort  for  the  recovery  of  their  free- 
aom  ;  they  failed  in  surprising  Sparta  ;  but  they  made  themselves  mas- 
ters of  their  ancient  fortress  Ithome.  Though  aided  by  the  Atheni- 
ans, whose  assistance  they  repaid  with  ingratitude,  the  Spartans  had 
great  difficulty  in  subduing  the  insurgents,  and  were  finally  forced  lo 
allow  them  to  retire  from  the  Peloponnesus  with  their  families  and 
properties.  These  exiles  were  hospitably  received  in  the  Allienian 
colony  of  Naupac'tus  ;  and  they  repaid  the  kindness  shown  to  them  by 
subsequently  adhering,  through  every  vicissitude  of  fortune,  to  the  cause 
of  Athens  The  Argives  had  declined  to  support  the  general  cause  of 
Greece    in  the  great  struggle  witii  the    Persians  ;  and  the  dependan' 

8 


in  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

States,  despising  their  treachery,  had  thrown  olT  obedience  to  the  cu{i- 
jtal.  Mycens  was  the  only  city  on  which  the  Argives  coukl  wreai< 
their  vengeance ;  the  rest,  supported  by  Spar'ta,  maintained  their  inde- 
pendence. From  simihir  reasons,  Thebes  had  lost  her  supremacy  ovei 
the  Boeotian  cities ;  but  here  the  Athenians  embraced  the  cau-^e  of  tht 
minor  states,  while  Sparta  supported  the  sovereignty  of  the  B<g<itian 
metropolis. 

Athens  had  now  attained  the  summit  of  its  greatness,  under  vhe  bril- 
liant administrations  of  Per'icles.  That  eminent  statesman,  though 
sprung  from  a  noble  house,  had  risen  to  power  by  warmly  supporting 
the  cause  of  the  people,  and  procured  the  banishment  of  his  rival 
Cimon,  on  account  of  his  partiality  to  Sparta.  To  secure  his  influence. 
Per'icles  weakened  the  power  of  the  great  aristocratic  court,  the 
Areop'agus,  by  removing  various  causes  from  its  jurisdiction  to  that  of 
the  popular  tribunals.  He  adorned  the  city  with  the  most  splendid 
monuments  of  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting ;  and  in  order  to 
defray  the  necessary  expenditure,  he  augmented  the  contributions  im- 
posed on  the  allied  states,  under  the  pretence  of  supporting  the  Persian 
war,  and  removed  the  treasury  of  the  confederates  from  Delos  to 
Athens.  Finding  that  the  Spartans  were  supporting  the  cause  of  the 
Theban  supremacy,  he  sent  an  army  to  maintain  the  independence  of 
Boeotia,  which,  though  at  first  worsted  near  Tan'agra,  won  a  decisive 
victory  on  the  same  ground  in  the  following  year  (b.  c  457).  A  fleet 
at  the  same  time  ravaged  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus,  and  made  the 
Spartans  tremble  for  their  own  safety.  The  recall  of  Cimon,  and  the 
defeat  of  the  Athenians  in  an  enterprise  against  Thebes,  through  the 
rashness  of  their  leader  Tol'midas,  led  to  a  truce  for  five  years  (b.  c. 
450),  which  might  probably  have  led  to  a  permanent  peace,  but  for  th'j 
death  of  Cimon  before  the  walls  of  Cit'ium.  The  close  of  the  truce 
Sed  to  a  brief  renewal  of  war;  but  a  second  truce  was  concluded  foj 
fifty  years,  which  gave  Per'icles  time  to  mature  his  favorite  policy  ot 
making  Athens  mistress  of  the  maritime  and  insular  states.  Some  of 
the  islands  revolted,  but  they  were  successively  subdued ;  and  the  sub 
jugation  of  Samos,  the  chief  city  in  the  island  of  that  name,  gave  Per'- 
icles the  fame  of  a  military  leader  as  well  as  a  statesman.  About  the 
same  time  he  completed  the  overthrow  of  the  aristocratic  party,  by  pro- 
curing the  banishment  of  its  leader,  tlie  elder  Thucyd'ides  ;  and  se- 
cured the  popular  favor  by  his  unrivalled  shows  and  theatrical  exhibi- 
tions. The  brilliancy  of  Athens,  however,  provoked  a  host  of  secret 
enemies,  especially  in  the  Peloponnesus,  who  only  waited  an  opportu- 
nity of  combining  for  her  destruction. 

Athens  now  formed  the  metropolis  of  an  extensive  territory  which 
some  of  the  ancients  have  denominated  a  kingdom.  In  that  narrow 
Bpace  of  time  which  intervened  between  the  battle  of  Mycale  and  the 
iiemorable  war  of  Peloponnesus,  Athens  had  established  her  authority 
over  an  extent  of  more  than  a  thousand  miles  of  the  Asiatic  coast,  from 
Cyprus  to  the  Thracian  Bos'phorus ;  taken  possession  of  forty  inter* 
mediate  islands,  together  with  the  important  straits  which  join  tht; 
Euxine  and  the  ^Egean  ;  conquered  and  colonized  the  winding  shnrc:j 
3f  ^rhrace  and  Macedon  ;  commanded  the  coast  of  the  Euxine  from 
Poa'tns  to  the  Tauric  Chersonese  ;  and  overawing  the   barbarous   na- 


GRFMCE.  11- 

d\es  by  the  experienced  terrors  of  her  fleet,  at  the  same  time  rendered 
subservient  to  her  own  interests  the  colonies  which  Miliitus  and  othex 
Greek  cities  in  Asia  had  established  in  those  remote  regions.  Thus 
the  Athenian  galleys  commanded  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  their  merchantmen  had  engrossed  the  traffic  of  the  adjacenf 
countries  ;  the  magazines  of  Athens  abounded  with  wood,  metal,  ebony, 
ivory,  and  all  the  materials  of  the  useful  as  well  as  the  agreeable  arts ; 
tliey  imported  the  luxuries  of  Italy,  Sicily,  Cyprus,  Lyd'ia,  Pon'tus, 
and  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  circumstances  that  gave  rise  to  the  first  Peloponnesian  wai 
originated  in  the  unsettled  state  of  colonial  relations  among  the  ancient 
Greeks.  Corcy'ra,  originally  a  Corinthian  colony,  had  risen  so  rapidly 
in  wealth  and  power,  that  it  more  than  rivalled  the  parent  state,  and 
possessed  many  flourishing  colonies  of  its  own,  among  which  one  of 
the  most  important  was  Epidam'nus,  called  in  Roman  history  Dyrac'- 
chium  [Ditrazzo],  on  the  western  coast  of  Macedonia.  The  people  of 
Epidam'nus,  pressed  by  their  barbarous  neighbors,  sought  aid  from  the 
Corcyreans ;  but  finding  their  request  vjiheeded,  they  applied  to  the 
Corinthians,  who  readily  sent  an  armament  to  their  assistance  (b.  c. 
436).  Nothing  could  exceed  the  rage  of  the  Corcyreans  when  they 
received  this  intelligence  ;  a  fleet  was  instantly  sent  to  the  harbor,  and 
its  citizens  were  haughtily  commanded  to  dismiss  the  Corinthians,  and 
receive  a  Corcyrean  garrison.  This  mandate  was  spurned  with  con- 
tempt, and  Epidam'nus  was  immediately  besieged.  The  Corinthians 
sent  a  powerful  navy  to  raise  the  siege  ;  but  they  were  encountered  by 
the  Corcyreans  in  the  Ambracian  gulf,  and  completely  defeated.  Epi- 
dam'nus immediately  surrendered  ;  contrary,  however,  to  the  general 
expectation,  its  inhabitants  were  treated  with  great  leniency.  But  the 
liaughty  islanders  abused  their  victory  by  ravaging  the  territories  of  the 
states  that  had  assisted  Corinth,  and  provoked  universal  indignation  by 
burning  the  city  of  Cyllene,  on  the  sacred  coast  of  E'lis.  Both  powers 
applied  to  Athens,  as  the  head  of  the  maritime  states,  to  decide  their 
quarrel.  By  the  advice  of  Per'icles,  a  defensive  alliance  was  concluded 
with  the  Corcyreans,  and  a  fleet  sent  to  their  aid,  which  fortunately  ar- 
rived at  the  moment  when  the  Corinthian  navy,  having  obtained  a  de- 
cisive victory,  seriously  menaced  the  island.  On  the  arrival  of  the 
Athenians,  the  Corinthians  retired ;  but  as  they  returned,  they  sur- 
prised the  garrison  of  Anactoriuni.  on  the  coast  of  Epirus,  which  en- 
abled them  to  bring  home  twelve  hundred  and  fifty  Corcyrean  prison- 
ers. The  fatal  efl'ects  produced  by  this  capture  will  soon  demand  our 
attention. 

Potidae'a,  a  Corinthian  colony  on  the  Macedonian  coast,  which  hac 
been  for  some  time  subject  to  Athens,  revolted  during  the  Corcyrean  war, 
and  was  instantly  besieged.  The  Potidae'ans  sought  aid  from  their  ancient 
parent ;  and  the  Co-inthians,  too  weak  to  afTr  tl  efficient  protection,  be- 
sought the  assistance  of  the  Spartans.  Aboui  the  same  time,  ambas- 
sador- arrived  from  the  city  of  Meg'ara,  complaining  tnat  they  had 
been,  by  an  unjust  decree,  excluded  from  the  ports  and  harbors  of 
At'tica,  soliciting  the  Spartans,  as  heads  of  the  Dorian  race,  to  procure 
c.  reversal  of  so  unjust  a  law  ;  and  emissaries  came  from  ^Eg-'na  to 
represent  the  miserable  condition  to  which  that  island  had  been  reduced 


lie 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


by  Athenian  oppression.  Alter  some  affected  ilelay,  the  Spartans  re 
solve'l  that  the  Athenians  had  violated  the  principles  of  jnstice,  and 
should  be  coerced  to  redress  the  injuries  they  had  inflicted  ;  but  to  give 
their  proceedings  an  appearance  of  moderation,  it  was  resolved  to  send 
ambassadors  to  Athens  v.'ith  demands  which  they  knew  well  would  be 
refused.  They  required  that  the  siege  of  Potidae'a  should  be  raised, 
the  decree  against  Meg'ara  repealed,  the  island  of  .^Egina  abandoned, 
the  independence  of  the  maritime  states  respected,  and  the  descendants 
of  Cy'lon's  murderers  banished.  This  last  demand  was  levelled  a! 
Per'icles,  whose  maternal  ancestor  had  headed  the  aristocratic  party 
when  that  sacrilegious  murder  was  committed  ;  and  it  was  urgt  1  at  a 
favorable  moment,  when  Per'icles  was  suspected  of  impiety  on  account 
of  his  protecting  the  philosopher  Anaxag'oras. 

But  the  haughtiness  with  which  the  Spartan  ambassadors  urged  their 
'Injurious  demands  roused  the  fiery  spirit  of  the  Athenian  people,  and  it 
required  all  the  influence  of  Per'icles  to  induce  them  to  couch  their  re- 
fusal in  temperate  and  dignified  language.  While  the  declaration  of 
war  was  yet  withheld  intelligence  arrived  at  Spar'ta  of  the  Thebans 
having  been  foiled  in  an  attempt  to  surprise  Platfe'a;,  and  that  their  de- 
feat was  owing  to  the  instigation  and  aid  of  the  Athenians  (b.  c.  431). 
War  was  instantly  proclaimed,  and  the  Spartan  king  Archida'mua 
elected  chief  of  the  Peloponnesian  confederates. 

Athens,  supported  by  the  insular  and  maritime  states,  was  supreme 
mistress  of  the  sea  ;  Spar'ta,  on  the  other  hand,  was  joined  by  the  chiel 
powers  on  the  Grecian  continent,  and  was  consequently  superior  by 
land.  Both  began  the  war  by  displaying  their  strength  on  their  own 
peculiar  element :  a  Spartan  army  ravaged  At'tica,  an  Athenian  fleet 
plundered  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  Spartans  were  thus 
forced  to  return  home  to  the  defence  of  their  own  countrj' ;  and  no 
sooner  had  they  withdrawn,  than  Per'icles  invaded  .Meg'ans,  and  laid 
the  whole  of  iis  narrow  territory  desolate.  Early  in  the  next  sunmie} 
the  Peloponnesians  again  invadetl  At'tica  ;  but  the  Athenians  were 
assailed  l)y  a  more  dreadful  calamity — a  plague  of  unparalleled  viru- 
lence had  been  introduced  into  the  Pira;'a3us  from  Asia,  and  it  raged 
fiercely  in  a  city  crowded  by  the  peasants  who  had  sought  refuge  within 
the  walls  on  the  approach  of  the  Spartans.  At  length,  two  years  and 
six  months  after  the  commencement  of  the  war,  Per'icles  himself  fell  a 
victim  to  the  pestilence  (b.  c.  429).  His  death-bed  was  surrounded  by 
his  friends  and  admirers,  who  recited  the  many  illustrious  exploits  of  his 
glorious  life.  "  You  forget,"  said  the  dymg  patriot,  "  you  forget  the  only 
valuable  part  of  my  character  ;  none  of  my  fellow-citizens  was  ever  com- 
pelled by  any  action  of  mine  to  assume  a  mourning  robe." 

The  war  was  suj)ported  by  mutual  ravages,  and  the  success  of  th» 
contending  parties  nicely  balanced.  Poti(la?'a  surrenderd  to  the  Athe- 
nians, its  inhabitants  were  banished,  and  their  place  supplied  by  fresh 
colonists  ;  Platee's,  after  a  brave  and  protracted  defence  of  five  years 
was  yielded  to  the  Spartans,  and  the  whole  garrison  was  mercilessly 
butchered  (b.  c.  427).  In  the  same  year  that  the  Spartans  had  stained 
their  national  character  by  the  atrocious  massacre  of  the  Platfeans,  ihf 
Athenians  narrowly  escaped  being  disgraced  l)y  a  similar  atrocity.  Thf 
Lesbians  of  Mitylene  had   revolted,  and   souiiht   the   asoistance  of  th. 


GREECE.  1 17 

Peloponnesiu.ns,  but  the  tardy  and  selfish  pvvlicy  of  Lacedae  nion  delayed 
ihe  succors  until  the  insurgents  were  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion, 
When  the  fate  of  Mitylene  was  discussed  in  the  Athenian  assembl)-,  the 
populace,  instigated  by  Cleon,  a  vulgar  demagogue,  decreed  that  the 
city  should  be  destroyed,  and  the  male  inhabitants  put  to  the  sword. 
But  night  brought  better  counsels  ;  a  general  feeling  of  pity  and  regret 
spread  among  the  people  ;  and  on  the  following  day  the  sanguinary- 
decree  was  revoked,  and  a  fast-sailing  vessel  sent  to  prevent  its  execu- 
tion. The  messengers  of  mercy  made  such  speed,  that  they  entered 
the  harbor  of  Mitylene  a  few  hours  after  the  preceding  boat,  and  thus 
saved  Les'bos  from  desolation. 

The  Spartan  admiral,  having  failed  to  succor  Les'bos,  sailed  against 
Corcy'ra,  then  agitated  by  the  tumults  of  a  most  dangerous  sedition.  It 
has  been  already  mentioned,  that  many  Corcyreans  had  been  made 
prisoners  by  the  Corinthians  ;  these  men  were  won  by  he  kindness  and 
bribes  of  their  captors  to  aid  the  aristocratic  party  of  their  countrymen 
in  an  attempt  to  subvert  the  democratic  constitution  of  Corcy'ra,  and 
break  off  the  alliance  with  Athens.  On  their  return  home,  they  made 
a  vigorous  effort  to  accomplish  their  designs,  and  very  nearly  succeed- 
ed. After  a  violent  and  sanguinary  contest,  in  which  both  parties  were 
disgraced  by  the  most  savage  atrocities,  the  democratic  faction  prevailed 
by  the  aid  of  an  Athenian  fleet,  but  sullied  its  triumph  by  exterminating 
all  its  opponents,  under  circumstances  of  equal  treachery  and  cruelty. 

The  presence  of  the  Athenian  fleet  in  the  Ionian  sea  rendered  west- 
ern Greece  the  scene  of  war  ;  and  Demos'thenes,  its  chief  commander, 
subdued  all  the  allies  of  the  Peloponnesians  in  ^toiia  and  Epirus. 
The  term  of  his  command  having  expired  (b.  c.  425),  he  was  returning 
home,  when  the  Messenians  wno  served  in  his  fleet  proposed  to  eflect 
a  landing  in  the  harbor  of  Py'lus  [Nava?ino),  and,  fortiiying  themselves 
there,  make  the  Spartans  tremble  in  their  own  capital,  which  was  onlj 
fifty  miles  distant.  The  bold  design  was  accomplished  ;  and  the  Spar- 
tans in  alarm  sent  a  fleet  and  army  to  besiege  Py'lus  ;  they  garrisoned 
the  little  island  of  Sphactefia  ;  but  their  navy  being  defeated  by  the 
Athenians,  this  garrison,  consisting  of  the  noblest  of  the  Spartan  fami- 
lies, was  brought  to  the  brink  of  ruin,  and  would  have  been  utterly 
destroyed,  but  for  the  inadequate  resources  which  Demos'thenes  had  at 
his  command.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  Spartans  sent  deputies 
to  solicit  peace  ;  but  the  Athenian  people,  instigated  by  their  unworthy 
favorite  Cleon  rejected  the  proffer  with  disdain.  This  arrogant  boaster, 
whose  cowardice  was  notorious,  offered,  if  he  »vore  made  general,  that 
he  would  make  the  Spartans  in  Sphacteria  prisoners  within  twenty 
Jays.  He  had  no  notion  that  his  ofler  would  be  accepted ;  but  the 
Athenian  populace,  ready  at  all  times  to  sacrifice  everything  for  a  joke, 
took  him  at  his  word.  Cleon  sailed  to  the  scene  of  war,  and  was 
enabled,  by  an  accidental  fire,  which  destroyed  the  Spartan  fortifica- 
tions, to  accomplish  his  promise.  This  success  was  followed  by  the 
capture  of  the  island  of  Cythera  the  destruction  of  the  Megarean 
harbor  Nicae'a  and  of  several  seaports  on  the  coast  of  the  Peleponncsus. 
But  these  triumphs  were  counterbalanced  by  the  defeat  of  the  Atheni- 
ans at  Delium,  the  revolt  of  their  northern  colonies,  and  the  connnrnce 
uent  of  hostilities  against  them  by  Perdic'cas,  lung  of  Macedon.      Fbe 


^18  ANCIENI   lilSTORV. 

Spartans,  roused  to  vigor  by  this  unexpected  turn  of  events,  sent  an 
*imy  under  Bras'idas,  their  ablest  general,  through  northern  Greece,  v. 
aid  the  revolted  colonies  ;  and  this  eminent  leader  soon  deprived  Itie 
Athenians  of  their  principal  cities  in  Thrace  and  Macedon.  Cleon 
headed  an  Athenian  army  sent  to  retrieve  these  losses  ;  he  w^as  defeat- 
ed and  slain  ;  but  the  Spartan  victory  was  deprived  of  all  itn  fruits  b) 
the  death  of  Bras'idas,  who  incautiously  exposed  himself,  and  was  mor- 
tally wounded  (n.  c.  422). 

Sparta  had  no  general  fit  to  succeed  Bras'idas,  and  the  senate  wa?^ 
anxious  to  recover  the  prisoners  taken  in  Sphacteria  ;  the  Atheiiiano 
were  equally  eager  to  procure  the  restitution  of  their  northern  colonies  : 
and  Nic'ias,  who  had  succeeded  Cleon,  was  naturally  of  a  pacific  dis- 
position. These  favorable  circumstances  led  to  the  conclusion  of  a 
peace,  or  rather  truce,  for  fifty  years,  on  the  baris  of  mutual  restitution 
by  which  Sparta  wantonly  sacrificed  the  interests  of  her  allies. 

Section  IV. —  The  Second  Pdoponnesian  War. 

FROM   B.   C.   421    TO   B.   C.  401. 

Justly  provoked  by  the  neglect  of  their  interests  in  the  recent  treaty 
the  Corinthians  privately  instigated  the  xArgives  against  the  Spai  tans  -, 
and  a  combination  Avas  formed  by  the  principal  democratic  states, 
which  was  secretly  encouraged  by  the  Athenians.  The  sudden  depar- 
ture from  pacific  policy  was  owing  to  the  influence  of  Alcibiades,  the 
nephew  of  Per'icles,  who,  to  a  large  share  of  his  uncle's  abilities, 
added  a  boundless  ambition,  and  a  reckless  disregard  of  the  means  he 
used  to  accomplish  his  ends.  The  Argives  and  Spartans,  after  havmg 
harassed  each  other  by  petty  expeditions,  at  length  prepared  for  open 
war  ;  but  just  as  the  two  armies  were  on  the  point  of  engaging,  the 
remembrance  that  they  were  both  descended  from  the  Dorian  race  sus- 
pended their  rage,  and  a  truce  was  concluded  between  their  respective 
leaders.  Alcibiades,  who  was  then  ambassador  at  Ar'gos,  roused  the 
populace  to  refuse  the  ratification  of  this  agreement ;  a  fresh  attack  wag 
made  on  the  Spartan  allies,  but  it  proved  unsuccesisful.  Two  years  of 
mutual  recrimination  followed ;  during  which  the  Argive  republic  was 
harassed  by  sanguinary  revolutions,  which  ended  in  the  complete 
establishment  of  a  democracy.  In  the  meantime,  the  Athenians, 
anxious  to  restore  their  naval  supremacy,  attacked  the  Dorian  island  of 
Melos,  and  pui  ished  the  resistance  of  the  inhabitants  by  a  cruel  massacre, 
which  provoked  universal  indignation  throughout  Greece.  But  public 
attention  was  soon  engrossed  by  a  more  important  topic,  the  Athenian 
expedition  to  Sicily,  undertaken  at  the  instigation  of  Alcibiades  (b.  c 
415),  nominally  to  deliver  the  Egestans  from  the  tyranny  of  the  Syra- 
cusans,  l)ut  really  to  establish  the  Athenian  supremacy  in  that  island. 

Notwithstanding  the  remonstrances  of  Nic'ias  and  Soc'rates,  the  mosi 
powerful  armament  which  had  ever  left  a  Grecian  port  was  speedily 
prepared,  and  intrusted  to  the  just  command  of  Alcibiades,  Nic'ias,  and 
Lam'achus.  When  reviewed  at  Corcy'ra,  it  was  found  to  consist  of  & 
hundred  and  thirty-four  ships-of-war,  with  a  proportional  number  of 
'ransports  and  touaers.     '^h.*i   army  was   composed  of  five    thousand 


GREECE.  1  1 '.' 

neavy-anned  infantry,  accompanied  by  a  sufficient  body  of  slingers  iiu<\ 
archers.  Instead,  however,  of  saiUng  directly  to  Syracuse,  which  prob- 
ably would  have  fallen,  the  fleet  was  steered  to  Cat'ana,  whose  inhab- 
itants were  induced  to  join  the  Athenians  by  the  brilliant  eloquence  of 
Alcibiades.  Scarcely,  however,  had  he  obtained  this  triumph,  when  he 
was  summoned  home  to  be  tried  for  his  life  on  a  charge  of  impiety  and 
sacrilege. 

He  was  accused  of  having  violated  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  and 
wantonly  defaced  the  Iler'maj,  or  sacred  statues  of  Mercury,  which 
adorned  the  streets  of  Athens.  Conscious  of  his  guilt,  or  dreading  the 
giddy  populace,  he  refused  to  incur  the  hazard  of  a  trial,  but  fled  to 
Thiirium,  whence  he  removed  to  Ar'gos,  and  afterward,  when  a  price 
was  set  on  his  head,  to  Spar'ta.  Nic'ias,  by  the  departure  of  Alcibiades. 
and  death  of  Lam'achus,  remained  sole  commander  of  the  Athenian 
forces  :  he  was  an  able  but  cautious  leader,  and  after  he  had  defeated 
the  Syracusans,  he  wasted  precious  time  in  fortifying  his  carap  and 
useless  negotiations.  The  Corinthians  and  Spartans  profited  by  the 
delay  to  send  succors  to  Syracuse,  which  they  intrusted  to  Gylip'pus, 
the  best  general  of  his  day.  Under  his  command  the  fortune  of  the  war 
soon  changed ;  and  the  Atlienians,  so  far  from  making  any  impression 
on  Syracuse,  were  severely  defeated,  and  besieged  in  their  camp.  At 
the  request  of  Nic'ias,  a  new  armament  was  sent  to  Sicily,  under  the 
command  of  Demos'thenes  and  Eurym'edon  ;  but  through  the  dilatory 
policy  of  the  old  general,  and  tlie  rashness  of  his  colleagues,  this  rein- 
forcement was  rendered  unavailing,  and  the  Athenians  were  defeated  in 
a  decisive  engagement.  Demos'thenes  now  proposed  to  return  ;  but 
Nic'ias  lingered  in  Sicily  after  all  rational  hopes  of  success  were  lost, 
and  the  Syracusans,  in  the  meantime,  collecting  a  powerful  navy,  de- 
stroyed the  Athenian  fleet,  and  became  masters  of  the  sea.  An  attempt 
was  made  by  the  Athenians  to  retreat  to  some  friendly  city ;  but  they 
were  overtaken  by  the  Syracusan  army,  and  forced  to  surrender  at  dis- 
cretion (b.  c.  413).  The  generals  were  barbarously  put  to  death,  and 
the  common  soldiers  sold  as  slaves. 

This  terrible  calamity  was  fatal  to  the  power  of  Athens  ;  b  it  it  was 
not  the  only  misfortune  that  befell  the  republic.  Acting  u..der  the 
revengeful  advice  of  Alcibiades,  the  Spartans  fortified  and  garrisoned 
Deceleia,  a  town  not  fifteen  miles  from  Athens,  and  commanding  its 
richest  lands  ;  and  thus,  instead  of  harassing  their  enemies  by  annual 
incursions,  they  infested  them  by  a  continual  war.  Soon  afterward 
they  learned  that  the  wealth  of  Persia  was  added  to  the  formidable 
confederacy  of  the  Spartans. 

But  under  all  these  misfortunes  the  Athenians  maintained  their 
national  courage,  and  prepared  to  meet  the  crisis  with  enthusiasm. 
Their  most  pressing  danger  arose  from  the  discontent  of  the  maritime 
states,  whose  desire  of  independence  was  stimulated  by  the  presence 
of  a  superior  Spartan  fleet  in  the  iEgean  sea.  The  ruin  of  the  x\the- 
nians  was,  however,  suspended  by  the  negotiations  of  Alcibiades  with 
the  Persian  satrap  Tissaplier'nes  ;  for  this  ambitious  man,  having  pro- 
voked the  resentment  of  the  Spartans  by  his  vices,  was  now  eager  to 
De  reconciled  to  his  native  country.  His  intrigues  procured  the  abo- 
lition of  the  x\thenian  democracy,  and  the  substitution  of  an  aristocratu 


120  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

govciTinic-iit  ;  but  the  now  heads  of  tlie  state  justly  dreaded  ihe  anif»i 
lion  of  Alcibiades,  and  refused  to  repeal  the  sentence  pronouncec. 
aoainst  him.  The  four  hundred  tyrants,  as  the  aristocratic  usurpers 
were  justly  called,  alienated  the  minds  even  of  their  partisans  by  theii 
cruelty  and  incapacity.  At  length  the  revolt  of  Euboe'a,  and  thr 
destruction  of  the  Athenian  fleet  near  Eretria,  provoked  a  fierce  insur- 
rection :  they  were  deposed,  and  thus,  at  the  end  of  four  months,  tht' 
democracy  was  restored.  Alcibiades  was  immediately  recalled;  but 
he  resolved  not  to  return  home  until  his  return  should  be  gilded  by 
the  fame  of  some  great  exploit.  He  hastened,  Avith  a  small  squadron, 
to  aid  the  Athenian  fleet,  at  the  moment  it  had  joined  battle  .vith  the 
Spartans  ;  and  this  seasonable  reinforcement  decided  the  vi  ^ory.  But 
Alcibiades,  eager  for  a  more  decisive  blow,  persuaded  his  countrymen 
to  attack  the  Spartans  in  the  harbor  of  Cyz'icus,  and  by  his  prudent 
arrangements  the  whole  hostile  fleet  was  cither  taken  or  destroyed 
(B.C.  411).  This  great  victory  was  followed  by  the  re-establishment 
of  the  Athenian  ascendency  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus.  After  hav- 
ing performed  these  essential  services,  Alcibiades  rett^.'ned  home 
(b.  c.  407),  and  was  welcomed  at  Athens  with  great  enthusiasm :  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  by  sea  and  land,  and  a  large  arma- 
ment was  placed  at  his  disposal.  * 

But  when  Alcibiades  returned  to  the  coast  of  Asia,  he  found  the 
cause  of  Sparta  retrieved  by  the  crafty  Lysan'der,  Avho  was  more  than 
his  equal  in  the  diplomatic  arts  of  duplicity  and  cunning.  The  Spartan 
had  the  art  to  gain  the  confidence  of  the  Persian  prince  Cy'rus,  to 
whom  his  father  had  just  intrusted  the  government  of  lower  Asia ;  and 
by  the  simple  expedient  of  raising  the  pay  of  the  sailors  on  board  the 
confederate  fleets,  he  at  once  deprived  the  Athenians  of  their  most 
experienced  mariners.  Alcibiades  went  with  a  small  squadron  to  raise 
contributions  in  Caria :  during  his  absence,  Antiochus,  his  lieutenant, 
contrary  to  orders,  engaged  Lysan'der,  and  was  defeated  with  the  loss 
of  fifteen  ships.  Intelligence  of  this  event  being  conveyed  to  Athens, 
.he  suspicions  oi  the  treachery  of  Alcibiades,  which  had  been  only 
partially  lulled,  returned  in  full  force,  and  he  was  a  second  time  deposed 
and  banished.  He  fled  ^o  a  fortress  he  possessed  in  Thrace,  while  ten 
admirals  were  appointed  to  command  in  his  stead. 

Lysan'der's  year  of  office  having  expired,  he  was  succeeded  aa 
admiral  of  the  Peloponnesiap.  fleet  by  Callicrat'idas,  a  man  as  inferior 
to  him  in  ability  as  he  was  superior  in  rectitude  and  integrity.  An 
engagement  between  the  fleets,  off  the  islands  of  Arginusaj,  ended  in 
the  total  deferat  of  the  Spar.ans  ;  but  a  violent  storm  prevented  the 
Athenian  admirals  from  improvdng  their  victory,  and  from  recovering  tho 
bodies  of  their  sbin,  to  procure  them  the  rites  of  sepulture.  For  these 
imaginary  crimca,  they  were  accused  before  the  people  by  one  of  their 
rolleagiies,  denied  the  benefit  of  a  fair  trial,  condemned  by  clamor,  and 
riut  to  death. 

The  war  for  a  time  languished,  but  the  reappointment  ot  Lysan'def 
to  the  command  of  the  Peloponnesian  fleet  was  fatal  to  Athens,  whose 
best  oflicers  had  been  wantonly  sacrificed  to  gratify  the  fury  of  a  lieen 
ious  populace.  Profiting  by  the  unskilfulness  and  presumption  of  the 
Athenian  admiral,  Lysan'der  attacked  them  unawares  at  the  mouth  of 


GREECE.  1'^' 

die  jEgos-pc.t'amos  (Goat's  river),  and  totally  annihilated  their  "lavy 
with  the  exception  of  eight  galleys,  which,  by  the  prudent  mjinage- 
ment  of  Conon,  escaped  to  the  island  of  Cy'prus  (b.  c.  40G).  Lysan''- 
der,  having  thus  virtually  put  an  end  to  the  Peloponnesian  war,  merci- 
lessly butchered  his  unfortunate  prisoners,  to  the  amount  of  three 
thousand. 

Before  sailing  against  Athens,  Lysan'der  reduced  the  principal  mar 
itime  states,  and  thus  prevented  the  import  of  grain  into  the  devoted 
city.  When  he  deemed  "hat  famine  had  sufficiently  prepared  the  way 
for  success,  he  appeared  before  the  harbor  with  a  fleet  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  sail,  while  A'gis,  the  king  of  Sparta,  attacked  the  city 
by  land. 

The  Athenians  made  an  obstinate  defence  ;  but  they  were  at  length 
forced  to  surrender,  on  the  humiliating  conditions  of  abolishing  the 
democracy,  and  intrusting  the  chief  power  to  thirty  persons  named  by 
the  Spartans,  surrendering  all  their  ships  but  twelve,  resigning  all  claim 
to  their  colonies  and  foreign  possessions,  and  consenting  to  follow  the 
Spartan  standard  in  war.  Harsh  as  were  these  conditions,  they  were 
mercy  compared  to  the  sanguinary  measures  proposed  by  the  Thebans 
and  Corinthians.  The  Athenians  submitted  in  bitter  sorrow.  On  the 
sixteenth  of  May  (b.  c.  404),  the  anniversary  of  the  memorable  victory 
of  Sal'amis,  the  harbors  and  forts  of  Athens  were  occupied  by  her  ene- 
mies, and  the  demolition  of  her  walls  commenced  amid  loud  shouts 
and  flourishes  of  martial  music  :  while  her  citizens,  broken-hearted, 
hid  themselves  from  the  light  of  day. 

But  the  Spartans  did  not  believe  their  triumph  secure  while  Alcibl- 
ades  lived  to  reanimate  the  hopes  of  the  Athenians,  and  perhaps  pro- 
cure for  them  the  aid  of  the  Persians.  He  had  detected  the  hostile 
plans  of  Cy'rus  the  younger  against  his  brother  Artaxer'xes,  which 
the' crafty  Lysan'der  secretly  encouraged,  and  desired  to  be  escorted  to 
Susa,  in  order  to  reveal  the  plot  to  the  king.  Pharnabazus  dreaded  the 
consequence  of  such  a  discovery :  he  therefore  readily  listened  to  the 
suggestions  of  Lysan'der,  and  sent  a  body  of  assassins  to  murder  the 
illustrious  exile.  Alcibiades  was  living  in  a  Phrygian  village  uncon- 
scious of  his  danger.  Such  was  the  fame  of  his  valor,  that  the  mur- 
derers were  afraid  to  attack  him  openly,  and  set  fire  to  his  house.  The 
brave  Athenian  rushed  through  the  flames,  and  clove  down  the  foremost 
of  the  assassins,  but  the  rest  overwhelmed  him  with  showers  of  darts, 
and  he  fell  by  a  multitude  of  wounds.  The  Athenians  paid  an  involun- 
tary and  extraordinary  homage  to  his  talents,  for  they  at  once  abandoned 
themselves  to  despair,  and  made  no  effort  to  retrieve  the  hapless  condi- 
tion of  their  country. 


Section  V. —  2'ijrannical  Rule  of  Sjjaria. —  Third  Pelopotnesian    War. 

FROM    B.  C.  404    TO    B.  C.  3G1. 

The  confederates  had  dest:'oyed  the  supremacy  of  A  hens,  but  soon 
toniid  that  they  had  thereby  subjected  themselves  to  the  galling  tyranny 
of  the  Spartans.     Lysxn'der  proved  to  be  the  worf.t  oppressor  tliat  ha] 


ISa  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

ever  been  raised  to  pawcr ;  and  the  Greek  cities  in  Asia  would  havt 
oladlv  chosen  the  non-despolisni  of  Persia,  in  preference  to  his  avaricf 
and  crueUy.  But,  to  secure  her  power,  Sparta  had  established  an  oli 
garchy  of  lier  creatures  in  every  state,  and  supported  those  domestic 
tyrannies  with  arms  and  money.  The  power  of  the  thirty  tyrants  al 
Athens  was  secured  and  maintained  by  a  Spartan  garrison  in  the 
Acrop'ohs  :  thus  supported,  these  despots  set  no  bounds  to  their  cruelty 
and  rapacity,  putting  to  death  all  wiio  possessed  wealth  or  political 
intluence,  and  enriching  themselves  by  confiscations. 

The  city  seemed  to  possess  only  two  classes  of  inhabitants,  the  ready 
instruments  of  cruelty  and  the  patient  victims  of  tyrarniy ;  three  tnou- 
sand  miscreants  were  found  to  act  as  a  bodyguard  to  the  tyrants  ;  all 
the  other  citizens  were  disarmed,  and  those  who  were  suspected  or  at- 
tached to  the  ancient  constitution,  were  either  murdered  or  driven  into 
exile.  The  dockyards  were  demolished  in  order  to  cripple  the  commer- 
cial enterprise  of  the  Athenians ;  the  bema,  or  pulpit  on  the  Phyx,  was 
turned  to  the  land  side,  that  the  view  of  the  sea  might  not  awaken  glo- 
rious recollections,  or  revive  patriotic  emotions,  and  all  instruction  in 
oratory  was  strictly  prohibited. 

Although  the  Thebans  had  been  the  most  inveterate  enemies  of  the 
Athenians,  their  hearts  Avere  affected  by  witnessing  the  evils  brought 
upon  their  rivals  by  the  cruelty  of  the  tyrants,  and  they  received  with 
generous  kindness  those  who  fled  from  the  persecution  of  the  despots. 
A  numerous  band  of  exiles  was  soon  assembled  at  Thebes,  and  at  its 
head  was  placed  Thrasybu'lus,  whose  daring  valor  was  tempered  by 
prudence  and  humanity.  Under  his  guidance  the  exiles  seized  Phy'le, 
a  strong  fortress  on  the  frontiers  of  At'tica  and  Boeotia,  whence  they 
opened  a  communication  with  the  enemies  of  the  tyrants  in  the  city. 
Justly  territied,  the  thirty  and  their  partisans  flew  to  arips,  but  they  suf- 
fered a  shameful  defeat ;  and  Thrasybu'lus,  strengthened  by  the  acces- 
sion of  new  partisans,  seized  the  Peiraj'us.  The  aristocratic  faction,  in 
great  alarm,  deposed  the  thirty  and  elected  ten  new  magistrates  in  their 
stead,  who  emulated  the  wickedness  of  their  predecessors,  and,  to  se- 
cure their  power  sought  assistance  from  Sparta.  Lysan'der  quickly 
advanced  to  their  aid,  and  blockaded  the  Peira^'us ;  but  his  pride  and 
ambition  had  giren  deep  offence  in  Sparta ;  and  Pausanias,  tlie  most 
popular  of  the  I .acedaimonian  princes,  hastily  marched  with  a  second 
army  lo  frustrate  the  plans  of  Lysan'der.  Under  the  protection  of  Pau- 
sanias the  despots  were  stripped  of  power,  the  ancient  constitution  of 
Athens  restored,  and  the  Spartan  garrison  withdrawn  from  the  citadel 
(b.  c.  403).  Some  of  the  tyrants  retired  with  their  followers  to  Eleus'is  ; 
but  their  unequal  hostiUty  was  easily  defeated  by  the  vigor  of  the  new 
republic.  A  few  of  the  most  obnoxious  were  put  to  death :  the  rest 
were  pardoned  by  a  general  act  of  amnesty,  which  was  ratified  by  the 
people  on  tlie  motion  of  Thrasybu'lus. 

Scarcely  nad  the  constitution  been  restored,  when  the  Athenians  show- 
ed how  greatly  their  national  character  had  been  deteriorated,  by  cor> 
uemning  the  virtuous  Soc'raies  to  death  on  a  frivolous  charge  of  impiety 
(b  c.  400).  His  death  was  worthy  of  his  useful  and  honorable  life  ;  ht 
submit. ed  to  'he  injustice  of  his  countrymen  without  murmuring  or  repi- 
ning, and  spent  his  .ast  moments  in  iirpressing  on  the  minds  of  his  trieiida 


GREECE.  123 

who   remained  faithful  to  him,  those   sublime   lessons   of   pluiosophy 
which  his  eloquent  disciple  Plato  has  transmitted  to  posterity. 

Another  disciple  of  Soc'rates  was  at  the  same  time  less  honorably 
engaged  as  a  hireling  soldier  in  Asia.  Darius  Nothus,  at  his  Vath, 
bequeathed  the  crown  of  Persia  to  his  eldest  son  Artaxer'xes,  suinaniod 
Mncmon  from  the  strength  of  his  memory.  Cy'rus,his  younger  broth- 
er, was  stimulated  by  the  queen  dowager  Parys'atis,to  claim  the  king- 
dom, on  the  ground  of  his  having  been  boi  a  the  son  of  a  king,  while  the 
birth  of  Artaxer'xes  took  place  while  Darius  was  as  yet  in  a  private 
station.  Cy'rus,  while  governor  of  lower  Asia,  had  earned  the  grati- 
tude of  Lysan'der  and  the  Spartans,  by  supplying  them  with  money  to 
c'ciry  on  the  war  against  Athens,  and  in  return  he  obtained  their  permis- 
sion to  raise  an  auxiliary  force  in  Greece  to  aid  his  intended  rebellion. 
Thirteen  thousand  adventurers  soon  enrolled  themselves  under  his  stand 
ard,  consisting  not  only  of  the  Spartans  and  their  allies,  but  of  some 
renegade  Athenians,  among  whom  was  Xen'ophon,  the  celebrated  his- 
torian. With  these  auxiliaries,  and  an  army  of  one  hundred  thousand 
of  his  own  provincials,  Cy'rus  invaded  Upper  Asia,  and  advanced  with 
little  difficulty  into  Babylonia  (b.  c.  400).  Here  he  encoimtered  his 
brother's  immense  army,  and  rashly  charging  the  centre  of  the  royal 
guards,  was  slain  on  the  field.  His  army,  according  to  the  usual 
custom  of  Asiatics,  dispersed  immediately ;  and  the  Greeks  were 
left  almost  alone  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile  country,  to  effect  a  difficult 
xetreat  of  more  than  a  thousand  miles.  Their  leaders  proposed  terms  , 
of  accommodation  to  the  Persians.  They  were  invited  to  a  conference, 
under  the  pretence  of  arranging  the  preliminaries,  and  were  mercilessly 
butchered.  Undismayed,  they  chose  new  commanders  ;  and  after  en 
during  incredible  hardships,  succeeded  in  fighting  their  way  to  their  na- 
tive country.  Thus  gloriously  ended  "  the  r-cireat  of  the  ten  thousand  ;" 
but  nothing  can  excuse  the  original  guilt  of  the  expedition. 

The  remnant  of  the  ten  thousand  entered  into  the  service  of  the 
Spartans,  who  had  sent  an  army  to  protect  the  Greek  rities  of  Asia 
from  the  threatened  vengeance  of  Artaxer'xes.  A  desuxvory  war  en- 
sued, productive  of  no  important  result,  until  the  command  of  the  Greek 
forces  was  given  to  Agesilaus,  who  had  been  raised  to  the  throne  of  La- 
conia  by  the  influence  and  intrigues  of  Lysan'der.  Agesilaus  depa/'f- 
ed  for  Asia  just  as  the  Spartans  had  escaped  from  the  peril  of  a  plot 
formed  for  their  destruction  by  the  subject  Lacedaemonians,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  tlie  ambuious  Cin'adon  (b.  c.  396).  Lysan'der,  the  author 
of  his  greatness,  accompanied  Agesilaus,  hoping  to  re-establish  the  in- 
fluence which  he  had  formerly  possessed  in  the  Asiatic  cities.  But 
Agesilaus  treated  him  with  the  most  mortifying  neglect,  and  Lysan'dei 
returned  home,  unpitied,  to  bewail  his  friend's  ingratitude.  The  Spa:r- 
tan  monarch,  thus  freed  from  a  dangerous  rival,  then  directed  his  entire 
attention  to  the  war,  and  defeated  the  Persians  in  several  battles.  ll 
is  very  probable  that  Agesilaus  would  have  shaken  the  throne  of  Arta 
Ker'xes,  had  not  the  atrocious  tyranny  of  his  countrymen  provoked  thf 
general  enmity  of  all  the  Greek  states,  and  kindled  a  new  Peioponne 
tian  war. 

Under  the  most  frivolous  pretences,  Lysan'der  and  the  Spar.an  king 
Pausanias  were  sent  to  invade  the  Theban  territories.     The  formsr  laid 


lUi  ANCIJNT  HI8TCRY 

siege  to  Haiiar'tus.  the  latter  eiicampod  in  the  neighborhood  of  Phuai'ti 
The  garrison  of  llaUar'tus,  taking  advantage  of  this  division  ol  the  hos- 
tile forces,  made  a  sudden  sally,  and  defeated  the  Spartans  with  greal 
slaughter,  Lysan'der  himself  being  slain  (b.  c.  394).  Pausanias  ob- 
tained leave  to  bury  the  dead,  on  condition  of  evacuating  BcBotia ;  and 
he  returned  disgraced  to  the  Peloponnesus,  where  he  soon  died  of  u 
broken  heart 

The  news  of  this  event  revived  the  courage  of  the  enemies  of  Spar' 
ta ;  a  league  for  mutual  protection  was  formed  by  the  republics  of  Ar- 
gos,  Thebes,  Athens^  and  Corinth,  to  which  most  of  the  colonies  in 
Thrace  and  Macedon  acceded.  Agesihvus  was  immediately  recalled 
from  Asia,  and  he  obeyed  the  summons  with  great  promptitude,  leaving 
his  fleet,  and  a  portion  of  the  Asiatic  army,  under  the  charge  of  his 
kinsman  Pisan'der.  Conon,  one  of  the  ten  admirals,  who  had  been  ex 
posed  to  the  anger  of  the  Athenian  populace  after  the  seafightal  Arginu- 
soe,  found  a  generous  protector  in  Evag'oras,  king  of  Cy'prus,  by  whom 
lie  was  introduced  to  the  notice  of  Artaxer'xes.  The  Persian  monarch, 
alarmed  at  the  progress  of  Agesilaus,  gladly  supplied  Conon  with  the 
means  of  fitting  out  a  fleet  which  might  cope  with  that  of  Spar'ta 
Knowing  the  vanity  and  inexperience  of  Pisan'der,  Conon  sailed  in 
quest  of  the  Lacedaemonians  to  the  Dorian  shore  ;  and  oif  the  harbor 
of  Cnidus  gained  a  decisive  victory,  by  which  the  Spartan  navy  was 
annihilated,  and  its  empire  over  the  maritime  states  irretrievably  de 
stroyed.  With  consummate  skill  Conon  availed  himself  of  ihis  sue- 
cess  to  restore  not  only  the  independence  of  Athens,  but  her  supremacy 
in  the  ^Egean  sea.  He  conducted  his  victorious  fleet  to  the  principal 
islands  and  colonies,  and,  either  by  persuasion  or  menace,  induced  them 
to  renew  their  allegiance  to  their  ancient  mistress. 

Agesilaus  received  the  intelligence  of  this  unexpected  reverse  just 
as  he  was  about  to  engage  a  Theban  army  at  Coroneia  (b.  c.  394).  He 
animated  his  soldiers  by  falsely  reporting  that  the  Spartan  fleet  had  been 
victorious ;  but  even  this  stratagem  failed  to  gain  him  decisive  success. 
He  won  the  battle,  indeed,  but  at  such  a  heavy  cost  that  his  victory  was 
nearly  as  calamitous  as  a  defeat.  The  best  and  bravest  of  the  Spartan 
veterans  lefl,  and  Agesilaus  himself  was  dangerously  wounded.  The 
battles  of  Cnidus  and  Coronefa  were  the  only  important  engagements 
in  this  war,  which  lasted  nearly  eight  years  ;  both  parties  exhausted 
their  strength  in  petty  skirmishes  in  the  neighborhood  of  Corinth;  and 
that  wealt'.-.y  city  was  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  the  rivalry  of  the 
Argive  and  Spartan  factions. 

Conon  having  employed  the  Persian  money  to  rebuild  the  walls  oi 
Athens,  and  the  Persian  fleet  to  restore  its  maritime  supremacy,  became 
suspected  by  Artaxer'xes  of  designing  to  raise  a  revolt  of  the  Greeks  in 
Asia  ;  and  this  suspicion  was  fostered  by  Spartan  emissaries,  who  ofler 
ed  to  abandon,  in  the  name  of  their  government,  the  cause  of  Grecian 
liberty,  provided  that  the  Persian  monarch  would  grant  favorable  terms 
of  peace.  Artaxer'xes  listened  to  the  treacherous  proposals ;  Conon 
was  seized  and  murdered  in  prison ;  articles  of  peace  were  arranged 
with  the  Spartan  Antal'cidas,  by  which  the  liberty  of  the  Greek  citiea 
was  sacrificed,  and  the  independenco  of  all  the  minor  republics  pro- 
:laimed.     The  Persian  monarch  and  the  Spartan  r^^public  took  upon 


OREECE.  125 

►hemselves  to  enforce  the  latter  regulation  vihicli  was  designed  to  pre< 
vent  Athens  from  maintaining  her  superiority  over  the  maritime  states, 
and  Thebes  from  becoming  mistress  of  the  Boeotian  cities  (b.  c.  387). 
The  disgraceful  peace  of  Antal'cidas,  by  which  the  Spartans  resigned 
he  free  cities  of  Asia  to  a  barbarian,  in  order  to  gratify  their  unworthy 
jealousies,  sufficiently  proves  that  the  selfish  policy  inculcated  by  the 
laws  of  Lycur'gus  was  as  ruinous  as  it  was  scandalous. 

The  city  of  Oljii'thus,  in  the  Macedonian  peninsula,  having  incurred 
the  resentment  of  the  Spartans,  an  army  was  sent  to  reduce  it ;  but 
this  was  found  no  easy  task  ;  and  it  was  not  until  after  a  war  of  four 
years,  in  which  the  Spartans  suffered  m£,ny  severe  defeats,  that  the 
Olynthians  were  forced  to  accept  a  peace  on  very  humiliating  condi- 
tions. In  the  course  of  this  war,  Phce'bidas,  a  Spartan  general  in  vio 
lation  of  the  laws  of  nations,  seized  the  Cadmeia,  or  citadel  of  Thebes, 
then  enjoying  a  profound  peace ;  and  his  crime  was  justified  and  re- 
warded by  Agesilaus  (b.  c.  383).  The  chief  of  the  Theban  }->s*viots 
fled  to  Athens,  where  they  were  kindly  received ;  an  oligarchy  of  trai 
iors  was  established  under  the  protection  of  the  Spartan  garrison ;  and 
Thebes  was  doomed  to  the  misery  that  Athens  had  endured  under  the 
thirty  tyrants. 

Pelop'idas,  one  of  the  Theban  exiles,  stimulated  by  the  recent  ex- 
t«mple  of  Thrasybu'lus,  concerted,  with  a  friend  who  had  remained  in 
Thebes,  a  bold  plan  for  the  liberation  of  his  country.  The  most  licen- 
tious of  the  tyrants  were  invited  to  a  feast ;  and  when  they  were  hot 
with  wine,  the  conspirators  entered  disguised  as  courtesans,  and  slew 
them  in  the  midst  of  their  debauchery  (a.  c.  378).  The  rest  of  the 
traitors  met  a  similar  fate  ;  and  the  patriots  being  reinforced  by  an 
Athenian  army,  vigorously  besieged  the  citadel,  and  soon  forced  the 
fjacedaemonian  garrison  to  capiT;ulate. 

Cleom'brotus  was  sent  with  a  numerous  army  from  Lacedaemon,  in 
the  depth  of  winter,  to  chastise  the  Thebans.  The  Athenians  were 
beginning  to  repent  of  their  having  aided  the  revolters  ;  but  a  perfidious 
attempt  having  been  made  by  one  of  the  Spartan  generals  to  seize  the 
Peirae'us,  as  Phoe'bidas  had  the  Cadmeia,  the  whole  city  of  Athens  was 
filled  with  ju  ;t  indignation,  and  the  most  vigorous  prepararioas  were 
made  for  \s  ar  Agesilaus  himself  repeatedly  invaded  B(e6tia,  without 
performing  anything  worthy  of  his  former  fame.  Pelop'idas,  who  was 
chosen  general  by  his  grateful  countrymen,  won  two  splendid  victories 
at  Tan'agra  and  Teg'yra,  though  in  the  latter  fight  he  had  to  encouutei 
a  vast  disparity  of  force.  The  Athenians  swept  the  Spartan  navy  from 
the  seas,  and  infested  the  coasts  of  the  Peloponnesus.  The  maritime 
states,  disappointed  in  their  expectations  of  independence,  renewed 
their  confederacy  under  the  supremacy  of  Athens,  and  the  invention  of 
a  new  system  of  tactics  by  Iphic'rates,  was  fatal  to  the  ancient  supe- 
riority of  the  Lacedfemonian  phalanx.  Nothing,  in  short,  could  have 
saved  Spar'ta  from  destruction,  had  nof  the  Thebans,  intoxicated  with 
success,  provoked  fiostiiity  by  their  vauming  pride  and  the  cruelty  with 
which  they  treated  the  cities  of  Boeotia. 

A  convention  of  all  the  Grecian  states  was  summoned  to  Spar'ta,  al 
the  request  of  the  Persian  monarch,  who  wished  to  obtain  aid  from  thfl 
chirf  republics  in  subduing    an    insurrection  of  the  Egyptiaus  (b.  c 


J 20  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

372).  The  represemative  of  the  Thehans  was  Epamiuon'aus,  the  b(  Si 
military  commander  that  Greece  had  yet  produced,  and  the  wises! 
statesman  it  had  seen  since  the  days  of  Per'icles.  Ilis  eloquent  de 
nunciation  of  Spartan  ambition  produced  a  deep  impression  on  the 
minds  of  the  deputies,  which  all  the  inj^enuity  of  Agesihius  could  nol 
remove  ;  the  assembly  was  dissolved  without  coming  to  any  conclusion  , 
but  the  influence  of  JSparta  was  destroyed  for  ever.  Early  in  the  fol- 
lowing spring,  Cleom'brotus,who,  during  the  sickness  of  Agesilaus  had 
been  appointed  to  the  chief  command,  invaded  Boeotia  with  a  powerful 
army.  Epaminon'das  met  him  on  the  memonJile  field  of  Leuc'tra,  and 
by  attacking  the  long  lines  of  the  Lacedaemonians  with  massy  columns, 
won  a  decisive  victory,  in  which  Cleom'brotus  himself  was  slain.  The 
consequences  of  this  battle  were  more  important  tiian  the  triumph 
itself;  for  all  the  states  previously  under  the  yoke  of  Spar'ta  began 
openly  to  aspire  at  independence.  • 

The  Athenians,  though  justly  enraged  wuh  the  Spartans,  were  by 
no  means  satisfied  with  the  result  of  the  battle  of  Leuc'tra.  They 
withdrew  their  friendship  from  the  Thebans,  who  soon,  however,  found 
a  more  powerful  ally  in  Jason,  the  captain-general  of  Thessaly.  This 
aoble  prince,  who  had  planned  the  union  of  all  the  Grecian  states  into 
a  single  monarchy,  of  which  he  designed  himself  to  be  the  head, 
joined  the  Thebans  after  the  battle,  and  meditated  a  truce  between 
them  and  the  Spartans.  He  was  planning  further  schemes  of  empire, 
when  he  was  murdered  by  seven  assassins  in  the  presence  of  his  army 
(B.C.  370).  Two  of  the  murderers  were  slain  on  the  spot ;  five  escaped 
by  the  fleetness  of  their  horses,  and  were  received  in  the  Grecian  re- 
publics as  heroic  assertors  of  liberty. 

No  peril  more  imminently  threatened  Spar'ta  than  the  revolt  of  the 
Peloponnesian  states  which  had  hitheT-to  tamely  submitted  to  her  au- 
tliDrity ;  but  it  was  dangerous  to  attempt  their  subjugation  by  force,  lest 
they  might  combine  together  for  mutual  protection.  These  states  were 
equally  reluctant  to  encounter  the  hazards  of  war,  until  they  haa  j*}- 
cured  the  support  of  p.  Theban  army;  and  they  sent  pressing  messages 
for  fid  to  Bceotia.  After  some  delay,  Epaminon'das  and  Pelop'idaf 
werb  sent  into  the  Peloponnesus  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  and 
they  advanced  without  interruption  into  Laconia,  where  the  face  of  an 
enemy  had  not  been  seen  for  five  centuries  (b.  c.  369).  The  whole 
country  was  laid  desolate  ;  but  what  was  more  afflicting  to  the  Spar- 
tans even  than  these  ravages,  Epaminon'das  rebuilt  the  ancient  city  of 
Messene,  placed  a  Theban  garrison  in  its  citadel,  and  called  back  the 
wreck  of  the  Messenian  nation  to  their  native  land,  where  they  watched 
ever}'  favorable  occasion  for  wreaking  their  vengeance  on  their  oppres- 
sors. Scarcely  had  this  great  enterprise  been  accomplished,  when  the 
Thebar.  generals  heard  that  the  Athenians  had  not  only  entered  into 
alliance  with  the  Spartans,  but  had  sent  a  large  army  to  their  aid,  un- 
der the  command  of  Iphic'rates.  They  immediately  evacuated  Laco 
nia,  and  returned  home  laden  with  plunder  through  the  isthmus  of  Con 
inth,  meeting  no  interruption  from  Iphic'rates,  who  led  his  forces  by  a 
different  road.  The  Thebans,  instead  of  receiving  their  illustri'^us 
generals  wilh  gratitude,  brougVit  them  to  trial  for  having  continued  theii 
jonunand  beyond  the  time  limited  by  law.     Pelop'idas  lest  his  pres- 


GREECE.  1-7 

fnce  of  mind,  and  escaped  with  difficulty;  bat  Epaniinou'das  proudly 
recoimting  his  heroic  deeds,  awed  his  accusers  into  silence,  and  v-a:: 
conducted  home  in  triumph. 

The  Peloponnesian  war  lingered  during  ihe  six  following  years, 
The  Spartans  were  engaged  in  punishing  their  revolted  subjects  in  La- 
conia  ;  the  Thebans  were  involved  in  a  difficult  struggle  against  Alex- 
an'der.  the  tjnrant  of  Pheroe,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  influence  of  Ja- 
son in  Thessaly,  and  Ptolemy,  the  usurper  of  the  throne  of  Macedon. 
Pelop'idas  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  the  army  sent  to  regh 
late  these  difficulties.  He  forced  Alexan'der  to  submit  to  the  terms  of 
peace  imposed  by  the  Theban  senate,  and  he  restored  Perdic'cas,  the 
legitimate  heir,  to  the  throne  of  Macedon.  To  secure  the  Theban  in- 
tere.st  in  the  north,  he  brought  home  with  him  several  of  the  Macedo- 
nian princes  and  nobles  as  hostages,  among  whom  was  Philip,  the 
younger  brother  of  Perdic'cas,  and  future  conqueror  of  Gicece.  On 
his  return,  Pelop'idas  was  treacherously  seized  lay  the  tyrant  of  Pherfe, 
and  thrown  into  prison  ;  nor  was  he  liberated  until  Epaminon'das,  after 
the  defeat  of  many  inferior  leaders,  was  sent  into  Thessaly,  where  he 
soon  forced  the  tyrant  Alexan'der  to  imconditional  submission.  Pelop'- 
idas, after  his  liberation,  was  sent  as  an  ambassador  to  Persia,  where 
his  eloquence  so  charmed  Artaxer'xes,  that  he  broke  ofl'  liis  alliance 
with  Spar'ta  aiitl  concluded  a  league  with  the  Thebans.  The  greater 
number  of  the  Grecian  states  refused  to  accede  to  this  union,  partly 
from  their  ancient  hostility  to  Persia,  partly  from  jealousy  of  Thebes. 
Epaminon'das  was  therefore  sent  a  third  time  into  the  Peloponnesus 
with  a  powerful  army,  to  revive  the  spirit  of  the  former  confederacy 
igainst  Spar'ta  (b.  c.  366).  He  wasted  much  precious  time  in  trymg 
to  obtain  a  naval  power,  and  he  was  long  prevented  from  undertaking 
any  enterprise  of  importance  by  the  jealousy  and  dissensions  of  his  al- 
lies, especially  the  Arcadians.  While  he  was  thus  employed,  his  col- 
league Pelop'idas  fell  in  a  battle  against  Alexan'der,  the  tyrant  of  Phe- 
rae  (b  c.  364);  and  the  Thebans,  through  sorrow  for  his  death,  made 
Qo  public  rejoicings  for  their  victory.  His  loss  was  poorly  compensa- 
ted by  th^  destruction  of  the  tyrant,  who  was  soon  after  murdered  by 
his  own  family. 

In  the  following  year,  Epaminon'das  entered  upon  his  last  campaign 
by  marcliing  against  the  Peloponnesian  states  Avhich  had  separated 
from  the  Theban  alliance.  Knowing  the  unprotected  condition  of 
Spar'ta,  he  made  a  forced  march,  and  appeared  before  the  city  while 
the  army  was  at  a  considerable  distance.  His  attack  was  fierce  ;  but 
it  was  repelled  by  the  valor  of  Archida'mus,  the  son  of  Agesilaus,  whi>, 
with  a  handful  of  men,  compelled  the  Thebans  to  retreat.  Foiled  in 
this  attempt,  he  resolved  to  surprise  the  wealthy  city  of  Mantin.e'a  ; 
and  would  have  suocesded,  had  not  a  squadron  of  Athenian  cavalry 
accidentally  reached  the  place  a  little  before  the  appearance  of  the 
Theljans,  and  by  their  determined  valor  baffled  the  utmost  efforts  of  the 
asisailants.  These  repeated  disappointments  induced  Epaminon'das  tu 
hazard  a  pitched  battle.  It  was  fought  in  the  neighborhood  of  Man- 
tinaj'a,  and  was  the  most  arduous  and  sanguinary  contest  in  which  the 
Greeks  had  yet  engaged.  Epaminon'das  fell  in  the  arms  i}^  victory : 
arid  the  Thebans,  'leglecting  to  pursue  their  advantages,  reui'rrcd  'hie 


\'2ii  ANCIENT  HISTOKY. 

sanguinar)'  strngfrle  indecisive,  and  productive  of  no  other  consequence 
than  a  goneraJ  languor  and  debility  in  all  the  Grecian  states.  The 
glorv  of  Thebes  perished  with  the  two  great  men  who  had  raised  her 
to  fame  :  a  srcnieral  peace  was  established  by  the  mediation  of  Artaxer'- 
xes  (v..  c.  3G2),  on  the  single  condition,  that  each  republic  should  re- 
tain its  respective  possessions. 

Spar'ta  was  anxious  to  recover  Messenia ;  but  this  being  opposed  by 
the  Persian  king,  Agesilaus,  to  punish  Artaxer'xes,  led  an  army  into 
Egjqit,  where  he  supported  one  rebel  after  another,  and  acquired  con- 
siderable wealth  in  this  dishonorable  war.  On  his  return  home,  he 
died  in  an  obscure  port  on  the  Cyreniac  coast,  at  the  advanced  age  of 
eighty-four  years  (b.  c.  361).  At  the  commencement  of  his  roign, 
Spar'ta  had  attained  the  summit  of  her  greatness ;  at  its  close,  she  had 
sunk  into  hopeless  weakness  :  and,  notwithstanding  all  the  praise  be- 
stowed upon  this  monarch  by  the  eloquent  Xen'ophon,  it  is  undeniable 
that  most  of  Spar'ta's  misfortunes  were  owing  to  tlie  ambition,  the 
obstinacy,  and  the  perfidy  of  Agesilaus. 

Skction  VI. —  The  Second  Sacred  War. — Destruction  of  Grecian  Freedom. 
FROM  B.  c.  361  TO  B.  c.  336. 

ScARCELv  had  the  third  Peloponnesian  war  terminated,  when  the 
Athenians,  by  their  tyranny  and  rapacity  toward  the  maritime  states, 
were  deprived  of  all  the  advantages  they  had  derived  from  the  patriot- 
ism of  Corion.  Chares,  a  blustering,  vulgar  demagogue,  raised  to 
power  by  pandering  to  the  passions  of  a  licentious  populace,  exhorted 
his  countrymen  to  supply  their  exhausted  treasury  by  plundering  the 
wealth  of  their  allies  and  colonies.  This  counsel  was  too  faithfully 
obeyed.  The  weaker  states  complained  ;  but  the  islands  of  Chios. 
Cos,  and  Rhodes,  together  with  tlie  city  of  Byzan'tium,,  prepared  openly 
to  revolt,  and  entered  into  a  league  for  their  mutual  protection  (b.  c. 
358).  Chares  was  sent  to  chastise  the  insurgents  :  he  laid  siege  to  thr 
city  of  Chios,  but  was  driven  from  its  walls  with  disgrace  and  loss  • 
Ch:ibrias,  the  best  leader  that  the  Athenians  possessed,  falling  in  the 
engagement.  The  insurgents,  encouraged  by  this  success,  began  to 
assume  the  offensive,  and  to  ravage  the  islands  that  remained  faithful  to 
Athens.  A  new  armament  was  prepared  to  check  their  progress,  and 
it  was  intrusted  to  the  joint  command  of  Chares,  Timotheus,  and 
Iphic'rates  ;  but  Chares,  having  been  hindered  by  his  colleagues  from 
hazarding  a  battle  off  Byzan'tiurn  under  very  favorable  circumstances 
procured  their  recall,  and  had  them  brought  to  trial  upon  a  charge  of 
treachery  and  cowardice.  Venal  orators  conducted  the  prosecution  , 
and  a  degraded  people  sentenced  the  two  illustrious  commanders  to 
pay  an  exorbitant  fine.  They  both  retired  into  voluntary  exile,  and 
never  a<r;iin  entered  the  service  of  their  ungrateful  country.  Chares 
left  uncoiitrollf^l,  wholly  neglected  the  commission  with  which  he  had 
been  intrusted,  and  hired  himself  and  his  troops  to  the  satrap  Artabazus, 
then  in  rebellion  against  Artaxer'xes  O'chus,  king  of  Persia.  Thia 
cornphited  the  ruin  of  the  Athenians.  O'chus  threatened  them  with  the 
whole   weight  of  his  resentment,  unless   they  instantly   recalled  their 


GREECE.  129 

Annanient  from  the  East ,  and  with  this  mandate  the  degraded  repub 
licans  were  forced  to  comply  (b.  c.  356).  The  confederate  states  re 
gained  complete  freedom  and  independence,  which  they  preserved  foi 
twenty  years,  when  they,  with  the  rest  of  Greece,  fell  under  the  domin 
ion  of  the  Macedonians. 

Spar'ta,  Thebes,  and  Athens,  having  successively  lost  their  suprem 
acy,  the  Amphictyonic  council,  which  for  more  than  a  century  had 
been  a  mere  pageant,  began  to  exercise  an  i^mpurtant  influence  in  the 
afTairs  of  Greece.  They  issued  a  decree  subjecting  the  Phocians  to  a 
heavy  fine  for  cultivating  some  lands  that  had  been  consecrated  to 
Apol'lo,  and  imposing  a  similar  penalty  on  the  Spartans  for  their  treach- 
erous occupation  of  the  Cadmeia  (b.  c.  3  37).  The  Phocians,  anima- 
ted by  their  leader  Philomelus,  and  secretly  encouraged  by  the  Spar- 
tans, not  only  refused  obedience,  but  had  recourse  to  arms.  In  defiance 
of  the  prejudices  of  the  age,  Philomelus  stormed  the  city  of  Del'phi, 
plundered  the  sacred  treasury,  and  employed  its  wealth  in  raising  an 
army  of  mercenary  adventurers.  The  Thebans  and  Locrians  were  fore- 
most in  avenging  this  insult  to  the  national  religion  ;  but  the  war  was 
rather  a  series  of  petty  skirmishes  than  regular  battles.  It  was  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  sanguinary  spirit  displayed  on  both  sides ;  the 
Thebans  murdering  their  captives  as  sacrilegious  wretches  ;  the  Phoci- 
d,ns  retaliating  these  cruelties  on  all  the  captives  that  fell  into  their 
hands.  At  length  Philomelus,  being  forced  to  a  general  engagement 
under  disadvantageous  circumstances,  was  surrounded,  and  on  the  point 
of  being  made  prisoner,  when  he  threw  himself  headlong  from  a  rock, 
to  escape  falling  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  (b.  c.  353).  Onomar'- 
chus,  the  lieutenant  and  brother  of  the  Phocian  general,  safely  conduct- 
ed the  remnant  of  the  army  to  the  fastnesses  of  Del'phi.  He  proved 
an  able  and  prudent  leader.  With  the  treasures  of  the  Delphic  temple 
iie  purchased  the  aid  of  Ly'cophron,  the  chief  of  the  Thessalian  prin- 
ces ;  and,  thus  supported,  he  committed  fearful  ravages  in  the  territo- 
ries of  Bffiotia  and  Locris.  The  Thebans,  in  great  distress,  applied  for 
aid  to  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  who  had  long  sought  a  pretext  for  inter- 
fering in  the  aflairs  of  Greece  (b.  c.  352) :  he  marched  immediately  to 
their  relief,  completely  routed  the  Phocians  in  the  plains  of  Thessaly, 
and  suspended  from  a  gibbet  the  body  of  Onomar'chus  which  was  found 
among  the  slain.  He  dared  not,  however,  pursue  his  advantages  fur- 
ther ;  for  he  knew  that  an  attempt  to  pass  the  straits  of  Thermop'ylae 
would  expose  him  to  the  hostility  of  all  the  Grecian  states  which  he 
was  not  yet  prepared  to  encounter. 

Phayl'lus,  the  brother  of  the  two  preceding  leaders  of  the  Phocians, 
renewed  the  war,  and  again  became  formidable.  Philip,  under  the  pre- 
tence of  checking  his  progress,  attempted  to  seize  Thermop'ylag  ;  but  had 
the  mortification  to  find  the  straits  pre-occupied  by  the  Athenians.  He 
returned  home,  apparently  wearied  of  Grecian  politics  ;  but  he  had 
purchased  the  services  of  venal  orators,  whose  intrigues  soon  afforded 
him  a  plausible  pretext  for  renewed  interference.  The  war  lingered  for 
two  or  three  years  ;  the  treasures  of  the  Delphic  temple  began  to  fail, 
and  the  Phocians  longed  for  peace.  But  the  vengeance  of  the  The- 
bans was  insatiable :  they  besought  Philip  to  crush  the  impious  pro- 
faners  of  the  temple  ;  and  that  prince,  having  lulled  the  suspicious  of 

'9 


130  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

llio  Allunians,  in  spite  of  the  iirgcn  warnings  of  the  patiiotic  Demos' 
thenes,  passed  the  straits  without  opposition,  and  laid  the  unhapp) 
Phocians  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  their  inveterate  enemies  (b.  c.  347), 
Their  cities  were  dismantled,  their  country  laid  desolate,  and  their  vote 
in  the  Amphictyonic  council  transferred  to  the  king  of  Macedon. 

A  new  sacred  war  was  excited  by  the  artifices  of  ^s'chines,  the 
Athenian  deputy  to  the  Anriphictyonic  council,  a  venal  orator,  who  had 
Long  sold  himself  to  Philip.  He  accused  the  Locrians  of  Amphis'sa  of 
cultivating  the  Cirrhean  plain,  which  had  been  consecrated  with  such 
solemn  ceremonies  in  the  first  sacred  war  The  Locrians,  alter  the 
example  of  the  Phocians,  refused  obedience  to  the  sentence  of  the 
Amphic'tyons  ;  and  the  charge  of  conducting  the  war  against  them  was 
intrusted  to  Philip  (b.  c.  339).  He  hastened  to  Del'phi,  marched 
against  Amphis'sa,  took,  it  by  storm ;  and  soon  after  revealed  his  de- 
signs against  the  liberties  of  Greece,  by  seizing  and  fortifying  Elateia, 
the  capital  of  Phocis.  The  Athenians  and  Thebans  instantly  took  up 
arms ;  but  they  intrusted  their  forces  to  incompetent  generals  ;  and 
when  they  encountered  the  Macedonians  at  Chajroneia,  they  were 
irretrievably  defeated.  The  independence  of  the  Grecian  communities 
was  thus  destroyed;  and  in  a  general  convention  of  the  Amphictyonic 
states  at  Corinth  (b.  c.  337),  Philip  was  chosen  captain-generai  of  con- 
federate Greece,  and  appointed  to  lead  their  ui\ited  forces  against  the 
Persian  empire. 


MACEDON.  131 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE    HISTORY   OF    MACEDO.N 

Section  I. —  Geograjjliical  Outline. 

The  range  of  Mount  Hse'mus  separates  Thrace  and  Macedon  Iron) 
lorthorn  Europe,  and  the  Cambunian  mountains  on  the  south  divide  the 
.atter  country  from  Thessaly.  The  space  intervening  between  these 
mountain-chains  was,  during  a  long  succession  of  ages,  distinguished  by 
diflerent  appellations,  according  as  the  barbarous  nations  that  tenanted 
these  regions  rose  mto  temporary  eminence.  The  most  ancient  name 
of  Macedonia  was  iEmath'ia  ;  but  the  time  and  cause  of  the  appellation 
being  changed  are  unknown.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  boundaries 
of  a  country  whose  limits  were  constantly  varying ;  but  in  its  most 
flourishing  state,  Macedon  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  river 
Strymon,  and  the  Scardian  branch  of  Mount  Hse'mus  ;  on  the  east  by 
the  jEgean  sea ;  on  the  south  by  the  Cambunian  mountains ;  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Adriatic.  It  was  said  to  contain  one  hundred  and  iifty 
different  nations  ;  and  this  number  will  not  appear  exaggerated,  when 
it  is  remembered  that  each  of  its  cities  and  towns  was  regarded  as  an 
independent  state. 

The  western  division  of  the  country,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  was 
for  the  most  part  possessed  by  the  uncivilized  Taulant'ii.  In  their  ter- 
ritory stood  Epidam'nus,  founded  by  a  Corcyrean  colony,  whose  name 
the  Romans  changed  to  Dyrac'chium  (Durazzo),  on  account  of  its  ill- 
omened  signification  ;  and  ApoUonia,  a  city  colonized  by  the  Corin- 
thians. South  of  the  Taulant'ii,  but  still  on  the  Adriatic  coast,  was  the 
territory  of  the  Alyiniotae,  whose  chief  cities  were  Elyma,  and  Bui 'lis. 
East  of  these  lay  a  litt'^  inland  district  called  the  kingdom  of  Orestes, 
because  the  son  of  Agamem'non  is  said  to  have  settled  there  after  the 
murder  of  his  mother. 

The  southeastern  part  of  the  country,  called  iEmath'ia  or  Macedonia 
Proper,  contained  ^Egse'a,  or  Edes'sa,  the  cradle  of  the  Macedonian 
monarchy,  and  PeFla,  the  favorite  capital  of  its  most  powerful  kings. 
The  districts  of  iEmath'ia  that  bordered  the  sea  were  called  Pieria, 
and  were  consecrated  to  the  Muses  :  they  contained  the  important  cities 
Pyd'na,  Phy'lace,and  Dium.  Northeast  was  the  region  of  Amphax'itis, 
bordering  the  Thermaic  gulf:  its  chief  cities  were  Ther'ma,  subse- 
quently called  Thessalonica  [Salonichi),  and  Stagira,  the  birthplace  of 
Aristotle. 

The  Chalcidian  peninsula,  between  the  Thermaic  and  Strymoniau 
gulfs,  has  its   coast  deeply  indented  by  noble   bays   and  inlets  of  the 


132  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Mgcan  seii.  It  contained  many  important  trading  cii.es  and  colonies, 
ihe  chief  of  which  Pallene.  in  the  headhmd  of  the  same  name  :  Potidae's 
1  Corinthian  colony;  Torone,  on  the  Toronaic  gulf;  and  Olyn'thnSj 
famous  for  the  many  sieges  it  sustained.  In  the  region  of  EdoniU; 
near  the  river  Strymon,  was  Amphip'olis,  a  favorite  colony  of  the 
Atuenidns,  Scotus'sa,  and  Crenides,  whose  name  was  changed  ic 
Philip'pi  by  the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

The  most  remarkable  mountains  of  Macedon  were  the  Scardian 
and  other  branches  from  the  chain  of  Hai'mus ;  Pangae'us,  celebrated 
lor  its  rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver ;  A'thos,  which  juts  into  the 
iEgean  sea,  forming  a  remarkable  and  dangerous  promontory ;  and 
Olyin'pus,  which  partly  belonged  to  Thessaly.  Most  of  these,  but 
especially  the  Scardian  chain  and  Mount  A'thos,  were  richly  wooded, 
and  the  timber  they  produced  was  highly  valued  by  shipbuilders.  The 
principal  rivers  falling  into  the  Adriatic  were  the  Panyasus,  the  Ap'sus, 
the  Laiis,  and  the  Celyd'nus  ;  on  the  vEgean  side  were  the  Haliac'mon, 
the  E'rigon,  the  Ax'ius,  and  the  Strymon,  which  was  the  northern 
boundary  of  Macedon,  until  Philip  extended  his  dominions  to  the  Nes'- 
sus. 

The  soil  of  Macedonia  was  very  fruitful;  on  the^eacoast  especially 
it  produced  great  abundance  of  corn,  wiue,  and  oil,  and  most  of  its 
mountains  were  rich  in  mineral  treasures.  Macedonia  was  celebrated 
for  an  excellent  breed  of  horses,  to  which  great  attention  was  paid  ;  no 
fewer  than  thirty  thousand  brood  mares  being  kept  in  the  royal  stud  at 
Pella. 


Section  II. — History  of  the  Macedonian  Monarchy. 
FROM   B.  c.  813   TO   B.  c.  323. 

An  Argive  colony,  conducted  by  Car'anus,  is  said  to  have  invaded 
CEmath'ia  by  the  command  of  an  oracle,  and  to  have  been  conducted 
by  a  flock  of  goats  to  the  city  of  Edes'sa,  which  was  easily  stormed 
(*B.  c.  813).  The  kingdom  thus  founded  was  gradually  enlarged  at  the 
expense  of  the  neighboring  barbarous  nations ;  and  was  fast  rising  into 
importance,  when,  in  the  reign  of  king  Amyn'tas,  it  became  tributary  in 
the  Persians  (b.  c.  513),  immediately  after  the  return  of  Darius  from 
his  Sc)thian  campaign.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Persians  at  Platae'ae 
Macedon  recovered  its  independence ;  which,  however,  was  never 
recognised  by  the  Persian  kings.  Per'diccas  II.  (b.  c.  454),  on  coming 
to  the  throne,  found  his  dominions  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  lUyri- 
ans  and  Thracians,  while  his  brother  was  encouraged  to  contest  the 
crown  by  the  Athenians.  He  was  induced  by  these  circumstances  to 
take  tlie  Spartan  side  in  the  first  Peloponnesian  war,  and  much  of  the 
euccess  of  Bras'idas  was  owing  to  his  active  co-operation. 

Civilization  and  the  arts  of  social  life  were  introduced  into  Macedo 
nia  by  Archelaus,  the  son  and  successor  of  Per'diccas  (a.  c.413).  His 
plans  for  the  reform  of  the  government  were  greatly  impeded  by  the 
jealous  hostility  of  the  nobles,  who  were  a  kind  of  petty  princes 
barely  conceding  to  their  kings  the  right  of  precedence.  He  was  a 
generous  patron  of  learning  and  learned  men ;  he  invited  Soc'rates  U: 


MACEDON.  133 

nis  court;  and  munificently  protected  Eurip'idts  when  he  was /breed  h 
depart  from  Athens. 

Archelaus  was  murdered  by  Crat'erus,  one  of  ids  favorites 
^B.  c.  400) ;  and  his  death  was  followed  by  a  series  of  civil  wars  and 
sanguinary  revolutions,  which  possess  no  interest  or  importance.  They 
were  terminated  by  the  accession  of  Philip  (b.  c.  360),  who,  on  the 
death  of  his  brother  Perdic'cas  III.,  escaped  from  Thebes,  whither  he 
had  bet.n  sent  as  a  hostage,  and  was  chosen  king  in  preference  to  his 
nephew,  whose  infancy  disqualified  him  from  reigning  in  a  crisis  of 
difficulty  and  danger. 

Philip  found  his  new  kingdom  assailed  by  four  formidable  armies, 
and  distracted  by  the  claims  of  two  rival  competitors  for  the  throne, 
one  of  whom  had  the  powerful  support  of  the  Athenians.  Educated 
'n  the  arts  of  war  and  state-policy  bj  the  great  Epaminon'das,  Philip 
displayed  valor  and  wisdom  adequate  to  the  crisis  :  he  oiu-chased,  by 
large  bribes,  the  forbearance  rather  than  the  friendship  oi  the  Illyrians, 
Pseonians,  and  Thracians ;  he  then  marched  with  his  whole  force 
against  Argae'us  and  his  Athenian  auxiliaries,  whom  he  defeated  in  a 
general  engagement.  Argae'us  was  slain,  and  his  supporters  remained 
prisoners  of  war.  Philip,  anxious  to  court  the  favor  of  the  Athenians, 
dismissed  his  captives  without  ransom,  and  resigned  his  pretensions  to 
Amphip'olis. 

Having  restored  tranquillity  to  his  kingdom,  he  began  to  prepare  for 
its  security  by  improving  the  tactics  and  military  discipline  of  his  sub- 
jects. Epaminon'das,  at  Leuc'tra  and  Mantineia,  had  shown  the  supe- 
riority of  a  heavy  column  over  the  long  lines  in  which  the  Greeks  usu- 
ally arranged  their  forces  ;  and,  improving  on  this  lesson,  he  instituted 
the  celebrated  Macedonian  phalanx.  He  soon  found  the  advantage  of 
this  improvement :  having  been  forced  to  war  by  tlie  Paeonians,  he 
subdued  their  country,  and  made  it  a  Macedonian  province  ;  and  then, 
without  resting,  he  marched  against  the  Illyrians,  whom  he  overthrew 
so  decisively,  that  they  begged  for  peace  on  any  conditions  he  pleased 
to  impose. 

While  Athens  was  involved  in  the  fatal  war  against  the  colonies 
Philip,  though  professing  the  warmest  friendship  for  the  republic,  '^ap- 
tu'"ed  Ampliip'olis,  Pyd'ua,  and  Potidas'a ;  and  stripped  Cotys,  kin^  of 
Thi  ice,  the  most  faithful  ally  the  Athenians  possessed,  of  a  great  por- 
tion of  his  dominions.  Thence  he  turned  his  arms  against  the  tyrants 
of  Thes'saly  and  Epirus ;  and  received  from  the  Thessalians,  in  grati- 
tude for  his  services,  the  cession  of  all  the  revenues  arising  from  their 
fairs  and  markets,  as  well  as  all  the  conveniences  of  their  harbors  and 
shipping.  When  the  campaign  was  concluded  (d.  c.  357),  he  married 
Olym'pias,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Epirus,  a  princess  equally  remark^ 
able  for  her  crimes  and  her  misfortunes. 

While  Greece  was  distracted  by  the  second  sacred  war,  Philip  was 
steadily  pursuing  his  policy  of  extending  his  northern  frontiers,  and 
securing  the  maritime  cities  of  Thrace.  He  was  vigorously  opposed 
by  Kersoblep'tes  and  an  Athenian  army  ,  in  spite,  however,  of  these 
enemies,  he  captured  the  important  city  of  Methone  ;  but  he  deemed 
-he  conquest  dearly  purchased  by  the  loss  of  an  eye  during  the  siege. 
His  attention  was  next  directed  to  the  sa^^red  war,  which  he  was  invi 


134  ANCIENT  HIbTORV 

t»!d  to  undertake  by  the  Thebans.  Having  si.bdued  the  Phjcians,  la 
made  an  attempt  to  seize  Thermop'ylae  (b.  c.  352),  but  was  baffled  b}. 
the  energetic  promptitude  of  the  Athenians.  They  were  roused  to  thi? 
display  of  valor  by  the  eloquent  harangues  of  the  orator  Demos'thenes, 
whose  whole  life  w?s  speat  in  opposing  Philip's  designs  against  Gre 
cian  liberty.  lie  was  soon  after  doomed  to  meet  a  second  disappoint 
ment ;  his  troops  being  driven  from  the  island  of  Euboe'a  by  the  virtu- 
ous Phocion,  the  .ast  and  most  incorruptible  of  the  long  list  of  generals 
and  statesmen  that  adorned  tlie  Athenian  republic. 

These  disappuintmenis  only  stimulated  his  activity.  Having  pur- 
chased, by  large  bribes,  the  services  of  several  traitors  in  Olyn'thus,  he 
marched  againrjt  that  opulent  city  (n.  c.  319),  while  the  venal  orators  at 
Athens,  whom  he  had  taken  into  his  pay,  lissuaded  the  careless  and 
senstial  AtlieniuiiS  from  haiUening  to  the  relief  of  their  allies.  The 
noble  exhoitKtiuus,  solemn  warnings,  and  bitter  reproaches  of  Demos' 
thenes,  failed  to  inspire  his  countrymen  with  energy:  they  wasted  the 
time  of  action  in  discussions,  embassies,  and  fruitless  expeditions  ; 
and  when  thej'  began  to  prepare  for  some  more  serious  interference, 
they  were  astounded  by  the  intelligence  that  Olyn'thus  was  no  more. 
It  had  been  betrayed  to  Philip,  who  levelled  its  walls  and  buildings  to 
the  ground,  and  dragged  the  inhabitants  into  slavery.  This  triumph 
was  followed  by  the  conquest  of  the  whole  Chalcidian  peninsula,  with 
its  valuable  commercial  marts  and  seaports.  His  artifices  and  bribes 
disarmed  the  vengeance  of  the  Athenians,  and  lulled  them  into  a  fatal 
KDCuritv,  while  Philip  finally  put  an  end  to  the  sacred  war,  by  the  utter 
destruction  of  the  Phocians.  They  even  permitted  him  to  extend  hii 
conquersts  in  Thelies,  and  to  acquire  a  commanding  influence  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  by  leading  an  armament  thither,  which  completed  the 
humiliation  of  the  Spartans. 

For  several  years  Philip  was  engaged  in  the  conquest  of  the  com- 
mercial cities  in  the  Thracian  Chersonese  and  on  the  shores  of  the 
Propon'tis,  wliile  the  Athenians  made  some  vigorous  but  desultory' 
efforts  to  check  his  progress.  At  length  the  third  sacred  war  against 
the  Locrians  of  Amphis'sa  gave  him  an  opportimity  of  again  appearing 
as  the  champion  of  the  national  religion  of  Greece.  He  entered  Pho- 
cis,  and  thence  marched  to  Amphis'sa,  which  he  totally  destroyed 
(b.  c.  338).  Before  the  soiuhem  Greeks  could  recover  from  their 
astonishment,  he  threw  off  the  mask  which  had  hitherto  concealed  his 
plans,  and  announced  to  the  states  his  design  of  becoming  their  master, 
by  seizing  and  fortifying  Elateia.  The  Thel)ans  and  Athenians  united 
in  defence  of  Grecian  liberty,  but  unfortunately  they  intrusted  their 
forces  to  feeble  and  treacherous  commanders.  They  encountered  the 
Macedonians,  headed  by  Philip  and  his  valiant  son  Alexander,  in  the 
plains  of  Cheroneia,  and  wore  irretrievably  ruined.  They  were  forced 
'n  accept  of  peace  dictated  by  the  conqueror,  who  treated  the  Thebans 
with  dreadful  severity,  but  shov/ed  great  forI)earance  and  kindness  u 
the  Alheniujis.  In  the  following  year  a  general  convention  of  the 
Grecian  stales  was  held  at  Corinth,  where  it  was  resolved  that  alJ 
should  unite  in  a  war  against  the  Persians,  and  that  Philip  shuidd  bt 
iippointed  captain-general  of  the  confederate  forces.  While  prepara- 
tions were  making  for  this  great  enterprise,  Philip  was  stabned  to  the 


MACEDON.  135 

/itait  by  Pau.sanias,  a  Macedonian  nobleman  (b.  c.  336),  whi.so  motivo:' 
for  committing  such  an  atrocious  crime  can  not  be  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained. 

Alexan'der,  deservedly  surnamed  the  Great,  succeeded  his  father 
but  on  his  accession  had  to  contend  against  a  host  of  enemies.  The 
Thracians,  the  Illyrians,  and  the  other  barbarous  tribes  of  the  north, 
took  up  arms,  hoping  that  they  might  easily  triumph  over  his  youth  and 
mexporience.  But  they  v^^ere  miserably  disappointed.  Alexander,  in 
an  incredibly  short  space  of  time,  forced  their  fastnesses,  and  inflicted 
on  them  so  severe  a  chastisement,  that  they  never  again  dared  to 
attempt  a  revolt.  But,  in  the  meantime,  a  report  had  been  spread  in 
Greece,  that  Alexander  had  fallen  in  lUyr'ia.  The  different  states 
began  to  make  vigorous  preparations  for  shaking  off  the  yoke  of  Mace- 
don  ;  and  the  Thebans  took  the  lead  in  the  revolt,  by  murdering  the 
governors  that  Philip  had  appointed,  and  besieging  the  garrison  in  the 
Cadmeia  (b.  c  335).  Fourteen  days  had  scarcely  eapsed,  vvhen  Alex- 
ander, eager  for  vengeance,  appeared  before  the  walls  of  Thebes. 
After  a  brief  struggle,  the  city  was  taken  by  storm,  and  levelled  with 
the  ground.  The  conqueror  spared  the  lives  of  those  who  were 
descended  from  Pin'dar,  of  the  priestly  families,  and  of  all  v/ho  had 
shown  attachment  to  the  Macedonian  interest ;  but  the  rest  of  the 
inhabitants  were  doomed  to  death  or  slavery.  It  must,  however,  be 
remarked,  that  the  Boeotians  in  Alexander's  army  were  more  active 
than  the  Macedonians  in  this  scene  of  barbarity,  and  that  the  Thebans, 
by  their  previous  treatment  of  the  Boeotian  cities,  had  provoked  retali- 
ation. Alexander  subsequently  regretted  the  fate  of  Thebes,  and  con- 
fessed that  its  destruction  was  both  cruel  ajid  impolitic. 

This  dreadful  calamity  spread  terror  throughout  Greece  ;  the  states 
hastened  to  renew  their  submission  ;  and  Alexander,  whose  whole  soul 
was  bent  on  the  conquest  of  Asia,  accepted  their  excuses,  and  renewec'. 
the  confederacy,  of  which  his  father  had  been  chosen  chief.  He  then 
intrusted  the  government  of  Greece  and  Macedon  to  iVntip'ater,  and 
prepared  to  invade  the  great  empire  of  Persia  with  an  army  not 
exceeding  five  thousand  horse,  and  thirty  thousand  foot  (b.  c.  334). 
He  led  his  t'orces  to  Sestus  in  Thrace,  whence  they  were  transported 
across  the  Hellespont  without  opposition,  the  Persians  having  totally 
neglected  the  defence  of  their  western  irontier. 

The  Persian  satraps  rejected  the  prudent  advice  ol  Mem'non,  who 
recommended  them  to  lay  waste  the  country,  and  force  the  Macedo- 
nians to  return  home  by  the  pressure  of  famine ;  but  they  collected  an 
immense  army,  with  whii^h  they  took  post  on  the  Gram'cus,  a  river 
that  flows  from  Mount  Ida  into  the  Propon'iis.  Alexander  did  not  lies 
itate  a  moment  in  engaging  the  enemy,  notwithstanding  the  vast  supe 
riority  of  the  hostile  forces.  He  forded  the  river  at  the  head  of  his 
cavalry,  and,  after  being  exposed  to  great  personal  danger,  obtained  a 
decisive  victory,  with  the  loss  of  only  eighty-tive  horsemen  and  thirty 
of  the  light  infantry.  This  glorious  achievement  was  followed  by  the 
subjugation  of  all  the  provinces  west  of  the  river  Halys,  which  had 
formed  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Lydia ;  and  before  the  first  campaign 
dosed,  Alexander  was  the  undisputed  master  of  i\.sia  Minor. 

The.  second  campaign  opened  with  the  reduction  ot'  Phrygia,  a''tei 


136  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

which  the  M:i(  edonian  liero  entered  Cilicia,  and,  marcliing  through  tt.« 
pass  culled  the  Syrian  Gates,  reached  the  hay  of  Is'sus,  where  h« 
expected  to  meet  Darius  and  the  Persian  army.  But  that  monarcli, 
persuaded  hy  his  flatterers  that  Alexander  was  afraid  to  meet  him  and 
trembled  at  his  approach,  had  entered  the  defiles  in  quest  of  the 
Greeks,  and  was  thus  entangled  in  the  narrow  valleys  of  the  Syrian 
straits,  where  it  was  impossible  to  derive  advantage  from  his  vaai 
superiority  of  numbers.  Alexander  instantly  prepared  to  profit  by  this 
imprudence.  He  attacked  the  barbarian  columns  with  his  resistless 
phalanx,  and  broke  them  to  pieces.  The  valor  of  the  Greek  mercena- 
ries in  the  pay  of  Persia  for  a  time  rendered  the  victory  doubtful ;  but 
the  Macedonians,  victorious  in  every  other  part  of  the  field,  attacked 
this  body  in  flank,  and  put  it  to  a  total  rout.  Darius  fled  in  the  very 
beginning  of  the  engagement,  leaving  his  wife,  his  mother,  his  daugh  ■ 
ters,  and  his  ir^fant  son,  to  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror.  The  Persians 
entingled  and  crowded  in  the  defiles  of  the  mountains,  suffered  so 
severely  in  their  flight,  that  they  made  no  effort  to  defend  their  camp, 
which,  with  all  its  vast  treasures,  became  the  prey  of  the  Macedonians. 
The  conduct  of  Alexander  after  this  unparalleled  victory  proved  that 
he  deserved  success.  He  treated  the  captive  Persian  princesses  with 
the  greatest  respect  and  kindness,  and  dismissed  without  ransom  the 
Greeks  whom  he  had  made  prisoners  while  fighting  against  their 
country. 

Before  invading  Upper  Asia,  Alexander  prudently  resolved  to  subdue 
the  maritime  provinces.  He  encountered  no  resistance  until  he 
demanded  to  be  admitted  into  the  city  of  Tyre,  when  the  inhabitants 
boldly  set  him  at  defiance.  It  would  be  inconsistent  with  our  narrow 
limits  to  describe  the  siege  of  this  important  place  (b.  c.332).  Suffice 
it  to  say,  that,  after  a  tedious  siege  and  desperate  resistance,  Tyio  was 
taken  by  storm  and  its  inhabitants  either  butchered  or  enslaved.  This 
success  was  followed  by  the  submission  of  all  Palestine,  except  Gaza, 
which  made  as  obstinate  a  defence  as  Tyre,  and  was  as  severely  pun- 
ished. From  Gaza  the  Macedonians  entered  Egypt,  which  submitted 
to  them  almost  without  a  blow. 

Having  received,  during  the  winter,  considerable  reinforcements 
from  Greece,  Macedon,  and  Thrace,  Alexander  opened  his  fourth  cim- 
paign  by  crossing  the  Euphrates  at  Thap'sacus  ;  thence  he  advanced 
to  the  Tigris,  and,  having  forded  that  river,  entered  the  plains  of  As- 
syria. He  found  Darius  with  an  immense  army,  composed  not  merely 
of  Persians,  but  of  the  wild  tribes  from  the  deserts  east  of  the  Caspi- 
an, encamped  near  the  village  of  Gaugamela ;  but  as  this  place  is  little 
known,  the  battle  that  decided  the  fate  of  an  empire  is  more  usually 
named  from  Arbela,  the  nearest  town  of  importance  to  the  plains  on 
which  it  was  fought  (b.  c.  331).  Having  halted  for  a  few  days  to 
refresh  his  men,  Alexander  advanced  early  in  the  morning  against  the 
vast  host  of  Darius.  Darius  led  his  forces  forward  with  so  little  skill 
that  the  horse  became  interming'ed  with  the  foot,  and  the  attempt  to 
disentangle  them  broke  the  line.  Alexander,  forming  his  troops  into  a 
wedge,  occupied  this  gap,  and  pushing  right  forward,  threw  the  Asiat- 
ics into  irretrievable  confusion.  The  Persian  cavalry  on  the  left  win^ 
contii  ued  to  miintain  the  fight  after  the  centre  v  as  broken,  nut  whet 


MACEDON.  137 

Alexander,  with  a  select  squadron,  assailed  their  flc.nk,  the}  brnke  iheii 
lines  and  fled  at  full  gallop  from  the  field.  It  was  no  longer  a  battle 
out  a  slaughter;  forty  thousand  of  the  barbarians  were  slain,  while  the 
loss  of  the  Greeks  did  not  exceed  fi^^e  hundred  men.  The  triumph 
was,  however,  sullied  by  the  wanton  destruction  of  Persep'olis,  whicl 
Alexander  is  said  to  have  burned  at  the  instigation  of  an  Athenian 
courtesan,  when  heated  with  w  ine  during  the  rejoicing  after  the  victory 

The  first  intention  of  Darius  after  his  defeat  was  to  establish  him- 
self in  Media ;  but  hearing  that  Alexander  was  approaching  Ecbatana 
he  fled  to  Hyrcania  with  a  small  escort.  Here  he  was  deposed  by  the 
satrap  Bessus,  and  thrown  into  chains.  On  receiving  this"  intelligence, 
Alexander  advanced  against  Bessus  with  the  utmost  speed  ;  but  he 
came  too  iate  to  save  the  unhappy  Darius,  who  was  savagely  stabbed 
by  the  rebels,  and  left  to  expire  at  the  roadside.  His  fate  was  soon 
avenged  by  his  former  enemy.  Alexander  continued  the  pursuit  so 
vigorously,  that  Bessus  was  soon  taken,  and  put  to  death  with  the  most 
horrible  tortures.  Spitamenes,  and  several  other  satraps,  still  main- 
tained a  desperate  struggle  for  independence,  assisted  by  the  barbarous 
tribes  of  the  desert.  Four  years  were  spent  in  subduing  these  chiefs 
and  their  allies  ;  in  the  course  of  which  time  Alexander  conquered 
Bac'tria,  Sogdiana,  and  the  countries  now  included  in  southern  Tar- 
tary,  Khorassan,  Kabul  (b.  c.  327).  But,  still  desirous  of  further  tri- 
umphs, he  resolved  to  invade  India. 

While  Alexander  was  thus  engaged,  the  Lacedaemonians,  instigated 
by  their  warlike  monarch  A'gis,  declared  war  against  Macedon,  but 
were  speedily  subdued  by  Antip'ater.  They  sent  ambassadors  into 
Asia  to  supplicate  the  clemency  of  the  Macedonian  monarch,  and  were 
generously  pardoned  by  Alexander  (b.  c.  330).  Another  proof  of  the 
yoiimg  hero's  respect  for  the  ancient  Grecian  states,  was  his  permitting 
the  Athenians  to  banish  TEs'chines,  the  ancient  friend  of  Macedon, 
after  he  had  been  conquered  by  Demos'thenes  in  the  most  remarkable 
oratorical  contest  recorded  in  the  annals  of  eloquence.  jEs'chines 
accused  Ctes'iphon  for  havmg  proposed  that  a  golden  crown  should  be 
given  to  Demos'thene?  as  a  testimony  to  the  rectitude  of  his  political 
career.  iEs'chines  assailed  the  whole  course  of  policy  recommended 
by  Demos'thenes,  declaring  that  it  had  caused  the  ruin  of  Grecian  in- 
depjndence.  Demos'thenes  defended  his  political  career  so  trium- 
phantly, that  ^s'chines  was  sent  into  banishment  for  having  instituted 
a  malicious  prosecution. 

Alexander,  having  made  all  necessary  preparations  for  the  invasioi 
of  India  (b.  c.  327),  advanced  toward  that  country  by  the  route  of  Kan- 
dahar, which  is  that  generally  used  by  caravans  to  and  from  Persia  an 
the  present  day.  One  division  of  his  army,  having  pushed  forward  to 
the  banks  of  the  In'dus,  prepared  everything  requisite  for  fording  tht 
river,  while  the  king  was  engaged  in  subduing  such  cities  and  fortresses 
as  might  be  of  service  in  forming  magazines,  should  he  advance,  or  se- 
curing a  retreat,  if  he  found  it  necessary  to  return.  No  opposition 
was  made  to  the  passage  of  the  In'dus.  Alexander  received  on  its 
eastern  bank  the  submission  of  Tax'iles,  a  powerful  Indian  prince,  who 
supphed  him  with  seven  thousand  Indian  horse  as  auxiliaries.  Conlinuiiiy 
tiis  march  through  *he  country  now  called  the  Punj-al),  or  l;nid  of  iht 


138  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

five  lii'ers,  ne  reached  the  banks  of  the  Hydas'pes  (.niihim),  arul  found 
the  opposite  side  occupied  by  an  Indian  prince,  called  Porus  by  the 
historians,  thoufih  that  name,  like  Bren'nus  among  the  Gauls,  and  Da- 
rius among  the  Persians,  more  properly  dtisignated  an  oflicc  than  an 
individual. 

The  Indian  army  was  more  numerous  than  the  Macedonian,  and  it 
had,  besides,  the  support  of  three  hundred  war-chariots  and  two  hun- 
dred elephants.  Alexander  could  not  pass  the  river  in  the  presence  of 
such  a  host  without  danger ;  but  by  a  series  of  stratagems  he  lulled  the 
enemy  into  false  security,  and  reached  the  right  bank  with  little  inter- 
ruption. A'battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Indians  were  totally  defeated. 
md  Porus  himself  made  prisoner.  The  conqueror  continued  his  march 
eastward,  crossing  the  Aces'ines  (Chundb)  and  the  Hyaraotes  (Ravi) ; 
but  when  he  reached  the  Hy'phasis  {Sutleje),  his  troops  unanimously 
refused  to  continue  their  march ;  and  Alexander  was  reluctantly  forced 
to  make  the  Punj-ab  the  limit  of  his  conquests.  He  determined,  how 
ever,  to  return  into  central  Asia  by  a  different  route  from  that  by  which 
he  had  advanced,  and  caused  vessels  to  be  built  on  the  Hydas'pes  to  trans 
port  his  troops  down  that  stream  to  its  junction  with  the  In'dus,  and 
thence  to  the  ocean.  His  navigation  employed  several  months,  being 
frequently  retarded  by  the  hostilities  of  the  natives,  especially  the  war- 
like tril)e  of  the  Mal'li.  After  having  wistfully  surveyed  the  waters  of 
the  Indian  ocean,  Alexander  determined  to  proceed  toward  Persepolia 
through  the  barren  solitudes  of  Gedrosia  (b.  c.  325),  while  his  fleet, 
under  Near'chus,  was  employed  in  the  survey  of  the  Persian  gulf,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  that  of  the  Euphrates.  He  endured  many 
hardships,  but  at  length  arrived,  with  less  loss  than  might  reasonably 
have  been  anticipated,  in  the  fertile  provinces  of  Persia.  His  active 
mind  was  next  directed  to  securing  the  vast  empire  he  had  acquired, 
and  joining  Europe  to  Asia  by  the  bonds  of  his  commercial  intercourse. 
No  better  proof  of  the  wisdom  of  his  plans  can  be  given  than  the  fact 
mat  most  of  the  cities  he  founded  as  trading  marts  are  still  the  place." 
of  most  commercial  importance  in  their  respective  countries.  But 
while  he  was  thus  honorably  and  usefully  employed,  his  career  waa 
cut  short  by  a  fever,  the  consequence  of  excessive  drinking — a  vice  in 
which  all  the  Macedonians  were  pfone  to  indulge  after  the  fatigues  of 
war  (b.  c.  324,  May  28th).  His  sudden  death  prevented  him  from 
making  any  arrangements  respecting  the  succession  or  a  regency  ;  bul 
•n  his  last  agony  he  gave  his  ring  to  Perdic'cas,  a  Macedonian  noble- 
man who  had  obtained  the  chief  place  in  his  favor  alter  the  death  of 
Hephaes'tion. 

(Skction  III. — Dissolution  of  the  Macedonian  Empire.  • 

FROM    B.  C.  324    TO    B.  C.  301. 

pERi)ic'cAs  was  the  only  one  of  Alexander's  followers  who  refused 
J.  portion  of  Viis  treasures  when  the  young  hero  shared  them  among  hig 
friends,  just  before  his  invasion  of  Asia.  Possessing  no  small  share  of 
ihc  enthusiasm  of  his  late  illustrious  master,  tempered  by  policy  ant] 
pmdonce.  Peidic'cas  seemed  the  best  fitted  of  all  the  genercls  to  ccn- 


MACEDON.  139 

iulidate  the  miglitv  empire  which  Alexander  hsd  acquired.  Bui  the 
Macedonian  nobles  possessed  a  more  than  ordinary  share  of  the  pride 
and  turbulence  that  distinguish  a  feudal  aristocracy  ;  they  had  formed 
several  conspiracies  against  the  life  of  the  late  monarch,  by  whose  ex- 
ploits and  generosity  they  had  so  largely  profited  ;  and  consequently 
they  were  not  disposed  to  submit  to  one  who  had  so  recently  been  theii 
equal.  Scarcely  had  the  regency  been  formed,  when  the  Macedonian 
infantry,  at  the  instigation  of  Meleager,  chose  for  their  sovereign  Ar- 
rhidse'us,  the  imbecile  brother  of  Alexander.  The  civil  war  conse- 
quent on  this  measure  was  averted  at  the  very  instant  it  was  about  to 
burst  forth  by  the  resignation  of  Arrhidte'us ;  and  as  his  incapacity 
soon  became  notorious,  all  parties  concurred  in  the  propriety  of  a  new 
arrangement.  It  was  accordingly  agreed  that  Perdic'cas  should  be  re 
gent,  but  that  Arrhid?e'us  should  retain  the  shadow  of  royalty  ;  p  )avision 
was  made  for  the  child  with  which  Roxana,  Alexander's  widow,  was 
pregnant ;  and  the  principal  provinces  were  divided  among  the  Mace 
donian  generals,  Avith  the  powers  previously  exercised  by  the  Persian 
satraps. 

During  these  dissensions  the  body  of  Alexander  lay  unburied  and 
neglected,  and  it  was  not  until  two  years  after  his  death  that  his  re- 
mains were  consigned  to  the  tomb.  But  his  followers  still  showed 
their  respect  for  his  memory,  by  retaining  the  feeble  Arrhidae'us  on  the 
throne,  and  preventing  the  marriage  of  Perdic'cas  with  Cleopatra,  the 
daughter  of  Philip ;  a  union  which  manifestly  was  projected  to  open  a 
way  to  the  throne. 

But  while  this  project  of  marriage  occupied  the  attention  of  tiie  re- 
gent, a  league  had  secretly  been  formed  for  his  destruction,  and  the 
storm  burst  forth  from  a  quarter  whence  it  was  least  expected.  Alex- 
ander, in  his  march  against  Darius,  had  been  contented  with  receiving 
the  nominal  submission  of  the  northern  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  in- 
habited by  the  barbarous  tribes  of  the  Cappadocians  and  Paphlagouians. 
Impatient  of  subjection,  these  savage  nations  asserted  tlieir  indeper- 
dence  alter  the  death  of  Alexander,  and  chose  Ariarathes  for  then 
leader.  Perdic'cas  sent  against  them  Eumenes,  who  had  hitherto  ful- 
filled the  peaceful  duties  of  a  secretary  ;  and  sent  orders  to  Autig'onuis 
and  L^-^natus,  the  governors  of  western  Asia,  to  join  the  expedition 
vvilli  all  their  forces.  These  commands  were  disobeyed,  and  Perdic'- 
cas wa'i  forced  to  march  with  the  royal  army  against  the  insurgents. 
He  easily  defeated  these  undisciplined  troops,  but  sullied  his  victory 
by  unnecessary  cruelty.  On  his  return  he  summoned  the  satraps  of 
western  Asia  to  appear  l>efore  his  tribunal,  and  answer  for  their  disobe 
dience.  Antig'onus,  seeing  his  danger,  entered  into  a  league  with 
Ptolemy,  the  satrap  of  Egypt,  Antip'ater  the  governor  of  Macedon,  and 
several  other  noblemen,  to  crush  the  regency.  Perdic'cas,  on  the 
other  hand,  leaving  Eumenes  to  guard  Lower  Asia,  marched  with  the 
choicest  divisions  of  the  royal  army  against  Ptolemy,  whose  craft  and 
aDility  he  dreaded  even  more  than  his  power. 

Antip'ater  and  Crat'erus  v/ere  early  in  the  field  ;  they  crossed  iht- 
Hellespont  with  the  army  that  had  been  left  for  the  defence  of  Mace- 
don, and  on  their  landing  were  joined  by  Neoptol'emus  the  governor 
of  Phrygia.     Their  new  confederate  infi^rmed  the  Macedonian  If  adere 


140  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

that  Ihe  army  of  Eumenes  was  weak,  disorderly^  and  incajiable  ol 
making  tlie  slightest  resistance.  Seduced  by  this  false  informatioa 
thev  divided  their  forces  ;  Antip'ater  hastening  through  Phrygia  in  pur 
suit  of  Perdic'cas,  while  Crat'erus  and  Neoptol'emus  marched  againsl 
Eumenes.  They  encountered  him  in  the  Trojan  plain,  and  were  com- 
pletely defeated.  Neoptol'em.us  was  slain  in  the  first  onset,  and  Crat' 
erus  lay  mortally  wounded,  undistinguished  among  the  heaps  of  dead 
Eumenes,  having  learned  the  state  of  Crat'erus,  hastened  to  relieve 
him  ;  he  found  him  in  the  agonies  of  death,  and  bitterly  lamented  the 
misfortunes  that  had  changed  old  friends  into  bitter  enemies.  Immedi- 
ately after  this  gi-eat  victory,  Eumenes  sent  intelligence  of  his  success 
to  Perdic'cas ;  but  two  days  before  the  messenger  reached  the  royal 
camp  the  regent  was  no  more.  His  army,  wearied  by  the  long  siege 
of  Pelusium,  became  dissatisfied  ;  their  mutinous  dispositions  were  se- 
cretly encouraged  by  the  emissaries  of  Ptolemy.  Py'thon,  who  had 
been  formerly  employed  by  the  regent  in  the  ruthless  massacre  of  some 
Greek  mercenaries  for  disobedience  of  orders,  organized  a  conspiracy, 
and  '^erdic'cas  was  murdered  in  his  tent  (b.  c.  321).  Had  the  news 
yf  the  victory  obtained  by  Eumenes  reached  the  camp  earlier,  the  re- 
gent's life  might  have  been  saved  ;  but  now  the  news  served  oidy  to 
aggravate  the  malice  of  the  insurgent  satraps. 

In  the  m.eantime  a  brief  struggle  for  independence  had  taken  place 
m  Greece,  which  is  commonly  called  the  Lamian  war,  from  the  town 
in  whose  neighborhood  the  principal  contests  occurred.  Instigated  by 
the  orators  Hyper'ides  and  Demos'thenes,  the  Athenians  boldly  pro- 
claimed themselves  the  restorers  of  Grecian  freedom,  and  called  on  the 
other  states  to  second  them  in  the  great  struggle  for  liberty.  The 
^tolians,  and  the  hardy  mountaineers  of  Doris  and  Phocis,  eagerly  re- 
sponded to  the  summons  ;  but  of  the  other  states,  Thebes  no  longei 
existed,  Spar'ta  was  too  proud  to  act  under  her  ancient  rival,  and  the 
Achaeans  and  Arcadians  too  prudent  to  risk  their  present  tranquillity 
for  the  doubtful  chances  of  war  (b.  c.  323).  Alarmed  by  the  intelli 
jence  of  this  confederacy,  Antip'ater  marched  to  secure  the  straits  ot 
Thermop'ylae  ;  but  he  was  met  by  the  Athenians  under  Leos'thenes, 
and  his  forces  pat  to  the  rout.  The  remnant  of  the  Macedonian  army 
sought  refuge  in  Lamia,  a  strong  fortress  on  the  Malian  gulf,  which  the 
v-ictorious  army  closely  besieged.  Unfortunately  for  the  Athenians, 
Leos'thenes  was  slain  in  a  sally,  and  the  command  of  the  confederates 
intrusted  to  Antip'hilus,  a  general  of  great  valor,  but  deficient  in  skill 
and  discretion.  Intoxicated  by  a  second  victory  over  the  Macedonians, 
he  kept  careless  guard,  of  which  Antip'ater  took  advantage  to  break 
through  the  hostile  lines,  and  form  a  junction  with  a  fresh  army  from 
Macedon.  Thus  reinforced,  he  attacked  the  confederates,  and  com- 
pletely annihilated  their  army.  The  Athenians  had  no  resource  bu'. 
Bubmission  :  they  were  compelled  to  abolish  the  democracy,  to  receivt 
garrisons  into  their  fortresses,  and  to  give  up  their  patriotic  orators  tc 
the  con(|utror's  vengeance.  The  cruel  Antip'ater  pat  Hyper'ides  to 
leath,  after  having  subjected  him  to  insult  and  tortun;.  Demos'thenec 
escaped  a  similar  fate  by  committing  suicide.  Undismayed  by  these 
calamities,  the  .^tolians  resolved  to  continue  the  war ;  and  Antip'ater 


MAUfiDON.  •  141 

eagei  to  march  into  Asia  against  Per'diccas,  was  forced  to  grant  tlieii' 
oeace  on  favorable  conditions. 

As  soon  as  Ptolemy  had  been  informed  of  the  murder  of  Per'dic- 
cas,  he  came  to  the  royal  army  with  a  large  supply  of  wine  and  pro- 
i'isions.  His  kindness  and  courteous  manners  so  won  upon  these  tur- 
bulent soldiers,  that  they  unanimously  offered  him  the  regency  ;  but  he 
had  the  prudence  to  decline  so  dangerous  an  office.  On  his  refusal, 
the  feeble  Arrhidae'us  and  the  traitor  Py'thon  were  appointed  to  the  re- 
gency, just  as  the  news  arrived  of  the  recent  victory  of  Eiimenes. 
This  intelligence  filled  the  royal  army  vith  indignation.  Crat'erus  had 
been  always  a  iavorite  with  the  soldiers  ;  Eumenes  was  despised  on 
account  of  his  former  unvvarlike  occupation.  They  hastily  passed  a 
vote  proclaiming  Eumenes  and  his  adherents  public  enemies,  and  de- 
nouncing all  who  afforded  them  support  or  protection.  The  advance  of 
an  army  to  give  effect  to  these  decrees  was  delayed  by  a  new  revolu- 
tion. P^urid'ice,  the  wife  of  Arrhidae'us,  a  woman  of  great  ambition. 
and  considerable  talent  for  intrigue,  wrested  the  regency  from  her  feeble 
husband  and  Py'thon,  but  was  stripped  of  power  on  ilie  arrival  of  An- 
tip'ater,  who  reproached  the  Macedonians  for  submitting  to  the  govern- 
ment of  a  woman ;  and  being  ably  supported  by  Antig'onus  and  Seleu- 
cus,  obtained  for  himself  the  office  of  regent. 

No  sooner  had  Antip'ater  been  invested  with  supreme  power,  than  he 
sent  Arrhidae'us  and  Eurid'ice  prisoners  to  Pel'la,  and  intrusted  the 
conduct  of  the  war  against  Eumenes  to  the  crafty  and  ambitious  Antig'- 
onus.  Cassan'der,  the  son  of  Antip'ater,  joined  the  expedition  with  a 
thousand  horse,  and,  being  himself  a  sellish  and  cunning  statesmen,  he 
soon  penetrated  the  secret  plans  of  Antig'onus,  and  vainly  warned  the 
regent  of  his  dangerous  designs.  A  quarrel  soon  took  place  between 
the  worthy  colleagues  ;  and  Cassan'der  returned  to  Europe,  where  he 
was  about  to  commence  a  career  as  bold  and  btoody  as  that  of  Antig'- 
onus in  Asia.  Eumenes  was  unable  to  cope  with  the  forces  sent 
against  him ;  having  been  defeated  in  the  open  field,  he  took  shelter  in 
Nora,  a  Cappadocian  city,  and  maintained  a  vigorous  defence,  rejecting 
the  many  tempting  offers  by  which  Antig'onus  endeavored  to  win  him 
to  the  support  of  his  designs  (b.  c.  318).  The  death  of  Antip'ater  pro- 
duced a  new  revolution  in  the  empire  ;  and  Eumenes  in  the  meantime 
escaped  from  Nora,  accompanied  by  his  principal  friends,  on  flee! 
horses  thai  hac'  been  trained  lor  this  especial  service. 

Antip'ater,  at  i.is  death,  bequeathed  the  regency  to  Polysper'chon, 
excluding,  his  son  Cassan'der  from  power  on  account  of  his  crimiiial  in- 
trigues with  the  wicked  and  ambitious  Eurid'ice.  Though  a  brave 
general,  Polysper'chon  had  not  the  qualifications  of  a  statesman :  he 
provoked  the  powerful  resentment  of  Antig'onus  by  entering  into  a 
close  alliance  with  Eumenes  ;  and  he  permitted  Cassan'der  to  strengthen 
himself  in  southern  Greece,  where  he  seized  the  strong  fortress  of  Mu- 
uyc'hia.  His  next  measures  were  of  still  more  questionable  policy, 
lie  recalled  Olym'pias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  whom  Antip'ater  had 
banished  on  account  of  her  turbulent  disposition  ;  and  he  proclaimed 
ilia  intention  of  restoring  democracy  in  the  Grecian  states.  The  lattei 
edict  was  received  with  the  utmost  enthusiasm  at  Athens  ;  an  urgenl 
embassy  was  sent  to  the  regent,  requesting  him  to  sen'l  an  armv  tc 


113  •  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

protecl  the  city  from  Cassan'der  and  his  partisans.  Polysper'chon  sent 
nis  son  Alexander  with  a  considerable  force  into  Aitica  ;  and  no  soonei 
were  news  of  his  approach  received,  than  the  restoration  of  democracy 
was  voted  by  a  tumultuons  assembly,  and  a  decree  passed  for  proceed- 
ing against  all  aristocrats,  as  capital  enemies  of  the  state  (b.  c.  317), 
Several  illustrious  individuals,  and  among  others  the  virtuous  Phocion 
fell  victims  to  this  burst  of  popular  violence,  which  the  regent  made  no 
offort  to  check  or  control. 

Cassan'der,  however,  remained  master  of  the  ports  of  Athens,  and 
was  thus  enabled  to  fit  out  a  considerable  fleet,  which  he  sent  to  the 
Thracian  Bos'phorus,  under  the  command  of  his  friend  Nicanor,  to  sec- 
ond the  enterprises  of  Antig'onus.  Nicanor  was  at  first  defeated  by 
the  royal  navy  ;  but  being  reinforced,  he  renewed  the  engagement,  and 
captured  all  the  enemies'  ships  except  the  admiral's  galley.  TLo 
news  of  this  victory  rendered  the  power  of  Antig'onus  paramount  ir. 
lower  Asia,  and  gave  Cassan'der  possession  of  Athens.  The  Athe- 
nians, however,  suffered  no  injury  from  the  change,  the  government 
of  their  city  having  been  intrusted  to  Demetrius  Phalereus,  who  ruled 
them  with  justice  and  moderation  during  ten  years. 

Polysper'chon,  unable  to  drive  Cassan'der  from  Attica,  entered  the 
Peloponnesus  to  punish  the  Arcadians,  and  engaged  in  a  fruitless  siege 
of  Megalop'olis.  In  the  meantime  Olym'pias.  to  whom  he  had  con- 
fided the  government  of  Macedon,  seized  Arrhidaj'us  and  Eurid'ice, 
whom  she  caused  to  be  murdered  in  prison.  Cassan'der  hasted,  at  the 
head  of  his  all  forces,  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  mistress  :  Olym'pias, 
unable  to  meet  him  in  the  field,  fled  to  Pyd'na ;  but  the  city  was  forced 
to  surrender  after  a  brief  defence,  and  Olym'pias  was  immediately  put 
to  di  ath.  Among  the  captives  were  Roxana  the  widow,  Alexander 
JE'gus,  the  posthumous  son,  and  Thessalonica,  the  youngest  daughter 
of  Alexander  the  Greaf.  Cassan'der  sought  and  obtained  the  hand  of 
i-iie  latter  princess,  and  thus  consoled  himself  for  the  loss  of  his  be- 
loved Eurid'ice.  By  this  marriage  he  acquired  such  influence,  that 
Polysper'chon  did  not  venture  to  return  home,  but  continued  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  where  he  retained  for  some  time  a  shadow  of  authority 
O'^er  the  few  Macedonians  w4io  still  clung  to  the  family  of  Alexander. 

in  Asia,  Eiimenes  maintained  the  royal  cause  against  Antig'onus, 
though  deserted  by  all  the  satraps,  and  harassed  by  the  mutinous  dis- 
position of  his  troops,  especially  the  Argyras'pides,  a  body  of  guards 
that  Alexander  had  raised  to  attend  his  own  person,  and  presented  with 
the  silver  shields  from  which  they  derived  their  name.  After  a  long 
struggle,  both  armies  joined  in  a  decisive  engagement ;  the  ArgjTas'- 
pides  broke  the  hostile  infantry,  but  learning  that  their  baggage  had  in 
the  meantime  been  captured  by  the  light  troops  of  the  enemy,  they 
mutinied  in  the  very^  moment  of  victory,  and  delivered  their  leader, 
bound  with  his  own  sash,  into  the  hands  of  his  merciless  enemy  (b.  c. 
315).  The  faithful  Eumenes  was  put  to  death  by  the  traitorous  Antig'- 
onus ;  but  he  punished  the  Argyias'pides  for  their  treachery;  justly 
dreading  their  turbulence,  he  sent  them  in  small  detachments  against 
tne  barbarians  ;  and  thus  sacrificed  in  detail  the  veterans  that  kad  over- 
hrown  the  Persian  empire. 

Antig'onus,  immediately  after  his  victory,  began  openly  to  aim  attht 


MACEDON.  >-t"3 

sovereignty  of  the  entirb  Macedonian  empire  The  weight  of  hij  pcwei 
was  first  directed  against  the  satraps  wliose  rebellious  conduct  liad  en 
nbled  him  to  triumph  over  Eumenes.  Peuces'tes  of  Persia  was  ban- 
ished, Py'thon  of  Media  put  to  death,  and  Seleuc'us  of  Bab'ylon  could 
only  escape  a  similar  fate  by  a  precipitate  flight  into  Egypt.  The  Ma- 
cedonian governors  in  the  west,  instigated  by  Seleuc'us,  formed  a 
league  for  mutual  defence,  and  sent  an  embassy  to  Antig'onus,  who  an- 
swered llieir  proposals  with  menace  and  insult.  But  at  the  same  time 
he  prepared  to  wage  a  more  effectual  war  than  one  of  words  :  while 
his  armies  overran  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  he  roused  the  southern 
Greeks,  the  iEtolians,  and  Epirotes,  to  attack  Cassan'der  in  Macedon. 
He  bribed  the  mountaineers  and  northern  barbarians  to  attack  Lysim'- 
achus  in  Thrace,  while  his  son  Demetrius,  afterward  named  Poliorce- 
tes,  or  the  conqueror  of  cities,  marched  against  the  Egyptian  Ptolemy. 

The  first  important  operations  of  the  war  took  place  in  southern 
Syria.  Ptolemy  overthrew  Demetrius  near  Gaza,  and  in  consequence 
of  his  victory,  became  master  of  Palestine  and  Phoenicia.  But  the 
Egyptians  were  defeated  in  their  turn  at  the  commencement  of  the 
next  campaign ;  their  recent  acquisitions  were  lost  as  rapidly  as  they 
had  been  gained ;  and  Demetrius  would  have  invaded  their  country 
with  great  prospect  of  success,  had  he  not  been  involved  in  an  unwise 
contest  with  the  Arabs. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  excavated  city  of  Petra  was  the 
great  depot  of  the  caravan-trade  between  the  southern  countries  of 
Asia  and  northern  Africa.  Athence'us,  a  general  in  the  army  of  Antig'- 
onus, was  sent  to  seize  its  rich  stores  :  he  surprised  the  inhabitants  by 
a  rapid  march  and  unexpected  attack,  and  was  returning  laden  with 
plunder  to  join  the  main  army  ;  but  the  Nabathse'an  Arabs,  enraged  by 
their  loss,  hastily  collected  their  forces,  and  urging  their  dromedaries 
through  the  desert,  overtook  Athenae'us  near  Gaza,  where  they  not  only 
recovered  the  spoil,  but  almost  annihilated  his  army.  Demetrius 
eagerly  hasted  to  avenge  this  loss,  but  he  was  baffled  by  the  fastnesses 
of  Arabia  Petraj'a  •  and  when  he  returned  into  Syria,  he  received  intel- 
ligence that  directed  all  his  attention  to  the  state  of  upper  Asia. 

After  Ptolemy's  victory  at  Gaza,  Seleuc'us,  with  a  small  but  gallant 
band  of  attendants,  boldly  threw  himself  into  his  ancient  satrapy  of 
Bab'ylon,  and  was  received  with  so  much  enthusiasm,  that  he  obtained 
possession  of  all  his  former  power  without  striking  a  blow.  The  Per- 
sian and  Median  satraps  appointed  by  Antig'onus  hastened  to  destroy 
the  dangerous  enemy  that  had  thus  suddenly  arisen  ;  but  they  were 
totally  routed  after  a  brief  but  ineffectual  struggle  (b.  c.  312).  This 
battle,  from  which  a  new  dynasty  may  be  dated,  forms  an  important 
epoch  i.x  Grecian  history,  called  the  era  of  the  Seleucidae. 

Alarmed  by  these  occurrences,  Antig'onus  hastened  to  conclude  a 
peace  with  his  other  opponents ;  and  a  treaty  was  ratified  which  was 
pregnant  with  the  elements  of  future  war.  Cassan'der  agreed  to  re- 
store the  freedom  of  the  Grecian  cities,  without  tlie  slightest  intention 
of  performing  his  promise.  Ptolemy  consented  that  Antig'onus  should 
ic'.ain  his  present  possessions,  while  he  was  preparing  a  fleet  to  seize 
the  Asiatic  islands,  previous  to  invading  Syria  ;  Lysim'achus  was  re- 
fiolved  to  annex  the  northern  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  to  his  satrapy 


141-  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

of  Thrace  ;  and  all  agreed  to  acknowledge  the  son  of  Alexandf.T  (oi 
their  sovereign,  though  a  resolution  had  been  already  formed  for  his 
destruction.  Alarmed  by  the  murmurs  of  the  Macedonians,  Cassan'- 
der  caused  Ro.xana,  Alexander  iE'gus,  and  Her'cules  (the  last  survivot 
jf  the  great  conqueror),  to  be  assassinated ;  and  soon  after  consigned 
the  princess  Cleopatra  to  the  same  fate,  dreading  that  she  might  be 
stow  her  hand  on  some  of  the  rival  satraps. 

It  was  not  long  before  Antig'onus  discovered  that  he  had  been  de- 
ijeived  in  the  recent  treaty  by  Cassan'der  and  Ptolemy.  He  sent  his 
son  Demetrius  into  Greece,  under  the  pretence  of  restoring  the  liberty 
of  the  states  ;  and  Athens,  still  enamored  of  the  memory  of  its  freedom, 
opened  its  gates  to  the  young  prince  (b.  c.  308).  Thence  he  sailed  to 
Cy'prus,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Eg)'ptian  fleet  that  came 
to  protect  the  island.  He  was  baifled,  however,  in  an  attempt  to  invade 
Egypt ;  and  when  he  went  thence  to  besiege  Rhodes,  he  was  recalled 
to  Greece  by  the  prayers  of  the  Athenians,  who  were  exposed  to  immi 
nent  danger  from  the  power  of  Cassan'der. 

The  success  of  Demetrius  induced  his  father  to  nominate  him  cap 
ain-general  of  Greece — an  injudicious  measure,  which  led  to  the  for- 
mation  of  a  new  confederacy  against  Antig'onus.  Cassan'der  renewed 
his  attacks  on  southern  Greece  ;  Ptolemy  entered  Syria  ;  Lysim'achus, 
with  an  arm)''  of  veterans,  invaded  Thrace  ;  while  Seleucus  marched 
westward  with  the  numerous  forces  of  upper  Asia,  including  four  hun- 
dred and  eighty  elephants.  The  junction  of  Lysim'achus  and  Seleu- 
cus in  Phrygia  necessarily  brought  on  a  decisive  engagement,  which 
Antig'onus,  reinforced  by  his  gallant  son  Demetrius,  showed  no  anxiety 
to  avoid  (b.  c.  301).  The  battle  that  decided  the  fate  of  an  empire  was 
fought  at  Ip'sus  in  Phrygia :  it  ended  in  the  defeat  and  death  of  Antig'- 
onus, and  the  destruction  of  the  power  that  he  had  raised.  The  conse- 
quences of  this  victory  were,  a  new  partition  of  the  provinces,  and  the 
erection  of  the  satrapies  into  independent  kingdoms.  Seleucus  became 
monarch  of  upper  Asia  ;  Ptolemy  added  Syria  and  Palestine  to  Egypt ; 
Lysim'achus  obtained  the  northern  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  as  an 
appendage  to  his  kingdom  of  Tlirace  ;  and  the  services  of  Cassan'- 
der were  rewarded,  not  only  with  the  sovereignty  of  JMacedon  and 
Greece,  but  also  of  the  rich  province  of  Cilicia.  Thus,  in  the  course 
of  a  single  generation,  the  mighty  empire  of  Alexander  had  risen  to 
unparalleled  greatness,  and  fallen  into  hopeless  ruin  ;  while  not  a  single 
descendant  of  the  illustrious  founder  was  spared  to  transmit  his  name  tc 
posterity.  The  most  enduring  memorial  of  his  policy  was  the  city  of 
Alexandria,  founded  during  his  Egyptian  campaign,  which  became  <me 
of  the  greatest  commercial  marts  of  antiquity,  and  is  still  at  the  head 
of  the  trade  between  Europe  and  the  lievanl. 


MACEDON  AND   GREECE.  14ii 


CHAPTER  XJl. 

/JISTORY  OF  THE  STATES  THAT  AROSE  FROM    HIE 
DISMEMBERMENT  OF 

THE    MACEDONIAN   EMPIRE. 

Section  I. —  The  History  of  Muccdon  and  Greece  from  the   Ballh  of  Ijmis 
to  the  Roman  Conquest. 

FROM   B.  C.  301     TO   B.   C.    146. 

After  the  fatal  battle  of  Ip'sus,  Demetrius  fled  to  Greece,  hoping  ic 
obtain  a  refuge  from  the  Athenians,  whom  he  had  essentially  served  in 
the  days  of  his  prosperity ;  but  the  harbors  and  gates  of  the  city  were 
closed  against  him.  Having  obtained,  however,  the  restoration  of  the 
ships  and  money  he  had  deposited  there,  he  established  himself  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  and  commenced  a  desultory  naval  war  against  Lysim'- 
achus.  Seleucus,who  now  transferred  to  Lysim'achus  the  jealousy  of 
which  the  fallen  fortunes  of  Demetrius  could  no  longer  be  an  object, 
souglit  an  alliance  with  his  ancient  enemy,  and  married  Stratonice. 
the  daughter  of  Demetrius,  and  this  union  was  equally  advantageous 
to  both  parties. 

Cassan'der  did  not  long  survive  the  establishment  of  liis  power :  on 
his  death  (b.  c.  296),  he  left  Macedonia  to  his  three  sous,  of  whom 
Philip  speedily  followed  his  father  to  the  grave.  The  survivors  quar- 
lelled  about  the  division  of  their  inheritance.  Antipater  murdered  his 
mother  Thessalonica,  on  account  of  the  favor  she  showed  to  his  brother 
Alexander.  The  vengeance  of  his  brother  being,  however,  supported 
by  the  general  feeling  of  the  Macedonians,  he  fled  to  the  court  of  his 
father-in-law  Lysim'achus,  where  he  died  prematurely.  Dreading  the 
lesentment  of  the  Thracian  monarch,  Alexander  sought  the  aid  of  Pyr^- 
rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  and  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  who  both  entered  Ma- 
cedon,  in  the  hope  of  gaining  some  advantage.  The  ambition  of 
Demetrius  soon  provoked  the  jealousy  of  the  son  of  Cassan'der,  he 
grew  jealous  of  his  ally,  and  attempted  to  remove  so  formidable  a  com- 
petitor by  stratagem ;  but  he  was  counterplotted  and  slain.  The  va- 
cant throne  was  seized  by  Demeti.us,  who  possessed,  in  addition  to 
Macedon,  Thessaly,  a  great  portion  of  southern  Greece,  with  the  prov- 
jices  of  At'tica  and  Meg'aris,  to  whicli  after  a  fierce  resistance,  he  ad- 
ded Boeotia.  He  might  have  enjoyed  this  extensive  realm  in  tranquillity, 
but  his  restless  ambition  led  him  to  form  plans  for  the  recovery  of  hie 
*uiher's  power  in  Asia. 

Scleucus  and  Ptolemv,  in  orreat  alarm  at  the  sudden  appearance  o''  8 

lU 


146  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

rival,  formidable  by  the  revived  influence  of  his  father's  claim,  and  stiil 
more  by  his  personal  qualities,  roused  Lysim'achus,  king  of  Thract 
and  Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epirus,  to  attack  him  at  the  same  time.  Tlu 
Macedonians,  terrified  by  such  a  confederacy,  mutinied  ;  and  Demetriufc 
fled,  disguised  as  a  common  soldier,  into  the  Peloponnesus,  which  was 
governed  by  his  son  Antig'onus  (b.  c.  287).  Pyr'rhus  obtained  posset'^ 
sion  of  tlie  vacant  kingdom ;  but  after  a  brief  reign  of  seven  months, 
he  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  superior  power  or  popularity  of  Lysim'- 
achus,  and  retire  to  his  native  Epfrus.  Demetrius  had,  in  the  meantime, 
sailed  to  Asia,  with  the  hope  of  seizing  the  provinces  belonging  xi 
Lysiin'achus  (b.  c.  286) ;  but  he  was  driven  into  Cilicia,  and  forced  to 
surrender  to  his  father-in-law  Seleiicus,  by  whom  he  was  detained  in 
prison  until  the  day  of  his  death  (b.  c.284).  .His  son  Antig'onus,  how- 
ever, maintained  himself  in  the  Peloponnesus,  waiting  with  patience  a 
favorable  opportunity  of  restoring  the  fortunes  of  his  family. 

Lysim'achus  was  unfortunate  in  his  domestic  relations  :  at  the  insti- 
gation of  his  queen,  the  wicked  Arsinoe,  he  put  to  death  his  gallant  son 
Agathoc'les,  upon  which  Cassan'dra,  the  widow  of  the  young  prince, 
with  her  brother  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  fled  to  the  court  of  Seleucus,  and 
stimulated  that  prince  to  war.  Lysim'achus  was  defeated  and  slain 
(b.  c.  282)  ;  but  in  the  following  year  Seleucus  was  murdered  by  Ptole- 
my Ceraunus  who  availed  himself  of  the  treasures  of  his  victim,  and 
the  yet  remaining  troops  of  Lysim'achus,  to  usurp  the  throne  of  Mace- 
don.  In  the  same  year  that  Seleucus  fell  (b.  c.  281)  ;  Pyr'rhus  invadec 
Italy  as  an  ally  of  the  Tarentines ;  the  Achaean  league  was  revived  in 
southern  Greece  ;  and  several  Asiatic  provinces,  especially  Cappadcv 
oia,  Armenia,  and  Pon'tus,  in  the  north,  and  Par'thia  and  Bac'tria  in  the 
east,  became  independent  kingdoms. 

The  revolts  in  Asia  against  the  successors  of  Alexander,  appear  to 
have  arisen  at  least  as  much  from  religious  as  political  motives.  It  was 
part  of  the  great  conqueror's  plan  to  impress  a  uniform  character  on  all 
the  lands  he  subdued,  and  in  every  one  of  them  to  constitute  society 
ifresh  on  the  Grecian  model.  This  was  called  an  effort  to  HelUnizf 
the  east.  But  the  Asiatics  clung  obstinately  to  their  institutions,  whether 
good  or  bad,  as  they  have  done  in  all  subsequent  ages,  and  Alexander's 
successors  in  central  and  western  Asia,  by  assailing  the  religion  of  the 
people,  provoked  fierce  insurrections,  which  led  to  the  entire  loss  of 
Persia  and  the  perilous  insurrection  of  the  Jews  under  the  gallant  Mac 
cfibees. 

Ptolemy  Ceraunus  did  not  long  retain  the  crown  ol  Macedon,  which 
be  had  procured  by  treachery  and  assassination.  An  innumerable  mul- 
titude of  Gau's,  who  had,  about  two  centuries  before,  settled  in  Pan- 
uonia,  driven  by  want,  or  perhaps  instigated  by  their  restless  disposition, 
poured  into  Thrace  and  Macedon,  desolating  the  entire  country  witl 
the  reckless  fury  of  ferocious  savages.  Ceraunus  led  an  army  agains 
them,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  (b.  c.  279).  In  the  following  year 
his  successor  Sosthenes  met  the  same  fate  :  and  the  Gauls,  under  the 
guidance  of  their  Brenn,  or  chief,  advanced  into  southern  Greece 
The  Athenians,  aided  by  the  ^tolians,  made  a  brave  defence  at  the 
straits  of  Thermop'ylae  ;  but  the  latter  being  called  home  to  defend  then 
own  country,  invaded  by  a  Gallic  division,  the  Athenians  were  unab't 


MACEDON  AND  GREECE.  147 

Tiny  longer  to  defend  the  pass,  and  the  main  body  of  the  G  luls,  entciing 
Phocis,  marched  to  pknider  Del'phi.  Here,  however,  the  success  of 
the  invaders  ended :  the  detachment  sent  against  jEtolia  was  cut  to 
piec^es  by  a  nation  scarcely  less  ferocious  than  the  Gauls  themselves  , 
and  the  main  body,  after  suflering  severely  from  cold  and  storms  in  the 
defilesof  Mount  Parnas'sus,  was  almost  annihilated  by  the  enthusiastic  de- 
fenders of  the  national  temple.  The  miserable  remnant  of  the  invaders 
fell  back  upon  a  fresh  body  of  their  countrymen,  with  whom  they  passed 
over  into  Asia ;  and  after  inflicting  many  calamities  on  the  states  of 
Anatolia,  obtained  possession  of  the  province  which  received  from  them 
the  name  of  Galatia. 

Antig'onus  Gonatas,  the  son  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  deriving  his 
name  from  Goni  in  Thessaly,  where  he  had  been  educated,  obtained  the 
vacant  throne  of  Macedon,  after  a  contest  of  three  years  with  various 
competitors,  and  transmitted  it  to  his  posterity ;  but  he  did  not,  like  his 
predecessors,  possess  the  sovereignty  of  southern  Greece,  whose  inde- 
pendence had  been  secured  by  the  Acha3an  league.  This  association 
had  been  originally  revived  by  the  towns  of  Pat'rae,  Dy'me,  Trite,  and 
Phar.e  ;  but  it  did  not  become  formidable  until  it  was  joined  by  Sic'yon 
(b.  c.  2.51),  after  the  noble  Aratus  had  freed  that  city  from  tyrants. 

The  return  of  Pyr'rhus  from  Italy  was  followed  by  a  new  revolution 
in  Macedon  ;  the  mercenaries  revolted  to  the  Epirote  monarch,  and  An- 
tig''onus  was  driven  from  the  throne.  He  retired  into  southern  Greece, 
whither  he  was  soon  followed  by  his  rival,  who  had  been  solicited  to 
place  Cleon'yiiius  on  the  throne  of  Lacedae'mon.  Pyr'rhus  professed 
that  his  chief  object  in  entering  the  Peloponnesus  was  to  deliver  the 
cities  from  the  yoke  of  Antig'onus ;  but  his  actions  were  inconsistent 
with  his  declarations,  for  he  ravaged  the  lands  of  Laconia,  and  made  an 
attempt  to  surprise  Spar'ta.  Being  del''eated  in  this  enterprise,  he  turn- 
ed his  arms  against  Ar'gos,  and  was  admitted  into  the  city  by  some  of 
his  secret  partisans.  But  the  Argives  opened  another  gate  to  Antig'o- 
nus, who  entered  with  a  chosen  body  of  troops.  A  fierce  struggle  en- 
sued, which  was  terminated  by  the  deatlr  of  Pyr'rhus.  An  Argive  wo- 
ir  in,  who^e  son  he  was  about  to  slay,  struck  him  with  a  tile  from  the 
roiif  of  the  house  ;  he  fell  from  his  horse,  and  was  trampled  to  death 
'n  ihe  press  (b.  c.  271).  After  a  short  contest  with  Alexander,  the  son 
of  Pyr'rhus,  Antig'onus  regained  the  throne  of  Macedon,  and  retained 
it  to  his  death. 

The  AchiEan  league  was  joined  by  Corinth,  Troezene,  and  Epidau- 
rus,  when  Aratus,  by  a  bold  attempt,  had  driven  the  Macedonian  garri- 
SOI  from  the  Corinthian  citadel.  It  was  finally  joined  by  Athens  (b.c. 
229),  and  continually  grew  in  strength,  though  opposed  by  the  Macedo- 
nians and  ^'Etolians.  So  rapidly  t^id  the  power  of  the  confederacy  in- 
crease, that  the  king  of  Egypt  sought  its  alliance,  and  some  of  the  states 
north  of  the  Peloponnesus  solicited  to  be  admitted  as  members. 

On  the  death  of  Antig'onus  Gonatas  (e.  c.  243),  his  son  Demetrius 
il.  became  king  of  Macedon.  'i"he  ten  year>  of  his  reign  were  spent 
in  war  with  the  ^tolians,  wlio  had  formed  a  confederacy  similar  to  that 
of  the  Achasans.  After  his  death  (e.  c.  233),  Aiitig'oims  Doson,  cousin 
to  the  late  monarch,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  nominally  as  guardian  of 
the  infant  prince  Philip  II.,  just  as  a  revolution  in  tiie   Pek>ponnesu.'; 


148  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

was  about  to  effect  a  great  and  important  change  in  the  political  aspect 
3t'  Grt^ece. 

The  ancient  laws  of  Lycur'gns  wore  only  nominally  observed  ir 
Spar'ta  :  the  plunder  of  foreign  countries  had  introduced  wealth  and 
luxury  ;  a  law  sanctioT.mg  the  alienation  of  landed  estates  had  effaced 
the  ancient  equality  of  property  ;  and  the  gradual  decrease  of  the  ruling 
caste  of  Spartan  families  had  rendered  the  oligarchy  as  weak  as  it  was 
odious.  A  bold  plan  of  reform,  including  a  fresh  divdsion  of  landed 
property,  an  abolition  of  debts,  and  the  weakening  of  the  power  of  the 
Eph'ori,  was  brought  forward  by  King  A'gis  III.  (b.  c.  244);  it  was  al 
first  very  successful,  but  the  unsteadiness  of  Agis,  and  the  opposition 
of  the  other  king,  Leon'idas,  brought  about  a  counter-revolution  (b.  c. 
241).  A'gis  was  strangled  by  the  order  of  the  Eph'ori,  and  his  mother 
and  grandmother  shared  the  same  fate. 

Leon'idas  compelled  the  widow  of  A'gis  to  marry  his  youthful  son 
Cleom'enes,  not  foreseeing  thut  she  was  likely  to  inspire  the  prince 
with  the  principles  of  her  former  husband.  Soon  after  his  accession 
to  the  throne,  Cleom'enes,  relying  on  the  reputation  he  had  acquired  by 
defeating  the  efforts  of  Aratus  to  force  Sparta  into  the  Achaean  league, 
renewed  the  reforms  of  A'gis  (b.  c.  227)  ;  and,  as  he  was  unscrupulous 
in  the  use  of  the  means  requisite  to  effect  his  object,  he  speedily  over- 
threw the  Eph'ori,  and  opened  the  right  of  citizenship  to  all  the  La- 
cedaemonians. He  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Achceans  (b.  c. 
224),  compelled  Ar'gos  and  Corinth  to  secede  from  the  league,  defeated 
the  confederates  at  Dy'me,  and  reduced  Aratus  to  such  difficulties  that 
he  v/as  forced  to  solicit  assistance  from  the  king  of  Macedon.  Antig'- 
onus  IL  readily  embraced  so  favorable  an  ojiportunity  for  restoring  the 
influence  of  his  family  in  southern  Greece.  He  entered  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, and,  after  some  minor  operations,  he  obtained  a  complete  vic- 
tory over  Cleom'enes  at  Sellasia,  on  the  borders  of  Laconia,  which 
placed  Spar'ta  at  his  mercy  (b.  c.  222).  Cleom'enes  fled  to  Egypt; 
the  Macedonians,  advancing  from  the  field  of  battle,  took  possession  of 
Lacedaemon  without  a  blow,  but  they  used  their  victory  moderately,  and 
Its  ancient  constitution  was  restored.  Antig'onns  did  not  long  survive 
his  Adctory  ;  he  died  generally  lamented  by  the  Greeks  (b.  c.22]) 
and  was  succeeded  by  Philip  H.,  son  of  Demetrius. 

The  /Etolians  were  greatly  dissatisfied  with  the  peace  that  followed 
the  battle  of  Sellasia.  No  sooner  had  they  received  intelligence  of  the 
death  of  Antig'onus,  than,  despising  the  youth  and  inexperience  of  his 
successor  .Philip,  they  commenced  a  series  of  piratical  attacks  on  the 
Messenians  and  Macedonians,  which  speedily  rekuidled  the  flames  of 
*var.  Aratus  was  sent  to  expel  the  .Etolians  from  Messenia,  and  en- 
tered into  a  convention  with  their  leaders  for  the  purpose  ;  after  which 
he  imprudently  dismissed  the  greater  part  of  his  army.  The  ^Etoliana 
took  advantage  of  his  weakness  to  attack  him  unexpectedly,  and  then, 
having  ravaged  the  greater  part  of  the  Peloponnesus,  they  returned 
home  laden  with  plunder 

Philip,  being  invited  to  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Achaean 
league,  went  to  Corinth,  wnere  a  general  assembly  of  the  states  wa^ 
held.  A  declaration  of  war  against  the  ^Etolians  was  voted  by  all  the 
southen:  Greeks,  except  the  Spartans  and  Eleans,  who  were  both  a<i 


MACEDON  AxND  GREECE.  149 

7oise  to  the  league  ,  and  active  preparations  for  hostilitieH  were  niadt- 
oti  both  sides.  While  these  affairs  engaged  attention  throughnu! 
Greece,  little  regard  was  paid  to  the  commercial  war  between  the  By- 
zantines and  Rhodians,  in  consequence  of  the  heavy  tolls  exacted  br 
the  former  from  all  vessels  entering  the  Euxine  sea  (b.  c.  222).  It 
terminated  in  favor  of  the  latter,  and  the  Byzantines  were  forced  to 
abolish  the  onerous  duties. 

Cleom'enes,  in  his  exile,  was  a  careful  observer  of  the  transactions 
in  Greece,  and  perceiving  that  the  Lacedfemonians,  according  to  his 
original  policy,  were  preparing  to  join  the  vEtolians  against  the  Achae- 
ans.  he  believed  that  an  opportunity  was  afforded  for  recovering  his 
hereditary  throne.  The  young  king  of  Egypt,  dreading  his  talents  and 
his  temper,  was  unwilling  to  see  him  restored  to  power,  and  tnerefore 
not  only  refused  him  assistance,  but  even  detained  him  from  attempting 
the  enterprise  with  his  own  hired  servants.  But  Cleom'enes  was 
scarcely  less  formidable  in  Alexan'dria,  than  he  would  have  been  if 
restored  to  his  former  power  in  Spar'ta,  for  he  had  won  the  favor  of  the 
Grecian  mercenaries  in  the  Egyptian  service,  who  showed  a  strong  at- 
tachment to  his  person.  The  ministers  of  the  young  Ptolemy  caused 
him  to  be  arrested,  but  he  baffled  the  vigilance  of  his  guards,  and  fol- 
lowed by  his  friends  rushed  through  the  streets  of  Alexan'dria,  exhorfMig 
the  multitude  to  strike  for  freedom.  No  one  responded  to  his  call ;  Jie 
royal  forces  prepared  to  surround  him,  and  Cleom'enes,  dreading  io 
encounter  the  tortures  of  the  cruel  Egyptians,  committed  suicide. 
Thus  perished  a  king,  who,  in  spite  of  many  grievous  faults,  was  the  lasf 
hope  of  his  country,  and  the  only  person  capable  of  restoring  the  su- 
premacy of  Spar'ta  and  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  war  between  Philip  and  the  iEtolians  was  conducted  with  great 
obstinacy  and  cruelty  on  both  sides  ;  Philip's  progress  was  aided  by 
his  fleet,  which  soon  rose  into  importance  ;  but  it  was  also  greatly 
checked  by  the  intrigues  of  Apel'les  and  other  wretches  who  envi-ed 
Aratus,  and  weakened  the  influence  of  l.is  prudent  counsels.  The  in- 
creasing pDwer  of  the  Romans  and  Carthaginians,  who  were  already 
contending  for  the  empire  of  the  world  in  the  second  Punic  war,  at 
length  inclined  all  the  Greeks  to  peace,  for  they  felt  that  it  would  be 
soon  necessary  to  defend  the  independence  of  Greece  either  against 
Rome  or  Carthage,  whichever  should  prove  victorious.  A  treaty  was 
accordingly  concluded  between  the  general  assembly  of  the  iEtolian 
states  at  Naupac'tus  and  the  representatives  of  the  Achaean  confederacy 
(r.  c.  217)  :  Philip  attended  in  person,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the 
success  of  the  negotiations. 

The  Macedonian  monarch  possessed  the  ambition,  but  not  the  milita- 
ry talents  of  Pyr'rhus.  J^ike  the  great  Epirote,  he  hoped  to  become 
the  conqueror  of  Italy,  and  entered  into  a  strict  alliance  with  Han'nibal, 
who  had  already  invaded  the  peninsula.  About  the  same  time,  to  get 
rid  of  the  remonstrances  of  Aratus,  who  frequently  warned  the  king  of 
the  dangers  that  would  result  from  his  indulgence  in  ambitious  projects, 
he  causeii  the  old  general  to  be  poisoned :  a  crime  which  lilled  all 
Greece  with  horror  and  indignation. 

The  Romans  resolved  to  find  Philip  so  much  employment  in  Greece 
liat  he  should  not  have  leisure  to  attack  Italy.     They  prevailed  on  iht 


150  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

-Etoliaiis  to  violate  the  rt-cent  treaty,  promising  .bein^  as  a  reward,  the 
possessic/ii  of  Acarnania  and  the  Ionian  islands.  To  this  confederacy 
the  republics  of  Sparta  and  Elis,  and  the  kings  of  Per'gamus  and  E'lis, 
acceded  (r.  c.  211).  Philip,  on  the  other  hand,  was  supported  by  the 
Acarnanians,  the  Boeotians,  and  the  Achajans.  The  Roniuns  and  theii 
ally  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gamus,  became  masters  of  the  sea ;  but  the 
former  were  too  much  engaged  by  the  presence  of  Han'nibal  in  Italy 
to  continue  their  aid  to  the  vEtolians ;  and  At'talus  wns  recalled  home 
to  defend  his  own  kingdom  from  an  invasion  of  the  Bithynians.  Nearly 
at  the  same  time,  Philopoe^men,  the  worthy  successor  of  Aratus,  as 
head  of  the  Acha;an  league,  defeated  and  slew  with  his  own  hand 
Machan'idas,  the  usurper  of  Lacedaemon. 

The  iEtolians,  thus  deprived  of  all  their  allies,  made  overtures  of 
peace,  which  were  readily  accepted  (b.  c.  208).  The  Romans  made 
some  efforts  to  interrupt  the  treaty  ;  But  the  iEtolians  had  suffered  too 
severely  to  continue  the  war  any  longer.  Scarcely  had  peace  been 
restored,  when  Philip  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Prusias,  king  of 
Bith'ynia,  against  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gamus  ;  and  with  the  Syrian 
monarch  against  the  infant  ruler  of  Egj'^pt.  As  if  these  enemies  were 
not  sufficient,  he  declared  war  against  the  Rhodians ;  but  was  soon 
punished  by  the  overthrow  and  ruin  of  the  Macedonian  fleet  at  Chios 
(b.  c.  202).  The  Athenians  were  next  added  to  the  number  of  hia 
enemies  ;  and  this  once-powerful  people,  no  longer  able  to  protect  their 
fallen  fortunes,  supplicated  the  Romans  for  aid.  A  fleet  and  army  were 
sent  to  secure  this  illustrious  city,  and  it  reached  Athens  just  in  time 
to  save  it  from  a  sudden  attack  of  the  Macedonians. 

Having  delivered  Athens,  the  Romans  advanced  into  northern  Greece, 
where  they  compelled  the  Boeotians  to  join  in  the  league  against  Philip. 
The  legions  in  Epirus  at  the  same  time  marched  into  Macedon  itself, 
and,  though  they  gained  no  immediate  advantages,  they  facilitated  the 
passage  of  troops  for  a  future  and  more  decisive  invasion. 

In  the  second  campaign,  when  the  conduct  of  the  war  was  conflded 
to  the  consul  Flamin'ius,  Philip's  fortunes  declined  so  rapidly,  that  hia 
allies,  especially  the  Achoeans,  lost  all  courage,  and  accepted  terms  of 
peace.  Though  deserted,  the  Macedonian  monarch  did  not  resign  all 
hone  ;  he  assembled  an  army  in  Thessaly  nearly  equal  to  that  of  his 
enemies,  but  inierior  in  discipline  and  equipment,  with  which  he  took 
post  on  a  range  of  low  hills,  called  from  their  singular  shape  Cynos- 
ceph'aljB,  or  "  the  dogs'  heads."  In  the  early  part  of  the  decisive  bat- 
tle, the  Macedonians  at  first  had  the  advantage,  their  right  wing  having 
borne  down  the  opposing  divisions  ;  but  the  consul,  observing  that  the 
left  of  the  Macedonians  had  not  been  formed  into  order  of  battle, 
charged  them  with  his  cavalry  and  elephants,  and  scattered  them  in  a 
few  moments  ;  he  then  assailed  the  victorious  Macedonian  wing  in 
flank  and  rear.  The  phalanx,  admirable  for  attack,  was  an  inconvenient 
body  to  manceuvre  ;  the  phalangites  attempted  to  face  about,  broke  theii 
lines,  and  were  in  a  moment  a  disorderly  mass,  unable  to  fight  or  fly. 
The  route  was  complete  :  eight  thousand  Macedonians  fell ;  rive  thou- 
Band  remained  prisoners  ;  while  the  loss  of  the  Romans  did  not  exceed 
seven  hundred  men.  Without  an  army  and  without  resources,  Philij: 
was  forced  to  beg  a  peace  (b.  c.  197) ;  he  purchased  it  by  the  sacrific' 


I 


MACEDON  AND  GREECE.  151 

')f  his  na\'y  and  the  resignation  of  his  supremacy  over  the   Grt.ciai 
states. 

The  Romans,  thus  successful,  went  through  the  farce  of  prochiiming 
the  liberties  of  Greece  at  the  Isthmian  games,  amid  the  wildest  exulta- 
tion of  the  spectators.  This  extraordinary  scene  can  not  be  viewed 
without  gratification,  even  by  those  who  have  learned  how  large  a  pro- 
portion of  history  is  occupied  by  fair  professions  unfulfilled,  and  hopes 
unworthily  disappointed.  The  spectators  were  assembled  from  all  tht 
Grecian  states  and  colonies,  they  were  full  of  anxiety  and  busy  in 
conjecture  as  to  the  conduct  likely  to  be  followed  by  the  new  arbiters 
of  Greece,  when  the  trumpet  sounded,  and  proclamation  was  made  tc 
this  effect :  "  The  Roman  senate  and  T.  Quinc'tius  the  proconsul, 
having  overcome  King  Philip  and  the  Macedonians,  leave  free,  ungar- 
risoned,  unburdened  with  tribute,  the  Corinthians,  Phocians,  Thessa* 
iians,  and  others,"  specifying  all  the  Greeks  who  had  been  subject  to 
Fhilip.  The  voice  of  the  crier  was  drowned  in  acclamations,  so  that 
many  failed  to  hear  the  purport  of  the  proclamation  ;  and  others  thought 
that  what  they  heard  must  be  spoken  in  a  dream,  so  far  did  it  exceed 
their  expectation.  The  crier  was  called  back,  and  the  same  words 
being  repeated  were  followed  by  loud  and  reiterated  shouts  of  ap- 
plause ;  after  which  the  various  shows  and  trials  of  skill  proceeded 
unregarded,  the  minds  of  the  spectators  being  too  full  to  heed  them. 
When  all  these  were  finished,  a  general  rush  was  made  toward  the 
Roman  commander ;  and  it  is  said  that,  had  he  not  been  a  man  in  the 
full  prime  and  vigor  of  youth,  his  life  might  have  been  endangered  by 
the  multitude  of  those  who  thronged  to  see  him,  to  address  him  as  a 
savior,  to  take  him  by  the  hand,  or  to  throw  garlands  upon  him.  "It 
was  glorious  that  a  state  should  exist  in  the  world,  which  had  will  to 
contend  for  Grecian  freedom,  and  power  and  fortune  to  achieve  it." 
Such  a  praise  may  have  been  partly  due  to  the  present  conduct  of  the 
Romans,  but  Flamin'ius  showed  his  insincerity  by  secretly  laboring  to 
weaken  the  Acheean  league  ;  which,  however,  was  strengthened,  after 
the  murder  of  the  tyrant  Nabis  (b.  c.  192),  by  the  accession  of  Sparta. 

Antiochus,  king  of  Syria,  instigated  by  Han'nibal,  who  had  sought 
refuge  in  his  court  when  exiled  from  his  native  country,  declared  war 
against  the  Romans  (b.  c.  193) ;  but  instead  of  attacking  their  power  in 
Alnca  or  Italy,  he  passed  over  into  Greece,  and  was  gladly  welcomed 
by  the  turbulent  iEtolians.  The  Achajans,  of  course,  joined  the  Ro- 
mans as  soon  as  their  ancient  enemies  had  declared  for  Antiochus ; 
and  Philip,  notwithstanding  his  recent  defeat,  lent  his  interest  to  the 
same  cause.  The  campaigns  of  Antiochus  were  mere  repetitions  of 
error  and  presumption;  at  lengih  he  returned  to  Asia  (b.  c.  191),  leav- 
ing his  allies  exposed  to  the  vengeance  of  their  enemies.  The  JEto- 
liaus  were  the  most  severely  treated ;  the  only  terms  of  peace  which 
the  Romans  would  consent  to  grant  reduced  them  to  poverty,  and 
deprived  them  of  independence  (b.  c.  189) ;  but  Antiochus  having  beer 
defeated  utterly  by  the  Scipios  in  Asia,  they  had  no  alternativej  and 
were  forced  to  bend  their  stubborn  necks  to  the  heavy  yoke  imposed 
upon  them.  About  the  same  time  Sparta  was  captured  by  the  Acha^ans, 
under  the  command  of  Philopoe'men,  and  the  constitution  of  Lycur'guri. 
•inallv  abolished. 


152  ANCIEKT  HISTORY. 

The  Romans  affected  great  indignation  at  the  sufTetings  of  tne  Spar 
lans.  and  coinpt'Ued  the  Achseans  to  niodit'y  the  terms  they  had  imposeO 
on  tiie  conquered.  But  this  was  a  trilhiig  cahiinity  compared  with  tha' 
which  tlu"  Unigue  sustained  by  the  loss  of  Phih)p(je'men,  the  last  great 
general  that  maintained  the  glory  of  the  Hellenic  race  (b.  c.  183). 

The  petty  war  between  the  Messenians  and  Achseans  would  scarcely 
deserve  notice  but  for  its  having  proved  fatal  to  the  last  of  the  long  line 
of  Grecian  heroes  and  patriots,  i^hilopce'men  was  surprised  by  the 
enemv,  when  passing  with  a  small  party  of  cavalry  throuah  a  difficult 
defile.  It  was  thought  tliat  he  might  have  escaped  by  the  aid  of  some 
light-aritied  Thracians  and  Cretans  in  his  band ;  but  he  woidd  not  quit 
the  horsemen,  whom  he  had  recently  selected  from  the  noblest  of  the 
Achseans ;  and  while  he  was  bringing  up  the  rear,  and  bravely  cover- 
ing the  retreat,  his  horse  fell  with  him.  He  was  seventy  years  old, 
and  weakened  by  recent  sickness  ;  and  he  lay  stunned  and  motionless 
under  his  horse,  till  he  was  found  by  the  Messenians,  who  raised  him 
from  tlie  ground  with  as  much  respect  as  if  he  had  been  their  own 
commander,  and  carried  him  to  the  city,  sending  before  them  the  news 
that  the  war  was  finished,  for  Philopce'men  was  taken.  The  first  im- 
pression of  those  who  heard,  was  that  the  messenger  was  mad  ;  but 
when  others  coming  after  confirmed  the  statement,  men,  women,  and 
children,  freemen  and  slaves,  all  crowded  to  see.  So  great  was  the 
throng,  that  the  gates  could  scarcely  be  opened ;  and  as  the  greater 
part  could  not  see  the  prisoner,  there  was  a  general  cry  that  he  should 
be  brought  into  the  theatre  close  by.  The  magistrates  showed  him 
there  for  a  moment,  and  then  hastily  removed  him,  for  they  feared  the 
effects  which  might  be  produced  by  pity  and  reverence  for  so  great  a 
man,  and  gratitude  for  his  merits.  A  long  and  anxious  debate  took 
place,  which  was  protracted  throughout  the  entire  night.  Finally, 
murderous  counsels  prevailed,  and  a  cup  of  poison  was  sent  to  Philo- 
poe'mcn  in  his  dungeon.  He  submitted  to  his  f;ite  with  great  forti- 
tude, and  his  only  solicitude  was  respecting  the  safety  of  his  compan- 
ions. A  little  before  he  expired  he  had  the  gratification  of  learning 
•.hat  they  had  succeeded  in  making  their  escape.  His  fate  was  soon 
u.venged ;  Messene  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the  Achaean  general 
Lycos'tas,  and  all  who  had  a  share  in  the  murder  of  Philopce'men 
were  put  to  death. 

Philip  had  in  the  meantime  borne  very  impatiently  the  overbearing 
ronduct  of  the  Romans ;  but  the  exertions  of  his  son  Demetrius, 
whom  he  had  givta  as  a  hostage  after  his  defeat  at  Cynos-ceph'alse, 
with  the  leading  men  at  Rome,  prevented  a  rupture.  On  this  account 
Demetrius  was  enthusiastically  received  by,  the  Macedonians  on  his 
return  home — a  circumstance  of  which  his  elder  brother  Per'aeus  took 
advantage,  to  accuse  the  young  prince  of  treason.  Philip  delivered 
this  promising  young  man  to  the  executioner ;  but  soon  after  his  death, 
discovering  his  innocence,  he  made  an  attempt  to  change  the  succes 
sion,  and  have  Antig'onus  acknowledged  as  his  heir ;  but,  before  this 
could  be  effected,  the  wretched  monarch  died  of  a  broken  heart 
^B.  c.  179).  Per'seus  ascended  the  throne  with  the  certainty  that  he 
was  secretly  hated  by  the  Romans  and  his  own  subjects.  One  of  his 
earliest  acts  was  to  put  Antig'onus  to  death,  and  thus  prevent  the  perils 


SYRIA.  J  53 

of  competition  at  home  when  hostilities  abroad  were  inevilihle  Pre- 
ter.ces  for  war  were  easily  found :  a  Roman  army  crossed  the  sea,  and 
passed  through  Epirus  and  Athamania  into  Thessaly.  Per'seus  neg- 
lected many  opportunities  of  attacking  his  enemies  at  a  disadvantage ; 
and  when  he  asked  for  peace,  after  having  triumphed  in  slight  skir- 
mishes, he  found  that  the  Romans  were  more  haughty  after  defeat  than 
after  victory.  The  alliance  of  Gen'tius,  king  of  Illyria,  might  probably 
have  turned  the  scale  of  war  in  favor  of  the  Macedonian  monarch ;  but 
he  defrauded  his  ally  of  the  subsidy  he  had  promised  to  enable  him  to 
le\y  an  army ;  and  the  Romans,  landing  in  Illyr'ia,  subdued  the  whole 
kingdom  within  thirty  days.  Soon  afterward  the  consul  Lucius  iEmil- 
ius  Radius  appeared  in  JNIacedon  ;  and  his  name  gave  confidence  to  the 
friends  of  Rome,  while  it  filled  the  partisans  of  Per'seus  with  confu- 
sion (b.  c.  168).  After  some  indecisive  skirmishes,  the  Macedonian 
monarch  was  forced  to  hazard  a  decisive  engagement  at  Pyd'na,  in 
which  he  was  irretrievably  ruined.  Twenty  thousand  Macedonians 
were  slain  ;  Per'seus  himself  was  taken  prisoner,  and  was  led  in  chains 
to  Rome  to  adorn  the  triumph  of  his  haughty  conqueror. 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon  had  taken  place  on  the  eve  of  the  battle. 
Such  appearances  were  then  superstitiously  believed  to  be  ominous  of 
ill  to  states  and  kingdoms.  C.  Sulpic'ius  Gal'luS;  a  Roman  officer, 
had  science  enough  to  know  their  nature  and  foretell  their  occurrence  : 
and  he,  lest  the  soldiers  should  be  disheartened  by  the  eclipse,  called 
them  together,  declared  that  it  would  happen,  and  explained  its  cause. 
This  changed  the  fear,  which  might  otherwise  have  arisen,  into  wonder 
at  the  knowledge  of  Gal'lus  :  while  in  the  Macedonian  camp  the  ap 
pearance  was  apprehended  by  many  to  portend  the  extinction  of  the 
kingdom. 

By  the  victory  at  Pyd'na  the  fate  of  Macedon  and  Greece  was 
sealed  :  the  Romans  permitted  both,  indeed,  for  a  time  to  enjoy  quali- 
fied independence  ;  but  they  exercised  over  them  a  galling  supremacy, 
which  rendered  their  freedom  an  empty  name.  Above  a  thousand  of 
the  most  eminent  Acha;ans  were  summoned  at  one  time  to  Rome,  and 
detained  there  seventeen  years  in  prison,  without  being  admitted  to  an 
audience.  Some  of  these,  on  their  return,  stimulated  their  countrymen 
to  insult  the  Roman  ambassadors  at  Corinth,  who  had  come  to  arrange 
some  disputes  bti:ween  the  Achaeans  and  the  Spartans  (b.  c.  148). 
This  of  r  "(urse  led  to  a  war:  the  Achaeans  were  everywhere  defeated, 
and  at  length  Corinth  was  taken  by  Mum'mius,  the  Roman  consul 
(b.  c.  14G),  who  razed  that  isplendid  city  to  the  ground.  Thencefor- 
ward, Greece,  under  the  name  of  Achaia,  became  a  Roman  province, 
and  Macedon  had  been  reduced  to  the  same  condition  some  years  pre- 
viously. The  shadow  of  freedom,  however,  was  left  to  some  ol  the 
cities,  but  especially  to  Athens,  which  became  the  university  of  th»' 
Koman  empire. 

Section  II. — History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Syria  under  the  Seleucidee. 
FROM   B.   C.  312    TO    B.  C.  64 

TiiE  victory  of  Seleucus  over  the  satraps  of  Persia  and  Media, 
already  mentioned  (p.  143),  gave  that  monarch  possession  of  the  prin- 


154  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

:ipal  part  ot  upper  Asia.  In  less  than  four  years  In.  became  n/astei 
of  the  countries  betwe<!n  the  Oxus,  the  Indus,  and  the  Euphrates 
(b.  c.  306)  ;  and,  reviving  the  projects  of  Alexander,  he  invaded  India. 
More  fortunate  than  las  illustrious  master,  he  penetrated  as  far  as  the 
Ganges,  where  he  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Sandracot'tus,  the  king 
of  the  rich  country  between  the  Sutlege  and  the  Ganges.  The  great 
n\nnber  of  elephants  which  Seleiicus  obtained  by  this  alliance  enabled 
him  to  turn  the  scale  at  the  battle  of  Ip'sus  :  but  a  more  important 
advantage  was,  the  commercial  intercourse  established  between  his 
subjects  and  those  of  Sandracot'tus.  After  the  death  of  Antig'onus  at 
Ip'sus,  Seleiicus,  having  obtained  tlie  greater  part  of  the  late  satrap's 
provinces,  made  Syria  the  seat  of  his  government — an  unfortunate 
choice,  since  it  exposed  his  kingdom  to  the  jealousy  of  Egypt,  in- 
volved it  in  the  troubled  politics  of  the  western  world,  and  led  the 
rulers  to  neglect  the  rich  countries  on  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates. 
During  the  eighteen  years  of  peace  that  followed  the  death  i.i  Antig'- 
onus,  Seleiicus  founded  or  embellished  several  important  cities,  espe- 
cially Antioch  in  Syria,  which  he  made  the  capital  of  his  dominions, 
and  two  Seleiicias ;  one  on  the  Tigris,  the  other  on  the  Oron'tes. 
Anxiety  to  add  Macedon  to  his  dominions  induced  Seleucus  to  invade 
Europe ;  but  in  the  midst  of  his  career  he  was  murdered  by  Ptolemy 
Ceraiinus  (b.  c.  281).  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Autiochus,  sur- 
named  Soter  {the  savior),  who  had  for  some  time  governed  the  provin- 
ces of  upper  Asia. 

Autiochus  pursued  his  father's  plans  of  conquest  in  Asia  Minor  :  but 
he  ceded  his  claims  over  Macedon  to  Antig'onus  Gonnatus,  and  gave 
his  step-daughter  in  marriage  to  that  monarch.  The  northern  states  in 
Asia  Minor  that  had  asserted  their  independence  rapidly  attained  matu- 
rity ;  Autiochus  was  defeated  by  Nicomedes,  king  of  Bith'ynia,  who 
had  obtained  the  support  of  the  Gallic  hordes  after  their  defeat  in 
Greece  (b.  c.  275),  and  he  was  similarly  unsuccessful  in  a  war  with 
the  king  of  Per'gamus  (b.  c.  263),  whose  complete  defeat  of  the  Syri- 
ans gave  security  to  all  the  new  states.  Nor  was  Soter  more  fortunate 
In  a  war  he  undertook  against  Egypt :  Magas,  the  brother  of  the 
Egyptian  Ptolemy,  having  married  into  the  Syrian  royal  family,  hoped 
that  by  this  alliance  he  would  be  enabled  to  establish  a  new  kingdom 
in  Gyrene.  Autiochus  united  with  the  usurper,  and  both  marched 
against  Ptolemy.  The  Syrians  were  defeated  in  every  engagement ; 
their  coasts  were  laid  waste  by  the  Egyptian  fleet ;  and  Magas  was 
speedily  hurled  from  his  throne.  On  his  return,  Antiochus  marched 
against  the  Gauls,  who  had  advanced  toward  Eph'esus  (b.  c.  262),  and 
in  the  neighborhood  of  that  city  he  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Antiochus  II.  avenged  his  father's  death  on  the  Gauls,  and  received 
from  the  excessive  adulation  of  his  subjects,  the  surname  Theos  {god). 
In  his  reign,  the  provinces  of  upper  Asia  began  to  slip  from  the  grasp 
,)f  the  Selbucidae,  owing  to  the  progress  of  the  Parthian  tribes,  the 
exactions  of  the  provincial  governors,  and  the  unwise  efforts  of  the 
monarch  to  frtrce  the  Grecian  customs  and  religion  on  his  subjects.  In 
Older  to  encounier  his  eastern  enemies  with  elfect,  Theos  deemed  il 
necessary  to  tranquillize  the  west,  and  he  accordingly  made  peact; 
■villi  the  king  of  Egypt.     In  pursuance  of  the  conditions  of  this  treaty 


SYRIA  155 

Antiochus  marriod  Berenice,  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy,  divorcing  his  for- 
mer wife  Laodice,  and  excluding  her  children  fiom  the  succession. 
On  the  death  of  Ptolemy,  the  divorced  queen  was  restored  to  her  sta- 
tion ;  but  she  could  not  forget  the  insult  she  had  received,  nor  conquer 
her  dread  of  being  sacrificed  to  some  future  arrangement.  Influenced 
by  these  motives,  she  poisoned  her  husband  (^b.  c.  247),  and  procured 
the  murder  of  Berenice  and  her  infant  son. 

Seleiicus,  surnamed  Callinicus  {illusLriuus  conqueror^,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  by  his  mother's  crime,  and  w^as  immediately  engaged  in  war 
with  Ptolemy  Ever'getes,who  was  eager  to  avenge  his  sister's  murder. 
Crossing  the  Syrian  deserts  with  a  numerous  army,  Ptolemy  overran 
rather  than  conquered  Palestine,  Babylonia,  Persia,  and  the  wealthy 
provinces  of  upper  Asia.  He  returned,  bringing  with  him  enormous 
spoils,  among  which  were  the  Egyptian  idols  which  Camliy'ses  had 
taken  from  Mem'phis  and  Thebes.  On  his  way  back  he  encountered 
Seleiicus,  whom  he  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  and  forced  to  take 
refuge  in  Antioch.  He  then  returned  to  Egypt,  having  gained  immense 
treasure,  but  no  additional  territory,  in  his  expedition.  Eiimenes,  king 
of  Per'gamus,  took  advantage  of  the  Egyptian  war  to  enlarge  his 
•iominions  at  the  expense  of  the  Syrian  monarch ;  and  Hierax,  the 
brother  of  Seleucus,  aided  by  a  body  of  Gauls,  attempted  to  usurp  the 
throne.  The  rebellion  was  at  first  successful  ;  but  the  ravages  of  the 
Gauls  provoked  such  general  indignation,  that  Seleucus  found  all  his 
subjects  rising  in  one  body  to  support  him  ;  and,  thus  strengthened,  he 
assailed  the  army  of  the  rebels  and  invaders  in  Babylonia.  The  battle 
was  fierce  ;  but  it  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Gauls,  who  were 
a^lmost  aimihilated  in  the  pursuit.  Hierax  fled  to  the  Egyptian  court, 
but  was  thiown  into  prison  by  Ptolemy,  where  he  languished  thirteen 
years,  and  only  escaped  to  perish  by  the  hands  of  robbers  in  the  Syrian 
desert.  Callinicus  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Parthians  (b.  c. 
237),  but  was  defeated  by  their  king  Arsaces  ;  and  the  Parthians  date 
the  origin  of  their  monarchy  from  this  battle.  In  a  second  campaign, 
Seleucus  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  (b.  c.  236),  and  was  detain- 
ed a  prisoner  by  the  Parthians  to  the  day  of  his  death  (b.  c.  227). 

Seleucus  III.,  surnamed  Ceraunus  (//<e  ^/uiHtZ^-riw//),  succeeded  his 
father  ;  but,  after  a  brief  reign,  was  removed  by  poison  (b.  c.  224) 
The  hopes  of  his  murderers,  however,  were  frustrated  by  the  vigor  of 
his  cousin  Achae'us,  who  secured  the  inheritance  for  Antiochus,  the 
younger  brother  of  the  deceased  monarch,  who  had  been  satrap  of 
Bab'ylon. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  reign,  Antiochus  III.,  surnamed  the  Great, 
was  brought  into  great  danger  by  the  intrigues  of  his  prime  minister 
Hermeias,  a  native  of  Caria,  Deceived  by  the  artifices  of  this  craftj 
vizier,  Antiochus  quarrelled  with  Achse'us,  to  whom  he  was  mainly  in- 
debted for  his  crowm,  and  set  Molon  and  Alexander,  the  brothers  of 
Hermeias,  over  the  important  provinces  of  Media  and  Persia.  The 
.icw  satraps  raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  and  defeated  the  royal  generals 
Bent  against  them.  At  length  Antiochus  took  the  field  in  person,  con- 
trary to  the  wishes  and  remonstrances  of  his  minister.  When  the 
armies  were  about  to  engage,  the  rebel  forces,  by  an  almost  intuitive 
movement,  threw   down  their  arms,  and   submitted  themselves  to  thei/ 


156  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

youthful  sovereign.  Molou  and  Alexander  escaped  a  j  nbliL  exec^-tiot 
by  suicide,  and  Ilerineias  expiated  his  complicated  treasoiig  on  the 
scalFoM  (b.  c.  220).  Whilst  Antiochus  was  thus  engaged  in  the  re- 
mote east,  Achaj'us,  whom  he  had  forced  into  reoellion,  had  strengthen- 
ed  himself  in  Asia  Minor  ;  and  the  Egyptian  monarch  Ptolemy  Phi 
lop'ater  was  becoming  formidable  on  the  southern  frontiers  of  Syria 
Antiochus  obtained  possession  of  Coele-Syria  by  the  treachery  of 
Theodotus,  its  governor  ;  but  he  was  soon  after  defeated  by  Ptolemy 
at  the  battle  of  Raphia  near  Gaza  (b.  c.  217),  and  forced  to  purchase 
peace  by  the  sacrifice  of  the  newly-acquired  province.  This  defea 
was  in  some  degree  compensated,  the  following  year,  by  the  capture  ol 
Achffl'us,  whose  ravages  to  support  his  troops  having  jjrovoked  the  re 
sentment  of  the  kings  of  lesser  Asia,  he  was  besieged  in  the  citade 
ef  Sar'dis  by  the  joint  forces  of  Antiochus  and  At'talus,  king  of  Per' 
gamus,  treacherously  betrayed,  and  inigratefully  put  to  death. 

Freed  from  the  dangers  of  this  war,  Antiochus  turned  his  attention 
to  the  aflairs  of  upper  Asia,  and  gained  several  victories  over  the  Par- 
thians  and  Bactrians  (b.  c.  214).  He  was,  however,  forced  to  recog- 
nise the  independence  of  both  nations.  To  secure  his  dominions,  he 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Demetrius,  the  son  of  the  Baclrian 
monarch,  and  joined  that  prince  in  an  important  expedition  against 
northern  India  (b.  c.  206).  In  return,  he  made  some  efforts  to  revive 
the  commercial  system  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  paid  particuhir  atten- 
tion to  the  trade  of  the  Persian  gulf.  On  the  death  of  Ptolemy  Philop'- 
ater  (b.  c.  204),  and  the  accession  of  his  infant  son,  Antiochus  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  to  wrest  Egypt  from  the 
family  of  the  Ptolemies.  He  conquered  Cuele-Syria  ai.J  Palestine  ; 
but  was  prevented  from  pursuing  his  success  by  the  interference  of 
At'talus,  the  Rhodians,  and  the  Romans.  Checked  in  this  direction,  he 
revived  the  claims  of  his  family  on  the  northern  states  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  While  his  generals  besieged  Smyr'na  and  Lamp'sacus,  he  con- 
quered the  Thracian  Chersonese,  and  prepared  to  invade  Greece  (b.  c. 
196).  The  Romans  again  interfered  ;  but  the  Syrian  monarch,  insti- 
gated by  Hannibal,  who  had  sought  refuge  at  his  court,  treated  their 
remonstrances  with  disdain.  War  immediately  followed.  Antiochus 
lost  the  fairest  opportunities  of  success  by  neglecting  the  adv^ice  of 
Hannibal :  driven  from  Europe  into  Asia,  he  was  forced  to  act  solely 
on  the  defensive,  until  his  total  defeat  at  Magnesia,  near  Mount  Sip'y- 
lus,  laid  him  prostratl^  at  the  feet  of  his  enemies.  The  Romans  depriv- 
ed him  of  all  his  dominions  in  Asia  Minor,  the  greater  part  of  which 
were  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Per'gamus.  The  unfortunate  monarch 
did  not  long  survive  his  defeat :  he  was  murdered  by  his  servants  (b.  c 
187) ;  but  the  cause  and  maimer  of  the  crime  are  uncerta,in. 

Seleucus  IV.,  surnamed  Philop'ater  (a  lover  of  his  fcdher),  succeeded 
to  a  throne  fast  falling  into  decay.  His  reign  lasted  eleven  years,  but  was 
not  distinguished  by  any  remarkable  event.  Anxious  to  have  the  aid 
of  his  brother  Antiochus,  who  had  been  given  as  an  hostage  to  thf 
Romans,  Seleucus  sent  his  son  Demetrius  to  Rome  in  exchange.  Be- 
fore Antiochus  could  reach  home,  Heliodorus  poisoned  Seleucus,  and 
flsurped  the  crown  (a.  c.  170).     Tliis  is  represcnied  by  many  Jewiirb 


SYRIA.  1 57 

writers  as  tt  pvovidendal  punishment  of  the  king,  who  had  employed  thai 
/eiy  minister  to  phmder  the  sacred  treasury  of  Jerusalem. 

Antiochus  IV.  soon  expelled  the  usurper,  and  assuuicd  the  surname 
of  Epiphanes  [illustrious)  which  his  subsequent  conduct  induced  his 
contemporaries  to  change  into  that  of  Epimanes  (mad/nan).  He  sought 
to  combine  the  freedom  of  Roman  manners  with  the  ostentatious  luxury 
of  the  Asiatics,  and  thereby  provoked  universal  hatred.  His  reign 
coii.menced  with  a  war  against  Egypt,  in  consequence  of  the  claim  made 
by  the  Ptolemies  to  Ccele-Syria  and  Palestine.  Antiocims  was  very 
successful :  in  two  campaigns  he  penetrated  to  the  walls  of  Alexandria 
and  gained  possession  of  the  person  of  Ptolemy  Philom'eter,  the  right 
ful  heir  of  the  Egj'ptian  throne,  who  had  been  driven  from  Alexandria 
by  his  brother  Phys'con.  With  this  prince  the  Syrian  monarch  con- 
:;luded  a  most  advantageous  peace  ;  but  scarcely  had  he  returned  home, 
when  Philom'eter  entered  into  an  accommodation  with  his  brother,  and 
ooth  combined  to  resist  the  power  of  Syria.  Justly  enraged  at  this 
treachery,  Antiochus  returned  to  Egypt ;  but  his  further  progress  was 
stopped  by  the  interference  of  the  Romans,  at  whose  imperious  command 
he  found  himself  compelled  to  resign  all  his  conquests  (c.  c.  169). 

The  ambition  of  Antiochus  was  next  directed  against  his  own  sub- 
jects :  he  resolved  to  establish  uniformity  of  worship  throughout  his 
dominions,  and  to  Hellenize  all  his  subjects.  His  intolerance  and  rapa- 
city engendered  a  determined  spirit  of  resistance  (g.  c.  168).  The 
Jews,  headed  by  the  gallant  Mac'cabees,  commenced  a  fierce  struggle, 
which,  after  much  suflering,  ended  in  the  restoration  of  their  former  in- 
dependence ;  and  the  Persians,  equally  attached  to  their  ancient  faith, 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  Antiochus  hasted  to  suppress  the  insur- 
rection in  upper  Asia;  but  being  severely  defeated  (b.  c.  165),  he  died 
of  vexa'ion  on  his  road  to  Babylon. 

Eupator,  the  young  son  of  the  deceased  monarch,  was  placed  on  the 
throne  by  the  Syrians  ;  but  Demetrius,  the  son  of  Seleucus  Philop'aoor, 
having  escaped  from  Rome,  no  sooner  appeared  in  Asia  than  he  was 
joined  by  such  numerous  partisans,  that  he  easily  dethroned  his  rival 
(b.  c.  162).  With  the  usual  barbarity  of  Asiatic  sovereigns,  he  put  tho 
young  prince  to  death,  and  found  means  to  purchase  the  pardon  of  his 
crimes  from  the  Roman  senate.  After  an  inglorious  reign,  he  was  slain 
in  battle  by  Alexander  Balas  (b.  c.  150),  an  impostor  who  personated 
the  unfortunate  Eupator,  and  was  supported  in  his  fraud  by  the  Mac'- 
cabees and  the  Romans.  Balas  was  in  his  turn  defeated  by  Demetrius 
Nicator,  the  son  of  the  late  monarch  (b.  c.  145),  and  forced  to  seek 
refuge  in  Arabia,  where  he  was  murdered  by  his  treacherous  host. 

Niiator,  having  lost  the  affections  of  his  subjects,  was  driven  from 
Antioch  by  Try'phon,  who  placed  the  crovA  n  on  the  heal  of  young  An 
liochus,  the  son  of  Balas ;  but  in  a  short  time  murdered  that  prince, 
and  proclaimed  himself  king.  Demetrius  was  withheld  from  marching 
against  the  usurper  by  the  hope  of  acquiring  a  better  kingdom  in  up- 
per Asia,  whither  he  was  invited  by  the  descendants  of  the  Greek  and 
Macedonian  colonists,  to  defend  them  from  the  power  of  the  Parthians 
(b.  c.  140).  He  Avas  at  first  successful,  but  was  finally  captured  by 
his  enemies,  who  detained  him  a  prisoner  for  ten  years.  In  me  mean- 
time his  brother  Antiochus  Sidetes,  having  overlhrov/n  Try'phon,  seized 


158  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

•.lie  crown  of  Syria.  He  appears  to  Ikia's  been  a  good  and  wise  sovei 
t^um  ;  but  unfortunately  he  was  induced,  by  the  provincials  of  uppei 
Asia,  to  wage  war  against  the  Parthians,  and  was  treacherously  nuir 
(lered  by  his  own  allies  (b.  c.  1.30).  Demetrius,  about  the  same  time, 
escaped  from  prison,  and  was  restored  to  the  throne.  But  after  a  brief 
reign  he  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Zebinus  (b.  c.  126),  a  pretended 
son  of  the  impostor  Balas. 

Seleucus,  the  son  of  Demetrius,  was  waging  a  successful  wur 
ao-ainst  Zebinas,  when  he  was  treacherously  murdered  by  his  own 
mother  Cleopatra,  who  wished  .to  secure  th-e  crown  for  her  favorite 
child  Anliochus  Gry'phus.  She  also  prevailed  on  her  relative,  the 
kincr  of  Egypt,  to  declare  war  against  the  usurper ;  and  Zi  binas  waa 
soon  defeated  and  slain.  Gry'phus  no  sooner  found  himself  secure  oji 
the  throne  than  he  put  his  mother  to  death  for  the  murder  of  Seleucus 
(b.  c.  122) ;  and  it  must  be  added,  that  this  measure  was  necessary  U: 
secure  his  own  life.  After  some  years,  Cyzicenus,  the  half-lrolher  of 
Gry'phus,  attempted  to  usurp  the  throne  ;  and  during  the  civil  war  that 
ensut-d,  many  cities  and  provinces  separated  from  the  Syrian  kingdom. 
Gry'phus  was  assassinated  (b.  c.  97).  His  five  sons  and  the  son  of 
Cvzicenus  engaged  in  a  dreary  series  of  civil  wars  ;  until  the  Syrians, 
weary  of  enduring  the  calamities  and  bloodshed  of  their  protracted  dis- 
sensions, expelled  the  entire  family,  and  gave  the  crown  to  Tigranes, 
king  of  Armenia  (b.  c.  83).  Tigranes,  after  a  long  and  not  inglorious 
reioii,  was  involved  in  a  war  with  the  Romans,  which  ended  in  his 
complete  overthrow  ;  and  he  was  forced  to  resign  Syria  to  the  conquer- 
ors (b.  c.  64.)  Thus  the  kingdom  of  the  Seleiicidae  was  made  a  Roman 
province,  and  the  family  soon  after  became  extinct  in  the  person  of  Se 
leucus  Cybrosac'tes  (b.  c.  57).  He  was  raised  to  the  throne  of  Egypt 
by  his  wife,  the  princess  Berenice,  and  afterward  murdered  bv  her 
orders. 

iSkction  III. — History  of  Egypt  under  the  rtolemies. 

FROM     B.   C.   301    TO    B.   C.  30. 

Ptol'emv,  the  son  of  Lagus,  was  the  wisest  statf  sman  among  the  suc- 
cessors cf  Alexander.  No  sooner  had  the  battle  nf  Ip'sus  put  him  in 
possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Egypt,  than  he  beg  m  to  provide  for  the 
happiness  of  his  new  subjects  by  a  regeneration  of  their  entire  social 
system.  Unlike  the  Seleiicida?,  he  made  no  attempt  to  Hellenize  the 
Egyptians  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  revived,  as  much  9S  altered  circum- 
Btances  would  permit,  their  ancient  religious  and  political  constitution , 
the  priestly  caste  was  restored  to  a  portion  of  its  ancient  privileges  , 
the  division  of  the  country  into  nomes  was  renewed  ;  Memphis,  though 
not  the  usual  residence  of  the  monarchs,  was  constituted  tlie  capital  of 
.he  kingdom,  and  its  temple  of  Phtha  declared  the  national  sanctuary, 
where  alone  the  kings  could  receive  the  crown.  But  not  less  wise 
was  the  generous  patronage  accorded  to  literature  and  sciencj- :  thf 
Museum  was  founded  in  Alexandria  as  a  kind  of  university  for  students 
and  a  place  oi  assembly  for  the  learned  ;  the  first  great  national  library 
i^-as  establisbfid  in  another  part  of  the   city ;  and  the  philosophers  anr/ 


EGYPT. 


169 


(p.en  of  letters  were  invited  to  seek  shelter  from  the  storiue  which 
shook  every  other  part  of  the  world  in  the  tranquil  land  of  Egypt.  Im- 
pressed by  the  example  of  his  illustrious  master,  PtoFemy  paid  great 
attention  to  trade  and  navigation.  Colonists  from  every  quarter  of  the 
globe  were  invited  to  settle  at  Alexandria,  and  the  Jews  flocked  tluthel 
in  great  numbers,  to  escape  the  persecution  of  their  Syrian  masters 
St)  many  of  that  singular  people  became  subjects  of  the  Ptol'emies, 
that  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament  from  Hebrew  into 
Greek  was  made  for  their  use,  and  a  Jewish  temple  erected  in  Egypt 
similar  to  that  of  Jerusalem.  The  double  harbors  of  Alexandria,  on 
the  sea,  and  on  the  Maraeot'ic  lake,  were  constructed  at  the  same  time, 
and  the  celebrated  Pharus,  or  lighthouse,  erected  at  the  entrance  of  the 
haven. 

The  city  of  Alexandria,  which  had  been  begun  before  the  death  of 
Alexander,  owed  most  of  its  splendor  to  Ptol'emy.  But  among  all  the 
public  buildings  he  planned  or  erected,  there  is  none  better  deserves 
our  attention  than  the  Museum,  or  College  of  Philosophy.  Its  chief 
room  was  a  great  hall,  which  was  used  as  a  lecture-room  and  common 
dining-room ;  it  had  a  covered  walk  or  portico  all  round  the  outside, 
and  there  was  a  raised  seat  or  bench  on  which  the  philosophers  some- 
times sat  in  the  open  air.  The  professors  and  teachers  of  the  college 
were  supported  by  a  public  income.  Ptol'emy's  love  of  art,  his  anxiety 
to  reward  merit,  and  his  agreeable  manners,  brought  to  his  court  so 
many  persons  distinguished  in  science,  literature,  and  the  fine  arts,  that 
the  Museum  of  Alexandria  became  the  centre  of  civilization  for  the 
known  world.  The  arts  and  letters  thus  introduced,  did  not  bear  theii 
richest  fruit  in  the  reign  of  the  founder  :  they  flourished  most  in  the 
age  of  his  son ;  but  this  does  not  detract  from  the  merit  of  the  firsi 
Ptol'emy,  who  gave  the  i.istitutions  he  planted  such  permanence,  tha; 
they  struck  deep  root  in  the  soil  and  continued  to  flourish  under  all  his 
successors,  unchoked  by  the  Adces  and  follies  which  unfortunately  grew 
up  around  them. 

In  return  for  the  literature  which  Greece  then  gave  to  Egypt,  she 
gained  the  knowledge  of  papy'rus.  Before  that  time  books  had  been 
written  on  Unen,  wax,  or  the  bark  of  trees  :  and  public  records  on 
stone,  brass,  or  lead  :  but  the  knowledge  of  papy'rus  was  felt  by  all 
men  of  letters  like  the  invention  of  printing  in  modern  Europe  ;  books 
were  then  known  by  many  for  the  first  time,  and  very  little  else  was 
ufterward  used  in  Greece  and  Rome  ;  for  when  parchment  was  invent- 
ed about  to  centuries  later,  it  was  found  too  costly  to  be  generally  used 
so  long  as  papy^rus  could  be  obtained.  The  papy'rus  reed  is  only 
found  in  Egypt  and  a  small  district  in  Sicily.  Successful  attemj)ts 
have  been  made  to  manufacture  it  in  modern  times,  but  the  process  is 
too  tedious  and  uncertain  to  be  remvmerative,  and  the  papy'rus  is  only 
prepared  as  a  matter  of  curiosity. 

The  external  security  of  Egypt  wa?  strengthened  by  the  conquest  of 
the  Syrian  frontiers,  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Cyrene,  a  considerable 
part  of  Ethiopia,  and  the  island  of  (  yprtis.  Hence,  during  the  ad- 
min is.tration  of  Ptol'emy  1.,  Egypt  was  free  from  the  fear  of  foreign  in- 
vasion, and  its  inhabitants,  for  the  first  time  during  several  centuries 
were  free  to  develop  tlie  great  internal  resources  of  the  country.      Few 


ItJO  ANCIKNT    HISTOUV. 

sovereiijns  were  more  deservedly  lamented  than  the  son  of  Lagus  (b.  c. 
284)  :  his  death  spread  universal  sorrow  among  his  subjects,  who  al 
once  lamented  him  as  a  father,  and  worshipped  him  as  a  god. 

The  reign  of  Ptol'emy  II.,  surnamed  Philadel'phus  (a  lover  of  hU 
brethren),  was  disturbed  only  by  the  rebellion  of  Magas,  which  wa^ 
supported  ny  Antiochus  II.,  as  has  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
section.  Under  the  peaceful  administration  of  Philadel'phus,  Egj'ptian 
commerce  made  the  most  rapid  strides ;  ports  for  the  Indian  and  Ara- 
bian trade  were  constructed  on  the  Red  sea,  at  Arsinoe  {Suez),  My'os 
Hor'mus  {Cosseir),  and  Berenice.  From  the  two  latter  stations  cara- 
van roads  Avere  made  to  the  Upper  Nile,  and  the  lower  river  was  united 
to  the  Red  sea  by  a  canal,  which  was  further  continued  to  the  lessei 
harbor  of  Alexandria,  on  the  Marajotic  lake.  The  Ethiopian  trade  was 
revived  with  great  spirit ;  and  remote  countries  of  central  and  southern 
Africa  were  opened  to  the  enterprise  of  the  Alexandrian  merchants. 
Unfortunately,  the  luxury  of  the  court  increased  in  the  same  proportion 
as  the  wealth  o-f  the  country.  Philadel'phus  fell  into  all  the  effeminate 
dissipation  of  the  Asiatic  sovereigns,  and  adopted  their  pernicious 
habits  of  intermarriages  between  near  relations.  He  set  the  example 
by  repudiating  his  first  wife,  and  marrjdng  his  own  sister  Arsinoe,  vvlit. 
exercised  the  greatest  influence  over  her  husband.  She  brought  iiim 
no  children,  but  she  adopted  the  offspring  of  her  predecessor. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of  Ptol'emy  Philadel'phus  that  PjT'rhus  was 
driven  out  of  Italy  by  the  Romans  (b.  c.  274) ;  and  this  event  induced 
the  Egyptian  king  to  send  an  ambassador  to  the  senate,  to  wish  them 
joy  of  their  success,  and  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  republic 
The  Romans  received  the  envoy  with  great  joy,  and  in  return  sent  four 
ambassadors  to  Egypt  to  seal  the  treaty.  Ptol'emy  showed  the  Roman 
deputies  every  kindness,  and  explained  to  them  those  processes  oi' 
Greek  art  with  which  they  were  acquainted.  Subsequently  two  of  the 
ambassadors,  Quin'tus  Ogul'nius  and  Fabius  Pic'tor,  having  been  elected 
consids,  introduced  a  silver  coinage  at  Rome,  the  advantages  of  whicn 
they  had  been  taught  in  Egj'pt. 

Philaderphus  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Ptol'emy  III.,  surnamed 
Ever''getes(//<e  benefactor)  (b.  c.  246).  Unlike  his  fother,  he  was  a 
warlike,  enterprising  prince,  and  his  conquests  extended  into  the  re- 
mote regions  of  the  east  and  south.  His  war  with  Seleucus  II.,  in 
which  the  Egyptian  army  penetrated  as  far  as  Bactria,  has  been  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  section  ;  but  the  result  of  the  Asiatic  cam- 
paigns was  plunder,  not  any  permanent  acquisition  of  territory ;  ver}' 
diflerent  was  the  result  of  tlie  southern  wars,  by  which  a  great  part  of 
Abyssinian  and  the  Arabian  peninsula  was  added  to  the  Egyptian  do- 
minions, and  new  roads  for  trade  opened  through  these  remote  coun- 
tries. 

With  the  death  of  Ever'getes  (a.  c.  221),  ended  the  g\oxj  of  tht 
Ptol'emies.  His  son  Ptol'emy,  surr.amed  Philop'ater  (a  lover  of  hi, 
father),  was  a  weak,  debauched  prince,  who  was,  during  his  whole  liin 
under  the  tutelage  of  unworthy  favorites.  At  the  instigation  of  his  first 
minister,  Sosib'ius,  he  put  to  death  his  brother  Magas,  and  Cleo.ii'enes, 
the  exiled  king  of  Spar'ta.  Antiochus  the  Great,  who  the»"i  nded  in 
Syria,  took  adva!itage  of  Philop'ater'.s  incapacitv  to  wage  war  againa 


1 


EGYPT.  161 

C^'pt ;  but  was  defeated  at  R;iphia,  as  already  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
ceding section.  After  his  victory,  Ptol'emy  visited  Jerusalem,  and 
made  an  attempt  to  enter  the  sanctuary  of  the  temple  ;  but  being  pre- 
vented by  the  priests,  he  was  so  indignant,  that  on  his  return  to  Egypt 
he  prepared  to  exterminate  all  the  Jews  that  had  settled  hi  the  king- 
dom. Tradition  says  that  his  cruel  project  was  miraculously  frustrated, 
and  that  the  Jews  were  again  restored  to  favor.  Soon  afterward  the 
!ving  murdtred  his  wife  and  sister,  and  transferred  his  aflcctions  to 
Agathoclea,  whose  brother,  the  infamous  Agath'ocles,  succeeded  to  the 
power  of  Sosib'ius.  At  length  his  continued  dissipation  broke  dowr, 
his  constitution,  and  he  died  of  premature  infirmity,  though  in  the  very 
prime  of  life  (b.  c.  204).  He  left  behind  him  only  one  son,  a  chiid 
about  five  years  old. 

The  guardians  of  Ptoremy  V.,  surnamed  Epiph'anes  [ilhtstriovs)^ 
proving  unworthy  of  their  trust,  the  regency  was  transferred  to  the  Ro 
man  senate,  a  circumstance  which  saved  Egypt  from  being  involved  ir, 
the  Macedonian  or  Syrian  war.  Epiph'anes  was  a  weak,  debauched 
prince,  and  before  he  attained  his  thirtieth  year^  he  died,  the  victim  of 
dissipation  or  poison  (b.  c.  181).  He  left  behnid  him  two  sons,  Ptol'- 
emy, surnamed  Philom'eter  [a  luv/r  of  his-  molhtr),  and  Phys'con,  both 
)f  immature  age. 

The  claims  of  the  Egj'ptians  on  Ccele-Syria  led  to  a  war  between 
:he  regents  and  the  king  of  Syria,  in  the  course  of  which  Philom'etei 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Antiochus  Epiph'anes, as  has  been  related  in  the 
preceding  section.  After  the  retreat  of  the  Syrians,  Philom'eter,  being 
a  second  time  expelled  by  Phys'con,  appealed  to  the  Romans,  who  di- 
vided the  Egyptian  dominions  between  the  two  brothers.  He  sup- 
ported the  pretender  Balas  against  Demetrius,  and  mainly  contributed 
to  the  placing  of  that  imposter  on  the  Syrian  throne  ;  but  being  un- 
gratefully treated,  he  led  an  army  against  B;ilas,  and  defeated  hin" 
(b.  c.  145).  But  the  victory  was  fatal  to  Philom'eter;  he  died  of  th< 
wounds  that  he  had  received  in  the  engagement. 

Phys'con,  by  marrying  Cleopatra,  who,  according  to  the  infamou^ 
practice  of  the  Ptol'emies,  was  Philom'eter's  wife  and  sister,  succeeded 
to  the  Egyptian  throne.  On  the  very  day  of  his  marriage  he  murdered 
his  infant  nephew  ;  and  his  conduct  toward  every  class  of  his  subjects 
was  in  accordance  with  this  atrocious  crime.  At  length  he  was  com- 
pelled by  the  Alexandrians  to  abandon  his  kingdom,  and  the  crown 
was  given  to  his  sister  Cleopatra,  whom  he  had  previously  divorced 
in  order  \.\  marry  her  daughter,  who  had  the  same  name.  He  wa^s 
subsequently  restored  by  the  aid  of  a  mercenary  army,  and  retained  the 
sceptic  to  the  day  of  his  death  (b  c.  116).  iHe  left  behind  him  two 
sons  by  his  niece  Cleopatra,  Ptolemy,  surnamed  Lathyrus,  from  the 
resemblance  of  a  wart  on  his  face  to  a  small  pea  ;  and  Ptolemy,  sur- 
named Alexander. 

Cleoprtra  endeavored  to  secure  the  crown  for  her  younger  son.  but 
was  compelled  by  the  Alexandrians  to  allow  Lathyrus  to  ascend  the 
Arone.  She  however  compelled  him  to  exch.iuge  Egypt  for  Cy'prus 
with  Alexander.  The  new  king,  unable  to  bear  the  tyranny  of  his 
mother,  caused  her  to  be  murdered,  upon  which  his  subjects  revolted, 
-ifid  restored   Lathyrus.      The  rt^'n;-in(hr  f^f  this    prince's  reign  war 


162  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

passed  in  tranquillity.  He  died  b.  c.  81,  leaving  behiiid  him  one  le 
gitimate  daugliter,  Berenice,  and  two  natural  sons,  Ptolemy  of  Cyprus 
and  Ptolemy  Auletes  [tlie  Jlutc-pluypr).  A  long  series  of  obscure  civil 
wars,  and  uninteresting  intrigues  with  the  Roman  senate,  followed. 
They  ended  in  placing  Ptolemy  Auletes  on  the  throne,  which,  however, 
he  retained  only  three  years. 

Auletes  left  four  legitimate  children  ;  but  his  daughter,  the  too  cel- 
ebrated Cleopatra,  set  aside  the  claims  of  her  brothers  and  sister,  by 
the  influence  which  her  personal  charms  gave  her  wit^  fulius  Caesar, 
and  afterward  with  Mark  Antony.  The  battle  of  Actium  was  fatal  to 
her  and  her  protector.  In  the  year  following  that  decisive  engagement 
she  was  taken  prisoner  by  Augustus  Caesar,  and  poisoned  herself  to 
avoid  being  led  in  triumph  (b.  c.  30).  Egypt  thenceforth  became  a 
Roman  province,  but  it  preserved  its  commercial  importance ;  and 
Alexandria  long  continued  to  be  the  most  wealthy  and  busy  city  of 
trade  in  the  world. 

Skctio>'  IV_. — Hisiory  of  the  Minor  Kingdoms  in  Western  Asia. 

FROM   B.   C.  301   TO  THE   BIRTH  OF  CHRIST. 

Thk  principal  kingdoms  formed  from  the  fragments  of  the  Macedo- 
nian monarchy  in  western  Asia  were:  1,  Per'gamus ;  2,  Bith'ynia; 
3,  Paphlagonia ;  4,  Pon'tus ;  5,  Cappadocia ;  6,  Greater  Armenia; 
7,  Lesser  Armenia  ;  8,  Judaea  ;  to  which  may  be  added,  9,  the  com- 
mercial state  of  Petra  and  the  republic  of  Rhodes.  A  ver}'  brief  notice 
will  suffice  for  these  petty  states,  with  the  exception  of  Petra,  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Idumeans,  and  Judaea,  Avhich  are  so  important  as  to  require 
separate  sections.  The  little  kingdom  of  Per'gamus,  in  Mysia,  was 
founded  by  Philelae'rus,  the  lieutenant  of  Lysim'achus,  during  the  wars 
of  that  monarch  with  Seleiicus.  It  did  not  attain  any  eminence  before 
the  accession  of  At'talus  I.  (b.c.  224),  whose  alliance  with  the  Romans 
during  the  ^Etolian  and  Macedonian  wars  was  rewarded  by  the  protec- 
tion of  the  republic.  He  Avas  a  generous  patron  of  literature  and  sci- 
ence, as  were  his  immediate  successors,  Eumenes  and  At'talus  II. 
The  latter  was  the  most  faithful  ally  the  Romans  had  in  the  east,  and 
his  services  were  rewarded  by  a  gift  of  the  rich  provinces  that  had 
been  taken  from  Antiochus.  His  nephew,  At'talus  III.,  bequeathed 
his  dominions  to  the  Romans,  who  made  this  inheritance  their  first 
Asiatic  province  (b.  c.  130).  Brief  as  was  the  duration  of  this  little 
kingdom,  the  patronage  of  its  enlightened  sovereigns  conferred  the 
most  important  benefits  on  letters.  To  them  we  owe  the  invention  of 
parchment  [cJiarla  Pergamena),  and  the  establishment  of  a  library  that 
rivalled  the  library  of  Alexandria  ;  to  which  city,  indeed,  it  was  trans- 
ferred bv  Anthony,  as  a  present  to  Cleopatra. 

Bith'vxia  was  created  into  a  kingdom  about  the  same  t:me  as  Per'- 
gamus. Its  most  remarkable  sovereign  was  Prtisias,  a  devoted  ally  of 
the  Romans,  who  offered  to  resign  Hannibal  to  their  vengeance,  and 
had  the  meanness  to  style  himself  a  freedman  of  that  republic  (b.  c.  182). 
He  was  murdered  by  his  own  son  Nicomedes  ;  and  the  parricide  w.as. 
n  liis  turn   assassinated  by  S(»c'rates,  a  son  that  trod  in   his  father'? 


WESTERN  ASIA.  IG'6 

I'otitsleps  Soc'rates  was  placed  on  the  throne  by  the  aid  of  Mithri* 
dates,  kir.g  of  Pon'tus  ;  but  on  the  defeat  of  that  monarch,  he  was  de- 
[losed  by  Syl'la,  and  the  crown  given  to  Nicomedes  III.  This  mon- 
arch died  after  a  brief  reign  (b.  c.  75),  and  bequeathed  his  dominions 
CO  the  Romans. 

Paphlagonia  was,  for  the  most  part,  subject  to  the  kings  of  Pon'tus, 
and  shared  the  fortunes  of  thai  country.  Even  under  the  Persian  em- 
pire the  kings  of  Pon'tus  enjoyed  a  qualified  independence,  and  were 
said  to  be  descended  from  the  royal  family  of  the  Achaemen'idae,  as 
well  as  the  Persian  kings.  Pan'tus  became  independent  rifter  the  bat- 
tle of  Ip'sus  ;  but  the  first  of  its  monarchs  remarkable  in  history  was 
iht  last  that  swayed  its  sceptre,  Mithridates  VII.,  deservedly  surnamed 
the  Great.  He  came  to  the  throne  while  yet  a  boy  (b.  c.  121) ;  by  de- 
voting himself  to  manly  sports,  and  inuring  his  body  to  support  extreme 
hardships,  he  acquired  such  great  personal  strength,  that  he  defeated 
all  the  plots  formed  for  his  assassination  by  his  treacherous  guardians. 
As  he  grew  up,  he  became  formidable  to  the  neighboring  princes,  from 
whom  he  wrested  several  important  provinces.  He  then  directed  hia 
ittention  to  the  countries  around  the  Black  sea,  conquered  the  kingdom 
of  Col'chis,  and  delivered  the  Greek  cities  in  the  Tauric  Chersonese 
I'rom  their  Scythian  oppressors.  His  rising  greatness  excited  the 
(ealousy  of  the  Romans,  who  had  good  reason  to  suspect  that  he  was  a 
ieadly  enemy  of  their  power.  To  strengthen  himself  for  the  coming 
contest,  Mithridates  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Tigranes,  king 
of  Armenia,  and  invited  that  monarch  to  attack  the  allies  of  the  repub- 
lic. At  length  war  was  openly  declared  (b.  b.  89),  and  Mithridates, 
in  the  first  two  campaigns,  became  master  of  lesser  Asia.  He  made 
a  cruel  use  of  his  victory,  by  ordering  all  the  Italian  merchants  resident 
in  Asiatic  cities  to  be  murdered,  and  secured  the  execution  of  his  san- 
guinary edict,  by  giving  up  their  properties  as  rewards  to  the  assassins. 
From  Asia  he  passed  into  Greece,  and  having  captured  several  of  the 
islands,  made  himself  master  of  Athens.  At  length  Syl'la  was  sent 
agaii  St  him :  he  defeated  the  Greek  partisans  of  Mithridates  in  three 
successive  battles,  all  fought  within  the  confines  of  Bceotia ;  while 
Fim'bria,  another  Roman  general,  was  equally  successful  in  Asia. 
Mithridates  was  thus  forced  to  beg  terms  of  peace,  which  Syl'la  readily 
granted  (b.  c.  85),  because  he  was  jealous  of  Fim'bria,  who  belonged 
to  a  T^val  faction,  and  was,  besides,  anxious  to  return  to  Italy,  in  order 
',0  rescue  his  party  from  the  destruction  with  which  it  was  threatened 
by  Marius. 

The  large  forces  rs-sed  by  Mithridates,  under  the  pretence  of  subdu- 
ing the  Colchians  and  other  nations  on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Black 
sea,  gave  umbrage  to  Murae'na,  the  Roman  proconsul  of  Asia,  as  the 
ancient  kingdom  of  Per'gamus  was  rather  ostentatiously  named  by  the 
senate  (b.  c.  83).  Without  any  formal  declaration  of  war,  he  invaded 
Pon'tus,  but  was  severely  defeated  by  Mithridates,  and  compelled  to  re- 
new the  peace  by  command  of  Syl'la.  Taking  advantage  of  the  civil 
v/ars  that  raged  in  the  Roman  territories  between  the  partisans  of  Ma- 
rius and  Syl'la,  the  king  of  Pon'tus  made  several  large  additior  s  to  his 
kingdom,  and  finally  seized  on  Bith'ynia,  which  Nicf  medes  had  recentl} 


ltJ4  ANCIENT    HISTORY 

bequeathed  to  the  Romans  (r.  c.  75).  lie  even  attacked  the  Romai 
province  ;  bnt  he  was  driven  out  by  Julius  C«sar,  then  a  young  studeni 
in  the  ishmd  of  Rhodes,  who,  without  any  orders  from  the  government 
asseinl)led  a  few  troops,  and  defeated  the  king's  lieutenants. 

When  the  Roman  senate  heard  of  the  state  of  atTairs  in  Asia,  the} 
appointed  Lucul'lus  to  undertake  the  management  of  the  war ;  but  the 
soldiers  placed  under  his  command  were  so  mutinous,  that  Mithridates 
was  at  first  victorious  both  by  land  and  sea.  Encouraged  by  this  suc- 
cess, the  king  laid  siege  to  Cyz'icus  ;  but  scarcely  had  he  completed 
his  lines,  when  he  found  himself  blockaded  in  turn  by  Lucul'lus,  and, 
after  enduring  the  most  dreadful  hardships,  was  forced  to  purchase  a  re- 
treat by  the  sacrifice  of  the  greater  part  of  his  army.  His  fleet  was, 
soon  after,  almost  wholly  annihilated  in  a  naval  engagement,  and  several 
of  his  best  towns  taken.  Finally,  his  army  mutinied,  and  he  was  forced 
to  abandon  Pon'tus,  and  seek  refuge  with  his  son-in-law,  Tigranes,  in 
.\rmenia. 

Tigranes  readily  joined  Mithridates  in  renewing  the  war  ;  but  was 
defeated  by  Lucul'lus  (b.  c.  70).  His  courage,  however,  was  soon  re- 
animated by  a  great  victory  which  the  king  of  Pon'tus  gained  over 
Triarius,  a  lieutenant  of  Lucul'lus,  who,  contrary  to  his  better  judg- 
ment, had  been  forced  to  hazard  an  engagement  by  the  impetuosity  oi" 
his  soldiers.  The  main  army  mutinied  against  Lucul'lus  when  they 
heard  of  this  defeat,  and  his  enemies  at  home  made  it  the  pretext  for 
pracuring  his  recall.  Glabrio,  his  successor,  remained  inactive  during 
his  year  of  office  ;  and  at  length  the  celebrated  Pom'pey  was  appointed 
to  conduct  the  Mithridatic  war,  and  extraordinary  powers  were  confer- 
red on  him  by  the  Manilian  law — a  law  that  announced  too  plainly  the 
speedy  downfall  of  the  Roman  republic.  Pom'pe.> ,  after  some  minor 
successes,  blockaded  tlie  king  in  his  camp,  and  reduced  him  to  groat 
distress  ;  but  Mithridates,  by  an  unexpected  sally,  broke,  with  his  army, 
through  the  hostile  lines,  and  took  the  road  to  Armenia.  He  was  hoily 
pursued,  overtaken,  and  his  army  routed  with  great  slaughter.  The  un- 
fortunate monarch,  at  the  head  of  eight  hundred  horse,  cut  his  way 
through  the  Roman  army  ;  but  being  closely  pressed,  he  abandoned  these 
faithful  followers,  and,  with  oidy  three  attendants,  continued  his  flight 
to  Armenia.  Tigranes  gfve  no  welcome  rece])tion  to  the  fugitive,  and 
Mithridates  was  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  the  wilds  of  Scythia.  Pom'- 
pey followed  the  enemy  of  Rome  into  the  deserts ;  but  after  two  years 
spent  in  warring  against  the  barbarous  nations  round  the  Black  sea,  he 
was  unable  to  hear  any  tidings  of  Mithridates,  and  returned  tuUy  con- 
vinced of  his  death. 

Scarcely  had  the  Romans  rested  from  the  fatigues  of  this  expedition 
when  they  were  astotmded  by  the  intelligence  of  Mithridates  having  re- 
turned into  Pon'tus  at  the  head  of  a  considerable  army,  and  recovered 
several  important  fortresses.  But  the  unfortunate  monarch  found  in  his 
kingdom  and  family  worse  enemies  than  Lis  open  foes.  His  daughters 
were  betrayed  to  the  Romans  by  a  faithless  escort ;  his  army  mutinied  : 
and,  finally,  his  own  son  revolted,  and  was  acknowledged  king  by  the 
soldiers. 

Borne  down  by  this  complication  of  misfortunes,  the  agf  d  monarcli 
ittcmpted  to  commit  suicide,  but  weakness  prevented  him  Irom  giving 


WESTERN  ASIA  IW 

himself  a  mortal  wound ;  in  the  meantime  the  Roman  army  broke  into 
his  retreat.  He  was  found  languid,  l^leeding  and  deserted,  by"  a  Gallic 
soldier,  who  compassionating  his  misery,  put  an  end  to  his  pain  and  life 
together  (b.  c.  64).  Thus  ended  the  kingdom  of  Pon'tus :  after  some 
years  it  was  pernutted  to  have  nominal  sovereigns  ;  but  even  the  shadow 
of  independence  was  removed  by  the  emperor  Nero,  and  the  country  be- 
came a  Roman  province. 

Cappadocia  was  one  of  the  Asiatic  .iingdoms  founded  after  the  battle 
of  Ip'sus  ;  none  of  its  moiiarchs  were  remarkable  in  history,  and  the 
coimtr\'  itself  was  proverbial  for  the  infamy  of  its  inhabitants.  Some 
of  the  Cappadocians  were  and  continue  to  be  Troglodytes,  or  dwellers 
in  caves  ;  but  the  period  when  the  excavateu  habitations  were  first  con- 
structed is  uncertain. 

The  two  Armenias  did  not  become  kingdoms  until  after  the  defeat 
of  Antiochus  the  Great  by  the  Romans  (b.  c.  190),  when  the  lieutenants 
of  the  king  of  Syria  proclaimed  their  independence.  The  only  Arme- 
nian monarch  requiring  notice  was  Tigranes,  the  son-in-law  of  Mithri- 
dates.  He  was  involved  in  the  fate  of  the  king  of  Pon'tus,  and  his 
dominions  were  subjected  to  the  Romans,  under  whose  sway  both  the 
Armenias  continued  until  near  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era, 
when  they  were  seized  by  the  Parthians.  For  several  centuries  the 
possession  of  Armenia  was  contested  by  the  Romans  and  Parthians  ;  and 
when  the  latter  power  was  overthrown,  the  same  country  continued  to 
be  a  constant  source  of  war  between  the  eastern  empire  and  the  restored 
kingdom  of  Persia.  • 

After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Rhodes  first  became  remarkable  by 
Its  gallant  resistance  when  besieged  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes.  Thirty 
thousand  men  were  employed  in  the  labors  of  this  siege.  When  the 
first  wall  crumbled  under  the  blows  of  the  helepolis  [taker  of  cities),  a 
formidable  engine  of  destruction  invented  by  Demetrius  during  the  siege, 
the  brave  garrison  erected  a  second  with  the  materials  of  their  temples, 
their  theatres,  and  their  houses  ;  and  when  that  was  demolished,  they 
erected  a  third.  Fifty  deputies  from  the  states  of  Greece  came  to  the 
besiegers  camp  as  mediators  :  Demetrius  granted  peace  on  condition  of 
receiving  one  hundred  hostages  and  a  small  auxiliary  force  (b.  c.  305). 
During  the  siege  he  had  shown  his  respect  for  the  works  of  art  that 
ornamented  this  splendid  city,  by  preventing  his  engines  from  playing 
upon  the  buildings  in  whiclt  :lie  most  celebrated  paintings  of  Protogenes 
were  preseived.  It  was  in  memory  of  this  siege  that  the  wonderful 
Colossus  was  erected. 

In  the  war  between  Antiochus  and  the  Romans,  the  Rhodians  joined 
with  the  latter  :  though  at  first  defeated  in  a  naval  engagement,  they  ex- 
erted themselves  so  strenuously,  that  they  soon  became  masters  of  the 
eastern  sea.  and  obtained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Syrian  fleet,  even 
though  it  was  commanded  by  the  illustrious  Han'nibal.  But  jealousies 
soon  arose  between  the  two  republics  ;  and  in  the  second  Macedoniap 
war  the  Rhodians  preserved  a  strict  but  suspicious  neutrality.  The 
Roman  senate  sent  ambassadors  to  the  islanders,  who  acted  as  supreme 
magistrates  rather  than  as  envoys  ;  and  thenceforward  the  Rhodi^ti  in 


166  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

aependence  existed  oriiy  .n  name.  Mithridates  attacked  the  island  Vher 
ne  invaded  Greece  ;  but  he  was  repulsed  by  the  inhabitants,  whosr 
fidelity  was  rewarded  by  the  constant  protection  of  Syl'la. 

During  the  great  civil  war  of  Rome  between  Pompey  and  Caesar,  the 
Rhodian  fleets  fought  sometimes  on  one  side  and  sometimes  on  the 
other ;  but  maintained  under  all  circumstances,  a  very  high  character. 
Pompey  was  refused  admittance  into  the  island  after  his  defeat  at  Phar- 
salia  ;  and  the  murderers  of  Cfesar  was  similarly  excluded  during  the 
great  civil  war  that  followed  his  assassination.  Cassius,  in  consequence, 
besieged  the  city  of  Rhodes,  into  which  he  obtained  admittance  by  the 
treachery  of  some  of  the  inhabitants  :  he  resigned  the  unfortunate  citi- 
zens to  the  discretion  of  his  licentious  soldiery,  and  extorted  from  the 
inhabitants  all  that  he  could  obtain  by  violence  or  threats.  In  the  reign 
of  the  emperor  Claudius  Caesar,  the  Rhodians  were  deprived  of  their 
liberties  for  having  crucified  two  Roman  citizens  ;  but  their  privileges 
were  subsequently  restored.  At  length  the  island  was  made  a  Romai» 
province  by  Vespasian  (a.  d.  70). 

Skction  V. — History  of  Bactiia  and  Parlhia. 
FROM  B.  c.  256   TO   B.  c    226. 

The  Bactrian  kingdom  differed  from  those  whose  history  was  do- 
scribed  in  the  preceding  section,  in  being  a  Grecian  state,  altnough  es 
tablished  at  the  extreme  western  verge  of  the  ancient  Persian  empire. 
It  was  formed  into  a  state  by  Diodatus,  the  ^Grecian  governor  (b.  c. 
254),  who  threw  ofT  his  allegiance  to  the  Syrian  king,  Aniiochus  II, 
The  Bactrian  monarchs  made  extensive  conquests  in  India,  and  at  one 
time  (b.  c.  181)  their  dominions  extended  to  the  banks  of  the  Gangep 
and  the  frontiers  of  China.  The  nomad  hordes  of  the  desert  that  re 
side  to  the  east  of  the  Caspian  sea,  and  who,  both  in  ancient  and  mod 
crn  times,  have  frequently  changed  the  political  aspect  of  the  western 
world,  poured  down  on  the  descendants  of  the  Macedonian  colonists, 
and  forced  them  to  retreat  toward  the  south.  The  Greeks,  driven  from 
Bac'tria,  appear  to  have  ascended  the  Ox'us  (b.  c.  126)  and  to  have 
maintained  their  independence  in  the  fastnesses  of  the  lofty  mountains 
called  the  Indian  Caucasus  [Hindu  Kush)  to  a  very  late  period,  while 
their  ancient  territory  was  annexed  to  the  Parthian  empire.  It  is  not 
)'et  determined  whether  any  traces  can  be  found  of  this  Greek  colony 
at  the  present  day ;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  some  of  the  enterprising 
travellers  now  exploring  northern  India  will  direct  their  attention  to  the 
subject. 

The  Parthian  kingdom  was  founded  aI)out  the  same  time  as  the  Bac- 
trian, by  some  of  the  nomad  hordes  that  subsequently  overthrew  the 
latter.  Its  general  limits  were  the  Euphrates,  the  In'dus,  and  the  Ox'- 
us ;  but  its  dominions  were  sometimes  extended  beyond  these  streams 
Though  thus  holding  the  ancient  empire  of  Persia,  the  Parthian  mon- 
archs neve/  regarded  themselves  as  descendants  of  Cy'rus ;  they  pre 
ferred  the  Greek  religion,  manners,  and  customs,  to  those  of  the  Persians 
and  they  conferred  great  privileges  on  the  Grecian  colonies  that  were 
established  in  their  dominions      To  the  modern  Persians  thi.5  dynasty 


BACTHIA  AND  PARTHIA.  IC" 

whicli  ruleJ  their  country  for  more  than  four  centuries,  is  si;arcelv 
iaiowu  even  by  name  ;  a  clear  proof  that  the  Parthians  and  their  reign 
iiig  family,  the  Arsac'idas,  must  have  been  foreigners.  In  one  import 
ant  respect  they  imitated  the  exclusive  policy  of  the  Tartar  rulers  of 
China,  excluding  strangers  from  their  dominions,  and  sacrificing  com- 
merce to  their  watchful  jealousy.  Their  establishment  in  the  Persian 
empire  consequently  eflected  a  great  revolution  in  the  lines  of  traffic 
between  the  eastern  and  western  world.  The  East  India  trade,  stop- 
ped in  its  passage  through  Babylonia,  was  thrown  further  to  the  soutii, 
and  began  to  shape  its  course  through  northern  Arabia  and  the  Red 
sea.  To  this  change,  the  great  wealth  and  splendor  obtained  by  the 
great  commercial  cities  Palmy'ra  and  Alexand'ria  must  be  chiefly  at- 
tributed. 

Arsaces  I.  commenced  the  war  of  independence  (b.  c.  256)  by  put- 
ting to  death  the  Syrian  governor  of  upper  Asia,  who  had  offered  a 
grievous  insult  to  his  brother.  The  heads  of  the  Parthian  tribes  that 
supported  him  formed  a  government  similar  to  the  feudal  aristocracy 
of  Europe  in  the  middle  ages,  giving  to  the  monarch  little  more  than 
nominal  authority,  and  making  the  crown  elective,  under  the  restriction, 
however,  that  the  monarch  should  be  chosen  from  the  family  of  the 
Arsac'ids.  War  with  the  Syrian  kings,  of  course  followed ;  but  the 
light  cavalry  pf  the  Parthian  troops,  which  have  always  formed  the 
main  strength  of  the  armies  of  central  Asia,  by  their  rapid  evolutions 
disconcerted  the  steady  discipline  of  the  Syrians  and  Macedonians.  It 
was  a  remarkable  peculiarity  of  the  Parthian  tactics,  that  their  armies 
were  never  so  formidable  as  in  flight :  when  the  enemies  advanced  in 
pursuit,  as  if  to  assured  victory,  these  active  horsemen  turned  on  their 
steeds,  and  assailed  them  with  a  flight  of  arrows  which  invariably 
threw  them  into  confusion.  The  wars  between  the  Parthians  and 
Syrians  terminated  (b.  c.  131)  in  the  total  annihilation  of  the  Syrian 
army  led  by  Antiochus  Sidetes. 

During  half  a  century  after  their  deliverance  from  the  rivalry  of  the 
Syrians,  the  attention  of  the  Parthian  monarchs  was  chiefly  engrossed 
by  the  eastern  nomad  tribes,  whom  the  fall  of  the  Bactrian  kingdom  had 
oet  at  liberty  to  attack  the  rich  provinces  of  southern  Asia.  These 
hordes  were  either  subdued  or  incorporated  with  the  Parthian  army ; 
and  scarcely  had  this  danger  been  averted,  when  the  Romans,  being 
brought  into  contact  with  the  Parthians  by  their  occupation  of  the  king« 
dom  of  ?klilhridates,  prepared  to  contend  with  thera  for  the  empire  of 
Asia. 

The  war  commenced  by  Cras'sus,  the  Roman  triumvir,  invading 
Par'thia  (b.  c.  53) :  his  incapacity  led  to  the  utter  anniliilation  of  his 
army  and  the  loss  of  his  own  life.  In  the  Roman  civil  wars  the  Par- 
thians supported  the  cause  of  Pom'pey,  and  afterward  that  of  Brutus  and 
Cas'sius.  Subsequently,  alarmed  at  the  great  power  to  which  Angus' 
fus  Caesar  attained,  they  sought  terms  of  peace,  and  purchased  it  bj 
■surrendering  the  arms  and  standards  which  had  been  taken  from  the 
array  of  Cras'sus.  The  wars  between  the  Parthians  and  the  succeed 
ing  Roman  emperors  were  almost  incessant ;  but  none  of  them  prfy 
(luced  any  decisive  result.  After  Christianity  began  to  spread,  its  prog- 
ress  was  tolerated,  if  not  directly  encouraged,  by  the  Parthian  mon 


168  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

ifch:3,  wlio  liberally  afforded  shelter  to  Christians  flying  from  the  per 
siecutions  of  the  pagans,  and  we  must  add,  from  tliose  of  their  brelhror 
who  belongevl  to  a  different  sect.  But  unfortunately  the  Arsac'idae 
never  gained  the  affections  of  their  Persian  subjects  :  after  the  lapse 
of  more  than  four  centuries,  the  Parthians  continued  to  be  an  army  of 
occupation,  separated  by  habits,  prejudices,  and  feelings,  from  the  greai 
bulk  of  the  nation.  At  length  Ardeshir  Bab'egan,  called  by  the  Greeks 
Artaxer'xcs,  a  native  Persian,  of  the  illustrious  house  of  Sassan,  de- 
scended, or  claiming  to  be  descended,  from  the  ancient  line  of  Cy'rus 
and  Jemshfd,  raised  the  national  standard  of  Persia,  and  drove  the 
Parthians  into  the  northern  mountains  and  deserts  (a.  d.  226).  Iran, 
the  ancient  national  name  of  Persia,  was  revived ;  the  religion  of  Zer- 
duslit  restored  in  its  pristine  splendor ;  the  progress  of  Christianity 
eastward  was  checked,  and  it  was  thrown  back  on  the  western  world, 
bearing  unfortunately  too  maay  marks  of  its  having  been  brought  into 
close  contact  with  oriental  mysticism  and  superstition.  The  destruc- 
tion of  tlie  Parthian  kingdom,  in  Asiatic  annals,  holds  the  same  place 
as  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire  in  European  :  it  forms  the  epoch 
which  separates  ancient  from  modern  history.  We  shall  resume  Per- 
sian history  under  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Sassan  in  the  second 
part  of  this  work. 

Skction  VI. — History  of  Idumea,  and  its  capital,  Petra. 

FROM   B.   C.   1048  TO  B.  C.   133. 

While  the  Israelites  were  detained  in  bondage  in  Egj'^pt,  the  Edom 
ites,  descended  from  Esau,  became  a  rich  and  powerful  i  ation,  posses- 
sing a  rampart  of  impregnable  fortresses  in  the  fastnesses  of  Mount 
Seir,  a  country  generally  fruitful,  and  a  command  of  the  great  roads  by 
which  the  earliest  commercial  caravans  travelled.  Its  capital  city, 
called  Bozrah  in  ih^  Old  Testament  and  Petra  by  the  Greeks,  was 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hor,  in  a  deep  valley ;  the  only  means  of 
access  to  this  metropolis  was  through  a  defile  partly  natural,  and  partly 
cut  through  the  solid  rocks,  which  hung  over  the  passage,  and  often  in 
tercepted  the  view  of  the  heavens.  The  breadth  of  this  pass  is  barely 
sufficie"t  for  two  horsemen  to  ride  abreast,  and  near  the  entrance,  a 
bold  arcn  is  thrown  across  at  a  great  height  connecting  the  opposite 
dill's.  The  pass  gradually  slopes  downward  for  about  two  miles,  the 
mountain-ridge  still  retaining  its  level,  until  at  the  close  of  the  dark 
perspective,  a  multitude  of  columns,  statues,  and  graceful  cornices,  burst 
upon  the  view,  retaining  at  the  present  day  their  forms  and  colors  as 
little  injured  by  time  and  exposure  as  if  they  were  just  fresh  from  the 
chisel.  The  sides  of  the  mountains  are  covered  with  countless  exca- 
vations, of  which  some  are  private  dwellings  and  some  sepulchres 
To  this  extraordinary  peculiarity  the  prophet  Jeremiah  probably  alludes 
tn  his  denunciation  of  God's  vengeance  against  Edom.  "  Thy  terrible- 
iiess  hath  deceived  thee,  ar^d  the  pride  of  thine  heart,  0  thou  that  dwel- 
lest  in  the  clefts  of  the  rock,  that  holde?t  the  height  of  the  hill :  though 
(hou  shouldest  make  thy  nest  as  high  as  the  eagle,  I  will  bring  thee 
-[own  from  thence,  saith  the  Lord." 

When  Ilavid  ascended  the  throne  of  Israel,  the  Edomites  had  ujreatly 


IDUMEA.  1^'J 

L-xlendc(l  their  dominions  ;  they  possessed  the  porto  of  Elatli  aiid  Ez'ion 
Geber  on  the  Arabian  sea  (gulf  of  Akaba),  and  through  these  places  had 
opened  a  flourishing  trade  with  India  and  Ethiopia.  They  also  had  an 
extensive  conimerce  with  Phcenicia,  Egypt,  and  Babylonia.  David'a 
general,  Abishai,  invaded  Idumea,  routed  the  Edomites  with  grea' 
Hlaughter  in  the  valley  of  salt,  and  compelled  them  to  receive  garrisons 
into  their  cities.  In  the  reign  of  Sol'omon,  Hadad,  an  Edomite  prince 
who  had  sought  shelter  in  Egypt  when  his  native  country  was  subdued, 
returned  to  E'dom  and  headed  a  formidable  revolt. 

The  only  account  we  have  of  Hadad  is  contained  i:i  the  first  Book  oi 
Kings,  and  is  too  remarkable  to  be  omitted.  "  God  stirred  up  an  adver- 
sary unto  Solomon,  Hadad  the  Edomite  :  he  was  of  the  king's  seed  in 
Edom.  For  it  came  to  pass,  when  David  was  in  Edom,  and  Joab  the 
captain  of  the  host  was  gone  up  to  bury  the  slain,  after  he  had  smitten 
every  male  in  Edom  (for  six  months  did  Joab  remain  there  -vith  all 
Israel,  until  he  had  cut  off  every  male  in  Edom)  ;  that  Hadad  fled,  he 
and  certain  Edomites  of  his  father's  servants  with  him,  to  go  into 
Egypt ;  Hadad  being  yet  a  little  child.  And  they  arose  out  of  Midian, 
and  came  to  Paran  :  and  they  took  men  with  them  out  of  Paran,  und  they 
came  to  Egypt,  unto  Pharaoh,  king  of  Egypt ;  which  gave  him  a 
house,  and  appointed  him  victuals,  and  gave  him  land.  And  Hadad 
found  great  favor  in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh,  so  that  he  gave  him  to  wife 
the  pister  of  his  own  wife,  the  sister  of  Tahpenes  the  queen.  And  the 
sister  of  Tahpenes  bare  him  Gen'ubath  his  son,  whom  Tahpenes  wean- 
ed in  Pharaoh's  house  :  and  Gcn'ubath  was  in  Pharaoh's  household 
among  the  sons  of  Pharaoh.  And  when  Hadad  heard  in  Egypt  that 
David  slept  with  his  fathers,  and  that  Joab  the  captain  of  the  host  was 
dead,  Hadad  said  to  Pharaoh,  Let  me  depart,  that  I  may  go  to  mine 
own  coinitry.  Then  Pharaoh  said  unto  him,  But  what  hast  thou  lacked 
with  me,  that,  behold,  thou  seekest  to  go  to  thine  own  countiy  ?  And 
he  answered.  Nothing ;  howbeit  let  me  go  in  any  wise."  The  native 
traditions  of  the  country  in  some  degree  preserve  the  memory  of 
Hadad's  reign,  for  one  of  the  ruined  edifices  at  Petra  is  still  called  by 
the  Arabs,  "  the  Palace  of  Pharaoh's  daughter." 

It  seems  probable  that  Hadad's  elForts  were  only  partially  successful, 
tor  we  find  that  the  Edomites  continued  subjects  to  the  kings  of  Jndah, 
until  the  reign  of  Jehoram  the  son  of  Jehoshaphat  (b.  c.  888).  "  In  his 
days,"  says  the  sacred  historian,  "  Edom  revolted  from  under  the  hand  of 
Judah,  and  made  a  king  over  themselves.  So  Joram  went  over  to  Zair, 
and  all  tlie  chariots  with  him :  and  he  rose  by  night,  and  smote  the 
Edomites  which  compassed  him  about,  and  the  captains  of  the  chariots  . 
and  the  people  fled  into  their  tents.  Yet  Edom  revolted  from  under 
the  hand  of  Judah  unto  this  day.  Then  Lib'nah  revolted  at  the  same 
time."  Lib'nah  was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  belonging  to  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  and  its  adherence  to  Edom  tended  to  perpetuate  the 
hereditary  animosity  between  the  two  nations.  Amaziah,  the  son  of 
Joash,  severely  punished  the  hostility  of  the  Edomites,  fi»r  we  read  in  the 
second  Book  of  Chronicles,  that  "  Amaziah  strengthened  himself,  and 
le  1  forth  his  people,  and  went  to  the  valley  of  salt,  and  smote  of  the 
children  of  Seir  ten  thousand.  And  other  ten  thousand  left  alive  did 
the  children  of  Judah  carry  away  caotive,  and  brought  them  unto  the 


•■70  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

top  of  the  rock,  and  cast  them  down  from  the  lof  af  the  rock,  that  the) 
were  all  broken  in  pieces." 

When  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  the  Babylonians,  the  Edomites 
took  an  active  part  in  the  calamities  inflicted  upon  the  Jews.  The 
prophet  Obadiah  declares  that  Edom  "  stood  on  the  other  side  in  the 
day  that  the  strangers  carried  away  captive  Judah's  forces,  and  for- 
eigners entered  into  his  gales  and  cast  lots  upon  Jerusalem.  Edom 
rejoiced  over  the  children  of  Judah  in  the  day  of  their  destruction,  spoke 
proudly  in  the  day  of  their  distress,  and  laid  hands  on  their  substance 
in  the  day  of  their  calamity."  The  Edomites  also  "  stood  in  the  cross- 
way,  to  cut  off  those  that  did  escape,  and  to  deliver  up  those  that  re- 
mained." Edom  (says  the  prophet  A'mos),  "  did  pursue  his  brother 
with  the  sword,  and  did  cast  off  all  pity,  and  his  anger  did  tear  per- 
petually, and  he  kept  his  wrath  for  ever."  During  the  captivity  of  the 
Jews,  the  Edomites  conquered  the  southern  part  of  Palestine  and  seized 
the  city  of  Hebron  ;  the  name  of  Idumeans  was  thenceforth  given  to 
those  who  occupied  the  frontiers  of  Palestine,  while  those  who  re- 
mained in  Petra  were  called  Nabatheans.  Against  this  people  Athe- 
nse'us,  the  general  of  Antig'onus,  was  sent  during  the  wars  between  the 
successors  of  Alexander  ;  the  greater  part  of  the  Nabatheans  havino 
gone  to  a  neighboring  fair  to  meet  a  caravan  from  the  south  to  receive 
spices  in  exchange  for  the  woollen  goods  of  Tyre,  had  left  their  passe:? 
lightly  guarded ;  Athenae'us  therefore  surprised  the  magazines  at  Petra 
and  returned  laden  with  plunder  to  the  borders  of  Syria.  The  Naba 
theans,  enraged  at  the  tidings  of  this  calamity,  collected  their  forces 
.",nd  urging  their  dromedaries  with  incredible  velocity  through  the  desert, 
overtook  Athenas'us  near  Gaza,  and  almost  annihilated  his  army. 
Demetrius  hasted  to  avenge  this  loss,  but  the  fastnesses  and  deserts  of 
Arabia  baffled  his  intentions  ;  we  are  told  that  an  Arab  chief  addressed 
the  Grecian  general  from  a  rock,  and  set  before  him  in  such  lively 
terms  the  danger  of  the  enterprise  in  which  he  was  engaged,  thai 
Demetrius,  convinced  of  the  great  hazard  of  his  undertaking,  imme- 
diately returned  to  Syria. 

The  Idumeans  who  had  settled  in  Judea,  exhibited  tueir  ancient 
aversion  to  the  Jews  during  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees ;  but  they  were 
severely  punished  by  Judas  Maccabaeus,  who  took  and  sacked  theii 
cliief  city  Hebron,  destroyed  more  than  forty  thousand  of  their  soldiers 
and  levelled  their  strongholds  to  the  ground.  Their  subjugation  was 
completed  by  John  Hyr'canus  (b.  c.  130),  who  reduced  them  to  the 
necessity  of  embracing  the  Jewish  religion  or  quitting  their  country. 
They  chose  the  former  alternative,  and  submitting  to  be  circumcised, 
became  so  completely  incorporated  with  the  Jews,  that  they  were  re- 
garded as  one  people,  so  that  during  the  first  century  after  Chr/st,  the 
name  of  Idumean  was  lost  and  quite  disused. 

The  Nabatheans  long  maintained  their  independence.  Petra,  then 
capital  city,  was  vainly  besieged  by  the  Romans  under  Pompey  and 
Trajan  ;  but  it  sunk  by  gradual  decay  when  the  commerce  which  had 
caused  its  prosperity  was  directed  into  other  channels.  So  completelj 
was  ancient  E'dom  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  that  the  very  exist 
ence  of  the  once  flourishing  Petra  fell  into  oblivion,  and  its  recent  dis- 
oovery  in  the  loneliness  of  its  desolation  seemed  as  if  the  earth  had 


i 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS.  171 

dven  up  the  dead.  No  human  habitation  is  in  it  or  near  it,  ami  tlie 
fearlul  denuncintion  of  the  prophet  Isaiah  is  literally  fulfilled :  "  The 
cormorant  and  the  bittern  shall  possess  it ;  the  owl  also  and  the  raven 
shall  dwell  in  it :  and  he  shall  stretch  out  upon  it  thb  line  of  confusion, 
and  the  stones  of  emptiness.  They  shall  call  the  nobles  thereof  to  the 
kinj^dom,  but  none  shall  be  there,  and  all  her  princes  shall  be  nothing. 
.-Vnd  thorns  shall  come  up  in  her  palaces,  nettles  and  brambles  in  the 
fortresses  thereof;  and  it  shall  be  a  habitation  of  dragons,  and  a  court 
for  owls.  The  wild  beasts  of  the  desert  shall  also  meet  with  the  wild 
l)easts  of  the  island,  and  the  satyr  shall  cry  to  his  fellow  ;  the  screech 
jjwl  also  shall  rest  there,  and  find  for  herself  a  place  of  rest.  There 
shall  the  great  owl  make  her  nest,  and  lay,  and  hatch,  and  gather  under 
her  shadow :  there  shall  the  vultures  also  be  gathered,  every  one  with 
her  mate." 

Skctio-n  VII. —  The  History  of  the  Jews  from  their  return,  out  of  the  Burylonisfi 
Captivity  to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  2''itus. 

FROM    B.     C.    536    TO    A.    D.    73. 

When  Cy'rus,  as  God  had  foretold,  issued  a  decree  permitting  the 
return  of  the  Jews  to  their  native  land  (b.  c.  536),  he  intrusted  the  ex- 
ecution of  it  to  Zerubbab'el,  who  was  the  grandson  of  the  last  king  of 
Judah.  The  number  of  those  who  returned  appears  not  to  have  ex- 
ceeded fifty  thousand  persons  ;  and  hence  the  Jewish  traditions  declare 
that  "  only  the  bran  came  out  of  Babylon,  while  the  flour  stayed  behind." 
When  the  returned  exiles  begr.n  lO  rebuild  their  city,  the  Samaritans, 
who  were  descended  from  the  mixed  multitude  which  had  occupied  the 
country  around  Samaria  when  the  ten  tribes  were  carried  away  captive 
by  the  Assyrians,  applied  to  Zerubbab'el  to  receive  them  into  commu- 
nion, and  thus  form  a  single  nation.  The  application  was  peremptorily 
refused,  and  hence  arose  the  grievous  feuds  between  the  Jews  and  the 
Samaritans  which  continued  to  rage  during  the  six  succeeding  ceri- 
turies. 

The  Samaritans,  after  their  repulse,  successfully  exerted  themselves 
to  impede  the  progress  of  the  work,  representing  to  the  Persian  court 
that  the  Jews  sought  to  erect  a  fortress,  which  might  become  the  focus 
of  a  general  insurrection,  and  sending  out  armed  detachments  m  harass 
those  who  were  employed  in  collecting  materials.  Darius  Hystas'pes, 
however,  renewed  the  decree  of  Cy'rus  (b.  c.  518),  and  the  Jews 
taking  courage,  labored  so  strenuously,  that  in  three  years  the  temple  was 
completed.  Under  the  reign  of  Xer'xes,  the  Jews  appear  to  have  been 
treated  with  great  respect :  they  furnished  a  contingent  to  the  army 
which  that  monarch  led  into  Greece,  and  are  said  to  have  shown  more 
bravery  than  any  other  division  of  the  host. 

Artaxer'xes,  the  Ahasuerus  of  Scripture,  was  induced  by  his  wicked 
vizier,  Haman,  to  issue  an  edict  for  the  extirpation  of  the  Jews  ;  but  his 
|ueen,  Est'her,  who  was  of  Jewish  descent,  revealed  to  the  monarch 
the  wickedness  of  his  minister,  and  obtained  from  him  a  second  procla- 
mation, permitting  the  Jews  to  stand  upon  their  defence.  Soon  after* 
v.ard,  probably  through  the  queen's  iniluence.  Ez'ra  received  a  com 


172  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

misision  from  Artaxer'xes  to  return  to  Jerus-'ileni,  with  as  ma.iy  is  cho^<c 
to  accompany  him,  and  there  to  regulate  all  jaatLeis  of  church  and  state 
as  he  should  deem  most  expedient. 

Ez'ra  continued  to  rule  the  Jews  for  abouf.  lliirteen  years,  during  which 
time  he  collected  all  the  sacred  hookri,  arranged  them  in  order,  and 
thus  formed  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  restored  the  worship 
of  the  temple,  according  to  its  ancient  form  before  the  captivity,  adding 
particular  prayers  and  thanksgivings  for  the  festivals,  which  were  added 
to  commemorate  the  dedication  of  the  new  temple,  and  the  deliverance 
of  the  Jews  from  the  malice  of  Hiiman.  Oa  account  of  these  services, 
the  Jews  regarded  him  as  a  second  Moses,  and  aiisert  that  the  blessings' 
he  conferred  on  their  nation  were  not  inferior  to  tliose  derived  from  theii 
great  legislator. 

Ez'ra  was  succeeded  in  the  government  by  Njhemiah,  who  had  been 
jup-bearer  to  the  king  of  Perf.ia  (b.  c.  445).  Under  his  administration 
the  fortifications  of  the  city  were  completed,  iu  spite  of  the  opposition 
made  by  the  Samaritans  und  other  adversaries  ;  several  evils  which  had 
arisen  iu  the  government  Vi^ere  corrected,  aiid  the  observance  of  the 
Sabbath  strictly  enforced.  After  Nehemiah's  death,  Juidea  appears  to 
have  been  joined  to  the  satrapy  of  Syria,'  and  the  government  to  have 
been  administered  by  the  high-priests  under  the  Persian  prefect.  When 
Alexander  invaded  the  Persian  empire,  the  Jews,  faithful  to  their  obliga- 
tions, resisted  him  while  they  could ;  but  when  the  conquest  of  Tyre 
left  them  exposed  to  the  victor,  the  high-priest  Jaddiia  made  offers  of 
sijbmission,  which  were  graciously  accepted. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander,  and  the  division  of  his  empire  among 
his  generals,  Judea  was  exposed  to  great  calamities  ;  being  situate  be- 
tween Syria  and  Egypt,  it  was  coveted  by  the  rulers  of  both,  and  suf- 
fered severely  from  alternate  invasions.  Ptolemy  Soter  besieged 
Jerusalem,  and  stormed  it  on  the  sabbath-day  ;  he  carried  away  one 
hundred  thousand  captives  ;  whom  he  dispersed  through  Egypt,  Lib'ya, 
and  the  country  round  Gyrene,  where  their  posterity  continued  to  exist 
as  a  separate  people  for  several  centuries.  During  this  "irjcious  period, 
Simon  surnamed  the  Just,  possessed  the  high-priesthood  ;  he  was  em- 
inent for  his  virtues  as  a  prince  and  governor,  but  he  was  still  more 
remarkable  for  his  piety.  It  was  under  his  direction  that  the  canon  of 
the  Old  Testament  was  completed,  and  thenceforward  received  and 
trar  emitted  to  future  generations  without  further  revisal  or  correction 
(n.  .  292).  It  was  about  this  time  that  the  sect  of  the  Sa'Mucees  was 
formed,  which  denied  the  doctrines  of  the  resurrection  and  a  future 
state.  This  creed  was  chiefly  embraced  by  the  rich  and  powerful, 
while  the  opposite  doctrine  of  the  Pharisees  was  more  popular  with  tlie 
lower  orders.  In  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadel'phus,  and  under  his 
patronage,  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  translated  into  Greek,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Jews  residing  in  Egypt.  This  version  is  usually  called 
the  Septuagint,  because,  according  :o  tradition,  its  preparation  was  in- 
trusted to  seventy  persons.  In  general  the  Egyptian  monarchs  proved 
kind  sovereigns  to  their  Jewish  subjects,  and  it  was  with  equal  foll> 
and  ingratitude  that  they  abandoned  the  cause  of  Ptolemy  EpiphaneS; 
iiid  placed  themselves  under  Anti'ochus  the  Great,  king  of  Syria. 

The  df  sceiidanls  of  Seleucus,  who  possessed  the  kingdom  of  Syria 


I 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS.  17b 

ivfie  anxious  to  establish  a  uniformity  of  cuatoms  throughout  their  do- 
minions, and  to  frame  all  institutions,  civil  and  religious,  on  a  Grecian 
model.  We  have  already  seen  how^  their  effort  to  Hellenize  the  Per- 
sians led  to  their  being  deprived  of  the  empire  of  upper  A«ia  ;  but  thii 
loss  did  not  hinder  them  from  making  similar  attempts  on  the  Jews.  A 
jiretext  for  interference  was  afforded  during  the  high  ;.riesthood  of 
Onias,  who  expelled  Simon,  the  governor  of  the  temple.  Simon  sought 
lefuge  with  the  Syrians,  and  informed  them  that  there  were  vast  treas- 
ures preserved  in  the  sanctuaiy  of  Jerusalem ;  and  the  Syrian  monaich 
Seleucus,  whose  own  resources  were  exhausted,  sent  his  sei  /ants  to 
bring  them  to  -Antioch.  Onias  had  sufficient  energy  to  prevent  this 
profanation ;  he  vvent  in  person  to  Seleucus,  and  afforded  him  such  sat 
isfactory  explanations  that  Simon  was  banished. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes,  soon  after  succeeding  to  ^he  throne  r>f  his  fa- 
ther Seleucus,  was  bribed  to  deprive  Onias  of  tue  priesthood ;  he 
conferred  it  on  Jason,  who  had  already  so  far  conformed  to  Greek  cus- 
toms as  to  abandon  his  original  name,  Jesus.  Under  Jason's  rule  a 
general  apostacy  overspread  the  nation,  the  service  of  the  temple  was 
neglected,  academies  on  the  Greek  model  were  opened  in  Jerusalem, 
and  the  high-priest  himself  publicly  sent  an  offering  to  the  Tyrian  Her'- 
cules.  Jason  was,  in  his  turn,  supplanted  by  his  brother  Menelaus, 
who  stripped  the  temple  of  all  its  ornaments  to  pay  the  large  bribe  he 
had  promised  to  the  king.  Onias,  who  since  his  deposition  had  lived 
at  Antioch,  remonstrated  against  this  sacrilege ;  his  denunciations 
alarmed  the  wicked  Menelaus,  and  he  procured  the  murder  of  the  wor- 
my priest,  who  fell  regretted  even  by  the  idolators.  Menelaus  now 
pursued  his  iniquitous  course  without  restraint,  until  the  multitude,  un- 
able to  endure  his  exactions,  raised  a  formidable  riot  in  the  city,  and 
killed  the  captain  of  the  Syrian  guard,  which  had  been  brought  to  pro- 
tect the  high-priest.  The  sanhedrim,  or  Jewish  council,  allayed  the 
tumult,  and  sent  three  deputies  to  represent  the  state  of  affairs  to  the 
king,  Antiochus,  and  expose  the  crimes  of  Menelaus.  But  the  crafty 
priest  was  prepared  to  meet  the  danger  ;  he  had  won  the  royal  favor- 
ites by  large  bribes,  and  at  their  instigation  the  deputies,  when  they 
prestited  themselves  to  Antiochus,  instead  of  being  heard  were  hur« 
ried  tr  execution.  This  atrocity  was  so  revolting,  that  the  Tyrians, 
though  generally  hostile  to  the  Jews,  showed  their  sense  of  the  injus- 
tice that  had  been  committed  by  giving  the  bodies  of  the  unfortunate 
deputies  an  honorable  burial. 

Antfochtis  invaded  Egypt  (b.  c.  170),  and  while  he  was  engaged  in 
the  con(iuest  of  that  country,  a  report  was  spread  through  Syria  and 
Palestnie,  that  he  had  been  killed  before  Alexandria.  Jason,  believing 
that  this  was  a  favorable  opportunity  for  recovering  the  authority  of 
which  he  had  been  deprived,  mustered  a  small  army,  marched  to  Jeni 
salem,  and  being  admitted  into  the  city  by  some  of  his  partisans,  butch 
ered  all  whom  he  suspected  of  opposing  his  claims.  The  return  of 
Antiochus  soon  induced  Jason  to  seek  shelter  in  exile  ;  he  wandered 
about  from  city  to  city,  dete.sted  by  all  who  knew  him,  as  a  betrayer  of 
(lis  country,  and  monster  of  mankind. 

Antiochus  was  highly  provoked  by  Jason's  rebellion,  especially  as  he 
was  informed  that  tlie  Jows  had  made  public  rejoicings  on  hearing  th? 


1 


174  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

report  of  liirf  deaih.  He  niarclied  against  Jerusalem,  and,  lifter  en 
countering  a  sharp  resistance,  forced  his  way  into  the  city.  He  spared 
no  crueUy  against  the  unhappy  inhabitants  ;  in  three  days  forty  thousand 
were  slain,  and  as  many  more  sold  as  slaves  to  the  neighboring  nations. 
Nor  did  his  fury  stop  here  :  he  entered  into  the  Holy  of  Holies,  offered 
unclean  animals  upon  the  altar  of  burnt-ofTerings,  polluted  the  whole 
building  by  sprinkling  it  with  water  in  which  flesh  had  been  boiled, 
dedicated  the  temple  itself  to  Jupiter  Olympius,  and  erected  the  statue 
of  that  deity,  "  the  abomination  of  desolation,"  foretold  by  the  prophet 
Daniel,  on  the  altar  of  the  Lord  in  the  inner  court  of  the  temple.  All 
who  refused  to  worship  the  idol  were  cruelly  torlurcl  uuil  they  either 
complied  or  surdv  under  the  hands  of  the  executioner.  An  edict  was 
issued,  forbidding  the  observance  of  the  sabbath,  cr  of  the  rite  of  cir- 
cumcision ;  and  two  women  having  been  lound  guilty  of  c:rcumcising 
their  children  on  the  eighth  day  according  to  the  law  of  Moses,  were 
led  round  the  city  with  the  infants  hung  from  their  necks,  and  then  cast 
headlong  from  the  highest  pinnacle  of  the  city  walls.  To  escape 
these  cruelties,  many  of  the  Jews  fled  to  the  craggy  rocks  and  caverns 
which  abound  in  Palestine,  living  upon  wild  roots  and  herbs,  to  avoid 
the  dangers  of  death  or  apostacy. 

Even  in  these  desolate  places  of  refuge  they  were  pursued  by  the 
emissaries  of  the  cruel  king  ;  in  one  cave  more  than  a  thousand  Jews, 
wh'^  had  assembled  to  celebrate  the  sabbath,  were  massacred  by  the 
soldiers  of  the  provincial  governor.  The  noble  constancy  exhibited  by 
many  Jewish  martyrs  of  every  age,  sex,  and  condition,  frequently  com- 
pelled the  idolaters  to  yield  them  involuntary  admiration,  and  many  of 
the  Syrian  officers  secretly  evaded  the  orders  of  their  tyrannical  mas- 
ter, and  tried  to  win  the  Jews  by  gentleness  and  persuasion  instead  of 
persecution  and  torture 

Mattathias,  the  head  of  the  Asmonean  family,  which  was  the  first  it 
the  classes  of  the  hereditary  priesthood,  unable  to  endure  the  scenes 
of  cruelty  and  profaneness  which  were  displayed  at  Jerusalem,  retired 
to  his  native  place,  the  village  of  Modin,  where  for  some  time  he  was 
permitted  to  follow  the  religion  of  his  fathers.  At  length  a  Syrian  offi- 
cer was  sent  to  this  remote  place  ;  he  assembled  the  inhabiiants,  and 
offi'ered  the  king  »  ^avor  and  protection  as  a  reward  for  apostacy.  Some 
miserable  wretches  complied,  but  as  one  of  them  was  about  to  offer 
sacrifice  to  the  idol,  Mattathias  slew  the  renegade  upon  the  spot.  His 
souo,  imitating  his  example,  overthrew  the  altar,  and  broke  the  idol. 
But  as  they  were  aware  that  their  cor  duct  would  be  regarded  as  trea- 
sonable, thev  abandoni  1  their  village,  and  withdrew  into  the  Jewish 
deserts,  whither  they  were  soon  followed  by  bands  of  brave  followers, 
determined  at  all  hazards  to  vindicate  the  law  of  Moses.  Mattathias 
restored  the  worship  of  the  Lord  in  several  of  the  cities  from  which  hr 
had  expelled  the  Syrian  garrisons,  and  he  would  probably  have  recov 
ered  Jerusalem  itself,  had  he  not  been  prevented  by  death  (b.  c.  166) 
In  his  last  moments  he  appointed  his  son  Judas  to  command  the  arm\ 
3f  the  faithful,  and  exhorted  his  sons  to  persevere  in  their  heroic  efftirts 
for  restoring  tae  purity  of  Divine  worship. 

The  contest  between  the  Syrians  and  the  Jewish  insurgents  now  as 
sunied  liie  form  and  importance  of  regular  war.      The  latter  were  named 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


17 1 


Maccabees,  because  they  engraved  on  tlieir  standards  the  four  Ilebreu 
letters  i^l^^Si  being  the  miial  letters  of  the  words  in  the  eleventh  verse 
of  the  fifteenth  chapter  of  Exodus,  Mi  Kamoka  B'elohim  Jehovah 
Under  the  command  of  Judas,  the  Maccabees  gamed  several  great  vic- 
tories over  the  Syrians,  and  reduced  some  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in 
Palestine.  The  defeat  of  the  Syrians  at  Bethzura  was  the  most  signal 
and  decisive  of  his  exploits  ;  the  garrison  at  Jerusalem  fled  from  their 
posts,  and  the  Maccabees  recovered  the  sanctuary  and  metropolis  of 
their  nation  without  meeting  any  resistance.  When  they  came  tu 
Mount  Zion,  and  beheld  the  desolation  of  the  city  and  temple,  they  rent 
their  clothes,  and  gava  vent  to  their  sorrow  in  loud  lamentations.  Ju- 
das waited  until  their  first  emotions  of  sorrow  had  abated,  and  then, 
having  secured  the  avenues  to  the  city  by  sufficient  guaras,he  employed 
his  men  in  purifying  the  temple,  and  restoring  its  ruined  altars.  Three 
years  after  its  profanation,  the  holy  place  was  restored,  and  the  feast  cf 
its  dedication  celebrated  with  all  possible  solemnity.  But  his  religious 
duties  did  not  divert  Jiidas  from  his  exertions  to  maintain  the  indepen- 
dence of  his  country ;  he  secured  the  frontiers  by  fortresses,  repulsed 
many  successive  invasions  of  the  Syrians,  and  gained  a  signal  triumph 
over  the  Idumeans,  who  had  joined  the  oppressors  of  the  Jews.  At 
length,  having  engaged  the  Syrian  army  under  Bacchides  against  fear- 
ful odds,  Judas  was  abandoned  by  his  followers,  and  slain,  after  having 
destroyed  a  multitude  of  his  enemies  (b.  c.  161).  His  body  was  re- 
covered by  his  brethren,  and  buried  in  the  sepulchre  of  his  father  at 
Modin ;  his  loss  was  universally  mourned,  and  as  he  was  borne  to  the 
tomb,  the  Jews  sung  a  funeral  hymn,  in  imitation  of  that  which  David 
had  composed  on  the  death  of  Jon'athan,  exclaiming,  "  How  is  the 
mighty  fallen  !   How  is  the  preserver  of  Israel  slain  !" 

Bacchides  easily  r'^covered  Jerusalem,  after  which  he  marched 
against  tli£  remnant  of  the  Maccabees,  who  still  held  together  under 
the  command  of  Jon'athan,  the  brother  of  Jiidas.  After  several  inde- 
cisive engagements,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded,  and  Jon'athan 
•soon  after  was  elevated  to  the  high-priesthood  by  Alexander  Balas,  the 
competitor  with  Demetrius  for  the  Syrian  crown.  Under  the  adminis- 
tration of  Jon'athan,  Judea  soon  became  a  flourishing  and  powerful 
state  ;  he  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Romans  and  the  Spartans,  and 
at  the  same  tin;j  won  the  friendship  of  the  Syrian  kings  by  his  un- 
shaken fidelity.  He  was  at  length  treacherously  murdered  by  Try'- 
phon,  who  dreaded  th^t  Jon'athan  would  oppose  his  usurpation  of  the 
Syrian  throne  (b.  c.  143). 

Simon,  lue  last  surviving  son  of  Mattathias,  succeeded  to  the  priest- 
hood, and  obtained  from  the  Syrian  king  the  privilege  of  coining  money, 
which  in  the  East  is  regarded  as  an  acknowledgment  of  independence. 
One  of  his  coins  has  bee;t  preserved  ;  it  bears  on  the  front  an  inscrip- 
tion in  the  old  Samaritan  character,  which  signifies  "  the  fourth  year," 
and  on  the  reverse  "  from  the  deliverance  of  Jerusalem." 

After  a  glorious  administration  of  eight  years,  Simon  and  his  two 
eldest  sons  were  treacherously  murdered  by  his  son-in-law  Ptol'emy  ; 
Lut  Hyr'canus,  the  younger  son,  escaped,  and  was  immediately  recog- 
nised head  of  the  nation.  He  succeeded  in  finally  shaking  ofi"  the 
Syrian  yoke,  and  at  the  same  time  he  incorporated  the  Idiim'-ans  wit'i 


176  ANCIENT  HISTJllY. 

the  Jews,  as  has  been  related  in  the  preceding  section.  Hj-r'canuh 
was  a  zealous  friend  of  the  Pharisees  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign, 
and  they  in  turn  exalted  him  as  the  oidy  prince  who  had  ever  united 
the  three  ofTices  of  prophet,  priest,  and  king ;  but  toward  the  close  of 
his  reign  he  quarrelled  with  this  haughty  sect,  and  was  in  consequence 
subjected  to  so  many  annoyances,  that  he  died  of  sheer  vexation.  He 
was  su::ceeded  by  his  son  Aristobu'lus,  a  weak  and  feeble-minded 
prince,  who  died  of  remorse  for  having  put  his  brother  to  death  on 
groundless  suspicion. 

The  crown  and  priesthood  next  devolved  on  Alexander  Jannae'us, 
whose  reign  was  disturbed  by  the  intrigues  of  the  Pharisees.  Several 
insurrections  were  raised  against  him,  which  he  suppressed,  and  pun- 
ished the  revoltcrs  with  great  severity.  He  was  a  brave  and  skilful 
warrior,  but  unfortunately  devoted  to  licentious  pleasures.  Fatigues 
and  debauches  soon  brought  him  to  the  grave  (b.  c.  79)  :  at  his  death 
he  bequeathed  the  regency  to  his  queen  Alexan'dra,  and  the  crown  to 
whichever  of  her  sons,  Hyr'canus  and  Aristobu'lus,  she  should  find 
mo.st  worthy  of  the  succession. 

Alexandra  gave  herself  up  completely  to  the  Pharisaic  faction,  and 
through  the  influence  of  that  party  soon  established  her  authority. 
Anxious  to  retain  power,  she  conferred  the  high-priesthood  on  her  eld- 
est sou  Hyr'canus,  because  he  was  of  a  less  enterprising  spirit  than 
his  brother,  and  kept  Aristobu  lus  carefully  secluded  in  private  life.  On 
her  death  Aristobu'lus,  in  spite  of  the  Pharisees,  deposed  his  eldest 
brother,  and  Hyr'canus,  who  had  little  ambition,  gladly  acquiesced  in 
the  new  arrangement.  But  Antip'ater,  an  Idumean  proselyte,  believing 
that  he  might  easily  reign  in  the  name  of  Hyr'canus,  conveyed  that 
prince  to  Petra,  and  having  levied  a  rmmerous  army  of  Arabs,  invaded 
Judea,  and  besieged  Aristobu'lus  in  Jerusalem.  Aristobu'lus  appealed 
to  the  Romans,  who  had  now  extended  their  empire  into  x\sia ;  and 
both  parties  agreed  that  the  succession  should  be  decided  l)y  the  victo- 
rious Pompey,  who  had  just  concluded  the  Milhridatic  war. 

Aristobu'lus  soon  had  reason  to  fear  that  Pompey  would  decide  in 
favor  of  his  brother ;  he  therefore  stood  upon  his  defence,  and  fortified 
Jerusalem.  Getting  alarmed  at  the  advance  of  the  Romans,  he  went 
as  a  suppliant  to  Pompey's  camp ;  but  tiie  Jews  during  his  absence 
closed  the  gates  of  their  city,  and  refused  to  admit  a  Roman  garrison, 
upon  which  Pompey  ordered  Aristobu'lus  to  be  kept  in  chains,  and  laid 
siege  to  Jerusalem.  After  a  siege  of  three  months  the  city  was 
stormed,  and  twelve  thousand  of  the  inhalntants  slain.  The  walls  and 
fortifications  were  levelled  to  the  ground,  but  the  temple  and  its  treas- 
ures were  spared  by  the  conquerors. 

Hyr'canus  was  nominally  restored,  but  all  the  real  power  of  the  state 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Antip'ater.  This  crafty  politician  supported  the 
cause  of  Pompey  during  the  Roman  civil  wars  until  that  general  was 
slain,  and  then  won  the  favor  of  Caesar  by  rendering  him  efi^'ective  aid 
when  he  was  blockaded  in  Alexandria.  In  reward  for  these  services, 
Her'od,  the  second  son  of  Antip'ater,  was  appointed  governor  of  Gali- 
lee,  where  he  signalized  himself  by  extirpating  the  bands  of  robbers 
.hat  infested  the  country.  In  the  civil  wars  after  tbe  death  of  Caesar, 
Judea  was  not  less  distracted  than  the  Roinar,  empire  ;  Antip'ater  was 


11 


HISTORY   01'    THE  JEWS  177 

poisoned,  his  eldest  son  Phas'ael  put  to  death,  and  Her'od  drixen  into 
exile.  Through  the  influence  of  Mark  Antony,  however,  Herod  was 
not  only  restored  to  his  former  power,  but  created  king  of  Judea 
(b.  c.  40).  He  had  to  conquer  his  kingdom  ;  for  the  Jews  were  reluct- 
ant to  submit  to  an  Idumean,  and  were  not  conciliated  by  his  marriage 
with  Mariam'ne,  a  princess  of  the  Asmonean  race. 

Herod's  rule  was  tyrannical  and  oppressive  ;  he  put  to  death  the 
high-priest  Hyr'canus,  his  own  wife  Mariam'ne,  and  several  of  his 
sons,  and  massacred  all  whom  he  suspectc  J  of  being  discontented  with 
his  dominion.  While  he  thus  lived  in  constant  dread  of  being  hurled 
from  his  throne  by  his  discontented  subjects,  "  there  came  wise  men 
from  the  east  to  Jerusalem,  saying,  Where  is  he  that  is  born  king  of  the 
Jews  ?  for  we  have  seen  his  star  in  the  east,  and  are  come  to  worship 
him."  Herod  was  greatly  troubled  by  this  announcement ;  he  assem- 
bled  the  chief-priests  and  scribes,  and  inquired  of  them  where  Christ 
should  be  born.  Having  heard  that  Bethlehem  was  the  place  foretold 
by  the  prophets,  he  sent  the  wise  men  thither,  "  and  said.  Go  and 
search  diligently  for  the  young  child ;  and  when  ye  have  found  him, 
bring  me  word  again,  that  I  may  come  and  worship  him  also."  Our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  whose  birth  was  thus  wondrously  announced,  was 
miraculously  saved  from  the  wrath  of  the  cruel  king,  for  the  wise  men, 
■'  being  warned  of  God  in  a  dream  that  they  should  not  return  to  Herod, 
they  departed  into  their  own  country  another  way.  And  when  they 
were  departed,  behold,  the  angel  of  the  Lord  appeareth  to  Joseph  in  a 
dream,  saying.  Arise  and  take  the  young  child  and  his  mother,  and  flee 
mto  Egypt,  and  be  thou  there  until  I  bring  thee  word :  for  Herod  will 
seek  the  young  child  to  destroy  him.  When  he  arose,  he  took  the 
young  child  and  his  mother  by  night,  and  departed  into  Egypt :  and 
was  there  until  the  death  of  Herod."  When  Herod  found  that  the 
wise  men  did  not  return,  he  was  exceeding  "  wroth,  and  sent  forth  and 
slew  all  the  children  that  were  in  Bethlehem,  and  in  all  the  c  jasts 
thereof,  from  two  years  old  and  under,  according  to  the  time  whi.;h  he 
had  diligently  inquired  of  the  wise  men." 

Herod  did  not  long  survive  this  atrocious  cruelty ;  he  died  in  the 
seventieth  year  of  his  age,  to  the  great  joy  of  all  his  subjects,  and  was 
succeeded  by  iiis  son  Archelaus.  Several  insurrections  were  raised 
by  the  Jews  against  their  new  rulor,  which  were  not  suppressed  with- 
out great  bloodshed.  At  length  all  parties  appealed  to  Ccesar,  who 
divided  the  dominions  of  Herod  among  his  children,  giving  Archelaus 
Judea,  with  the  title  of  Eth'narch.  But  Archelaus  proved  so  unworthy 
a  governor,  that  the  Roman  emperor,  wearied  by  the  complaints  urged 
against  him,  deprived  him  of  power,  and  baiushed  him  into  Gaul. 
Judea  was  now  formally  made  a  Roman  province,  and  sul)jected  to 
taxation.  It  was  about  this  time  that  our  blessed  Lord,  being  twelve 
years  of  age,  was  brought  by  his  parents  to  celebrate  the  passover, 
according  to  the  Jewish  custom,  which  obliged  all  males  who  had 
attained  that  age  to  repair  to  the  temple  on  the  three  great  f^^stivals. 

The  Jews  were  very  reluctant  to  submit  to  taxation,  and  frequently 
look  up  arms  against  the  publicans,  or  tax-gatherers  :  but  when  Pilate 
svas  appointed  to  the  government  (a.  d.  20)  they  were  still  more 
■ijirmed  for  lUeir  religion,  because  Pilate,  on  entering. the  city,  brough" 

12 


1.78  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

with  hi  in  the  Roman  standards,  which,  from  their  bearing  images,  tht 
Jews  regarded  as  idols. 

With  great  difficulty  Pilate  was  induced  to  remove  the  offensive 
ensigns,  but  he  soon  provoked  a  fresh  insurrection  by  attempting  to 
plunder  the  sacred  treasury.  He  ordered  his  soldiers  to  fall  on  the 
riotous  mob  hat  resisted  the  attempt,  and  many  innocent  lives  wert; 
sacrificed  in  the  confusion.  The  state  of  society  in  Judea  became  very 
corrupt  during  Pilate's  administration  ;  there  was  no  class  that  escaped 
the  demoralizing  effects  of  profligacy  in  the  government,  and  discontent 
in  the  people.  John  the  Baptist,  a  prophet,  the  forerunner  of  the  Mes- 
siah, appeared  in  the  wilderness  of  Judea,  preaching  the  necessity  of 
repentance,  and  annoimcing  that  the  kingdom  of  heaven  was  at  hand. 
The  austerity  of  his  life,  and  the  novelty  of  his  doctrines,  induced 
great  numbers  to  become  his  disciples,  who  were  "  baptized  of  him  in 
Jordan,  confessing  their  sins"  (x.  d.  30).  Many  believed  that  he  was 
the  Messiah  ;  the  Evangelist  declares,  "  the  people  were  in  expecta- 
tion, and  all  men  mused  in  their  hearts  of  John,  whether  he  were  the 
Christ,  or  not ;  John  answered,  saying  unto  them  all,  I  indeed  baptize 
you  with  water  ;  but  one  mightier  than  I  cometh,  the  latchet  of  whose 
shoes  I  am  not  worthy  to  unloose  :  he  shall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  with  fire  :  whose  fan  is  in  his  hand,  and  he  will  thoroughly 
purge  his  floor,  and  will  gather  the  wheat  into  his  garner ;  but  the 
chaff  he  will  burn  with  fire  unquenchable."  But  the  preaching  of  John 
was  only  designed  to  prepare  the  way  for  a  greater  teacher.  Our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  having  attained  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  age  presented 
himself  to  be  baptized,  and  as  he  went  up  out  of  the  water  a  remarka- 
ble miracle  attested  his  divinity,  for  "  the  heavens  were  opened  unto 
him,  and  John  saw  the  spirit  of  God  descending  like  a  dove,  and  light- 
ing upon  hi;n  :  and  lo,  a  voice  from  heaven  saying.  This  is  my  beloved 
Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased."  Immediately  after  his  baptism  oui 
Lord  entered  on  his  mission,  and  "  preaching  the  gospel  of  the  king- 
dom, and  healing  all  manner  of  sickness  and  all  manner  of  disease 
among  the  people."  But  in  spite  of  his  many  stupendous  miracles, 
the  great  body  of  the  Jews  refused  to  believe  in  his  mission,  and 
plotted  against  his  life. 

Herod  An'tipas,  and  his  brother  Philip,  still  held  the  provinces 
which  had  been  granted  them  after  the  death  of  their  father,  Herod  the 
Great.  The  former  was  married  to  the  daughter  of  an  Arabian,  the 
latter  to  his  own  niece  Herodias.  Herod  An'tipas  sent  away  his  own 
wife  and  narried  his  sister-in-law,  though  she  had  cliildren  by  his 
brother  Philip,  Avhich  was  contrary  to  the  Mosaic  law.  The  whole 
nation  exclaimed  against  this  incestuous  union  ;  John  the  Baptist,  espe- 
cially, had  the  courage  to  reprove  both  the  king  and  his  paramour  ir. 
the  severest  terms.  Herodias,  stung  by  his  reproaches,  induced  her 
husband  to  throw  his  faithful  monitor  into  prison,  and  s^ibsequently,  by 
means  of  her  daughter,  obtained  an  order  for  his  execution.  John  was 
beheaded  in  prison,  but  his  disciples  gave  his  body  an  honorable  buriai, 
B.nd  the  whole  nation  lamented  his  death. 

When  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  had  fulfilled  the  object  of  his  mission 
by  preaching  Ihe  glad  tidings  of  salvation,  God  permitted  him  to  be 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  and  put  to  a  cruel  death,  in 


II 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS.  179 

order  that  his  sufferings  should  make  atonement  for  the  sins  of  man- 
kind. The  Jews  falsely  accused  him  before  Pilate  of  a  design  to  sub- 
vert the  government ;  Pilate,  though  convinced  of  his  innocence,  pro- 
nounced sentence  of  condemnation,  and  Jesus  was  crucified  between 
two  malefactors  (a.  d.  33);  but  God  did  not  "  sufier  his  Holy  One  to 
see  corruption ;"  on  the  morning  of  the  third  day  Christ  was  raised 
from  the  dead,  and  after  continuing  forty  days  with  his  disciples  ascend- 
ed into  heaven.  Previous  to  his  departure  he  promised  his  disciples 
that  they  should  receive  another  Comforter,  and  this  was  fulfilled  by 
the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  day  of  Pentecost. 

The  murder  of  our  blessed  Lord  did  not  prevent  the  spread  of  his 
doctrines  ;  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  three  thousand  persons  were  con- 
verted by  the  preaching  of  Peter,  and  every  succeeding  day  fresh  addi- 
tions were  made  to  the  church.  In  the  wicked  and  distracted  condi- 
tion of  Jewish  society,  the  conduct  of  the  Christian  community  aflbrded 
a  remarkable  example  of  purity,  harmony,  and  self-denial.  "  The  mul- 
titude of  them  that  believed  were  of  one  heart  and  of  one  soul :  nei- 
ther said  any  of  them  that  aught  of  the  things  which  he  possessed  was 
his  own ;  but  they  had  all  things  common."  In  consequence  of  the 
great  increase  of  the  church,  seven  deacons  were  appointed  to  take 
charge  of  "  the  daily  ministration,"  of  whom  the  most  remarkable  was 
Stephen,  who,  "  full  of  faith  and  power,  did  great  "onders  and  mira- 
cles among  the  people."  The  rulers  of  the  synagogue,  unable  to  con- 
fute Stephen,  accused  him  to  the  sanhedrim,  or  council,  of  having 
blasphemed  Moses  and  God.  False  witnesses  were  suborned  to  sup- 
port the  accusation,  and  Stephen  was  subjected  to  the  mockery  of  a 
trial.  He  easily  refuted  the  charges  brought  against  him,  but  when  he 
repeated  his  belief  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah,  his  enemies  were  filled 
with  fury ;  "  they  cried  out  with  a  loud  voice,  and  stopped  their  ears, 
and  ran  upon  him  with  one  accord,  and  cast  him  out  of  the  city,  and 
stoned  him  ;  and  the  witnesses  laid  down  their  clothes  at  a  young 
man's  feet,  whose  name  was  Saul.  And  they  stoned  Stephen,  calling 
upon  God,  and  saying,  Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit.  And  he  kneeled 
down,  and  cried  with  a  loud  voice.  Lord,  lay  not  this  sin  to  theii 
charge.     And  when  he  had  said  this,  he  fell  asleep." 

Saul,  who  was  subsequently  called  Paul,  had  consented  to  the  death 
of  Stephen,  and  was  so  eager  a  persecutor,  that  he  obtained  a  commis- 
sion to  search  after  the  Christians  who  sought  shelter  in  Damas'cus. 
On  his  way  to  that  city,  he  was  miraculously  struck  to  the  earth,  and 
God  was  graciously  pleased  to  convince  him  of  the  truth  of  the  gos- 
pel. Thenceforward  he  became  a  zealous  apostle  of  the  faith,  speak- 
ing boldly  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus.  The  continuance  of  the 
persecution  at  Jerusalem  was,  by  divine  providence,  turned  into  a 
means  of  propagating  the  gospel  ;  for  the  disciples,  being  dispersed, 
carried  their  doctrines  hito  every  city  where  the  Jews  had  synagogues. 

In  the  meantime,  Pilate  was  stripped  of  his  government,  and  sent  to 
answer  charges  of  tyranny  and  misgovernment  before  the  emperor  ; 
liis  defence  was  so  unsatisfactory,  that  he  was  banished  to  Gaul, 
where,  unable  to  endure  the  stings  of  a  guilty  conscience,  he  killed 
himself  with  his  own  sword.  Herod  Agrip'pa,  the  grandson  of  Herod 
the  Great,  had  been  kept  in  prison  diiring  the  reign  of  the  emperoi 


180  ANCIENT  HISTOitY 

Tibeiius,  but  on  the  accession  of  Calig'ula  he  was  not  oi.ly  restort-d  tc 
liberty,  but  obtained  the  provinces  that  had  belonged  to  his  uncle 
Philip,  with  the  title  of  king  (a.  d.  41).  Through  his  influence,  Calig'- 
ula  was  induced  to  recall  his  edict  for  desecrating  the  temple  of  Jeru- 
salem by  erecting  his  own  statue  in  it,  and  to  pardon  the  Jews  for 
resisting  the  imperial  commands.  In  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Clau- 
dius, Agrip'pa  oI)tained  the  government  of  all  the  territories  which  had 
belonged  to  his  grandfather,  Herod  the  Great.  He  returned  to  his 
kingdom,  where  he  showed  an  extraordinary  attachment  to  the  Jewish 
religion  ;  and,  to  please  the  Pharisees,  he  began  to  persecute  the 
Christians.  St.  James,  the  brother  of  John,  sometimes  called  the 
Less,  to  distinguish  him  from  St  James  the  first  bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
was  beheaded,  and  St.  Peter  cast  into  prison  ;  but  Peter  was  miracu- 
lously delivered  by  an  angel,  and  Herod  Agrip'pa  soon  after  died  in 
great  misery  from  a  painful  and  loathsome  disease. 

On  the  death"  of  Herod  Agrip'pa,  Judea  was  once  more  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  a  Roman  province.  The  cruelty  and  rapacity  of  the 
provincial  governors  filled  the  land  with  wretchedness ;  bands  of  rob- 
bers not  only  infested  the  roads,  but  even  ventured  to  attack  the  towns  ; 
certain  pretended  zealots,  called  Sicarii,  or  assassins,  committed  the 
most  horrid  murders,  in  the  name  of  religion  and  liberty ;  while  false 
prophets  and  messiahs  raised  repeated  insurrections,  which  were  pun- 
ished with  dreadful  severity.  AH  these  evils  were  aggravated  under 
the  administration  of  Felix,  whose  avarice  was  unbounded,  and  who 
never  hesitated  to  commit  any  crime  by  \vhich  he  might  gratify  his 
depraved  passions.  Before  this  wicked  governor  the  apostle  Paul  was 
brought,  when  falsely  accused  by  the  Jews  of  disturbing  the  public 
peace.  On  the  public  trial  nothing  could  be  proved  against  the  apos- 
tle, but  Felix  detained  him  in  custody.  After  some  time  he  privately 
sent  for  Paul,  to  hear  him  concerning  the  faith  in  Christ,  "  and  as  he 
reasoned  of  righteousness,  temperance,  and  judgment  to  come,  Felix 
trembled,  and  answered.  Go  thy  way  for  this  time ;  when  I  have  a 
convenient  season  I  will  call  for  thee.  He  hoped  also  that  money 
should  have  been  given  him  of  Paul,  that  he  might  loose  him  ;  where- 
fore he  sent  for  him  the  oftener,  and  communed  with  him.  But  after 
two  years  Por'cius  F^;s'lus  came  into  Felix's  room  :  and  Felix,  willing 
to  show  the  Jews  a  pleasure,  left  Paul  bound."  Fes'tus,  on  assuming 
the  government,  found  the  priests  at  war  with  each  other  respectini; 
their  shares  of  the  tithes.  To  such  a  height  did  their  rancor  rise,  that 
the  rival  parties  hired  troops  of  assassins,  and  filled  both  city  and 
country,  and  even  the  very  temple,  with  blood.  Seditions  against  the 
Romans  were  also  frequent,  and  the  bands  of  robbers  plundered  and 
massacred  everywhere  without  mercy.  While  Fes'tus  was  endeavor- 
ing to  provide  some  remedy  for  these  disorders,  Paul  was  brought 
before  him  for  trial  ;  the  apostle  observing  the  vindictive  temper  of  the 
Jews,  and  having  little  confidence  in  the  firmness  of  Fes'tus,  appealed 
to  Caesar,  and  was  of  course  sent  to  Rome. 

Fes'tus  was  succeedecl  by  Albinus,  and  afterward  by  Florus,  the  las''. 
and  worst  governor  the  Jews  ever  had  (a.  d.  64).  Florus  resolved  to 
drive  the  Jews  into  open  rebellioUj  to  prevent  any  inquiry  into  his 
manifold  oppressions.     The  unhappy  nation  seemed  blindly  to  secon-J 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS.  181 

his  efforts  by  taking  up  arms  to  drive  the  Syrians  out  of  Caesrarea,  and 
bv  raising  seditions  in  almost  every  city  where  they  were  settled.  At 
length  the  zealots  attacked  the  Romans  in  the  fortresses  which  had 
been  erected  to  secure  Jerusalem,  and  put  all  who  opposed  them  to 
the  sword,  including  even  the  garrisons  that  capitulated.  The  governor 
of  Syria  marched  into  Judea  to  punish  these  disorders,  but  he  was 
compelled  to  retreat,  and  the  Jews  now  resolved  to  brave  the  entire 
strength  of  the  empire  (a.  d.  67).  The  Christians  of  Jerusalem,  re- 
membering our  Savior's  warning,  retired  to  Pel'la,  beyond  the  Jordan, 
whither  the  war  did  not  reach,  and  their  example  was  followed  by 
several  Jews  in  the  higher  classes. 

Vespasian,  a  Roman  general,  who  had  already  distinguished  himself 
in  Germany  and  Britain,  was  appointed  by  Nero  to  conduct  the  war 
against  the  Jews.  He  encountered  everywhere  a  fierce  resistance,  and 
at  length,  when  he  reached  Caesarea,  he  halted  his  army,  trusting  that 
the  Jews,  by  their  intestine  tumults,  would  become  so  weakened  as  to 
aflbrd  him  an  easy  victory  (a.  d.  70).  Such  an  expectation  was  but 
too  reasonable ;  the  zealots,  who  had  fled  before  the  Romans,  were 
now  collected  in  Jerusalem,  under  the  command  of  a  vile  demagogue, 
John  of  Gis'chala,  and  being  joined  by  the  Idumeans,  committed  the 
most  horrid  butcheries,  and  polluted  the  temple  itself  with  horrid  mur- 
ders. Another  party  was  formed  by  Simon,  the  son  of  Gorias,  whose 
atrocities  in  the  country  rivalled  those  of  John  in  the  city ;  he  was  in- 
vited to  Jerusalem,  as  a  counterpoise  to  John  and  the  zealots,  but  the 
remedy  was  worse  than  the  disease,  for  Simon  proved  the  worse 
scourge  of  the  two.  A  third  faction  was  formed  by  Eleazar,  who 
seized  the  upper  part  of  the  temple,  and  thus,  while  the  enemies  were 
advancing  against  the  devoted  city,  its  garrison  and  its  citizens  were 
engaged  in  mutual  slaughter. 

In  the  meantime,  Vespasian,  having  been  raised  to  the  empire  in- 
trusted the  command  of  the  army  to  his  son  Titus,  who  entered  Judea 
with  a  very  numerous  and  well-appointed  army  (a.  d.  73).  He  ad- 
►  anced  against  Jerusalem,  meeting  no  resistance  in  the  open  country, 
a  circumstance  which  led  him  to  believe  that  the  Jews  had  repented 
of  their  rebellion,  and  were  preparing  for  submission.  Under  this  mis- 
taken impression,  he  exposed  himself  negligently  in  the  difficult  defile 
called  the  valley  of  Jehosh'aphat,  where  he  was  separated  from  his* 
cavalry'.  In  this  situation  he  was  suddenly  assailed  by  the  factions 
and  was  exposed  to  such  danger  that  his  escape  was  regarded  as  little 
short  of  a  miracle.  The  siege  was  now  formally  commenced  ;  the 
Jews,  shut  up  in  the  city,  suffered  dreadfully  from  famine  and  pesti- 
lence, but  the  factions  did  not  lay  aside  their  mutual  fury ;  they  con- 
tinued to  slaughter  each  other,  even  while  their  walls  were  shaken  by 
the  battering  engines  of  the  Romans.  Language  would  fail  to  describe 
the  horrid  sufferings  of  the  besieged ;  hunger  reduced  them  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  using  the  most  revolting  and  unnatural  substances  for  food, 
wliile  *he  zealots  made  the  miseries  and  groans  of  their  starving  breth- 
ren th':  subject  of  their  cruel  mirth,  and  carried  their  barbarity  even  to 
the  sheathing  their  swords  on  these  poor  wretches,  under  pretence  of 
irj'ing  their  sharpness. 

At  length  the  walls  of  the  city  were  battered  down^  and  the  Romans 


182  ANCIENT  HISTOR\. 

besieged  the  temple,  where  the  desperate  factions  still  mai.itained  an 
energetic  resistance.  Titus  was  very  anxious  to  save  the  sacred  ed 
ifice,  but  one  of  his  soldiers  threw  a  lighted  brand  into  one  of  the  win- 
dows,  and  the  whole  building  was  soon  in  flames.  A  fearful  massacre 
followed  ;  the  Romans  refused  all  quarter,  and  many  thousands  perished 
by  the  fire,  the  sword,  or  by  throwing  themselves  headlong  from  the 
battlements.  This  scene  of  butchery  was  continued  for  several  days, 
until  Jerusalem  was  left  utterly  desolate.  The  number  of  prisoners 
reserved  for  a  fate  worse  than  death  amounted  to  ninety-seven  tiiousand, 
eleven  thousand  of  whom  were  starved  to  death  by  the  neglect  or  cu- 
pidity of  their  keepers.  According  to  Josephus,  there  perished  at  Je- 
rusalem during  the  siege,  by  famine,  pestilencti,  and  the  sword,  more 
than  a  million  of  Jews  and  proselytes  ;  but  this  statement  appears  to  be 
exaggerated. 

when  the  soldiers  had  ended  their  destructive  work  of  burning  and 
slnughter,  Titus  ordered  that  the  entire  city  should  be  razed  to  the 
ground,  with  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  the  western  wall,  and  three 
towers,  which  he  left  as  memorials  of  his  conquest.  So  punctually 
were  his  orders  executed,  that,  except  those  few  buildings,  nothing  was 
left  save  shapeless  ruins,  which  would  indicate  that  the  place  had  ever 
been  inhabited.  The  victory  of  Titus  was  celebrated  at  Rome  by  a 
splendid  triumph ;  a  triumphal  arch,  which  still  exists,  was  raised  to 
commemorate  the  event ;  and  a  medal  struck,  in  which  the  captured 
land  of  Judea  was  significantly  represented  as  a  disconsolfite  female 
sitting  beneath  a  palm-tree,  Avhile  a  soldier,  standing  by,  laughed  at  ho! 
iir.Ht?Tj  and  mocked  at  lier  calamity. 


i 


ANCIENT  ITALY.  183 


CHAPTER  Xlll. 
HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  ITALY. 

Section  I. — Geograjjhical  Outline 

I  lAi.Y,  in  its  earliest  signification,  was  the  name  given  to  the  siriall 
iLingue  of  land  between  the  Syllet'ic  and  the  Nepctic  gulfs  that  ia,  the 
southern  portion  of  Brut'tium  ;  but  it  was  gradually  extended  to  include 
more  northern  provinces,  until,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Augustus, 
it  was  applied  to  the  great  peninsula  included  between  the  Alps,  the 
Adriatic,  the  Tyrrhenian  and  the  Mediterranean  seas.  It  was  also 
called  Hesperia,  from  its  western  situation ;  Satur'nia,  from  the  fable 
of  Saturn's  flight  thither ;  Aus'onia  and  Qllnotria,  from  some  of  the 
most  ancient  tribes  of  inhabitants. 

The  most  convenient  division  of  the  peninsula  is  into  three  portions  : 
Cisalpine  Gaul  in  the  north,  Italy  Proper  in  the  centre,  and  Magna 
Graecia  in  the  south. 

Subalpine  Italy  received  the  name  of  Gaul  from  the  Gallic  hordes 
that  settled  in  the  northern  and  western  districts  ;  it  was  called  for  dis- 
tinction Cisalpine,  or  Citerior,  becauee  it  lay  on  the  side  of  the  Alps 
next  to  Rome,  and  Togata,  because  in  a  late  age,  its  inhabitants  began 
to  use  the  toga,  or  national  dress  of  the  Romans.  From  the  Alps,  thia 
province  at  first  extended  to  the  city  of  An'cona,  in  the  province  of 
Picenum ;  but,  in  the  later  ages  of  the  Roman  republic,  the  river  Ru- 
bicon (Riigojie),  betiveen  Ravenna  and  Arim'inum,  was  considered  the 
limit  of  its  frontier.' 

The  principal  Subalpine  tribes  were  the  Vedian'tii,  inhabiting  the  small 
tract  lying  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Varus  {Var),  and  extending  from 
the  territory  of  Nicae  {Nice),  to  the  Maritime  Alps,  or  that  branch  of 
the  mountain-chain  which  joins  the  Western  Mediterranean :  the  Va- 
gaen'ni,  north  of  the  Maritime  Alps  near  the  source  of  the  river  Padus 
(Po) ;  and  the  Taurini,  at  the  other  side  of  the  Padus,  on  which  stood 
their  capital,  Taurasia,  subsequently  called  Augus'ta  Taurinorum 
[Tit  rill). 

North  of  the  Taur'ini,  and  among  the  mountains,  was  the  kingdom 
of  Cottius,  who  gave  his  name  to  the  Cottian  Alps.  Thence  to  the 
Greek  Alps,  which  extended  to  Mons  Jovis  [Great  St.  Bernard),  there 
were  several  warlike  Gallic  tribes,  but  none  of  any  particular  note  in 
history. 

Liguria  lay  south  of  the  river  Padus,  extending  to  the  Mediterranean 
Hcti,  between  the  rivers  Macra  and  Varus.  Its  chief  cities  on  the  sea- 
"joast  were  Nicae'a  [Nice  or  Nizza),  erected  by  the  Massilians  to  pro- 
tect their  frontier  against  the  Ligurian  mountaineers  :   Portus  Her'eulis 


184  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

MonoeV'i  (Mo/ioeo),  Al'bium  Intemelium  {yintimiglin),  Alliium  Ingaii 
mim  (Alljp/ioia),  Sab'ata  (SavnjK/),  Gen'ua  or  Jan'ua  (Genoa),  Por'tu^ 
Deliihini  [Porto  Fiuo),  and  Por'tus  Lunrp.  {Golfo  chdle  Spezip).  Of 
these  Gen'ua  was  the  most  important,  being  the  great  emporium  of  I^i 
jnirian  commerce.  The  principal  towns  in  the  interior  were  PoUdntia 
.  Pollenza),  As'ta  (Ayti),  and  Indus'tria  [Tortona).  This  last  city  wa= 
called  Bodencomagum  by  the  earlier  Ligurians,  because  it  stood  on  thv 
Po,  which  they  named  Boden'cus,  a  word  in  their  language  signifying 
'bottomless."  Next  to  Liguria  lay  the  distrct  named  Gallia  Cispa- 
iana,  or  Gaul  south  of  the  Po ;  it  was  chiefly  inhabited  by  the  Boii, 
ihe  Lingones,  and  the  Senones.  The  principal  towns  of  the  Boii  were 
Placentia,  Par'ma,  Mutina  (^Modenn),  and  Bononia  (Bolngmi).  The  Lin- 
gones possessed  Raven'na,  Faven'tia  (^Fa>-nz(i),  Solona  [Ci'ta  di  Sole), 
and  Cfe'sena  ;  and  to  the  Senones  belonged  Arimin'um  [Rimini),  Pisaii- 
rum  [Pesaro),  Sena  Gal'lica  {Simgij(rlia),  and  An'cona. 

Gal'lia  Transpadana,  or  north  of  the  Padus,  had  the  great  Alpine 
chain  on  the  north  and  west,  betweer  which  and  the  Po  it  extended  to 
the  river  Formio  (//  Risano),  which  separated  it  from  I  stria.  It  was 
inhabited  by  the  Orobii,  the  In'subres,  the  Lct'vi,  the  Cenoman'ni,  ihe 
Euganei,  and  the  Ven'eti.  The  principal  cities  in  the  territory  of  the 
Orobii  were  Con'rum  [Conro),  Ber'gamum  {Brraramo),  and  Forum  Li- 
cin'ii  (Berlasina) ;  the  In'subres  possessed  Mcdiolanum  (Milan),  Laua 
Pompeii  (Lodi),  and  Forum  Intuntorum  (Cre/na)  :  to  the  Cenoman'ni 
belonged  Brix'ia  {Brescia),  Cremona,  Man'tua,  and  Ver'ona :  the  Eu- 
ganei, owned  Sabium,  Voberi/a,  Ed'rum,  and  Van'nia,  cities  long  since 
damolished :  and  the  Ven'eti  were  masters  of  Patavium  [Padua),  Yi- 
cen'tia  [Vicema),  Ates'te  (Este),  Forum  Allieni  [Ferrara),  Tar'visum 
[Treviso),  Aquileia  [AquiJea),  F'orum  Julii  [Frinli),  and  Tergeste  [Tri' 
este).  In  later  ages,  a  horde,  called  the  Garni,  wrested  from  the  Ven'- 
eti the  cities  and  country  between  the  rivers  For'mio  and  Talaven'tura 
[Pun)e). 

Central  or  Proper  Italy  extended  along  the  Adriatic  coast  from  the 
cxiy  of  An'cona  to  the  river  Fren'to  [Forlore),  and  on  the  Mediterranean 
side  was  limited  by  the  rivers  Macra  and  Sil'arus  [Sele).  It  compre- 
hended Etniria,  Um'bria,  Sabin'ium,  Latium,  Picenum,  with  the  coun- 
:ries  of  the  Vestini,  Marrucini,  Pelig'ni,  Ma.-'«i,  Frenl'ani,  «amnites, 
Hirpini,  Campani,  and  Picentini. 

Etriiria  was  inhabited  by  two  distinct  races,  that  seem  tu  have  very 
alowly  amalgan;  'ted,  the  Tyrrheni  and  the  Hetrus'ci.  It  was  bounded 
jn  the  east  by  tne  river  Tiller,  on  the  west  by  the  Macra,  on  the  north 
oy  the  chain  of  the  Apennines,  and  on  the  south  by  that  portion  of  the 
Vlediterranean  commonly  called  the  Tuscan  sea.  It  was  divided  into 
a  dodecarchy,  or  government  of  twelve  tribes  and  cities.  These  ruling 
cities  in  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Etrurian  history  were,  Volsin'iv 
{Bol.sena),  Clusium  (Chiusi),  Perusia  (Perugia),  Cortona,  Aret'iura 
{Arezzo),  Falerii  {Civita  Castellcma),  Volater'rae  (Vollerra),  Vetuloniun: 
[Grosseto),  Rusel'lae  [Cerveteri),  and  the  cities  of  Veii,  Tarquinu,  and 
Cae're,  which  at  present  lie  in  ruins.  There  were  many  other  places 
jf  importance  in  Etruria :  on  the  seacoast  were  Luna  (L'Erice),  Pisae 
[Pisa),  Por'tus  Hor'culis  Libur'ni  (Lioorno  or  Leghorn),  Papulonia  now 
in    ruins,    Tal'amon    {Tdamonc),  Centumcel'lae  (Civita   Vccchia),    and 


I 


ANCIEN  r  ITALS'.  185 

.\l'sium  (Palo).  There  were  besides,  in  the  interior,  Nep'ele  {iVepe), 
Sutriiim  (Sutn^.  Fanum  Voltum'nse  [Viterbo),  Hortanum  (Orti),  Ker- 
banum  {Oruietii),  Sen8e  Julioe  {Saona),  Floren'tia  [Fiorcnza,  Firenze,  oi 
Florence),  Pistoria  (Pistoia),  and  Luca  (Lucca). 

Unibria  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  river  Nar  [Nera),  on  the 
north  by  the  Adriatic  sea,  on  the  east  by  the  ^Esis  (Fnimicino),  and  on 
tlie  west  partly  by  the  Tiber,  and  partly  by  the  Bedesis  (//  Roneo),  which 
falls  into  the  Adriatic  near  Ravenna.  But  the  maritime  part  of  llmbria 
having  been  early  conquered  by  the  Senonian  Gauls,  the  cities  it  con- 
tains have  been  already  mentioned  in  the  account  of  Gallia  Cispadana. 
The  Umbrian  cities  on  the  Adriatic  side  of  the  Apenninea  were  Sarsina, 
Urbyium  (Urbino),  Metauren'se  (Caslfd  Durante),  Sentnium  (Smlimo), 
and  Cam'ers  [Camnrino).  Or  the  other  side  of  these  mountains  were 
Iguvium  (Ui^iibio),  Mevania  (Bagagna),  Spolet'ium  (Spolefi),  Tifer'nura 
(Cilta  di  Cas'tella),  Nuceria  [Nocera),  Assis'iuni  (Assist),  Hispelluni 
[Ispello),  Fulgin'ium  {Foligno),  Interam'nium  (Terni),  Naruia  (Narni), 
and  Ocric'ulum  {Ocncoli). 

The  territory  of  the  Sabines  lay  between  the  Nar,  which  divided  it 
from  Umbria,  and  the  A'nio  (Teverone),  by  which  it  was  separated 
from  Latium.  It  contained  the  city  of  Cures,  whose  inhabitants,  migra- 
ting to  Rome,  are  said  to  have  given  its  citizens  the  name  of  Quirites  ; 
Reate  (Ruti),  Nur'sia  (Norcia),  E'retum  [Monte  Rotondo),  and  Amiter'- 
num  [Lainentari(i). 

Latium  was  at  first  restricted  within  very  narrow  limits,  being  bound' 
ed  by  the  Tiber,  the  A'nio  (Teverone),  and  the  Circaean  promontory 
[Munte  Cercilli)  ;  but  after  the  subjugation  of  the  ^E'qui,  Hernici,  Vol'sci, 
and  Ausones,  it  was  extended  to  the  Liris  (GarigUano)  ;  and  hence 
aris.es  the  distinction  between  Old  and  New  Latium.  The  chief  cities 
of  Old  Latium  were  Rome,  Tibur  (Tivoli),  Prsenes'te  (Pahstrina),  Tus'- 
uulum  (Frascati),  Aric'ia,  Lamivium  (Citta  Lavina),  Al'ba  Lon'ga 
(Albano),  Lauren'tum  [Paterno),  and  Os'tia.  There  were,  besides,  four 
Latin  towns,  of  which  the  ruins  can  now  scarcely  be  traced,  Gabii, 
Antem'nse,  CoUatia,  and  Ar'dea.  The  chief  cities  of  the  jEqui  were 
Car'sula  [Arsuli),  Valeria  (Vico  Varo),  Sublaqueum  (Suhiaca),  and 
Al'gidum,  now  in  ruins.  To  the  Hernici  belonged  Anag'nia  (Anagni), 
Alatrium  [Alutri),  Ver'ulge  (Veroll),  and  Ferentinum  [Ferentino).  In 
the  vjountry  of  the  Volsci  were  An'tium,  Cir'cse,  and  Sues'sa  Pometia, 
all  three  long  since  ruhied  ;  Anx' ur  (Terracina),  Vel'ltrge  (Veletn),  Pri- 
ver'num  (Piperno),  Aquinuni  [Aquino),  Casinum  [Monte  Cassino), 
.\rpinum  [Arpino),  Fregel'Iae  (Ponte  Corvo),  and  Interam'na  (Vlsnla). 
The  x\us6nes  possessed  Careto  (Gnela),  Fun'di  (Fondi),  and  For'niias 
[MoJa). 

Picenum  estended  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Apennines,  between  the 
E'sis  (Esino)  and  the  Aternus  [Pescara).  The  chief  cities  of  the 
Picen'tes  were  Ancona,  As'cuKim  (Ascoli),  Interam'nium  (Teramo), 
and  A'tria  (Atri).  Several  other  nations  besides  the  Picen'tes  weie 
included  within  the  boundaries  of  Picenum.  Of  these,  the  Vestini 
possessed  Ari'gulus  (Civita  di  Sand  a  Angela)  and  Avel'la ;  the  Mar- 
rucini  owned  but  one  city,  Teate  [Chiete) ;  the  Peligni  possessed  Cor- 
rin'ium,  now  in  ruins,  and  SuFino  (Sulmona)  ;  the  Mar'si,  in  the  interioi 
of  the  country,  close  to  the  Apei'uines,  had  only  one  important  town 


l^ti  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Marrubium  (^^orrea).  On  the  southern  seacoasi,  ivero  the  Frentani 
whose  chief  cities  were  Ortona,  Anax'oniim  [Lanzatio),  and  Histouiuir 
[Guastn  (I'A/rionn)  :  the  Samnites  possessed  the  country  between  the 
territory  of  the  Frentani  and  the  Apennines  ;  their  chief  cities  wert: 
Bovianuni  (Baiano),  yEser'nia  (Lferniu'),  Sepinum  (^SfpiHa)^  AUifjE 
[Ahf),  and  Tel'esia  (Telesi).  Finally,  the  Hirpini  held  the  south 
western  side  of  the  Apennines,  and  possessed  Beneveu'tum  [Benevenlo) 
Equotuticum  [Aria/w),  and  Comp'sa  [Cunza). 

Campania,  the  most  pleasant  and  fruitful  division  of  Italy,  extended 
between  the  territories  of  the  Samnites  and  Herpini  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean from  the  river  Liris  to  the  promontry  of  Minerva.  On  its  coast 
w^ere  Liter'num  [Torre  cJi  Patria),  Baiae  {Baia),  Misenum  (Munla 
Miseno),  Parthen'ope  or  Neap'olis  (Napks),  and  Sorren'tium  (Sorrento), 
together  with  the  cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pom'peii,  overwhelmed  by 
an  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius.  In  the  interior  of  the  country  were 
Capua,  Sues'sa  Aunm'ca  (Sessa),  Venafrum  {Venafro);  Casilinum 
(Nova  Capua),  Teanum  Sidicmum  (Tiano),  Calatia  (Cajazzo),  Cales 
{Calvi),  Atel'la  (Aversa),  Acer'rae  {Acerra),  Nola  and  Nuceria  (Nocera) 
Between  the  promontory  of  Minerva  and  the  river  Sil'arus  (Selc)  was 
a  small  district  inhabited  by  a  Picentine  colony,  whose  chief  city  was 
Saler'num  {Salerno). 

Magna  Graceia,  so  called  from  the  number  of  Greek  colonics  tha«. 
settled  in  it,  comprised  Apulia,  Lucania,  and  the  territory  of  the  Brut'tii. 

Apulia  [La  Pitglia)  extended  from  the  river  Fren'to  (Fori ore)  to  the 
Japygian  promontory  (Capo  di  Leuca),  at  the  southeastern  extremity  of 
Italy.  It  was  divided  into  three  portions :  Daunia,  lying  between  the 
Fren'to  and  the  Aufidus  (Ofanto) ;  Peucetia,  stretching  from  the  Aufidus 
to  the  isthmus  between  Brundusium  and  Taren'tum  ;  and  Japy'gia,  or 
Calabria,  comprising  the  southeastern  peninsula  of  Italy,  or  the  heel  of 
the  boot  to  which  Italy  has  been  fancifully  compared. 

In  the  first  two  divisions  were  Teanum  Ap'ulinn  (Civitale  Tragonara), 
Sipuntum  {Siprmto)  Luceria  (Lucera),  Ar'pi  {Foggia)  As'culum  Ap'u- 
lum  (Astcli),  Venusia  (Venosa),  Acheron'tia  [Acirenza),  Canusimn 
[Canosa),  Can'nee  (Ccinna),  Salapia  (Saipe),  Barium  {Bart),  and  Egnatia 
{Terra  iCAnazzo).  The  chief  cities  of  Calabria  were  Brundusium 
{Brindisi),  Hydruntum  (Otranto),  Callip'olis  {Galtipoli),  Ner'itura 
{Nardil),  and  Aletium  (Lezze). 

Lucania  lay  between  the  Silarus  and  the  Laiis  (Laino).  It  was 
divided  from  Peucetia  by  the  Bran'danus  {Brandano),  and  from  Calabria 
by  the  upper  part  of  the  Tarentine  gulf.  On  the  Mediterranean,  oi 
Tyrrhenian  sea,  stood  Paes'tum  or  Posidonia  {Pesto),  Velia  {Pisciotta), 
and  Buxen'tum  {PoJicastro).  On  the  Tarentine  gulf  were  Metapon'tum 
( Tere  di  Mare)  and  Heraclea,  called  also  Syb'aris  and  Thurii  (Policore). 
The  inland  cities  were  Poten'tia  (Potenza),  and  Grumen'tum  (Clari- 
montf). 

Greek  colonies  occupied  the  southwestern  peninsula  of  Italy.  Theii 
chief  cities  on  the  western  coast  were  Ceril'li  (Cirella),  Clamp'etia 
[Amaiitta),  Tom'sa  (Torre  Loppa),  Lametia  {Sanf.  Euphemia),  Scyllse' 
am  (Sciglia),  and  Rhegium  {Reggio).  On  the  eastern  coast  stood  Locri 
Epizephy'rii  {Jeraces),  Caulonia  (Castel  Veteri),  Scy\a.ceum  {Squdlaci) 
3r6to    {Crontone),     Petii  ia    (Belicastro),    and    Ruscianum    {Rossanaj 


i 


ANCIENT  ITALY.  l^'7 

The  clud    cities  of  the  interior  were  Consen'tij  [Cosenza)  and  Hip 
punium,  called  by  the  Romans  Vibo  Valen'tia  [Monte  Leone.) 

The  chief  Italian  mountains  are  the  Alps,  which  extend  round  the 
north  of  the  peninsula  in  an  irregular  chain  about  eight  hundred  miles 
in  lencrth  ;  and  the  Apennines,  which  go  through  Italy  from  the  Mari- 
time Alps  to  the  straits  of  Sicily.  The  Massic,  Gaurian,  and  Garganian 
mountains  are  detached  ridges,  celebrated  for  theiy  fertility ;  and  Vesu- 
Fius,  near  Naples,  has  been  long  remarkable  for  its  volcano. 

From  the  Alps  flow  the  Padus  [Po),  the  Drurii  (Dora),  the  Sessites 
(Sessia),  the  Ticinus  (Tessino),  the  Ad'dua  {A(^da),  the  Ol'lius  {O^lio), 
the  Min'crus  (Mmcio),  the  Tan'arus  [Tanaro),  the  Trebia,  and  the 
Rhenus  Bononien'sis  [Reno  di  Bologna) :  all  these  are  tributaries  of  the 
Padus.  The  Ath'esis  [Adige)  has  also  its  source  in  the  Alps,  but  it 
falls  into  the  Adriatic.  The  Ar'nus  (Arno)  and  the  Tiber  flow  from  the 
Apennines  into  the  Mediterranean  :  the  tributaries  of  the  latter  river  are 
the  Clanis  (Chiana),  the  Nar  (Nera),  and  the  A'nio  (Teverone).  Be- 
sides these,  there  are  the  Liris  [Garigliano],  separating  Latium  from 
Campania ;  the  Vultur'nus  ( Voltorno),  in  Campania ;  the  Sil'aru? 
(Silaro),  severing  the  territories  of  the  Pincentini  and  Lucani ;  the 
Syb'aris  (Cochile),  and  the  Crathis  (Crati),  in  Lucania ;  the  Aufidus 
[bfanto),  in  Apulia  ;  and  the  Ater'nus  [Pescara)  and  Metaurus  (Mctauro), 
in  Picenum. 

Italy  has  ever  been  celebrated  for  its  fertility  and  beauty ;  its  inhab 
itants  were  once  the  triumphant  conquerors   and  lords  of  the  known 
world ;  but  ages  of  misgovernment  have  blighted  this  lovely  peninsula, 
and  it  is  now  among  the  most  degraded  and  miserable  countries  in  Eu- 
rope. 

Section  II. — Historical  Notices  of  the  early  Inhabitants  of  Italy 

CHRONOLOGY    UNCERTAIN. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Italy  appear  to  have  been  branches  of 
Jie  great  Pelasgic  nation.  Of  these,  the  (Enotrians  occupied  the  soutn 
■>f  the  peninsula,  the  Sicilians  possessed  the  plain  of  the  Tibc*,  an  J  the 
Tyrrhenians  were  settled  in  Etruria.  In  process  of  time,  the  Cfcno- 
irians  were  subjugated  by  Hellenic  colonies,  the  Sicilians  subdued  by 
some  mountain-tribes  who  took  the  name  of  Latins,  and  the  Tyrrheni- 
ins  conquered  by  the  Hetrusci,  a  people  that  probably  descended  from 
'he  Rhaetian  Alps. 

Between  (Enot'ria  and  Tyrrhenia  was  tlie  territory  of  the  Opicans 
3r  Oscans,  called  also  Ausonians.  Their  language  was  intelligible  to 
the  Latins ;  for  the  Latin  tongue  is  compounded  of  Greek  and  Oscj^n. 
To  this  race  the  ^E'qui  and  Vol'sci  appear  to  have  belonged. 

The  Latins,  according  to  tradition,  were  driven  down  the  A'nio  by 
die  Sabines,  and  they  in  their  turn  expelled  a  great  portion  of  the  Jsi- 
culians  from  their  habitations,  who  proceeded  southward,  and  parsed 
over  the  strait  of  Messina  into  the  island  which  took  from  theiA  the 
n.inie  of  Sicily.  In  the  old  legends  these  Latin  conquerors  are  called 
SMjrani ;  they  were  also  named  Priscans  and  Cascans.  From  the  lat- 
iir.r  name,  and  the  similarity  of  language,  they  must  have  been  a  braacb 


188  ANCIENT  HISTOR'S 

;>f  the  Oscan  nation.  The  agreement  betweei  the  Greek  anJ  Latir. 
laiiiruages  in  words  tliat  rehite  to  agricuUure  and  Jie  arts  of  social  life^ 
while  they  diffci  wholly  in  the  names  of  objects  belonging  to  war  oi 
fhe  chase,  is  a  strong  proof  that  the  agricultural  laborers  or  serfs  were 
'.)f  Pelasgian  origin,  and  the  warriors  a  superior  caste  of  Oscan  de- 
scent. Little  is  known  of  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Latins,  or  the 
deities  they  worshipped.  Janus,  or  Dianus,  was  the  god  of  the  sun, 
Saturn  the  vivifying  power  of  nature,  and  his  wife  Ops  the  productive 
enero-v  of  the  earth ;  l)ut  the  distinctive  character  of  these  deities  was 
lost  when,  in  a  late  age,  the  native  legends  of  Latium  were  blended 
and  confounded  with  the  mythology  of  Greece. 

The  Sabines  and  their  cognate  tribes  are  included  under  the  common 
name  of  Sabellians ;  they  were  the  most  widely  extended  and  the 
greatest  people  in  Italy  when  the  Romans  advanced  beyond  the  fron- 
tiers of  Latium.  Their  original  home  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Ami- 
ier'ni>irn,  among  the  highest  of  the  Apennines  that  are  now  included  in 
Abruzzo  Ultra.  From  these  they  descended  at  a  very  remote  age,  dri- 
vinsr  the  Cascans  before  them  in  one  direction,  and  the  LImbrians  in 
another.  Their  colonies  were  sent  out  according  to  a  singular  religious 
institution  called  the  "  Ver  Sacrum,"  or  sacred  spring.  Every  twenty 
years  the  children  and  cattle  born  within  the  twelvemonth  were  conse- 
crated and  set  apart  for  founding  a  colony  ;  and,  as  soon  as  they  reached 
mature  age,  were  sent  forth  for  the  purpose.  One  of  these  occupied 
Picenum,  then  inhabited  by  the  Pelasgians  ;  another  passed  into  the 
land  of  the  Opicans,  or  Oscans,  and  became  the  founders  of  the  great 
Samnite  race.  To  the  Sabellan  race  belonged  also  the  Frentanians  on 
the  coast  of  the  Adriatic,  the  tribes  that  conquered  Campania,  the  pow- 
erful nation  of  the  Lucanians,  and  the  four  confederate  tribes  of  Mar- 
sians,  Manucinians,  Pelignians,  and  Vestinians.  The  Hernicans  wc'a 
a  sub-colony  of  the  Marsians. 

The  Lucanians,  pushing  their  conquests  into  ffinotria,  were  soon  in 
vplved  in  war  with  the  Greek  colonies,  most  of  which  they  subdued. 
They  were  joined  by  the  Samnites  from  Campania  (b.  c.  437),  who 
gained  possession  of  Vultur'num.  They  soon  advanced  to  the  Laiis 
(b.  c.  423),  and  confirmed  their  power  by  the  total  defeat  of  the  Thu- 
rians  (b.  c.  387).  At  length  they  were  brought  into  liostile  contact 
with  the  Romans,  and  soon  stripped  of  all  their  power. 

The  Sabellian  tribes,  more  especially  those  in  the  north,  were  dis- 
tinguished for  their  love  of  divination,  the  rigid  severity  of  their  mor- 
als, and  their  cheerful  contcntedness.  In  c'her  respects  their  charac- 
ters differed.  The  Sabines  and  most  of  the  northern  tribes  lived  in 
open  villages ;  the  Samnites  fortified  the  hills  on  which  they  dwelt ; 
and  the  Lucanians  became  attached  to  residence  in  cities.  The  wan) 
of  union  between  the  Sabellian  tribes  prevented  that  race  from  becom- 
ing predominant  in  Italy.  The  Samnites  owed  their  downfall  to  the 
want  of  a  central  metropolis,  and  the  unity  it  confers.  It  was  only  in 
lime  of  war  that  they  elected  a  commander-in-chief,  called  emberator  ; 
X  term  which  the  Latins  borrowed,  and  changed  into  imperator,  using  r 
'iistead  of  their  old  words  dictator  and  prcetor. 

The  Etrurians  or  Etruscans,  who  conquered  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgi 
•vcie  called  in  their  own  tongue  "  Rasena :"  they  established  a  kind  of 


I 


ANCIENT  ITALY.  189 

'euclul  supremucy  over  the  su1)jiigated  nation,  a',<l  deprived  the  Tvr 
rhenians  of  all  political  privileges.  All  public  at^^^^s  were  decided  in 
'he  general  council  of  the  Lucumones,  a  sacer^'otnl  c^nste  whose  privi- 
leges descended  by  inheritance.  From  the  want  of  a  fre«  and  respec- 
table commonwealth,  the  Etruscans,  though  possessed  of  preat  wealth 
and  power,  having  been  at  one  time  masters  of  the  commerce  and  nav- 
igation of  the  western  Mediterranean,  proved  unequal  to  cope  with  the 
Romans,  whose  infantry  was  composed  of  free  citizens.  The  regal 
office  was  not  hereditary,  but  elective,  and  the  power  of  the  kings  was 
very  limited.  Before  the  conquest  the  Tyrrhenians  were  remarkable 
for  their  piracies,  and  the  Etruscans  followed  the  same  course.  Theii 
corsairs  were  the  terror  of  the  western  Mediterranean,  until  their  navy 
was  almost  annihilated,  in  a  sea-fight  off  Cumae,  by  Hiero,  king  of  Syra- 
cuse. About  two  centuries  afterward,  they  partially  recovered  their 
power,  and  extended  their  piracies  even  into  the  ^gean  sea ;  but  they 
were  finally  subdued  by  the  Rhodians. 

The  Etruscans  had  made  great  advances  in  the  arts  and  sciences 
The  ruins  of  their  public  works  rival  those  of  ancient  Egypt  in  magni- 
tude, and  surpass  them  in  utility,  especially  the  dikes  for  fencing  the 
delta  of  the  Po,  and  the  tunnels  for  draining  the  lakes  that  formed  in 
the  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes.  Their  pottery  and  metal  works,  if 
not  of  Greek  origin,  were  certainly  improved  by  Grecian  artisans,  and 
may  therefore  be  attributed  to  the  Pelasgic  Tyrrhenians.  No  Italian 
nation  was  so  religious,  or  rather  superstitious,  as  the  Etrurians  :  from 
them  the  Romans  borrowed  most  of  their  ritual  and  ceremonies,  the 
rules  of  augury  and  divination,  and  the  solemnities  in  the  declaration  of 
r>eace  or  war.  At  a  very  early  age  Greek  literature  supplanted  the  na- 
ive literature  of  Etruria,  and  the  ancient  lore  of  the  Tuscans  fell  into 
what  seems  to  have  been  unmerited  oblivion. 

The  U mbrians  were  a  nation  consisting  of  several  distinct  races,  the 
most  remarkable  being  the  Camer'tes  and  the  Sarsinates.  Their  lan- 
guage appears  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  Etrurian  and  Oscan.  It  is 
the  misfortune  of  the  Umbrians  that  their  greatness  had  disappeared 
before  the  age  of  certain  history ;  their  glory  seems  to  have  passed 
away  when  the  rich  countries  bordering  on  the  seacoast  were  occupied 
by  the  Gauls. 

The  southeast  of  Italy,  or  Japy'gia,  was  occupied  by  the  Messapians, 
the  Peucetians,  and  the  Daunians.  The  Messapians  are  said  to  hare 
been  an  old  Pelasgian  colony  from  Crete  ;  they  were  a  very  powerful 
people  until  the  city  of  Tarentum  had  acquired  sufficient  strength  to 
contend  for  the  supremacy  of  southern  Italy,  when,  after  a  tedious 
struggle,  they  were  compelled  to  enter  into  an  alliance  of  inferioritj 
with  the  Tarentines. 

The  Peucetians  appear  to  have  been  a  Liburnian  colony  from  Illyria 
'he  Daunians,  a  Pelasgic  colony  from  iEtolia.  The  latter  were  sub 
dued  by  the  Apulians,  an  Oscan  horde,  and  their  name  was  lost  in  tha 
of  their  conquerors.  The  language  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  part  ot 
Italy  called  Japy'gia  was  Greek. 

The  Ligurians  and  Venetians  appear  to  have  been  branches  of  the 
great  Libuniian  nation,  which  at  one  time  possessed  both  sides  of  the 
northern  Adriatic.     The  formei  were  a  brave,  warlike  people  ;  for  more 


190  ANCIENT    HISTORY. 

thin  forty  years  they  resisted  the  Roman  arms,  and  it  is  perhaps  uu  thu 
account  that  they  are  stigmatized  as  liars  and  deceivers  by  chissicul  wri- 
ters. On  the  other  hand,  the  Venetians  submitted  without  a  struggle: 
but  it  is  probable  that  the  evils  they  had  suffered  from  the  iuvasior. 
made  them  anxious  to  obtain  the  protection  of  some  powerful  state 

Section  III. —  Tlie  Greek  Colonies  in  [taly. 
FROM   B.  c.    1030   TO   V,.  c.   277. 

The  earUest  Greek  settlement  in  Italy,  of  which  we  have  any  cer- 
tain historical  information,  came  from  Chalcis  in  the  island  of  Euboea 
and  settled  at  Cumse  (b.  c.  1030).  This  city  soon  attained  a  high  de- 
gree of  prosperity,  established  a  powerful  navy,  and  founded  flourishing 
colonies,  of  which  Neap'olis  and  Zan'cle  (afterward  called  Messana) 
were  the  cnief.  Its  form  of  government  was  aristocratic  ;  but  this  con- 
stitution was  subverted  (b.  c.  544)  by  the  tyrant  Aristodemus.  Free 
dom  was  restored  after  his  assassination ;  but  the  Cumans,  weakened 
by  internal  dissensions,  suffered  severely  in  a  war  with  the  Eretrians 
and  Daunians  (b.  c.  500),  and  were  finally  subdued  by  the  Cxmpanians. 
Cumae  was.  annexed  to  the  Roman  dominions  (b.  c.  345);  but  in  con- 
sequence of  its  harbor  at  Puteoli,  it  retained  a  considerable  share  of  its 
importance  even  after  the  loss  of  its  independence. 

Tarentum  was  founded  by  the  Parthenii  from  Spar'ta,  under  Phalan'- 
tus  (b.  c.  707),  as  has  been  already  mentioned.  The  colonists  had  to 
maintain  long  wars  against  the  Italian  tribes  in  their  neighborhood, 
especially  the  Messapians  and  Lucanians ;  but  they  prevailed  ovei 
these  uncivilized  barbarians,  and  made  their  city  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing maritime  states  in  western  Europe.  Luxury,  however,  finally 
brought  effeminacy  and  weakness.  To  escape  from  the  grasping  am- 
bition of  the  Romans,  the  Tarentines  invited  Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epirus, 
into  Italy ;  but  after  the  departure  of  that  monarch,  the  city  became  de- 
pendant on  Rome  (b.  c.  274). 

Croton  was  founded  by  the  Acha;ans  (b.  c.  710).  Even  in  the  first 
century  of  its  existence  the  city  attained  such  power  as  to  be  able  to 
raise  an  army  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  men.  The  consti 
tution  was  in  a  great  degree  democratic,  and  continued  so  until  the 
philosopher  Pythag'oras  came  to  reside  in  Croton  (b.  c.  540).  He 
established  a  secret  association  among  his  disciples,  the  chief  object 
of  which  was  to  s(  cure  a  monopoly  of  political  power  to  the  members 
of  the  Pythagorean  society.  In  a  few  years  three  hundred  men,  all 
Pythagoreans,  held  tlie  sovereignty  of  Croton  ;  and  the  influence  of  the 
new  sect  was  established  not  only  in  the  Greek  cities  of  Italy  and 
Sicily,  but  over  a  great  part  of  ancient  Greece  and  the  islands  of  the 
^gean.  The  Crotonians  soon  after  engaged  in  \.ar  with  the  Sybarites, 
and  destroyed  their  city.  Success  proved  ruinous  ;  the  inferior  ranks 
uf  men  in  Crotona,  intoxicated  with  prosperity,  and  instigated  by  the 
artful  and  ambitious  Cy'lon,  whose  turbulent  manners  had  excluded  hinj 
from  the  order  of  Pythag'oras,  into  which  he  had  repeatedly  attempted 
to  enter,  became  clamorous  for  an  equal  partition  of  the  conquered  ter- 
ritory of  Syb'aris,  which  being  denied,  as  inconsistent  with  the  naturt 
of  the  oligarchy  established  by  the  Pythagoreans,  they  secretly  con 


ANCIEIS-T  ITALY.  191 

Bpireil  against  tlieii  magistrates,  attacked  tliem  by  surprise  i\  the  stnaie 
nouse,  put  many  to  death,  and  drove  the  rest  from  their  country'.  Py 
thag'oras  himself  died  soon  afterward  at  Metapon'tum,  in  Lucania,  hav- 
ing lived  just  long  enough  to  witness  the  ruin  of  the  structure  he  had 
labored  so  anxiously  to  raise.  Croton  never  perfectly  recovered  from 
tlie  fatal  effects  of  this  civil  war ;  it  was  repeatedly  captured  by  the 
kings  of  Syracuse  ;  and  after  the  departure  of  Pyr'rhus  from  Italy,  it 
oecame  dependant  on  Rome. 

Syb'aris  was  founded  by  an  Achaean  colony  (b.  c.  720).  The  ex- 
treme fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the  generous  admission  of  all  strangera 
to  the  right  of  citizenship,  caused  the  population  to  increase  so  rapidly, 
that,  in  a  war  against  the  Crotonians,  the  Sybarites  are  said  to  have 
brought  three  hundred  thousand  men  into  the  field.  Its  vast  wealth,  de- 
rived chiefly  from  an  extensive  trade  in  wine  and  oil  with  northern 
Africa  and  Gaul,  rendered  it  the  most  extensive,  populous,  and  luxurious 
city  in  Europe  from  about  b.  c.  600  to  b.  c  550  ;  so  that  the  debauchery 
and  effeminacy  of  the  Sybarites  became  proverbial.  Disputes  arose  be- 
tween the  aristocratic  and  democratic  factions,  which  led  to  a  civil  war. 
At  length,  Telys,  the  leader  of  the  multitude,  obtained  possession  of  the 
supreme  power,  and  expelled  five  hundred  of  the  principal  nobles,  who 
fled  for  refuge  to  Croto'na.  The  Sybarites  sent  to  demand  these  refu- 
gees, and,  meeting  with  a  refusal,  put  to  death  the  Crotonian  ambas- 
sadors. Such  an  outrage  naturally  led  to  a  war  between  the  two 
cities  (b.  c.  510).  With  far  inferior  forces  the  Crotonians  defeated  the 
Sybarites  in  the  field,  took  their  city  by  storm,  and  razed  it  to  the  ground. 

The  Sybarites,  driven  from  their  haljitations,  besought  the  Lacedae- 
iiionians  and  the  Athenians  to  restore  them,  requesting  them,  at  the  same 
time,  to  send  a  colony  to  share  in  the  new  city  they  had  resolved  to 
build.  The  ambassadors  were  rejected  at  Spar'ta ;  but  the  Athenians, 
who  delighted  in  such  applications,  cheerfully  granted  their  aid  (b.  c. 
44^).  A  squadron  of  ten  ships,  having  a  considerable  number  of  troops 
onlx)ard,  was  sent  to  Italy,  under  the  command  of  Lam'po  and  Xeuoc'- 
rates  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  proclamation  was  made  throughout  Greece, 
that  all  persons  willing  to  emigrate  to  the  new  colony  should  receive  the 
protection  of  the  Athenian  fleet.  Great  numbers  availed  themselves  of 
the  proposition,  and  the  Sybarites,  aided  by  the  new  settlers,  soon  re- 
covered their  former  possessions,  and  founded  Thurium,  near  the  site  of 
their  ancient  city.  Peace  did  not  long  inhabit  these  new  dwellings  ; 
the  inhabitants,,  coming  from  so  many  various  quarters,  could  not  for- 
get their  old  animosities,  and  began  to  dispute  which  section  among 
them  could  claim  to  rank  as  founders  of  the  city.  An  appeal  w  as  made 
to  the  Delphic  oracle  (b.  c.  433)  :  the  priests  of  that  temple  declared 
the  city  to  be  a  colony  of  Apol'Io.  But  this  did  not  put  an  end  to  dis- 
cord ;  the  Sybarites,  believing  that  they  had  the  best  right  to  their  own 
Liountry,  began  to  exclude  the  foreign  colonists,  who  were  by  far  the 
majority,  from  all  honors  and  employments  ;  this  provoked  a  c;vil  war, 
which  ended  in  a  second  expulsion  of  the  Sybarite  families.  The  Fhu' 
liuris  then  invited  fresh  colonists  from  Greece,  and  formed  themselvey 
into  a  commoj  vealth,  choosing  Charon'das,  of  Cat'ana,  for  their  legis- 
lator. They  soon  sunk  under  the  enervating  efl'ects  of  luxury,  and, 
being  unable  to  defend  themselves  against  the  Lucanians,  placed  theii) 


192  ANCIENT   HISTOllY. 

selves  under  the  protection  of  the  Romans.  This  afibided  ihe  Taren- 
tines  an  excuse  for  attacking  the  city,  of  which  they  made  themselves 
masters,  and  thus  brought  upon  themselves  the  vengeance  of  Rome. 
At  the  close  of  the  Tarentine  war,  Thiirium  became  a  Roman  depeiid- 
ancy.  It  sutl'ercd  very  severely  in  the  second  Punic  war,  and,  having 
been  almost  depopulated,  was  occupied  by  a  Roman  colony  (b.  c.  190). 

'J"he  city  of  L(')cri  Epizephy'rii  was  inhabited  by  the  people  of  the 
same  nante.  The  original  colonists  were  sent  out  by  the  Locri  O'zolae 
(b.  c.  683) ;  but  these  were  joined  by  a  great  variety  of  settlers,  chiefly 
from  western  Greece.  Zaleucus,  one  of  their  own  citizens,  became  the 
legislator  of  the  Locrians^  and  his  wise  institutions  remained  unchanged 
for  nearly  two  centuries.  The  constitution  appears  to  have  been  a  ju- 
dicious mixture  of  aristocracy  and  democracy.  The  Locrians  contin- 
ued to  be  honoral)ly  distinguished  by  their  peaceful  condition,  quiet 
conduct,  and  good  manners,  until  Diony'sius  II.,  tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
having  been  expelled  by  his  subjects,  sought  refuge  in  Locri,  which 
was  the  native  country  of  his  mother  (b.  c.  357).  Ilis  insolence,  his 
licentiousness,  and  the  excesses  of  his  followers,  brought  the  state  to  the 
verfj^e  of  ruin ;  and,  when  he  returned  to  Syracuse  (b.  c,  347),  the  Lo- 
crians revenged  their  wrongs  on  his  unfortunate  family.  When  Pyr'rhus 
invaded  Italy,  he  placed  a  garrison  in  Locri  (b.  c.  277)  ;  but  the  Lo- 
crians rose  in  revolt,  and  put  the  intruders  to  the  sword.  The  king  of 
Epirus,  in  revenge,  stormed  and  plundered  the  city.  After  his  return 
home,  it  submitted  to  the  Romans,  and  was  one  of  the  places  that  suf- 
fered most  severely  in  the  second  Punic  war. 

Rhegium  was  colonized  jointly  by  the  Chalcidians  and  Messenians 
(b.  c.  668) ;  but  the  chief  power  was  possessed  by  the  Messenian  aris- 
tocracy. This  oligarchy  was  subverted  by  Anaxilaus  (b.  c.  494),  and 
an  absolute  despotism  established.  After  some  time  the  Rhegians  re- 
covered their  freedom,  and  attempted  to  secure  tranquillity  by  adopting 
from  the  Thurians  the  constitution  of  Charon'das.  Thenceforward 
Rhegium  enjoyed  tranquillity  and  happiness,  until  it  was  captured  and 
destroyed  by  Dionys'ius  I.,  of  Syracuse  (b.  c.  392).  It  was  partially 
restored  by  Dionys'ius  II.  ;  but,  during  the  wars  of  Pyr'rhus  in  Italy, 
it  was  still  so  weak  as  to  require  the  protection  of  a  Roman  garrison 
A  legion,  raised  in  Campania,  was  sent  to  Rhegium,  under  the  command 
of  Decius  Jubel'lus.  These  soldiers  having  been  used  to  a  life  of  hard- 
ship, began  soon  to  envy  the  luxurious  ease  and  wealth  of  the  citizens 
they  had  come  to  protect,  and  they  formed  a  perfidious  plan  for-  theii 
destruction  (b.  c.  281).  They  forged  letters  from  the  Rhegians  to  Pyr'- 
rhus, oflering  to  put  that  monarch  in  possession  of  the  city,  and,  undei 
this  pretence,  they  put  the  principal  part  of  the  citizens  to  death,  and 
drove  the  rest  into  exile.  The  Roman  senate  was  not  slow  in  punishing 
this  atrocious  outrage  ;  they  sent  an  army  against  the  guiUy  Campani- 
ans,  who  had  been  reinforced  by  several  bands  of  profligate  plunderers, 
and,  after  a  severe  struggle,  obtained  possession  of  the  city.  The  sur- 
vivors of  the  wicked  legionaries  were  beaten  with  rods,  and  beheaded 
in  bands  ol'  fifty  at  a  time  ;  and  a  few  Rhegians  who  survived  were  re- 
insjtated  in  posses.sion  of  their  estates,  liberties,  and  laws.  Hut,  the  city 
was  too  weak  to  maintain  its  independence,  and  it  became  t!iencefortb 
eubjecl  to  Rome. 


I 


glCILY. 


19:1 


CUAPTEIi   Xl\'. 
HISTORY    OF    SICILY. 

Section  I. — Geographical  Outline. 

The  feitile  island  of  Sicily  was  known  by  various  names  to  the  aa 
^jicnts.  It  was  called  Triquet'ra,  or  Trinac'ria,from  its  triangular  shape  , 
Sicania  and  Sicilia  from  the  Sic'ani  and  Sic'uli,  Italian  hordes  who 
peopled  a  great  part  ot  the  country.  Its  three  extreme  promontories 
were  named  Pelorum  (^Faro),  Pachy'num  {Pussaro),  and  Lilyba^'um 
(Bocco)  ;  the  first  of  these  faces  Italy,  the  second  Greece,  and  the  third 
Africa.  From  the  narrowness  of  the  strait  opposite  Pelorum,  it  has 
been  supposed  that  Sicily  was  broken  off  from  Italy  by  some  convulsion 
of  nature  ;  and  the  Greek  city  Rhegium,  which  stood  on  the  Italian  side 
of  the  strait,  derives  its  name  from  this  common  opinion.*  The  strait 
is  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  of  its  current,  and  for  the  rock  Scyl'la, 
and  whirlpool  Charyb'dis,  the  passage  between  which  was  accounted 
very  dangerous.  These  places  are  frequently  described  by  the  Latin 
poets.  Ovid  thus  alludes  to  the  opinion  of  Italy  having  been  joined  to 
Sicily  near  the  city  of  Zan'cle,  or  Messana  : — 

"  So  Zan'cle  to  the  Italian  earth  was  tied. 

And  men  once  walked,  where  ships  at  anchor  ride ; 

Till  Neptune  overlooked  the  narrow  way. 

And  in  disdain  poured  in  the  conquering  sea." 

The  most  remarkable  cities  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily  were  Zan'- 
cle, or  Messana  (Messina),  deriving  its  first  name  from  the  old  Siciliar 
word  Zan'clos  signifying  a  reaping-hook,  to  which  its  curved  shore 
bears  some  fanciful  resemblance  ;  and  its  second  from  the  Messenian 
exiles,  who  conquered  the  city  :  Tauromin'ium  [Taormina),  on  the  river 
Tauromin'ius  {Cantara),  near  which  was  the  coast  called  Cop'ria,  oi 
"  the  dunghill,"  from  the  number  of  wrecks  cast  upon  it  by  the  whirl- 
pool of  Charyb'dis  :  Cat'ana,  a  Chalcidian  colony  on  the  river  Amenes 
(Judicello)  :  Morgan'tium,  a  city  of  the  Italian  Sic'uli,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Sigmaj'thus  (La  Jarclta)  :  Leontini,  a  flourishing  Chalcidian  col" 
ony :  Hyb'la,  celebrated  for  its  honey,  I'ounded  by  the  Sicanians,  and 
Hubsequently  colonized  by  the  Megarians  :  and  Syracuse,  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  island. 

Syracuse  contained  within  its  walls,  which  were  eighteen  miles  ii 
'.ninmiference,  four  very  consideral)le  cities  united  into  one,  like  Lor 

*  From  /';,y..»;/(.  to  break. 
13 


194  ANCIENT    HISTURV. 

•ion,  Westminister,  Soutliwark,  and  Lambeth.  Acradina,  the  hirgest  oi 
the  four,  contained  the  principal  public  buildings,  such  as  the  Prytane 
um,  the  palace  of  justice,  and  the  templ'^  of  Jupiter  Olympius.  Ty'che,* 
which  stood  between  Acradina  and  the  hill  Epip'ola?,  contained  the 
Gymnasium  for  the  exercise  of  youth,  and  several  temples,  especially 
one  dedicated  to  Fortune,  from  which  this  division  of  the  city  derived 
its  name.  The  third  quarter,  called  Orty'gia,  was  an  island,  connected 
with  the  other  parts  by  a  bridge  ;  it  contained  two  beautiful  temples,  one 
sacred  to  Diana,  and  the  other  to  Minerva,  the  tutelary  deities  of  SjTa- 
cuse.  Neap'olis,  or  the  new  city,  was  the  latest  erected  :  it  contained 
the  temples  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine,  and  the  statue  of  Apol'lo  Tem- 
en'ites,  celebrated  by  Cicero  as  the  most  valuable  monument  of  SjTa- 
cuse. 

Near  Syracuse  was  a  steep  hill  named  Epip'olse,  defended  in  the  later 
ao-es  by  a  fort  called  Lab'dalon.  On  this  hill  was  the  famous  prison 
called  Latom'iae,  on  account  of  its  being  partly  excavated  from  the  liv 
ing  rock.*  It  was  a  cave  on-e  hundred  and  twenty-five  paces  long  and 
twenty  feet  broad,  constructed  by  order  of  Dionys'ius  the  tyrant,  who 
imprisoned  there  those  whom  he  suspected  of  being  opposed  to  his  usur- 
pation. A  winding  tube,  constructed  on  the  model  of  the  human  ear, 
ascended  from  the  cavern  to  a  private  apartment,  where  the  tyrant  used 
to  sit  and  listen  to  the  conversation  of  his  unhappy  captives. 

The  celebrated  fountain  of  Arethusa,  now  dried  up,  arose  in  the  is- 
land of  Orty'gia.  The  poets  fabled  that  the  Al'pheus,  a  river  of  E'lis 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  rolled  its  waters  either  through  or  under  the  waters 
of  the  sea,  without  mixing  with  them,  as  far  as  the  fountain  of  Arethu 
3a ;  which  gave  occasion  to  the  following  lines  of  Virgil : — 

Thy  sacred  succor,  Arethusa,  bring, 
To  crown  my  labor ;  'tis  the  last  I  sing ; 
So  may  thy  silver  streams  beneath  the  tide. 
Unmixed  with  briny  seas,  securely  glide  ! 

On  the  African  side  of  Sicily  stood  Camarina,  between  the  rivers 
O'anus  [Frascolari.)  and  Hip'paris  ( Camurana)  :  it  was  anciently  a  verj' 
wealthy  city ;  but  its  inhabitants  having  drained  a  marsh  by  which 
he  city  was  protected,  the  enemies  found  easy  access,  and  destroy- 
ed it ;  hence  A'^e  moveas  Camarinam,  "  Remove  not  Camarina,"  has 
pas.sed  into  a  proverb.  Following  the  line  of  coast  westward,  we  mee. 
Gela  {Terra  Nova),  now  in  ruins,  and  Ag'ragas  or  Agrigen'tum  [Gir 
e;cnti),  be^;ween  the  rivers  Ag'ragas  [San  Buiggio)  and  Hyp'sa  [Drago). 
it  was  anciently  the  rival  of  Syracuse  :  and  we  may  judge  of  its  former 
strength  and  splendor  from  the  following  description  given  of  it  by  the 
Historian  Polybius  :  "  It  exceeds  most  of  the  Sicilian  cities  in  strength, 
beauty,  and  situation,  and  magnificent  edifices.  Though  erected  at  the 
distance  of  eighteen  hundred  furlongs  from  the  sea,  it  can  conveniently 
import  all  kinds  of  provision  and  munitions  of  war.  From  its  natural 
strength,  increased  judiciously  by  fortifications,  it  is  one  of  the  most 
impregnable  places  in  the  island.  Its  walls  are  built  upon  a  rock,  ren 
dered  inaccessible  by  art.  The  river,  from  which  the  city  takes  ita 
riame,  protects  it  on  the  south,  and  it  is  covered  by  the  Hyp'sa  on  th«? 

•  From  TV x_n,  fortune.  t  From  Xaas,  a  stone,  and  rcnru,  to  cut. 


HICILY.  195 

•;vest ;  on  the  east  it  it  is  defended  by  a  fortress,  built  on  the  biink  of  a 
precipice,  which  serves  instead  of  a  ditch."  The  citadel,  called  Om'- 
phale,  which  stood  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ag'ragas,  was  more  ancient  than 
the  city  itself. 

The  other  cities  on  the  African  side  were  Mino'a  Heraclea  (Castel 
Biancu),  deriving  its  first  name  from  a  Cretan,  and  its  second  from  a 
Lacedcemonian  colony,  on  the  banks  of  the  Haly'cus  {Plutani) ;  and 
Sclfnus  [Terra  (Idle  Pulci),  on  the  river  Seli'nus  [Madiuni),  founded  by 
a  colony  from  Meg'ara. 

On  the  coast  opposite  Italy  were  the  cities  Lilybae'um  [Marsala),  cel- 
ebrated in  ancient  times  for  its  excellent  harbor  ;  Drep'anum  [Trapain), 
deriving  its  name  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of  its  coast  to  a  scythe  ;* 
E'ryx  [Trrpano  del  Alonte),  on  a  mountain  of  the  same  name  ;  Seges'ta, 
or  Eges'ta,  nov/  in  ruins,  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  a  Trojan 
colony,  who  named  the  streams  that  watered  their  territory  the  SciiUidn'- 
iler  and  the  Sim'ois,  in  memory  oJ  the  rivers  of  their  native  land ;  the 
former  of  these  is  now  II  Jiume  di  San  Bartolomeo,  the  latter  a  rivulet 
without  a  name  ;  Panor'mus  [Palermo),  the  present  capital  of  Sicily, 
originally  founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  between  the  Orothus  [Amiraglioj 
and  the  Leutherus  [Baiaria).  In  the  neighborhood  of  Panor'mus  was 
a  mountain  fortress  called  E'reta  (Monle  Pclegrino)  :  Himae'ra,  Alai'sa, 
amd  Agathyr'na,  are  now  in  ruins. 

In  the  Ulterior  of  the  country  were  Ad'ranum  [Aderno),  near  the  foot 
of  Mount  iEtna ;  En'na  [Castro  Janrii),  sacred  to  Ceres;  and  En'' 
gyum  [^Mandania),  near  the  springs  of  the  Als'sus  [Casonia). 

The  most  remarkable  natural  object  in  Sicily  is  the  celebrated  vol- 
cano of  tht'  lofty  Mount  iEtna,  covered  with  eternal  snows,  though  eveJ 
bmiiing.     It  has  been  described  by  Sil'ius  Ital'icus : — 

"  Its  lofty  summits,  wondrous  to  be  told, 
Displaj'  bright  (himes  amid  the  ice  and  cold; 
Above,  its  rocks,  vith  flames  incessant  glow, 
Though  bound  in  icy  fetters  far  below; 
The  peak  is  claimed  bj  ^»  inter  as  its  throne, 
While  glowing  ashes  o'er  its  snows  are  shown." 

The  fire  which  continually  burns  in  the  bowels  of  the  mountain  madt 
lite  poets  place  here  the  forges  of  Vulcan  and  his  Cyclopean  attendants, 
and  the  prison  of  the  giants  who  rebelled  against  Jupiter.  This  fiction 
Js  beaiUifuUy  related  by  Virgil,  in  his  description  of  the  moun'.ain  •- — 

"  The  port  capacious,  and  secure  from  wind. 

Is  to  the  foot  of  thund'ring  .^Etna  joined. 

By  tarns  a  pitchy  cloud  she  rolls  on  high ; 

By  turns  hot  embers  from  her  entrails  fly, 

And  flakes  of  mountain-flames  that  lick  the  sky. 

Oft  from  her  bowels  massy  rocks  are  thrown, 

And  shivered  by  their  force  come  piecemeal  dowu. 

Oft  liquid  lakes  of  burning  sulphur  flow, 

Fed  from  the  fiery  springs  that  burn  below. 

Enceladus,  they  say,  transfixed  by  Jove, 

With  blasted  limbs  came  trembling  from  above; 

•  F/Om  iMrravDV,  G  scythti. 


196  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Af\L  wiien  he  fell,  tlie  aven^inu:  father  drew 

This  flainin?  hill,  and  on  his  body  threw ; 

As  often  as  he  turns  his  weary  sides, 

He  shakes  the  solid  isle,  and  smoke  the  heaveijs  hides." 

The  ^Eolian  oi  Vulcanian  islands  lie  ofT  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  ii 
the  Tuscan  sea.  The  most  remarkable  are  Lip'ara  (^Lipari)  and 
Stronyg'he  (Stromboli).  North  of  Cape  Lilyhae'um  were  the  islands 
called  jE'gates,  or  ^^'gades :  they  are  three  in  number ;  Phorban'tio 
{Levanzo),  iEgusa  [Favignano),  and  Hi'ra  [Marctino). 

Section   II. — Historical  Notices  of  the  ancient  Inhabitants  of  Sicily. 

CHRONOLOGY   UXCERTAIX. 

The  Cyclopians  and  Lsestrigons  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  in- 
habitants of  Sicily.  It  is  impossible  to  trace  their  origin  ;  we  only 
know  that  their  settlemei.ts  were  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  jEtna. 
Their  inhumanity  toward  strangers,  and  the  flames  of  JEtna,  were  the 
source  of  many  popvilar  fables  and  poetic  fictions.  It  was  said  that  the 
Cy'clops  were  giants  ;  that  they  had  but  one  eye,  placed  in  the  centre 
of  their  forehead ;  that  they  fed  on  human  flesh ;  and  that  they  were 
employed  by  Vulcan  to  forge  the  thunderbolts  of  Jove. 

Next  in  antiquity  were  the  Sicanians,  probably  an  Italian  horde  driven 
southward  by  the  pressure  of  the  Pelas'gi,  though  many  ancient  writers 
assert  that  they  came  from  Spain.  They  finally  settled  in  the  western 
part  of  the  island,  and  were  said  to  have  joined  the  Trojan  exiles  in 
building  E'ryx  and  Egesta. 

After  the  Sic'ani  had  been  for  some  ages  exclusive  masters  of  the 
island,  the  Sic'uli,  an  ancient  people  of  Ausonia,  crossed  the  strait ; 
and  having  defeated  the  Sicanians  in  a  sanguinary  engagement,  con- 
fined them  in  a  narrow  territory,  and  changed  the  name  of  the  island 
from  Sicania  to  Sicily.  Some  centuries  after  this  revolution,  Greek 
colonies  began  to  settle  on  the  Sicilian  coast ;  the  principal  states  that 
founded  settlements  in  the  island  were  Chal'cis  in  Euboe'a,  Meg'ara, 
Corinth,  the  Dorians  from  Rhodes  and  Crete,  and  the  Messenians, 
driven  from  their  native  countr)^  by  the  Spartans.  To  these  may  be 
added  two  Italian  colonies,  the  Morgetes  and  the  Mamer'tines. 

The  Sic'uli  were  first  united  under  one  head  by  a  king  named 
.^'olus,  whose  age  is  uncertain.  Their  most  renowned  sovereign  was 
Deucetius,  who  engaged  in  a  long  war  with  the  Syracusans ;  but  hav- 
ing been  frequently  defeated,  he  was  forced  to  surrender  himself  to 
their  mercy.  With  unusual  clemency,  the  Syracusans  granted  him 
liberty  and  life,  and  assigned  a  pension  for  his  support,  on  condition  of 
his  living  in  the  territories  of  their  parent  city,  Corinth.  Having  re- 
moved this  formidable  rival,  the  Syracusans  reduced  the  whole  country 
of  the  Sic'uli,  stormed  thinr  chief  city,  Triquet'ra,  and  levelled  it  to  the 
ground.  When  the  Athenians  invaded  Sicily  under  the  command  of 
Nic'ias.  they  were  joined  by  the  Sic'uli,  who  gave  them  very  eflective 
assistance.  They  likewise  aided  the  Carthagiidans  in  their  first  at- 
tempts to  gain  possession  of  the  island.  Having  been  subsequently  in 
luced  to  join  the   Syracusans,  they  were  disgracefully  betrayed  to  the 


SYRACUSE.  197 

Carthaginians  b;/  the  tyrant  Dionys'ius,  and  weie    forced    to  b«-.ur  n 
cniel  yoke,  until  their  independence  was  restored  by  Timoleon 

Sectio-n  III. —  The  History  of  Syracuse. 
FROM    B.  c.  735    TO  B.  c.  212. 

Syracuse  was  founded  by  a  Corinthian  colony  (b.  j.  735),  undel 
,he  guidance  of  Archy'tas,  a  nobleman  of  rank,  compelled  to  quit  hi? 
native  country  by  some  political  dispute.  Its  form  of  government  for 
two  centuries  and  a  half  was  republican  ;  and  though,  during  this  pe  • 
riod,  the  state  does  not  appear  to  have  risen  to  any  considerable  height 
of  power,  yet  the  Syracusans  founded  the  colonies  of  A'crae,  Cas'menae, 
and  Camarina.  An  aristocratic  faction  having  cruelly  oporessed  the 
citizens,  the  populace  at  length  coiabined  to  throw  off  the  yoke,  and 
drove  the  tyrannical  nobles  into  exile  (b.  c.  485).  They  fled  to  Gela, 
then  ruled  by  Gelon,  an  able  and  ambitious  usurper,  who  had  recently 
become  sovereign  of  his  country.  Gelon  levied  an  army,  and,  accom- 
panied by  the  exiles,  marched  to  Syracuse,  of  which  he  easily  made 
iiimself  master. 

Under  the  administration  of  its  new  master  the  city  rose  rapidly  in 
wealth  and  importance,  while  Gelon  himself  acquired  so  much  fame  by 
repeated  victories  over  the  Carthaginians,  that  the  Athenians  and  Spar- 
tans, then  menaced  by  the  Persian  invasion,  earnestly  sought  his  as- 
sistance. Gelon  demanded  to  be  appointed  captain-general  of  the  con- 
federate Greeks ;  a  stipulation  to  which  the  Athenians  and  Spartans 
returned  a  stem  refusal ;  and  before  any  further  steps  could  be  taken, 
he  learned  that  Xer'xes  had  engaged  the  Carthaginians  to  attack  the 
Greek  colonies  in  Sicily  and  Italy,  while  he  invaded  the  parent  state. 

After  spending  three  years  in  making  preparations,  the  Carthaginians 
sent  against  Sicily  an  immense  armament,  under  the  command  of  Hamil'- 
car,  said  to  consist  of  three  hundred  thousand  men,  two  thousand  ship.'; 
jf  war,  and  three  thousand  vessels  of  burden.  Having  effected  a  landing, 
Hamil'car  laid  siege  to  Himera,  then  ruled  by  Theron,  the  father-in-law 
of  Gelon.  The  king  of  Syracuse,  though  unable  to  muster  more  than 
fifty  thousand  men  a  this  sudden  emergency,  marched  with  all  ex- 
pedition to  raise  the  sicige.  On  his  road  he  had  the  good  fortune  to 
intercept  a  messenger  from  the  Selinuntines  to  the  Carthaginian  gene- 
ral, promising  to  send  him  a  stipulated  body  of  cavalry  bn  an  appointed 
day.  Gelon  led  an  equal  munber  of  his  horse  to  the  Carthaginian  camp 
at  the  specified  time,  and  having  gained  unsuspected  admission,  so  dis- 
concerted the  enemy  by  a  sudden  attack,  that  the  whole  host  was  thrown 
into  confusion,  and  the  >Syracusans  won  an  easy  victory.  HamiFcar 
was  slain,  and  his  mighty  army  all  but  annihilated.  Carthage  humbly 
oought  peace,  which  was  generously  granted  by  the  conqueror.  During 
the  brief  remainder  of  his  reign,  Gelon  strenuously  exerted  himself  for 
the  benefit  of  his  subjects  ;  and  though  no  one  can  justify  the  means 
by  which  he  acquired  supremacy,  there  are  few  who  will  not  pardon 
his  original  error  on  account  of  the  use  he  made  of  his  power.  His 
Bubjects,  after  his  death,  honored  him  as  a  demigod. 

Hiero  I.  succeeded  his  brother  Gelon  (b.  c.  477)  ;  his  administratiori 
■•'•'as  more  brilliant  than  usefid  :  he  protected  the  arts  and  sciences  ;  but 


198  ANCIENT  HISTOa'5 

ne  also  encouraged  a  tasie  for  luxury  and  magnificence,  contrary  to  ifit 
policy  of  his  more  enlightened  predecessor.  He  subdued  the  cities  of 
Cat'ana  and  Nax'us,  expelled  the  ancient  inhabitants,  and  supplied  theii 
place  with  fresh  colonies  from  Syracuse  and  the  Peloponnesus.  A 
more  honorable  and  useful  achievement  was  his  decisive  victory  over 
the  Eti-urian  pirates  off  Cumae  ;  these  had  long  been  the  terror  of  the 
western  Mediterranean  ;  but  after  their  overthrow  by  Hiero,  they  ceased 
to  infest  the  seas  for  several  centuries.  After  this  exploit  he  engaged 
in  Avar  with  the  t}Tant  of  Agrigen'tum,  who  was  forced  to  abdicate  the 
government,  and  his  subjects  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
Hiero. 

Thrasybu'lus,  likcAvise  a  l^rother  of  Gelon,  became  sovereign  of  Syr 
acuse  on  the  death  of  Hiero  (b.  c.  459) ;  but  his  tyranny  and  cruelty 
soon  provoked  a  revolution  ;  he  was  dethroned  and  the  republican  con- 
stitution restored.  But  the  S}Tacusans  gained  little  by  the  chaj  ge.  A 
svstem  of  secret  voting,  called  petalism*  was  introduced,  precisely 
similar  to  the  Athenian  ostracism,  and  most  of  'the  leading  statesmen 
were  banished  by  a  giddy  populace.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the 
Athenians  made  their  unfortunate  attempt  to  conquer  Sicily,  whose  re- 
sults have  been  already  described  in  the  chapter  on  Grecian  history. 
After  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Athenian  armaments  (b.  c.  413), 
the  Egestans,  who  had  invited  the  invaders,  sought  and  obtained  the 
aid  of  Carthage :  this  led  to  a  series  of  sanguinary  wars,  which  have 
been  noticed  in  the  chapter  on  the  history  of  Carthage. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  political  disturbances  in  Syracuse,  Dionys'ius 
1.  usurped  the  government  (b.  c.40.5),  and  though  deservedly  branded 
as  a  t}Tant,  it  must  be  confessed  that  his  vigorous  administration  was 
crowned  with  success  abroad  and  prosperity  at  home.  The  greatei 
part  of  his  reign  was  passed  in  wars  against  Carthage  and  the  cities 
of  Magna  Grsecia,  and  also  against  the  ancient  race  of  the  Sic'uli, 
whose  choice  of  party  generally  decided  the  success  of  these  wars. 

Dionys'ius  I.  was  cut  off  by  poison  (b.  o.  368),  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  youthful  son,  Dionys'ius  II.,  under  the  guardianship  of  the  vir» 
tuous  Dio.  But  neither  Dio  nor  his  friend  the  philosopher  Plato,  could 
improve  the  corrupted  character  of  the  young  prince.  He  drove  Dio 
into  banishment  (b.  c.  360),  and  then  gave  a  loose  reign  to  his  pas- 
sions, indulging  in  the  most  extravagant  luxury  and  debauchery.  Dio 
returned  (b.  c.  357),  and  after  a  long  struggle,  restored  the  republican 
form  of  government.  He  was,  however,  assassinated  (b.  c.  353).  Syr 
acuse  became  the  prey  of  sanguinary  factions,  of  which  Dionys'ius, 
after  ten  years  of  exile,  took  advantage  to  recover  his  throne.  His 
tyranny,  and  the  treachery  of  I'cetas  the  Leontine,  who,  when  invited 
to  aid  the  Syracusans,  betrayed  their  interests  to  the  Carthaginians 
compelled  the  citizens  to  seek  succor  from  Corinth.  Timoleon,  th* 
most  s})lendid  example  of  a  true  repiiblican  that  ancient  history  affords, 
was  sent  to  their  assistance,  but  with  very  inadequate  forces  (b.  c.  345). 
His  abilities  were,  however,  of  more  value  than  an  army  ;  he  dethroned 
Dionys'ius,  expelled  I'cetas,  and,  by  a  brilliant  victory,  humbled  tht 
pride  of  the  Carthaginians.  Timoleon's  death  (b.  c.  337)  was  followed 
by  a  long  period  of  stormy  weakness,  which  ended  in  the  usurpatior 
•  From  TTtraXov,  a  leaf 


I 


SYRACUSE.  199 

of  Agathoc'les  (b.  c.  317).     The  wars  of  that  usurper    in   Sicily  ano 
Africa  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Carthaginian  history. 

After  the  death  of  Agathoc'les  (b.  c.  289),  the  Syracusans,  harassed 
by  intestine  commotions,  and  closely  pressed  by  the  Mamer'tines  and 
Carthaginians,  suffered  the  most  dreadful  calamities,  and  were  at  length 
forced  to  supplicate  the  aid  of  Pyr'rhus,  king  of  Epirus.  That  mon- 
arch, after  having  conquered  almost  the  entire  island,  so  disgusted  hia 
supporters  by  his  arrogance,  that  he  was  compelled  to  retire  (b.  c.  275). 
The  Syracusans  at  length,  wearied  of  anarchy,  conferred  the  throne  or 
Hiero  II.,  descended  from  the  ancient  royal  family  of  Gelon.  Undei 
this  prince  the  city  enjoyed  peace  and  prosperity  during  the  wars  be- 
tween Rome  and  Carthage,  in  which  he  had  the  wisdom  to  take  the 
Roman  side.  He  died  of  old  age  (b.  c.  215),  after  a  long  and  glorious 
reign.  After  his  death,  the  Carthaginian  party  acquired  supremacy  in 
Syracuse,  and  made  a  profligate  use  of  their  power.  The  new  rulers 
soon  provoked  the  resentment  of  the  Romans,  who  sent  an  army  into 
Sicily,  and  after  a  lon'g  siege,  protracted  by  the  ingenious  mechanical 
inventions  of  the  celebrated  mathematician  Archimedes,  took  it  by 
storm  (b.  c.  212),  and  laid  it  level  with  the  ground. 

Most  of  the  other  Greek  cities  in  Sicily  were  involved  in  the  for- 
tunes of  Syracuse.  Agrigen'tum,  having  been  used  as  a  military  and 
naval  station  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the  first  Punic  war,  was  seized 
by  the  Romans  so  early  as  b.  c.  262.  Sicily  finally  became  a  Roman 
province,  and  was  one  of  the  most  valuable  attached  to  the  empire.  It 
was  also  one  of  the  best  governed  ;  a  blessing  which  must  be  attributed 
not  merely  to  its  vicinity  to  the  seat  of  power,  but  also  to  the  fact  of  its 
corn-harvests  being  regarded  as  the  resource  to  which  the  Romans 
shoiJd  look  as  the  agricultural  productions  of  Ititly  becume  more  and 
more  inalequate  to  the  support  of  the  population. 


200  ANCIENT  HISTOliY 


CHAPTER  XV. 
HISTORY  OF    THE  ROMAN  REPUBLIC. 

Section  I. —  Traditions  respecting  the  Origin  of  the  Romans, 

The  legends  of  Rome,  preserved  by  her  best  historians,  relate  ihai 
iEneas,  after  the  destruction  of  Troy,  led  a  colony  of  his  countrymen 
into  Italy,  and  founded  the  city  of  Lavin'ium.  It  would  be  easy  to 
show  that  this  tale  is  destitute  of  truth  or  importance,  but  it  is  worth 
while  to  trace  its  origin.  That  the  Romans  were  partly  of  Pelasgic 
origin  appears  evident  from  the  name  of  their  city,  which  in  Greek 
signifies  "  a  fortress."*  In  almost  every  country  where  the  Pelas'gi 
settled  we  find  a  city  named  ^Enus,  which,  therefor:;  was  probably  a 
generic  rather  than  an  individual  name.  If  any  of  the  Pelas'gi  who 
settled  on  the  hills  at  the  south  side  of  the  Tiber  came  from  an  ^Enus, 
they  most  probaWy  retained  their  ancient  name  jEneadae ;  and  the  sig- 
nification of  that  patronymic  being  forgotten  in  prof  ess  of  time,  it  was 
confounded  with  another  similar  name,  preserved  by  an  independent 
tradition,  the  ^Encada,  or  followers  of  iEneas,  who  survived  the  de- 
struction of  their  cnintry. 

The  legends  proceed  to  state  that  three  years  after  the  landing  of  the 
Trojans  in"  Italy,  they  were  supernaturally  guided  to  the  spot  where 
Lavin'ium  was  erected.  Their  rising  power  gave  offence  to  the  Ru- 
tulians  and  Etruscans ,  Tur'nus  and  Mezen'tius  led  an  army  to  expel 
the  intruders.  A  battle  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Numicius  ; 
Tur'nus  was  slain  by  vEneas,  who,  in  his  turn,  fell  a  victim  to  Mezen'- 
tius ;  or,  as  was  more  generally  believed,  disappeared  in  the  stream,  and 
became  a  god,  under  the  name  of  Jupiter  In'diges.  Mezen'tius  was  ulti- 
nr^ately  slain  by  Iiilus,  or  Ascanius,  the  son  of  ^neas,  whose  descend- 
ants became  lords  of  Latium. 

After  the  lapse  of  thirty  years,  Lavin'ium  Avas  deserted  for  the  more 
secure  city  of  Al'ba,  erected  on  the  Alban  Mount  {Monte  Cavo) ;  and 
here  the  thirty  confederate  cities  of  Latium  offered  common  sacrifices 
lo  the  gods  of  the  Pelasgic  nation. 

The  traditions  then  go  on  to  state  that,  at  an  uncertain  date  after  tht 
erection  of  the  city,  Procas,  king  of  Al'ba,  leaving  two  sons  at  his  death 
bequeathed  his  kingdom  to  Numitor,  the  elder,  and  his  treasures,  in 
eluding  the  ancient  wealth  that  had  been  saved  from  the  sack  of  Troy, 
to  Amiilius  His  riches  enabled  the  younger  prince  to  bribe  a  band 
of  supporters,  dethrone  his  brother,  procure  the  murder  of  Numitor'? 
youthful  son,  and  have  his  daughter  Il'ia,  or  Rhea  Syl'via,  appointed  a 

♦  Pvji^  itrength. 


I 


liOMAN  KEPi  liHO.  '201 

vestal  virgin.  While  going  to  draw  water  from  a  spring,  for  the  der 
vice  of  the  temple,  she  was  violated  by  the  god  Mars,  and  became  the 
parent  of  twin  boys.  Amuliiis  caused  Syl'via  to  be  put  to  death,  and 
the  children  thrown  into  the  A'nio.  The  helpless  infants  were  borne 
down  the  stream  to  the  Tiber ;  and  as  that  river  subsided  from  a  recent 
overflow,  they  were  deposited  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine  hill,  beneath  a 
fig-tree,  called  ihefici/s  rumi/idlis.  They  were  suckled  by  a  she-wolf, 
and  fed  by  a  woodpecker,  until  they  were  discovered  b}-  Ac'ca  Lau- 
ren'tia,  wife  of  Faustulus,  the  royal  shepherd.  Among  her  twelve 
sons  and  the  neighboring  shepherds,  the  twins  became  distinguished 
ibr  courage,  and  were  chosen  heads  of  rival  factions.  The  followers 
jf  Rom'ulus  were  named  Quinctil'ii ;  those  of  Remus,  Fabii.  When 
•  hey  grew  up,  Remus,  being  involved  in  a  dispute  willi  the  herdsmen 
vyf  the  deposed  Numitor,  and  being  taken  prisoner,  was  carried  to  AFba 
as  a  robber.  The  youthful  prince,  when  brought  into  the  presence  of 
his  grandfather,  so  charmed  him  by  the  intrepidity  of  his  replies,  that 
Numitor  hesitated  to  pronounce  sentence  of  death.  In  the  meantime, 
Rom'ulus,  having  learned  from  the  ancient  shepherd  the  secret  of  hia 
birth,  assembled  his  comrades  to  rescue  Remus  ;  and,  being  joined  by 
some  of  his  grandfather's  old  adherents,  deposed  Amulius.  and  restored 
Numitor  tu  his  throne. 

Love  foi  the  spot  where  their  lives  had  been  thus  miraculously  pre- 
served, induced  the  young  men  to  solicit  their  grandfather  for  permission 
to  erect  a  city  .on  the  banks  of  ihe  Tiber.  Scarcely  had  leave  been 
granted,  when  a  violent  contest  arose  between  the  brothers  ;  Rom'ulus 
insisted  that  ihe  city  should  be  called  Rome,  and  should  be  built  on 
Mount  Palatine  ;  Remus  demanded  that  it  should  be  named  Reinuria, 
and  erected  on  Ivlount  Aventine.  It  was  resolved  that  the  question 
uhould  be  decided  by  the  most  favorable  augury.  Remus  had  the  first 
omen,  six  vultures ;  but  Rom'ulus  the  more  perfect,  twelve  vultures. 
A  second  dispute  arose  ;  but  the  party  of  Rom'ulus  prevailed,  and  the 
foundation  of  the  new  city  was  laid  on  Mount  Palatine,  with  all  the 
ceremonies  of  Tuscan  superstition.  Scarcely  had  the  walls  began  to 
appear  above  the  surface,  when  Remus  leaped  over  them  in  an  insuL- 
mg  manner,  and  was  slain  either  by  Rom'ulus  or  one  of  his  followers. 

According  to  Var'ro,  whose  authority  has  been  followed  by  most 
chronologists,  Rome  was  founded  on  the  21st  of  April,  being  the  day 
sacred  to  Pales,  the  goddess  of  shepherds,  in  the  third  year  of  the  sixth 
Olympiad,  four  hundred  and  thirty-one  years  after  the  destruction  of 
Troy,  and  seven  hundred  and  fifty-three  before  the  commencement  of 
.he  Christian  era.  It  was  built  in  a  square  form,  and  contained  origin 
ally  about  a  thousand  miserable  huts.  Such  was  the  humble  begin- 
aing  of  a  city  destined  to  be  the  capital  of  the  world. 

Sect  on  II. — Frym  tlie  Foundation  of  the  City  to  the  Abolihcn  of  Royalty 
FROM  B.  0.  753  TO  B.  c.  509. 

.  In  order  to  procure  inhabitants  for  his  new  city,  Rom'ulus  opened 
an  asylum  for  all  whom  guilt  or  misfortune  compelled  to  quit  their 
native  country.     When  he  had  thus  procured  a   competent  number  of 


^^'i  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

cUizens,  he  convened  aw  assembly  of  the  people  to  chooso  a  constitu- 
tion and  rulers.  As  he  Jiad  anticipated,  he  was  elected  king  ;  but  al 
the  same  time  his  power  was  limited  by  municipal  institutions  tending 
to  secure  a  considerable  degree  of  freedom.  He  divided  the  colony 
into  three  tribes,  and  these  into  thirty  curiae  :  next  he  constituted 
classes  or  orders  of  the  state,  separating  the  wealthier  or  more  nobly 
born,  whom  he  styled  patricians,  from  the  inferior  rank  of  plebeians. 
The  dignity  of  the  patricians  was  hereditary ;  and  eligibility  to  the 
principal  offices  of  state  was  long  confined  to  their  order.  To  prevent 
envy  or  sedition  arising  from  such  a  distinction,  he  engaged  both 
classes  to  each  other  by  the  obligation  of  clientship.  Every  plebeian 
vvas  allowed  to  choose  "  a  patron"  from  the  body  of  the  patricians,  to 
whom  he  became  a  client ;  and  the  sanctity  of  this  mutual  tie  was 
preserved  by  the  most  awful  denunciations,  civil  and  religious,  against 
its  violation.  A  senate  of  one  hundred  was  chosen  to  aid  the  king  by 
their  counsels.  Rom'ulus  nominated  the  first,  who  had  the  privilege  of 
governing  the  city  in  his  absence  :  each  of  the  three  tribes  and  thirty 
curiae  chose  three,  which  completed  the  number.  The  senators,  either 
from  their  age,  or  from  the  similitude  of  their  care,  were  named  Patres 
{fathers). 

The  next  object  that  required  the  attention  of  Rom'ulus  was  the  for* 
mation  of  treaties  of  intermarriage  with  the  neighboring  states  ;  but 
these,  despising  the  mean  origin  of  the  Romans,  rejected  his  proposals 
with  scorn.  But  though  they  thus  refused  alliance,  they  flocked  to 
witness  the  Consualia,  splendid  games  which  Rom'ulus  proclaimed  iu 
honor  of  Consus,  or  Neptune.  While  the  strangers  gazed  unsuspect- 
ingly on  the  spot,  their  maidens  were  seized  by  an  armed  band  of  young 
Romans,  who  compelled  them  to  become  their  wives  by  force.  Several 
of  the  injured  cities  had  recourse  to  arms,  but  were  successfully  defeat- 
ed. At  last  Titus  Tatius,  king  of  the  Sabines,  led  a  more  powerful 
army  against  them  ;  and  Rom'ulus,  unable  to  withstand  him  in  the 
field,  retreated  into  the  city,  leaving  a  garrison  to  protect  an  important 
outpost  on  the  Capitoline  hill.  Tarpeia,  the  daughter  of  the  governor, 
dazzled  by  the  splendid  bracelets  of  the  Sabines,  agreed  to  betray  the 
fortress  "  for  what  the  besiegers  wore  on  their  arms."  The  Sabines, 
either  mistaking  her  meaning,  or  anxious  to  punish  her  treachery,  threw 
their  shields  on  her  as  they  entered,  and  crushed  her  to  death.  The 
Romans  found  themselves  obliged,  by  the  loss  of  this  important  outpost, 
lo  hazard  a  general  engagement ;  but  while  victory  was  still  doubtful, 
the  Sabine  women,  rushing  between  the  armies,  induced  them,  by  ear- 
nest supplications,  to  make  terms  of  peace.  It  was  agreed  that  the 
Sabines  should  erect  a  new  city  on  the  Quirinal  and  Capitoline  hills  ; 
that  there  should  be  a  "  comitium,"  or  place  of  common  assembly  foi 
both  nations,  in  the  space  between  the  Palatine  and  Capitoline  hills 
and  that  Rom'ulus  and  Tatius  should  reign  conjointly.  The  murder  of 
Tatius,  not  Jong  after,  at  Lavin'ium,  left  Rom'ulus  sole  monarch  of  both 
nations. 

The  romantic  circumstances  just  narrated  bear  ever}'  mark  of  having 
been  derived  from  some  national  ballad  or  legendary  lay,  and  conse- 
quently are  not  to  be  received  as  historic  truth.  Even  less  confidence 
\n  due  to  the  narrative  of  the  Tuscan  wars,  with  which  the   Latin  hi?' 


llOMAN  BEPUBLIC.  203 

tonans  have  filled  the  blank  of  thirty-seven  years  in  the  life  of  Rom'u 
lus.  But  a  second  heroic  lay  recited,  that,  after  a  long  reign,  he  dis- 
appeared from  earth,  and  became  a  god.  under  the  name  ol  Quirim:^ 
Opposed  to  this  was  an  ancient  tradition,  that  he  was  torn  lo  pieces  by 
an  aristocratic  faction  in  the  senate-house  (b.  c.  717). 

On  the  death  of  Rom'ulus,  the  senate  appeared  anxious  to  retain  the 
supreme  power,  and  each  senator  in  rotation  was  to  enjoy  regal  authority 
for  one  day,  under  the  title  of  interrex.  This  form  of  government  con- 
tinued a  year,  when  the  people  compelled  the  senate  to  elect  a  king. 
Their  choice  fell  upon  Numa,  a  Sabine,  from  the  little  town  of  Cures, 
to  whom  Tatius  had  given  his  daughter  in  marriage.  The  history  of 
Niima  is  as  legendary  as  that  of  Rom'ulus  :  it  was  generally  believed 
that  he  had  been  a  disciple  of  Pythag'oras,  and  this  opinion  maintained 
its  ground  in  spite  of  many  chronological  diificulties.  The  traditions  de- 
clare that  when  Numa  was  informed  of  his  election,  he  refused  to  enter 
on  his  ofSce^  imtil  assured  that  the  gods,  by  their  auguries  had  con- 
firmed the  choice  of  the  senate.  His  first  care  was  to  regulate  the 
laws  of  property ;  he  divided  among  the  citizens  the  lands  that  Rom'u- 
lus  had  conquered,  and  founded  the  worship  of  Ter'minus,  the  god  of 
boundaries,  thus  protecting  the  limits  of  estates  by  a  religious  sanction. 
His  most  important  labor,  however,  was  the  regulation  of  the  natioub-l 
worship :  pretending  to  be  secretly  guided  by  the  goddess  Egeria,  he 
framed  the  entire  ritual  law  of  the  Romans,  including  regulations  for  the 
priesthood  and  for  the  prayers  and  worship  of  the  people.  His  tran- 
quil reign  is  said  to  have  lasted  forty  years  ;  the  temple  of  Janus,  which 
he  had  erected,  and  ordained  to  be  open  in  time  of  war,  and  shut  in 
peace,  remained  closed  during  the  entire  period,  and  his  pious  example 
difiused  the  blessings  of  tranquillity  throughout  the  whole  Italian  pe- 
ninsula. He  died  of  old  age  (b.  c.  679)  ;  and  the  legend  adds,  that  the 
nymph  Egeria,  through  grief  for  his  loss,  melted  into  a  fountain. 

After  an  interregnum,  as  in  the  former  case,  Tul'lus  Hostii'ius,  the 
son  of  a  Roman  captain  who  had  been  eminently  distinguished  by  his 
valor  in  the  wars  of  Rom'ulus,  was- chosen  king.  The  history  of  his 
reign,  though  still  retaining  much  of  legendary  fiction,  especially  in  the 
account  of  the  Alban  war,  contains  some  circumstances  that  may  be 
regarded  as  facts.  In  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign,  mutual  acts  of 
violence  led  to  a  war  between  the  Romans  and  Albans.  The  armies 
of  both  cities  were  drawn  up  against  each  other  at  the  Fos'sa  CluiJ'ia, 
where  it  was  agreed  to  avert  a  battle  by  a  combat  between  three 
brothers  on  each  side,  the  Horatii  and  Curiatii,  whose  mothers  were 
sisters,  and  had  each  brought  three  children  into  the  world  at  a  birth. 
The  three  Curiatii  and  two  of  the  Horatii  fell  upon  the  field.  The 
surviving  Horatius  sullied  his  victory  by  slaying  his  sister,  who  was 
bewailing  the  death  of  her  cousin,  to  whom  she  had  been  betrothed ; 
and  was  about  to  be  executed  by  Tul'lus,  but  he  appealed  to  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  Romans  unanimously  insisted  on  the  pardon  of  their  cham- 
pion. 

In.  consequence  of  the  previous  agreement,  Al'ba  became  subject  to 
Rome.  Tul'lus  next  engaged  ii  war  with  the  Fiden'ates,  and  summoned 
his  new  vassals  to  his  aid.  Me  /tins  Fufietius,  the  Alban  dictator,  broke 
h.i.a  faith  with  the  Romans,  but  had  not  courage  to  complete  his  defjc 


304  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

iiou.  His  meditated  trutiuhery  was  punished  with  death.  Soon  aftoi- 
ward  the  Romans  surprised  Al'ba,  and  levelled  it  to  the  ground,  spaiiuf^ 
only  the  temples  of  the  gods  ;  no  injury,  however,  was  done  to  the  cit- 
izens ;  they  were  removed  to  Rome,  and  habitations  assigned  them  on 
the  C(plian  hill.  The  destniction  of  Al'ba,  and  the  settlement  of  iti^ 
citizens  on  the  Coelian  hill,  may  be  regarded  as  historical  facts ;  the 
other  circumstances  are  clearly  dissfuised  by  poetic  fiction. 

After  the  conquest  of  Al'ba,  Tunus  waged  successful  Wi-rs  against 
the  Latins  and  Sabines  ;  but  he  was  cut  off  in  the  midst  of  his  victori- 
ous career  (b.  c.  640),  by  some  superstitious  experiments  recommended 
to  him  as  a  remedy  for  sickness,  which  the  legends  declare  brought 
down  upon  him  the  vengeful  thunderbolts  of  the  gods. 

An'cus  Mar'tius,  said  to  have  been  the  grandson  of  Niima,  was  the 
next  king.  Like  his  ancestor,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  regulation 
of  religious  ceremonies,  especially  those  used  in  declaring  war  or  pro- 
claiming peace  ;  he  also  caused  the  principal  parts  of  the  Roman  ritual 
to  be  transcribed  on  tables,  that  all  might  know  how  to  conduct  them- 
selves in  public  or  private  worship.  His  peaceful  labors  were  inter- 
itipted  by  a  war  with  the  Latins,  whom  he  subdued,  and  carried  several 
thousands  of  them  to  Rome,  where  they  were  assigned  settlements  on 
Mount  Aventine.  His  conquests  were  extended  into  Etruria  and  along 
both  banks  of  the  Tiber  to  the  sea.  He  founded  the  town  and  port  of 
Os'tia  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  this  first  naval 
establishment  of  the  Romans  was  intended  rather  for  piracy  than  trade. 
Nor  did  he  pay  less  attention  to  the  city  than  to  its  dominions  ;  a  new 
hne  of  fortifications,  the  first  bridge  over  the  Tiber,  and  the  first  public 
prison,  now  the  oldest  remaining  monument  in  Rome,  are  generally 
ascribed  to  An'cus.  Of  still  greater  importance  was  his  legal  constitu- 
tion of  the  plebeian  order  in  the  state,  and  the  assignment  of  lands  to 
this  body  from  the  conquered  territories.  His  death  (b.  c.  618)  is  said 
by  some  authors  to  have  been  accelerated  by  violence. 

We  now  approach  one  of  the  most  important,  but  also  one  of  the  most 
ibscure,  periods  in  the  early  history  of  Rome  ;  the  reigns  of  Tarquin''- 
;us  Pris'cus  and  his  son-in-law  Ser'vius  Tul'lius.  Lucius  Tarquin'ius 
Pris'ci  5  s  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Damaratus,  one  of  the  Bac'- 
chiads,  who  fled  from  Corinth  to  avoid  the  vengeance  of  Cyp'selus. 
Niebuhr  has  pointed  out  the  many  chronological  difficulties  involved  in 
.his  statement,  but  these  do  not  furnish  sufiicient  reason  for  rejecting 
the  legend  altogether:  by  the  simple  change  of  "  son"  into  "descendant," 
by  no  means  an  improbable  substitution,  the  truth  of  the  story  is  brought 
within  the  verge  of  possibility.  His  original  name  is  said  to  have  been 
Liicumo  ;  this  we  know  to  have  been  an  Etrurian  title  of  dignity ;  and 
if  we  understand  by  it  that  he  held  a  magisterial  office  in  his  native 
country,  it  will  explain  the  respect  with  which  he  was  received  a' 
Rome,  and  the  trust  reposed  in  him  by  An'cus.  He  is  said  to  have  re 
moved  from  Tarquin'ii,  his  native  city,  partly  bec<:,use  his  foreign  de- 
scent exposed  him  to  envy,  and  partly  at  the  instigation  of  his  wife 
I  an'aquil,  who  was  celebrated  for  her  skill  in  augury.  With  this  hia- 
tory  there  seems  to  be  intermingled  the  traditions  respecting  Coe'les  Vi- 
bon'ua,  a  leader  of  independent  companies,  who  hired  his  soldiers  as 


II 


nOMAN  REPUBLIC.  205 

fnorceiiaries  in  the  Tuscan  wars,  and  finally  came  and  settled  at  Rome 
v--irh  his  Ibllowers  in  an  micertain  age. 

Tarquiii'ius  Pris'cus  was  appointed  guardian  of  the  young  sons  of 
An'cus  ;  but  by  his  influence  with  the  people,  he  had  tiie  claims  of 
these  princes  set  aside,  and  was  himself  chosen  king.  He  introduced 
many  Etrurian  customs  and  ceremonies  into  Rome,  especially  those 
connected  with  the  dignities  of  kings  and  magistrates.  The  accounts 
of  his  wars  with  the  Etruscans,  Latins,  and  Sabines,  are  very  contra- 
dictory ;  but  it  seems  not  improbable  that,  toward  the  close  of  his  reign, 
'hese  three  nations  acknowledged  his  supremacy.  His  victory  over 
the  Sabines  was  owing  to  his  superiority  in  cavalry.  It  had  been  ori- 
ginally his  intention  to  add  three  new  centuries  to  the  equestrian  order; 
but  this  plan  was  opposed  by  the  celebrated  augur,  At'tus  Naj'vius, 
whose  authority,  in  an  age  of  superstition,  rivalled  that  of  the  kings. 
A  mode  was  found  for  reconciling  the  opponents  ;  new  centuries  were 
established,  but  no  addition  was  made  to  the  names  assigned  by  Rom'- 
uhis ;  so  that  henceforward  there  were  the  first  and  sectnd  Ram'nes, 
Tii.xes,  and  Luceres.  But  Tar'quin's  name  is  rendered  still  more  mem- 
orable by  the  stupendous  public  works  he  commenced  for  the  security 
and  improvement  of  the  city,  especially  the  great  sewers,  the  embank- 
ments of  the  Tiber  ;  the  foundation  of  the  city  walls,  the  porticoes  in 
the  forum,  and  the  racecourse  of  the  circus.  To  console  the  people 
Older  their  toils,  he  instituted  the  great  or  Roman  games,  which  were 
celebrated  annually  in  September.  At  these  games  chariot-races  were 
for  the  first  time  displayed  at  Rome ;  they  were  so  highly  approved  by 
die  Roman  people,  that  they  became  the  most  popular  exhibition  on  all 
festive  occasions. 

Tarquin'ius  is  said  to  have  reigned  thirty-eight  years,  when  he  was 
ic-ssassinated  by  the  agents  of  the  sons  of  An'cus  Mar'tius  (b.  c.  578), 
who  dreaded  that  he  would  bequeath  the  kingdom  to  his  son-in-law, 
Ser'vius  Tid'lius,  the  darling  of  the  Roman  people. 

Ser'vius  Tul'lius  for  some  days  concealed  the  fact  of  Tar'quin's 
death  ;  but  when  he  had  secured  the  votes  of  the  people,  he  made  it 
public,  and  having  convened  an  assembly  to  elect  a  sovereign,  was 
unanimously  chosen  king.  In  the  old  legends,  the  birth  of  Ser'viua 
TuLlius  is  described  as  equally  marvellous  and  humble.  His  mothei 
was  said  to  have  been  a  captive  named  Ocresia  ;  his  father,  a  deity. 
While  yet  an  infant,  sleeping  in  the  cradle,  lambent  flamesi  playing 
round  his  forehead,  predicted  his  future  greatness  ;  and  Tan'aquil,  en- 
couraged by  the  omen,  had  him  brought  up  in  the  palace  as  a  prince, 
and  gave  him  her  daughter  in  marriage.  Opposed  to  this  is  the  testi- 
mony of  the  emperor  Claudius  Caesar,  derived  from  lost  Tuscan  a'Uhori- 
ties.  In  a  speech,  recommending  some  Lugdunensian  Gauls  tor  ad- 
mission into  the  senate,  he  says,  "  Ser'vius  Tul'lius,  according  to  the 
Latin  authorities,  was  the  son  of  the  capti\e  Ocresia  ;  but  if  we  pa,y 
iny  regard  to  the  Tuscans,  he  was  the  most  faithful  I'ollower  of  Coe'lefc 
Viben'na,  and  a  sharer  in  his  varied  adventures.  When  harassed  by 
.he  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  he  quitted  Etruria  with  the  remains  of  the 
army  that  Cos'les  had  commanded  He  occupied  the  Ctelian  mount 
which  he  thus  named  in  honor  of  his  old  commander.  In  Tuscany  he 
H-as  called  Mastar'na  but  he  exchanged  this  for  the  Roman  name  Ser'- 


206  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

vius  Tul'lius.  Having  been  chosen  kinjj,  he  exercised  his  authority  ui 
the  highest  advantage  of  the  state."  Though  Ser'vius  waged  several 
Buccessl'ul  wars,  his  military  fame  was  far  inferior  to  his  political  glory  ; 
for  his  institutions  not  only  laid  the  foundation,  but  completed  ihe  frame- 
work of  the  future  republic.  He  formed  a  federal  union  between  the  Latir 
cities,  placing  Rome  at  the  head  of  the  league,  and  cemented  the  union  by 
instituting  common  sacrifices  for  the  united  states  on  Mount  Aventine.  Of 
still  greater  importance  was  his  institution  of  the  census,  or  record  of  the 
property  possessed  by  the  citizens,  and  his  distribution  of  the  right  of 
■suffrage  [comiiia  centuridta)  to  centuries  arranged  according  to  the  prop- 
erty of  the  six  classes  into  which  tlie  census  divided  the  people.  x\ll 
his  laws  were  designed  to  secure-  free  and  equal  government,  and  an 
impartial  administration  of  justii;e.  IIis  wise  and  beneficent  laws 
were  received  by  the  patricians  with  sullcnness  and  anger ;  they  were 
indignant  at  the  restraints  imposed  upon  their  tyranny  and  exactions ; 
accordingly  they  entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  Lucius  Tarquin'ius,  the 
son  of  the  late  monarch,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  Ser'vius.  The 
plot  exploded  in  the  senate-house  :  the  aged  king  was  murdered,  and 
his  body  flung  into  the  streets  (b.  c.  535).  Tul'lia,  his  wicked  daughter 
in  her  haste  to  congratulate  Tar'quin  on  his  success,  drove  her  chariot 
over  her  father's  corpse,  and  proceeded  onward,  though  her  vest  was 
stained  with  his  blood. 

Tar'quin,  surnamed  the  Proud,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  pa- 
tricians, without  the  assent  of  the  people  being  asked.  In  the  history 
given  of  his  reign,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  separate  what  is  merely 
legendary  from  what  is  worthy  of  credit ;  but  it  seems  pretty  certain 
that  he  gratified  his  supporters  by  diminishing  the  privileges  of  the  ple- 
beian order,  and  that  he  soon  after  made  the  patricians  themselves  feel 
the  weight  of  his  tyranny.  He  confirmed  the  supremacy  of  Rome 
over  the  Latins,  united  the  Hernicans  to  the  confederation  by  treaty, 
and  gained  several  advantages  over  the  Vol'sci.  While  the  tyrant  was 
besieging  Ardea,  his  son  Sex'tus  violated  the  honor  of  Lucretia,  a 
noble  Roman  lady.  She  summoned  her  relatives,  and,  having  informed 
them  of  the  outrage,  committed  suicide.  Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  who 
up  to  this  time  is  said  to  have  concealed  patriotic  resolutions  under  the 
mask  of  pretended  insanity,  though  he  held  an  important  magistiacy, 
convoked  an  assembly  of  the  people,  and  exhibited  the  bleeding  body  of 
Lucretia  to  the  multitude  (b.  c.  509).  A  decree  was  immediately 
passed  for  expelling  the  Tar'quint  {^nd  abolishing  royalty.  The  army 
sent  in  its  adhesion,  and  Tar'quin,  finding  himself  universally  slunined 
tied  into  Etriiria. 

Skction   JTI. — From  the  Establishment  of  the  Roman  Repuhlic  to  the 
Burning  of  the  City  by  the   Gauls. 

FROM  B.  c.  509  TO  B.  c.  386. 

The  abolition  of  royalty  was  a  purely  patrician  revolution  from 
which  the  great  body  of  the  people  gained  no  immediate  advantage. 
Two  annual  magistrates,  at  first  called  praetors,  but  afterward  consuls, 
chosen  from  the  patriciun  ranks,  inherited  the  entire  royal  power,  but  did 
not,  lik?  *he  kings,  po.-sess  any  priestly  dignity.     The  first  magistrates 


I 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  '-iOl 

elected  under  the  new  system  were  Brutus,  and  Collatini  s,  tlie  hus- 
band of  Lucretia.  Scarcely  had  they  entered  on  their  office,  when 
ambassadors  arrived  from  Etriiria  to  plead  the  cause  of  Tar'quin. 
Though  these  deputies  met  with  no  public  success,  they  were  enabled 
t.0  organize  a  conspiracy  among  the  younger  patricians,  who  had  shared 
in  the  tyrant's  debaucheries ;  and  among  the  accomplices  of  the  plot, 
v/ere  the  sons  of  Brutus  and  the  nephews  of  Tar'quin.  The  plans  of 
the  conspirators  were  accidentally  overheard  by  a  slave,  concealed  in 
the  apartment  where  they  assembled,  and  information  of  the  treason 
given  to  the  consuls.  Public  duty  triumphed  over  parental  affection : 
Brutus  not  only  pronounced  sentence  of  death  upon  his  sons,  but  wit- 
nessed their  execution  without  shedding  a  tear.  The  property  of  the 
Tarquin'ii  was  confiscated ;  the  whole  family  condemned  to  perpetual 
ivanishment ;  and  the  consul,  Collatinus,  w'  ose  relationship  to  the  late 
lamily  excited  suspicion,  was  included  in  the  sentence.  Pub'lius  Vale- 
nus  was  elected  to  the  vacant  magistracy.  Soon  after,  in  an  engage- 
ment between  the  Etruscans  and  Romans,  An'cus  the  eldest  son  of 
Tar'quin,  and  Brutus,  fell  by  mutual  wounds  ;  but  the  victory  was 
decided  in  favor  of  the  young  republic. 

Valerius  delayed  some  time  before  proceeding  to  the  election  of  a 
new  colleague.  This  circumstance,  and  a  splendid  hoiise  he  was 
erecting  on  one  of  the  Roman  hills,  inspired  a  suspicion  that  he  was 
aiming  at  royalty.  To  prove  his  innocence,  he  demolished  the  build- 
ing, proposed  laws  for  restraining  the  consular  power,  and  resigned  the 
ensigns  of  his  dignity  to  Spurius  Lucretius.  For  his  patriotic  conduct, 
Valerius  was  honored  with  the  surname  Pop'licola  (a  friend  of  the  peo- 
ple). In  the  following  year  Valerius  and  Horatius  were  chosen  con- 
suls, the  latter  of  whom  had  the  honor  of  dedicating  the  national  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  In  this  sanctuary  were  preserved  the 
Sibylline  oracles,  and  the  records  of  the  pontiffs  and  augurs. 

To  the  first  year  after  the  banishment  of  the  Tar'quins  belong  the 
celebrated  lex  de  provocatione  (law  of  appeal),  and  the  first  treaty 
between  Rome  and  Carthage.  The  patricians  had  always  the  right  of 
appeal  from  the  sentence  of  the  supreme  magistrate  to  the  general 
council  of  their  own  body :  a  similar  right  of  trial  by  their  peers  was 
secured  to  the  plebeians  by  the  law  of  Valerius  Pop'licola,  to  which 
the  senat'  seems  to  have  yielded  a  very  ungracious  assent.*  The 
treaty  with  Carthage  shows  how  extensive  the  possessions  of  Rotno 
had  been  under  the  monarchy :  Ardea,  An'tium,  Aricia,  Circeii,  and 
Terracina,  are  enumerated  as  subject  cities,  and  Rome  stipulates  for 
them  as  well  as  herself. 

From  these  historical  facts,  we  now  turn  to  a  legendary  narrative,  in 
which  truth  is  so  blended  with  fiction,  that  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
more  than  one  or  two  circumstances  on  which  any  reliance  can  be 
placed.  After  their  former  defeat,  the  Tarquin'ii  had  recourse  to  tho 
aid  of  Lar  Porsen'na,  king  of  Cliisium,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Tus- 
can princes,  who  at  once  led  an  overwhelming  force  to  the  Janic'uhnu 
a  fortified  hill  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tiber,  joined  to  the  city  by  a 

*  The  Valerian  law  was  imperfect  in  its  sanction;  there  \v^s  do  otJior  pt'naltj 
to  eut'urce  il  than  the  declaration  that  he  who  violated  it  acted  wroDgiy. 


208 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


wooden  bridge.  The  Romans  were  defeated,  and  fled  over  ihe  bridge . 
the  enemv  woxdd  have  gained  admission  into  the  city  along  with  the 
fugitives,  had  not  Iloratius  Cockles,  witli  two  companions,  defended  the 
entrance  of  the  l)ridge  until  it  was  broken  down  behind  him,  when  he 
leaped  into  the  Tiber,  and  swam  safely  to  his  friends.  As  a  mark  of 
gratitude,  every  citizen,  during  the  famine  caused  by  the  subsequent 
siege,  brought  him  a  portion  of  provision  ;  a  statue  was  erected  to  him 
at  the  expense  of  tlie  republic,  and  as  much  land  was  bestowed  upon 
him  as  he  could  plough  round  in  a  day.  Porsen'na  continuing  to 
blockade  the  city,  a  youth,  named  Caius  Mucins,  undertook,  with  the 
approbation  of  the  senate,  the  task  of  assassinating  the  inv^ading  king. 
He  entered  the  camp  in  disguise,  but  slew  only  a  secretary  instead  of 
Porsen'na.  When  brought  before  that  monarch,  to  show  his  contempt 
for  tortures,  he  thrust  his  right  hand  into  a  fire  that  burned  upon  the 
altar,  and  held  it  there  until  it  was  consumed.  The  king,  admiring 
such  heroism,  gave  him  his  life  and  liberty :  Miicius,  in  gratitude, 
informed  him  that  three  hundred  Roman  youths  had  similarly  sworn  his 
destruction  ;  and  Porsen'na,  alarmed  for  his  life,  immediately  offered 
terms  of  peace  to  the  Romans.  In  memory  of  his  daring  exploit,  Md- 
cius  was  thenceforth  named  Scse'vola  [hft-handcd),  and  was  rewarded 
as  munilicently  as  Coc'les.  Hostages  were  given  by  the  Romans  for 
the  due  performance  of  the  treaty ;  and  the  legend  relates  that  one  of 
them,  a  noble  lady  named  Clce'lia,  won  the  admiration  of  Porsen'na  by 
escaping  from  her  guards,  and  swimming  on  horseback  over  the  Tiber, 
amid  a  shower  of  darts  hurled  at  her  by  her  baflled  pursuers.  The  aid 
which  the  Romans  subsequently  afforded  Porsen'na  when  he  was 
defeated  before  Arlcia,  induced  him  to  render  back  the  territory  which 
had  been  yielded  to  him  as  part  of  the  price  of  the  peace. 

Thus  far  the  legend :  but  there  is  certain  evidence  that,  in  this  war, 
the  Romans  surrendered  their  city  and  became  tributary  to  the  Tus- 
cans, and  it  is  probable  that  they  embraced  the  opportunity  afforded 
them  by  the  defeat  of  Porsen'na  in  Latium,  to  regain  their  indepen- 
dence. 

A  war  with  the  Sabines,  who  wished  to  take  advantage  of  the  weak 
ened  condition  of  the  republic,  followed.  It  was  chiefly  remarkable 
for  the  migration  of  At'tus  Clausus,  a  noble  Sabine,  with  all  the  mem- 
bers and  clients  of  his  house,  to  Rome.  There  he  changed  his  name 
to  Ap'pius  Claudius,  and  founded  one  of  the  most  distinguished  fami- 
lies of  the  republic.  Though  they  lost  their  able  leader,  Pop'licola, 
the  Romans  were  victorious  in  three  successive  campaigns ;  and  the 
Sabines  were  forced  to  purchase  peace  with  corn,  money,  and  a  part 
of  their  lands. 

Tar'quin's  son-in-law,  Mamil'ius,  induced  the  Latins  to  arm  them- 
selves in  behalf  of  the  exiled  king,  taking  advantage  of  the  violent  dis- 
putes that  raged  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians  respecting  the 
law  of  debt.  Ever  since  the  expulsion  of  the  king,  the  Roman  nobles, 
after  the  abolition  of  royalty,  had,  by  a  series  of  iniquitous  measures, 
usurped  the  most  fertile  portion  of  the  conquered  lands,  which  they 
leased  out  to  the  plebeians.  Having  thus  the  monopoly  of  the  only 
nroperty  existing  at  the  period,  they  became  the  sole  capitalists  of  the 
republic,  and  lent  out  money  at  an  exorbitant  rate  of  usury.     By  the 


•  ilOMAN    KEPUBLKJ.  209 

Roman  law,  those  wlio  were  unable  to  discharge  their  debts  became 
slaves  lo  their  creditors  {ncxi),  and  were  subject  to  whatever  punish- 
ment barbarous  masters  pleased  to  inflict.  Goaded  to  madness  by  their 
wrongs,  the  plebeians  refused  to  enlist  in  defence  of  their  country  until 
their  griev^ances  were  redressed.  The  reasonable  demands  of  the  peo 
pie  were  strenuously  supported  in  the  senate  by  Mar'cus  Valerius,  the 
brother  of  Pop'licola  ;  but  they  were  obstinately  opposed  by  Ap'pius 
Claudius,  whose  haughty  and  selfish  counsels  had  a  predominant  eflect 
on  a  short-sighted  aristocracy.  After  long  delay  it  was  resolved  to 
elect  a  single  supreme  magistrate,  with  the  title  of  dictator,  and  invest 
him  with  absolute  authority  (b.  c.  497).  The  people  assented  to  the 
law;  and  Titus  Lar'tius,  one  of  the  consuls,  was  appointed  to  the  new 
office.  After  having  ravaged  the  territories  of  the  enemy,  he  dismissed 
all  his  prisoneiy  vv^ithout  ransom ;  and  this  generosity  so  gratified  the 
Latins,  that  they  agreed  upon  a  suspension  of  arms. 

When  the  truce  was  expired,  war  again  commenced,  and  the  senate 
again  appointed  a  dictator.  Aiilus  Posthiimius,  the  second  dictator, 
encountered  the  Latins  at  the  lake  of  Regil'lus,  and  inflicted  on  them 
a  decisive  defeat.  Tar'quin,  thus  frustrated  in  his  last  hope,  retired  to 
Cumae,  in  Campania,  where  he  soon  after  died  in  exile. 

While  Tarquin'ius  excited  alarm,  and  the  wars  with  Latium  and  Etrii- 
ria  continued,  the  senate  ruled  with  some  show  of  justice  and  modera- 
tion. But  when  danger  was  passed,  the  patricians  began  to  treat  the 
plebeians  as  slaves.  To  the  palace  of  every  noble  was  attached  a  pris- 
on for  debtors ;  and,  in  seasons  of  distress,  after  the  sittings  of  the 
courts,  herds  of  sentenced  slaves  were  led  away  in  chains  to  the  private 
jails  of  the  patricians.  At  length  the  plebeian  armies,  after  having 
been  frequently  deceived  by  false  promises,  deserted  their  ofiicers  in 
he  very  midst  of  war,  and  marched  in  a  body  to  a  hill  called  xMons  Sa- 
cer,  on  the  river  A'nio,  within  three  miles  of  Rome,  where  they  were 
joined  by  vast  multitudes  of  their  discontented  brethren  (b.  c.  493). 
The  patricians  and  their  clients  took  up  arms  ;  their  numbers  were  not 
contemptible  ;  but,  unaccustomed  to  military  service,  they  dared  not  en- 
counter a  peasantry  inured  to  warfare.  The  pressure  of  foreign  enemies 
rendered  an  accommodation  necessary  ;  ten  senators  were  sent  to  nego- 
tiate a  peace  with  th'3  plebeians,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded,  by  which 
all  the  contracts  of  insolvent  debtors  were  cancelled,  those  who  had  been 
reduced  to  slavery  were  set  at  liberty,  the  Valerian  laws  were  restored 
to  tlieir  former  efficacy,  and  five  annual  magistrates  were  chosen  to  watch 
over  the  rights  of  the  people,  whose  persons  were  declared  to  be  invi- 
olable. In  the  same  year  a  league  was  made  with  the  Latins,  not,  as  be- 
fore, on  the  basis  of  Roman  superiority,  but  on  terms  of  perfect  equality. 
A  similar  federation  was  subsequently  made  with  the  Hernicans  ;  ajid 
both  these  treaties  prove  indisj)utably,  that  the  disturbances  produced  by 
aristocratic  tyranny,  subsequent  to  the  abolition  of  royalty,  had  seriously 
diminished  the  Roman  power. 

These  losses  began  to  be  retrieved  by  successful  wars  against  the 
.3^quians  and  Volscians.  The  common  histories  of  this  period  are  full 
of  extraordinary  difl^iculties  and  contradictions ;  the  accounts  extracted 
From  them  must,  therefore,  be  received  with  the  suspicion  that  necessa- 
ril .  attaches  to  all  traditionary  legends.     We  are  informed,  that  tiie  sue- 

14 


210  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  . 

;es3  of  the  Volscian  war  was  mainly  owing  to  a  vcnng  nobleman,  OdWf- 
Mar'ciuSjWho  acquired  the  surname  of  Coriolanus,  from  his  conduct  -it 
the  capture  of  Corioli.  Soon  after,  Rome  suffered  grievously  by  a  faitj- 
ine  :  but  a  Sicilian  prir  ce,  hearing  of  the  dearth,  sent  a  large  supply  of 
corn  to  relieve  the  distresses  of  the  citizens.  Coriolanus  proposed  in 
ihe  senate  that  this  corn  should  not  be  distributed  to  the  poor  until  the 
plebeians  had  resigned  all  the  privileges  they  had  acquired  by  their  re- 
cent secession.  For  this  detestable  attempt  he  was  impeached  by  the 
tribunes  (b.  c.  490),  and  brought  to  trial  before  that  form  of  assembly 
[comitin  tributa),  in  which  the  plebeians  had  the  superiority.  He  was 
condemned  to  exile,  and  in  his  rage  joined  the  Vol'sci.  Guided  by  his 
superior  talents,  the  Volscians  defeated  the  Romans  in  every  engage- 
ment, and  at  length  laid  siege  to  the  city.,  Rome  must  have  fallen,  had 
not  Veturia  the  mother,  and  Volumnia  the  wife  of  Coriolanus,  prevailed 
upon  the  enraged  exile  to  grant  his  countrymen  terms  of  peace.  On 
his  return  to  the  Volscian  territories  he  was  put  to  death  in  a  tumult 
raised  by  Attius  Tul'lius,  a  celebrated  chief  of  the  Vorsci,  who  envied 
the  fame  of  Coriolanus,  and  persuaded  his  countrymen  that  the  illustri- 
ous exile  had  betrayed  them.  An  opposing  tradition  is  recorded  by 
several  historians,  namely,  that  Coriolanus  lived  to  a  very  advanced  age 
and  often  used  to  exclaim,  "  How  miserable  is  the  state  of  an  old  man 
in  banishment !"  It  is  impossible  to  ascertain  which  deserves  the  great- 
er credit ;  but  it  is  sufficiently  manifest  that  the  history  of  Coriolanus  ie 
not  to  be  received  without  a  considerable  share  of  skepticism. 

The  Vol'sci,  after  the  death  of  Coriolanus,  lost  rapidly  all  the  advan- 
tages they  had  acquired,  and  were  besides  involved  in  a  war  with  tho 
iE'qui,  their  former  allies.  But  the  Romans  could  not  avail  themselves 
of  these  favorable  circumstances,  being  harassed  by  disputes  respecting 
the  agrarian  law  proposed  by  Spiirius  Cas'sius.  The  general  purport 
of  the  law  was,  that  lands  conquered  from  the  enemy  should  be  divided 
into  small  estates,  and  assigned  to  the  plebeians,  instead  of  being  leased 
out  in  large  portions  to  the  patricians.  This  appears  to  have  been  mere- 
ly a  revival  of  the  ancient  constitution  of  SerWus,  and  was  obviously 
based  in  equity ;  for  no  persons  had  a  better  claim  to  the  public  lands 
than  those  by  whose  valor  and  labors  they  had  been  acquired.  The 
senate  and  patricians  obstinately  opposed  a  project  that  threatened  to 
destroy  the  source  of  their  profits  ;  and  Spiirius  Cas'sius,  in  his  anxiety 
to  accomplish  his  great  objects,  is  said  to  have  aimed  at  royalty.  He 
was  brought  to  trial  on  this  charge  before  the  collective  body  of  the  pa- 
tricians, which  has  been  oy  later  writers  confounded  with  the  general 
assembly  of  the  people  (b.  c.  484).  He  was  convicted,  and  thrown 
from  the  Tarpeian  rock.  Another  account  of  the  death  of  Cas'sius  has 
been  given  by  some  historians  not  unworthy  of  credit.  They  inform 
us  that  he  was  put  to  death  by  his  own  father  as  a  traitor  to  his  order. 

There  are  few  circumstances  in  Roman  history  more  remarkable  than 
that  during  seven  consecutive  years  (from  b.  c.  483  to  n.  c.  479),one  of 
the  seats  in  the  considship  was  held  by  some  member  oi  the  Fobiat, 
family.  This  arose  from  the  powerful  sup,)ort  wtiich  that  family  gave  to 
the  older  patrician  houses  in  their  ofTort  to  monopolize  the  chief  digi;i- 
Lies.  Civil  dissensions  were  thus  aggravated  ;  the  populace  demanded 
\\\  agrarian  law  ;  the  n:inOi-  patrician  houses  clamored  for  a  «.harc  in  the 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  211 

fionors  of  the  staie  ;  and  the  senate  could  only  evade  -he  difficuhv  by- 
keeping  the  nation  constantly  involved  in  war.  At  length  the  soldiers 
refused  to  conquer  ;  and  Cse'so  Fabius  had  the  mortification  to  see  » 
certain  victory  wrested  from  his  hands  by  the  determination  of  his  fol- 
lowers not  to  pursue  their  advantages.  This  unexpected  disgrace  had 
such  an  effect  on  the  Fabii,  that  they  resolved  to  conciliate  the  favor  of 
the  commonalty,  and  declared  themselves  the  patrons  of  popular  meas- 
ures. They  thus  lost  the  favor  of  the  senate  ;  and  though  the  affection 
of  the  soldiers  enabled  them  to  acquire  military  glory,  they  were  unable 
to  cairy  any  of  the  measures  that  they  advocated.  Weary  of  disap- 
pointment, they  resolved  to  establish  a  co,ony  of  the  members  of  their 
family,  their  clients,  and  dependants,  on  the  frontiers,  to  guard  the  Ro- 
man territories  from  the  Virea'tes.  The  number  of  persons  capable  of 
bearing  arms  mustered  by  this  single  house  amounted  to  three  hundred 
and  six.  They  took  post  on  the  Crem'era,  where  they  were  all  cut  off 
by  the  Etrurians  (b.  c.  476).  It  is  said  that  only  one  young  man  of  the 
Fabii  escaped  from  this  ruin  of  his  family,  and  became  the  progenitor 
of  a  new  race  ;  but  this  is  manifestly  an  exaggeration. 

The  Etruscans,  following  up  their  success,  advanced  within  sight  oi 
Rome,  formed  a  camp  on  the  Janic'ulum,  ravaged  both  sides  of  the  river, 
and  crowded  the  city  with  fugitives.  The  consuls,  Virgin'ius  and  Ser- 
vil'ius,  at  length  attacked  the  enemy  in  different  quarters,  and,  after  a 
desperate  battle,  forced  them  to  retreat.  From  this  time  fortune  began 
to  favor  the  Romans,  probably  on  account  of  the  Etrurians  being  engaged 
in  war  with  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse  ;  and  peace  was  at  length  conclu- 
ded for  forty  years  (b.  c.  470).  Niebuhr  conjectures,  with  apparent 
plausibility,  that  it  was  at  this  time  the  Romans  recovered  the  territory 
of  which  they  had  been  deprived  by  Porseu'na. 

In  the  year  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  Cneius  Geniicius,  trib- 
une of  the  people,  impeached  the  consuls.  Fiirius  and  Man'lius,  before 
the  general  assembly  of  the  commonalty,  for  refusing  to  give  effect  to 
the  agrarian  law.  The  consuls  made  a  feeble  defence  ;  and  the  patri- 
cians, failing  to  bribe  or  intimidate  the  bold  tribune,  had  him  assassin- 
ated. Takmg  advantage  of  the  consternation  produced  by  this  daring 
crime,  the  consuls  ordered  a  general  levy,  intending  to  divert  the  peo- 
ple from  their  purpose  of  engaging  them  in  foreign  war.  This  plan 
would  have  succeeded,  had  not  the  refusal  of  one  man,  Vol'ero  Pub'lius, 
10  serve  in  the  ranks,  after  having  previously  held  the  commission  of 
centurion,  led  to  a  fierce  comraotion,  which  frustrated  the  consular  plans. 
Vol'ero,  being  chosen  tribune  by  his  countrymen,  instead  of  seeking 
personal  revenge,  by  impeaching  the  consuls,  struck  a  fatal  blow  at  the 
supremacy  of  the  patrician  faction,  by  transferring  the  election  of  the 
tribunes  from  the  centuries  to  the  tribes,  and  establishing  the  right  of 
tl;e  general  assembly  of  the  commonalty  to  deliberate  on  all  matters 
affecting  the  common  weal,  which  should  be  brought  before  them  by  thtt 
tribunes  ;  a  law  which  was  in  efTect  the  same  as  the  establishment  of 
tlie  liberty  of  the  press  in  our  own  days.  WJule  these  laws  were  unde\ 
discussion,  the  consul,  (\p'pius  Claudius,  was  pre-eminently  distinguish- 
ed by  his  opposition  to  the  popular  claims  ;  and  when  they  were  extort- 
(■d  from  the  senate,  he  unwisely  vented  his  dissatisfaction  on  the  army 
that  "le  led  against  the  Voi'sci.     His  soldiers,  in  revenge,  fled  be'.'orr 


212  ANCIENT  HI3T011Y 

the  enemy.  Ap'pius  jmnishcd  them  by  decimation,  putting  every  tonUi 
man  to  death.  When  his  year  of  office  expired,  he  was  impeached 
capitally  for  such  atrocious  vengeance  ;  but  he  escaped  the  peuahv  ol 
his  tyranny  by  committing  suicide. 

For  several  years  the  Roman  history  presents  little  more  than  a  rep 
■Jtition  of  the  struggles  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians  ;  desultory 
wars  with  the  ^qui  .and  Vol'sci ;  and  a  succession  of  physical  calam 
ities,  uniting  the  horrors  of  plague,  pestilence,  and  famine.  Ap'piuv 
Herdonius,  a  Sabine  adventurer,  t:ok  advantage  of  these  circumstances, 
and  one  night  surprised  and  seized  the  capitol  with  an  army  of  aboui 
four  thousand  men,  composed  of  outlaws  and  slaves  (b.  c.  459).  In- 
stigated by  the  tribunes,  the  people  refused  to  take  up  arms  unless  secu- 
rity was  given  that  their  grievances  should  be  redressed ;  particularly 
msisting  on  the  legal  restriction  of  the  consular  power  by  a  written 
code,  according  to  the  proposal  of  Terentil'lus  {lex  Terentilitt)  a  few 
months  before.  The  consul  Valerius  promised  compliance ;  and  th( 
people  stormed  the  capitol,  slew  Herdonius,  and  punished  his  associ- 
ates :  but  Valerius  having  fallen  in  the  assault,  the  senate  refused  tr 
fuliil  the  conditions  he  had  stipulated. 

During  the  ^quian  war  (b.  c.  457),  a  consular  army  was  intercepted 
by  the  enemy  in  the  defiles  of  Mount  iE'gidus,  and  so  closely  blockaded, 
that  there  seemed  no  choice  between  death  or  disgraceful  submission. 
Some  horsemen,  breaking  through  the  hostile  lines,  brought  the  news  to 
Rome ;  and  the  senate,  in  alarm,  resolved  to  create  a  dictator.  Theii 
choice  fell  upon  Titus  Quinc'tius  Cincinnatus,  a  patrician  violently  op- 
posed to  the  popular  claims,  but  celebrated  for  personal  integrity.  His 
son  Cae'so  had  recently  fled  from  Rome  to  escape  a  trial  for  high  crimes 
and  misdemeanors  ;  and  Cincinnatus  had  been  reduced  to  great  pecu- 
niary distress  by  being  compelled  to  pay  the  surety  he  had  given  for 
liis  son's  appearance.  The  dictator  delivered  the  consul  Minucius  and 
the  army  from  their  danger ;  but  before  resigning  ollice  he  used  the 
absolute  power  with  which  he  was  invested,  to  recall  his  son  Caj'so 
from  banishment,  and  drive  his  accuser  into  exile.  There  is,  indeed, 
some  reapon  to  believe,  that  the  dictatorship  of  Cincinnatus,  which  has 
been  so  much  lauded,  was  a  mere  artifice  to  baffle  the  demand  of  the 
people  for  a  -written  code  of  laws.  It,  however,  failed  of  success  :  the 
tribune?  succeeded  in  getting  their  numbers  increased  from  five  to  ten : 
Sic'ciu**  Dentatus,  a  veteran  plebeian  of  approved  valor,  stimulated  his 
order  to  fresh  exertions  in  behalf  of  their  freedom  ^  and  at  length  the 
senate  yielded  a  reluctant  assent  to  the  formation  of  a  code. 

Ajnbassadors  having  been  sent  to  the  principal  Grecian  states  and 
colonies  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  the  best  codes  of  celebrated  legis- 
'atnrSjOn  their  return,  ten  persons,  hence  called  decemviri,  were  chosen, 
wi'h  consular  power,  to  arrange  and  digest  a  body  of  laws.  A  new 
constitution  was  established,  known  in  history  as  the  laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  which  continued,  down  to  the  time  of  the  emperors,  to  be  the 
basis  of  all  civil  and  penal  jurisprudence.  It  established  the  legal  equality 
of  all  the  citizens  ;  but  it  preserved  some  of  the  most  odious  privileges: 
ol  the  aristocracy,  especially  the  exclusive  eligibility  to  the  consulship 
and  it  prohibited  the  intermarriage  of  patricians  and  plebeians  (b.  c 
1-f>0).     The  patricians,  hoping  to  procure   some  modification  in  law^ 


< 


ROMAN    aEPUBLIC.  213 

which  thtjy  regarded  as  ruinous  to  tlieir  interests,  and  the  plebeiLtnfj, 
gratified  by  the  advantages  they  had  obtained,  united  to  continue  the 
decemviral  authority  for  another  year.  The  decem'virs,  now  secure  of 
power,  threw  off  the  mask,  grievously  oppressed  the  people,  and  treach- 
erously betrayed  old  Sic'cius  Dentatus,  whose  approved  valor  they 
dreaded,  to  the  enemy.  At  length  Ap'pius,  one  of  their  number,  at- 
tempted to  make  Vir'ginia,  the  daughter  of  a  brave  officer,  the  victim  ot 
his  lust,  by  illegally  assigning  her  as  a  slave  to  one  of  his  creatures 
Her  father,  Vir'ginius,  slew  the  girl  in  the  public  court  to  save  her  from 
dishonor,  and,  aided  by  her  lover  Icil'ius,  raised  such  a  ptorm  against 
the  decemvirs,  that  they  were  forced  to  resign  their  office,  and  the 
ancient  forms  of  government  were  restored.  The  tribunician  power 
was  not  only  re-established,  but  formidably  increased  by  a  law  of  the 
consul  Valerius  (b.  c.  446),  which  inv^ested  the  votes  of  the  commons 
with  the  force  of  laws.* 

Civil  commotions  were  renewed  in  consequence  of  the  exertions  made 
by  the  tribune  Canuleius  to  abolish  the  law  against  intermarriages,  and 
to  open  the  consulship  to  plebeians.  The  repeal  of  the  marriage-law 
was  conceded,  after  a  difficult  struggle  (b.  c.  445)  ;  and  the  second 
popular  demand  was  evaded  l)y  transferring  the  consular  power  to  the 
annual  commanders  of  the  legions,!  who  were  to  be  six  in  number,  and 
one  half  chosen  from  the  people  (b.  c.  443).  But  even  this  concession 
was  for  some  time  evaded  by  the  senate,  under  the  pretence  of  informal- 
ities in  the  election  of  those  officers.  Soon  afterward  (b.  c.  442), 
new  magistrates,  called  censors,  were  chosen,  not  only  to  regulate  the 
taking  of  the  census,  but  also  to  superintend  public  morals ;  a  power 
that  soon  enabled  these  magistrates  to  take  rank  among  the  very  highest 
dignitaries  of  the  state.  These  changes,  however,  did  not  conciliate 
the  people,  and  a  severe  famine  (b.  c.  438)  aggravated  their  discontent. 
In  the  midst  of  this  distress,  Spurius  M?e'lius,  a  plebeian  knight,  pur- 
chased with  his  private  fortune  a  large  quantity  of  corn  in  Tuscany, 
which  he  distributed  gratuitously  to  the  people.  His  object  probably 
was  to  become  the  first  plebeian  consul,  which  laudable  object  the 
patricians  perverteJ  into  the  crime  of  aiming  at  the  sovereignty.  They 
therefore  appointed  Cincinnatus  dictator,  who  at  once  sent  Spurius 
Ahalc  liis  master  of  the  horse,  to  sumnwn  Mae'lius  before  his  tribunal. 
The  knight  was  standing  unarmed  in  the  forum  when  thus  called  upon 
to  take  his  trial ;  he  showed  some  reluctance  to  obey  the  dictator's 
command,  and  was  cut  down  by  Ahala.  The  old  dictator  applauded  this 
murder  of  a  defenceless  man  as  an  act  of  patriotism  ;  but  the  people 
took  a  different  view  of  the  transaction,  and  Ahala  only  escaped  con- 
demnation by  voluntary  exile. 

While  these  commotions  raged  in  the  city,  the  Romans  were  engaged 
in  desultory  wars  against  the  Sabmes,  the  iEquians,  and  the  Volscians, 
which  generally  terminated  to  the  advantage  of  the  republic,  though 
they  led  to  no  decisive  result.  A  more  important  affair  was  the  war 
■against  Veil,  provoked  by  Lar  Tolum'nius,  king  of  the  Veien'tes,  who 
put  to  death  the  Roman  ambassadors  to  the  people  of  Fidenae.  Satis- 
■action  being  refused  for  this  outrage  (b.  c.  404),  the  Romans  came  cc 

•  Lex  VuUria  ;  ut  quod  trlbutim  plebes  jussis.set,  populuin  tcncret. 
t  Tiitiuiu  ijilitiim  cor.sUlari  potestate. 


214  ■     ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

the  resolution  of  destroying  Veii,  which,  being  ihe  richest  city  o1 
Etruria,  had  long  been  a  dangerous  rival  of  their  republic.  To  eifeci 
this  object,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  permanent  standing  army ;  and 
a  property-tax  was  levied  to  supply  payment  for  the  troops.  After  the 
blockade  and  siege  had  continued  nearly  ten  years,  Fvirius  Camil'lus, 
who  had  distinguished  himself  by  defeating  the  Etrurian  armies  that 
attempted  to  aid  the  Veien'tes,  was  chosen  dictator.  By  his  directions 
a  mine  was  constructed  from  the  Roman  camp  into  the  Yeientine  citadel, 
through  which  an  entrance  was  obtained,  and  Veii  taken  (b.  c.  395). 
Its  riches  were  shared  by  the  soldiers,  its  inhabitants  enslaved  or  held 
to  ransom,  and  the  images  of  its  gods  transferred  to  Home. 

Notwithstanding  his  great  services,  Camil'lus  was  condemned  to  exile 
on  the  charge  of  having  embezzled  part  of  the  plunder  of  Veii ;  but 
scarcely  had  he  departed,  when  the  Romans  were  involved  in  the  most 
calamitous  war  that  has  yet  occurred  in  their  history.  The  barbarous 
Gauls,  having  crossed  the  Alps  in  numerous  hordes,  laid  waste  the  fer- 
tile fields  of  Etruria,  and  besieged  the  important  city  of  Cliisium.  The 
Etrurians  sought  aid  from  the  Romans,  who  sent  some  of  the  young 
nobiUty  to  remonstrate  with  the  Eren'nus,  or  chieftain  of  the  Gauls. 
This  barbarous  chieftain  treated  the  deputies  with  such  scorn,  that,  for- 
getting their  sacred  character,  they  entered  the  besieged  city,  and  joined 
in  a  sally  of  the  garrison.  The  Bren'nus,  enraged  at  such  a  violation 
of  the  law  of  nations,  demanded  satisfaction  from  the  senate ;  and  when 
this  was  refused,  broke  up  his  camp,  and  marched  direct  against  Rome. 
A  body  of  troops,  hastily  levied  to  repel  the  invasion,  took  post  on  the 
river  Al'lia,  about  eleven  miles  from  Rome  (b.  c.  389).  In  the  very 
commencement  of  the  engagement,  the  Romans,  seized  with  sudden 
panic,  broke  and  fled  ;  they  were  pursued  with  dreadful  slaughter  to  their 
very  gates  ;  and  had  not  the  victors  paused  to  gather  the  spoil,  an  end 
would  have  been  put  to  the  Roman  name  and  nation. 

To  defend  the  city  of  Rome  against  such  an  enemy  was  impossible  ; 
It  was  therefore  resolved  to  place  the  best  troops  as  a  garrison  in  the 
citadel,  supplying  them  with  whatever  provisions  remained  in  the  city, 
while  the  mass  of  the  population  should  seek  refuge  in  the  neighboring 
towns.  The  priests  and  principal  objects  of  religious  reverence  were 
removed  to  the  old  Pelasgic  city,  Cse're  Agyl'la.  About  eighty  of  the 
chief  pontiffs  and  patricians,  probably  devoting  themselves,  according  to 
the  superstition  of  the  age,  for  the  safety  of  the  republic,  remained 
quietly  sitting  on  their  curule  chairs  in  the  forum.  When  the  Gauls 
entered  the  city,  they  were  amazed  to  find  it  deserted  :  pursuing  their 
ii^arch,  they  entered  the  forum,  and  slew  those  whom  they  found  there. 
They  then  laid  siege  to  the  capitoi ;  but  soon  became  weary  of  so 
tedious  a  task,  especially  after  their  attempt  to  take  the  citadel  by 
?torm  had  been  frustrated  by  the  cackling  of  the  sacred  geese  kept  in 
the  temple  of  Juno,  and  the  valor  of  Mar'cus  Man'lius.  They  finally 
agreed  to  quit  the  city,  on  receiving  a  ransom  of  one  thousand  pounds' 
weight  of  gold.  According  to  the  ordinary  legend,  Camil'lus,  recalled 
from  banishment  by  a  hasty  decree  of  the  people  assembled  at  Veii; 
appeared  with  an  army  while  the  gold  was  being  weighed,  defeated  the 
Gauls,  and  liberated  his  country.  Polyb'ius,  a  Greek  historian,  gives 
a  mucli  moie  probable  account.     He  says,  that  the  Gauls  returned  homr 


KOMAN   EErUBLIC;  215 

to  protect  tlieir  own  country  from  an  invasion  of  the  Ven'cti,  and  iuti 
mates  that  they  bore  oft"  their  plunder  without  interruption. 

Section  IV. — From  the  Ecbuilding  of  the  City  to  the  first  Punic  War. 
FROM   B.  c.  388   TO   B.  c.  264. 

So  helpless  was  Rome  after  the  departure  of  the  Gauls,  that  it  was 
exposed  to  repeated  insults  from  the  neighboring  townsliips,  which  had 
hitherto  been  subject  to  its  sway.  The  citizens  looked  forward  with 
dismay  to  the  task  of  rebuilding  their  walls  and  houses ;  they  clamored 
for  an  immediate  removal  to  Veii,  and  were  with  ditficnlty  prevented 
from  accomplishing  their  purpose  by  the  firmness  of  Camil'lus.  While 
the  subject  was  under  discussion,  a  lucky  omen,  probably  preconcerted, 
decided  the  irresolute.  Just  as  a  senator  was  rising  to  speak,  a  centu- 
rion, coming  with  his  company  to  relieve  guard,  gave  the  usual  word 
of  command :  "  Ensign,  plant  your  colors ;  this  is  the  best  place 
TO  STAY  in  ! "  '•*  The  senators  rushed  out  of  the  temple,  exclaiming, 
*'  A  happy  omen  :  the  gods  have  spoken — we  obey."  The  multitude 
caught  the  enthusiasm,  and  exclaimed  with  one  voice,  "  Rome  for 
EVER !  " 

Under  the  prudent  guidance  of  Camil'lus,  the  military  strength  of 
Rome  was  renewed,  and  the  states  which  had  triumphed  in  the  recent 
humiliation  of  the  city  were  forced  again  to  recognize  its  superiority. 
Man'Uus,  the  brave  defender  of  the  capitol,  finding  himself  excluded 
from  office  by  the  jealousy  of  his  brother  jDatricians,  declared  himself 
the  patron  of  the  plebeians.  This  revived  the  old  dissensions  with  all 
their  former  virulence.  Camil'lus  was  appointed  dictator  ;  and  by  his 
orders  Mau'lius  was  brought  to  trial,  convicted  of  treason,  and  thrown 
from  the  Tarpeian  rock  (b.  c.  382).  A  plague,  which  burst  forth  soon 
after,  was  popularly  attributed  to  the  anger  of  the  gods  at  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  hero  who  had  saved  their  temples  from  pollution.  By  their 
triumph  over  Man'lius,  and  their  steadiness  in  opposing  popular  claims, 
the  patricians  acquired  such  strength,  that  the  populace  became  over- 
awed, and  the  commons  ceased  to  display  the  spirit  and  courage  they 
had  previously  shown  in  their  contests  with  the  nobles.  "  Rome  was 
on  the  point  of  degenerating  into  a  miserable  oligarchy ;  her  name  is 
the  utmost  we  should  have  known  of  her,  had  not  her  irretrievable  de- 
cline been  arrest<^d  at  the  moment  by  the  appearance  of  two  men,  who 
changed  the  fate  of  their  country  and  of  the  world."  f 

The  renovators  of  the  constitution  were  Caius  Licin'ius  Stolo,  and 
Lucius  Seu'tius  Lateranus.  They  were  aided  in  their  patriotic  labors 
by  Mar'cus  Fabius  Ambus'tus,  a  patrician,  the  father-in-law  of  Licin'- 
ius,- who  is  said  to  have  favored  the  popular  cause  to  gratify  the  ambi- 
tion of  a  favorite  daughter.  There  were  three  rogations,  or  bills, 
brought  forward  by  Licin'ius :  the  first  opened  the  consulship  to  the 
plebeians ;  the  second  prohibited  any  person  from  renting  more  than 
five  hundred  acres  of  p\iblic  land,  and  forbade  any  individual  to  feed  on 
a  common  pasturage  more  than  one  hundred  of  large,  and  five  hundred 
of  small  cattle.     It  also  fixed  the  rents  of  the  public  lands  at  the  tentl 

*  Hie  manebimus  optim6.  f  Nicbiihr. 


216  Ai^CIENT  HiSToav. 

of  the  coin  product  \^fn/s[es),  and  a  fifth  of  the  produce  of  a  i  les,  alots, 
and  other  fruit-trees.  The  third  rogation  proposed  that,  in  all  cases  ol 
outstanding  dchts,  all  the  interest  which  had  been  paid  sliould  be  de- 
ducted from  the  capital,  and  the  balance  paid  by  equal  annual  instal- 
ments in  three  years.  The  patricians  protracted  their  resistance  t(, 
these  laws  during  five  years,  using  every  means  of  force  and  fraud  in 
their  power  to  frustrate  the  designs  of  Licin'ius.  At  length  the  people 
took  arms,  and  occupied  Mount  Aventine.  Camil'lus,  being  chosen 
dictator,  saw  that  nothing  but  concession  could  avert  the  horrors  of  a 
civil  war ;  and  the  senate  allowed  the  thrCi*  bills  to  become  law 
(b.  c.  366),  stipulating  only  that  the  consuls  should  no  longer  act  as 
civil  judges,  and  that  new  magistrates  should  be  chosen,  with  the  title 
of  praetors,  to  exercise  judicial  functions.  The  plebeians  having  once 
made  good  their  claim  to  the  consulship,  acquired  successively,  as  a 
matter  of  course,  participation  in  the  other  high  offices  of  state  •  the 
lictatorship  was  opened  to  them  b.  c.  353  ;  the  censorship,  r.  c.  ci+8  ; 
the  praetorship,  a.  c.  334  ;  and  even  the  priestly  office,  b.  c.  300. 

During  these  civic  struggles  the  Romans  maintained  their  reputation 
abroad  by  several  victories  over  their  enemies,  especially  the  Gauls 
and  the  Etrurians.  But  they  were  soon  engaged  in  a  more  important 
struggle  with  the  Samnites ;  and  this  contest,  which  lasted,  with  little 
Intermission,  more  than  half  a  century,  opened  a  way  for  the  subjuga- 
tion of  southern  Italy,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Rome's  future  great- 
ness. The  Samnites  having  invaded  Campania,  the  people  of  Cap'ua, 
to  ward  off  impending  danger,  declared  themselves  subjects  of  Rome. 
Ambassadors  being  sent  to  warn  the  Samnites  against  invading  the 
new  province,  the  Samnites  treated  their  remonstrances  with  contempt, 
and  war  was  immediately  declared.  It  was  carried  on  slowly  at  first, 
but  generally  to  the  advantage  of  the  Romans,  until  the  Samnites 
sought  terms  of  truce.  During  this  interval  the  Latins  attacked  the 
Samnites,  w^ho  requested  assistance  from  their  recent  enemies,  and 
orders  were  issued  by  the  senate  that  the  Latins  should  desist  from 
hostilities.  These  commands  being  disobeyed,  war  was  declared 
against  the  Latins,  and  the  conduct  of  it  intrusted  to  the  consuls  Man'- 
lius  and  Decius.  To  prevent  the  confusion  which  miglil  arise  between 
armies  speaking  the  same  language,  Man'lius  commanded  that  no  Ro- 
man soldier  should  quit  his  ranks  under  pain  of  death  (b.  c.  330).  The 
consul's  own  son,  challenged  to  ssingle  combat  by  a  commander  of  the 
enemy,  disobeyed  these  orders,  and  was  instantly  sent  to  execution  by 
the  stern  father.  In  the  engagemer*.  which  ensued,  the  Romans  were 
on  the  point  of  being  routed,  until  Decius,  the  plebeian  consul,  devoting 
himsell,  according  to  the  superstitions  of  the  age,  for  the  good  of  his 
country,  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight,  and  fell  covered  with 
wounds.  The  soldiers,  now  persuaded  that  the  gods  had  been  concil- 
iated, renewed  the  fight  with  enthusiastic  confidence,  and  tiie  Latins 
were  completely  defeated.  The  Romans  followed  up  their  success 
with  so  nuich  spirit  during  the  three  ensuing  campaigns,  that  all  La- 
tium  and  Campania  were  subdued,  and  annexed  as  provinces  to  the 
territory  of  the  republic. 

These   great  advantages  gained  by  their  rivals,  alarmed  ine   Sam 
riites ;  many  also  oi  tne  stales  in  southern  Italy,  especially  the  I^uca 


^ 


HOMAN  REPUBLIC.  217 

nians  and  Tarentines,  became  jealous  of  the  risi  ig  greatness  of  Rome 
Papir'iiis  Cur'sor  was  appointed  dictator  to  crush  this  dangerous  con' 
federaev :  he  gained  several  victories  over  the  Samnites  ;  and  these 
successes  being  improved  by  the  generals  that  followed  him,  reduced 
the  enemies  so  low,  that  they  were  once  more  forced  to  solicit  a  ces- 
sation of  arms  (b.  c.  321).  But  these  peaceful  appearances  lasted  only 
a  few  months :  Pon'tius,  an  able  Samiiite  general,  stimulated  his  coun- 
trymen to  renew  the  war,  and  bade  defiance  to  the  Roman  power.  The 
consuls  Veturius  and  Posthumius  were  sent  with  j,  large  army  to  in- 
vade Sam'nium  (b.  c.  320) ;  but  the  crafty  Pon'tius  contrived  to  draw 
these  generals,  with  their  leaders,  into  a  mountainous  and  rocky  defile, 
called  the  Oaudine  Forks,  where  they  could  neither  fight  i.or  fiy  ;  and 
while  they  were  in  this  situation,  the  Samnites  blockaded  all  the  pas- 
sages. The  Romans  being  forced  to  capitulate,  Pon'tius  sent  to  ask 
his  father  in  what  manner  the  persons  should  be  treated :  the  old  man 
recommended  that  they  should  either  be  dismissed  with  all  honor  and 
freedom,  or  slaughtered  without  mercy.  Pon'tius  unwisely  adopted  a 
middle  course  ;  he  spared  the  lives  of  the  Romans,  but  compelled  them 
all,  officers  and  soldiers,  to  pass  under  the  yoke,  and  forced  the  consuls 
to  give  hostages  for  evacuating  Sam'nitun. 

This  disgraceful  treaty  was  disavowed  by  the  senate,  and  the  ofli- 
cers  who  had  signed  it  were  sent  bound  to  Pon'tius,  that  he  might 
wreak  his  vengeai.ce  upon  them ;  but  the  Samnite  general  spurned 
such  poor  satisfaction,  and  vainly  demanded  either  that  the  whole  Ro- 
man army  should  be  again  placed  in  his  power,  or  that  the  articles  of 
capitulation  should  be  strictly  observed.  The  Romans  turned  a  deaf 
ear  to  these  proposals ;  Papir'ius  Cur'sor  once  more  showed  them  the 
way  to  victory;  his  successors  in  command  followed,  his  example  ;  and 
the  Samnites,  completely  humbled,  sought  and  obtained  conditions  of 
peace  (b.  c.  303).  But  amity  could  not  long  subsist  between  nationa 
aspiring  each  to  the  supremacy  of  Italy :  the  war  was  renewed 
(b.  c.  297) ;  and  Fabius  Max'imus,  with  his  colleague,  the  younger 
Decius,  rivalled  the  exploits  of  Papir'ius  Cur'sor.  The  Samnites  were 
aided  by  the  Umbrians,  the  Etrurians,  and  the  Gauls  ;  but  the  desperate 
valor  of  the  Romans  enabled  ihem  to  triumph  over  this  formidable  con- 
federacy. Once  they  were  on  the  point  of  being  defeated  by  the 
Gauls  (b.  c.  294) ;  but  the  younger  Decius,  imitating  the  example  of 
his  father,  devoted  himself  an  offering  to  the  gods,  and,  at  the  sacrifice 
of  his  life,  purchased  a  decisive  victory  for  his  coimtrymen.  At  length 
the  Samnites,  having  lost  their  brave  general  Pon'tius,  were  completely 
subdued  by  Ciirius  Dentatus  (b.  c.  290),  and  forced  to  submit  to  the 
terms  dictated  by  the  conquerors.  In  the  same  year  the  Sabines  were 
conquered  ;  and  Curius  had  'he  unusual  honor  of  having  two  triumphs 
decreed  to  him  in  one  consulate. 

The  Tarentines,  and  the  other  states  in  southern  Italy,  dreading  thai 
the  Romans  would  take  vengeance  on  them  for  their  having  aided  the 
Samnites,  incited  the  Gauls  to  attack  the  republic.  These  barbarians 
were  at  first  successful ;  but  they  were  finally  crushed  by  Dentatus  and 
Fabncius.  Preparations  were  made  for  a  war  against  Taren'ium,  and 
its  luxurious  citizens  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Pyr'- 
fbus.  king  of  Epirus.     That  royal  knight-errant,  believing  thai  it  was 


218 


ANCIENT  HL'TORY. 


in  his  power  ft*  founJ  as  extensive  an  empire  in  the  western  wuild  as 
Alexander  the  Great  had  recently  estal)lished  in  Asia,  readily  obeyt'J 
the  sv.mmons  ;  and  having  sent  his  friend  Cineas  with  a  strong  d*-- 
tachmeiit  to  secure  the  citadel  of  Taren'tum,  soon  followed  with  a 
poweviMi  ainiy,  having  some  elephants  among  his  forr'es,  the  first  that 
had  been  used  in  the  wars  of  western  Einopc  (b.  c.  281).  It  was 
solely  to  these  animals  that  Pyr'rhus  was  indebted  for  his  first  victory 
over  the  consul  Laevinus ;  and  so  little  were  the  vanquished  terrified 
by  defeat,  that  they  vainly  ofi'ered  him  a  renewal  of  battle  before  the 
termination  of  the  campaign.  He  was  still  more  unsuccessful  in  his 
attempts  at  negotiation ;  his  bribes  were  rejected  by  the  Roman  consul 
and  ambassador  Fabrfcius  ;  and  the  offers  of  peace  which  he  sent  to  the 
senate  by  the  orator  Cineas  were  peremptorily  rejected. 

A  second  time  Pyr'rhus  defeated  the  Romans  ;  but  was  so  little  sat- 
isfied with  his  success  as  to  exclaim,  "  Another  such  victory  and  I  am 
undone !"  The  war  then  lingered,  and  Pyr'rhus  passed  over  into 
Sicily,  with  his  usual  inconstancy,  to  deliver  the  Greek  states  in  that 
island  from  the  Carthaginians.  During  his  absence  his  allies  suffered 
very  severely,  and  sent  pressing  messages  soliciting  his  return  ;  an  ex- 
cuse of  which  Pyr'rhus  readily  availed  himself  to  cover  the  shame  of 
his  failure  in  Sicily  (b.  c.  274).  Ciirius  Dentatus  and  Cornelius  Len' 
tulus  were  chosen  consuls  to  oppose  him,  and  two  considerable  armies 
were  placed  at  their  disposal.  Pyr'rhus  marched  against  the  former, 
hoping  to  surprise  him  in  his  camp  near  Beneven'tum  ;  but  his  lights 
failing  him,  he  was  obliged  to  halt,  until  the  dawn  revealed  his  ap- 
proach to  the  Romans.  Instead  of  being  the  assailant,  the  Epirote 
monarch  was  himself  attacked  by  Dentatus ;  his  elephants  were  driven 
back  on  his  own  lines  by  fireballs  and  torches ;  and  after  vainly  en- 
deavoring to  stop  the  slaughter  of  his  bravest  troops,  he  was  forced  to 
fly  with  a  small  escort  to  Taren'tum.  Thence  he  returned  to  Greece, 
leaving  a  garrison  under  the  command  of  Milo  in  the  citadel,  which, 
however,  finally  surrendered  to  the  Romans.  The  Samnites,  Bruttians, 
and  Lucanians,  who  had  joined  Pyr'rhus,  were  easily  subdued  after 
his  departure  ;  and  Rome  established  her  supremacy  over  all  the  coun- 
tries in  Italy,  from  the  northern  frontiers  of  Etruria  to  the  Sicilian 
straits   and  from  the  Tuscan  sea  to  the  Adriatic. 

Section  V. — From  tJie'Commcncemtnl  of  the  Punic  Wars  to  the  Beginning 
of  the  Civil  Dissensions  under  ihe  Grac'chi. 

FROM   B.  c.  264   TO   B.  c.  134. 

The  Mamer'tine  mercenaries^  who  had  seized  Messena  and  slaugh- 
tered the  citizens,  justly  dreading  the  vengeance  of  the  Syracusans, 
divided  into  two  parties ;  one  seeking  the  protection  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians, the  other  that  of  the  Romans.  Thwi  the  first  pretence  of  quar- 
rel between  the  two  mightiest  republics  of  ancient  times  was,  which 
should  have  the  honor,  or  rather  dishonor,  of  shielding  from  merited 
punishment  a  piratical  banditti,  stained  by  every  species  of  .crime. 
The  Romans  were  long  delayed  by  their  reluctance  to  acknowledge 
buch  discreditable  allies  ;  but  finding  that  the  Carthaginians  had  gained 
possession  of  the  Messenian  citadel,  they  made  speedy  preparations  u. 


i 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.        •  210 

» 

jjreveiit  tlieii  rivals  from  bee  )ming  masters  of  Sicily  An  army  in- 
trusted to  the  command  of  the  consul  Ap'pius  Claudius,  was  conveyed 
across  the  straits  (the  vigilance  of  the  Carthaginian  fleet  being  eluded 
by  stratagem),  and  gained  possession  of  Messena.  Successive  victo- 
ries over  the  SvTacusans  and  Carthaginians  soon  procured  the  Roman 
allies  among  the  Sicilian  states,  and  inspired  them  with  the  hope  of 
becoming  masters  of  the  island.  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse,  deserted 
liis  former  allies,  and  by  his  early  alliance  with  Rome,  secured  the 
Iranquillity  of  his  kingdom  in  the  coming  contest.  The  Carthaginians, 
■)n  the  other  hand,  who  had  looked  upon  Sicily  as  an  almost  certain 
conquest,  were  filled  with  rage  when  they  learned  the  danger  that 
threatened  their  possessions  in  that  island.  They  hired  a  vast  number 
of  mercenaries  in  Gaul,  Liguria,  and  Spain ;  they  made  Agrigen'tum 
their  chief  naval  and  military  depot,  storing  it  plentifully  with  the  mu- 
nitions of  war.  Notwithstanding  the  great  natural  and  artificial  strength 
of  Agrigen'tum,  the  Romans,  eager  to  seize  the  Carthaginian  magazines, 
laid  siege  to  the  city,  and  defeated  an  immense  army  that  had  been  sent 
to  its  relief  (b.  c.  262).  Dispirited  by  this  misfortune,  the  garrison 
abandoned  the  city,  which,  with  all  its  stores,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans.  But  this  success  only  roused  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome 
to  fresh  exertions  ;  they  saw  that  their  conquests  could  not  be  secure 
while  the  Carthaginians  held  the  supremacy  of  the  sea,  and  they  there- 
fore directed  all  their  energies  to  the  preparation  of  a  fleet. 

Though  not  v/hoUy  unacquainted  with  ships,  the  Romans  had  hitherto 
paid  little  or  no  attention  to  naval  aff'airs  ;  and  their  model  for  building 
•ihips-of-war  was  a  Carthaginian  vessel  that  had  been  driven  ashore  in 
a  storm.  After  some  indecisive  skirmishes,  the  consul  Duil'ius,  relying 
on  his  invention  of  the  "  corvus,"  a  machine  which  served  both  as  a 
grappling-iron  and  drawbridge,  hazarded  an  engagement  with  the 
Carthaginian  fleet  (b.  c.  260).  No  sooner  had  the  hostile  ships  closed 
than  the  Romans  lowered  the  new  machines  on  the  enemies'  decks, 
and,  fighting  hand  to  hand,  carried  no  fewer  then  fifty  gal.oys  by  board 
ing.  The  Carthaginian  admiral  finding  naval  tactics  of  no  avail,  drev\ 
off  the  rest  of  his  fleet.  To  commemorate  this  their  first  victory  by 
serv  the  Romans  erected  a  rostral*  column  in  the  forum,  which  still 
continues  in  excellent  preservation,  tl^e  chief  injury  it  has  sustained 
being  the  Ir  ?«  of  part  of  the  inscription.  In  a  second  naval  enga,ge- 
jiient,  near  the  island  of  Lip'ara  (b.  c.  256),  the  Carthaginians  losl 
eighteen  vessels,  of  which  eight  were  sunk  and  ten  taken.  From  this 
time  forward  the  Romans  began  to  pay  great  attention  to  maritime  af 
fairs ;  they  main'.ahied  navies  in  the  two  seas  of  Italy,  and  when  the 
ships  were  not  employed  in  war,  they  were  sent  to  make  surveys  of 
the  coasts.  The  increasing  importance  of  navigation  appears  manifest, 
from  the  repeated  representations  of  war-galleys  on  the  Roman  coins  ; 
ihese  do  not  occur  before  the  first  Punic  war,  but  after  that  period  wt 
fmd  them  becoming  very  common. 

Tne  struggle  between  the  rival  republics  had  lasted  about  eight  years 
when  the  Romans,  following  the  example  of  the  Syracusan  Agathoc'les 
rrsolved   to  invade  Africa,  knowing  that  the  native  tribes  of  that  con 

Tnat  is,  ornamented  with  representations  of  the  rostra,  or  beaks  cf  ships. 


ijyO  •     ANCIENl    HISTORY. 

• 

tiiippt  were  weary  of  tlie  tyranny  and  rapacity  ot"  Carthage  An  umii., 
iiient  of  three  hundred  and  thirty  ships  was  prepared  I'or  this  great  eu 
tc-iprise,  and  intrusted  to  the  command  of  the  consuls  Keg,'ulus  and 
Man'lius  (b.  c.  25.3).  \  third  sea-fight  was  a  necessary  preUminaiy  to 
ihis  invasion ;  the  Carthaginians  were  once  more  defeated,  sixty-four 
of  their  galleys  were  taken,  and  thirty  destroyed.  The  victorious  fleet 
pursued  its  voyage  ;  Reg'ulus  eflected  a  landing  without  loss,  and  took 
the  city  of  Clypea  by  storm.  Soon  after,  he  defeated  the  Carthaginian 
army  in  a  general  engagement,  and  seized  the  city  of  Tunis.  In  great 
terror  the  Carthaginians  sought  for  peace  ;  but  the  terms  demanded  by 
Rcg'ulus  were  so  harsh,  that  they  resolved,  at  all  hazards,  to  continue 
the  war,  and  were  confirmed  in  their  determination  by  the  arrrval  of  a 
body  of  mercenary  troops  from  Greece,  under  the  command  of  Xanthip'- 
pus,  a  Spartan  general  of  high  reputation.  To  this  foreigner  the  Car- 
thaginians intrusted  the  command  of  their  army :  he  eagerly  sought  an 
opportunity  of  bringing  the  enemy  to  an  engagement ;  the  Ilomans  did 
not  decline  his  challenge ;  but  they  found  that  one  man  was  sufficient 
0  change  the  fortune  of  the  war.  Xanthip'pus  won  a  complete  vic- 
tory :  the  greater  part  of  the  Romans  were  taken  prisoners  or  cut  to 
pieces,  two  thousand  alone  escaping  to  the  city  of  Clypea ;  Reg'ulus 
himself  was  among  the  captives. 

The  Spartan  general,  after  this  brilliant  exploit,  returned  homo.  A 
Roman  fleet  was  sent  to  bring  off  the  garrison  of  Clypea,  and  gained 
on  the  voyage  a  great  victory  over  the  Carthaginians  ;  but  on  the  re- 
turn of  the  ships,  three  hundred  and  twenty  of  them,  with  all  on  board, 
were  destroyed  by  a  tempest.  A  second  naval  armament  sufTered  a 
similar  fate  ;  and  the  Romans,  disheartened  by  these  repeated  misfor- 
tunes, abandoned  for  a  time  the  sea  to  their  enemies.  But  they  were 
in  some  degree  consoled  by  a  second  triumph  obtained  near  Panor'mus, 
in  Sicily,  over  As'drubal  (b.  c.  249),  which  gave  them  a  decided  supe- 
liorily  in  the  island. 

The  Carthaginians,  daunted  by  this  misfortune,  took  Reg'ulus  from 
Ljs  dungeon  to  go  as  their  ambassador  to  Rome,  trusting  that,  weary  of 
a  long  captivity,  he  would  urge  the  senate  to  grant  favorable  terms  of 
peace.  Reg'ulus,  however,  persuaded  his  countrymen  to  continue  the 
war,  assuring  them  that  the  resources  of  Carthage  wore  exhausted.  It 
is  generally  stated,  that  the  patriotic  general,  after  his  return  to  Africa, 
was  tortured  to  death  by  the  disappointed  Carthaginians.  On  the  othei 
hand,  there  is  reason  lo  believe  that  he  died  a  natural  death,  and  that 
the  tale  of  his  savage  murder  was  invented  K  excuse  the  cruelty  with 
which  his  family  treated  their  Carthaginian  captives.  The  renewed 
war  began  unfavorably  for  the  Romans,  their  entire  fleet  having  been 
wrecked  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicily  (b.  c.  248),  and  Hamil'car  Bar'ca, 
the  new  commander  of  the  Carthaginians,  proving  a  worthy  successor 
of  Xanthip'pus.  But  they  were  not  dispirited  by  these  losses  ;  a  new 
fleet,  of  better  construction  than  any  they  had  yet  possessed,  was  boilt, 
and  placed  under  the  command  of  the  consul  Lutatius  Cat'ulus  ;  at  the 
same  tune  strong  reinforcements  were  sent  to  the  army  in  Sicily  The 
hostile  navies  met  near  the  iEgates ;  the  consul  had  lightened  his  ves- 
i-els  bv  landing  all  unnecessary  burdens  on  one  of  these  islands  ;  'jut 
Har'no,  the  Carthaginian  admiral,  in  his  hurry  tc  engage,  left  his  ves- 


J 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  221 

sels  Si: cumbered  with  baggage.  The  battle  was  brief  but  decisive; 
fifty  of  Han'no's  vessels  were  sunk,  and  seventy  taken  ;  and  the  Car- 
thaginians were  for  ever  deprived  of  the  empire  of  the  sea  (b.  c.  241). 

But  the  consequences  of  this  defeat  threatened  still  more  fatal  resulta 
to  Curthage  :  Hamil'car  Bar'ca.  with  the  last  army  on  which  the  re- 
public could  depend,  was  closely  blockaded  in  a  corner  of  Sicily,  and 
tlie  Roman  cruisers  cut  him  off  from  all  communication  with  Africa  : 
were  he  forced  to  surrender,  Carthage  would  be  left  at  the  mercy  of  the 
barbarous  tribes  in  its  neighborhood.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
Carthaginians  sought  peace,  but  could  obtain  no  better  terms  than  those 
which  Reg'ulus  demanded  when  in  sight  of  their  gates  (b.  c.  240) 
These  conditions  were,  that  the  Carthaginians  should  evacuate  all  the 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  restore  the  Roman  prisoners'  without 
ransom,  and  pay  three  thousand  talents  of  silver  (al^out  600,000''.)  to 
defray  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

After  the  termination  of  the  first  Punic  war,  Rome  ei'joyed  a  brief 
period  of  domestic  and  external  tranquillity ;  and  the  temple  of  Jan'is 
was  shut  for  the  second  time  since  the  foundation  of  the  city.  Tediora 
wars  were  waged  against  the  Ligurians  and  the  Gallic  tribes  which  had 
settled  in  northern  Italy,  when  the  people  became  weary  of  peace  ;  but 
a  more  important  contest  was  provoked  by  the  piracies  of  the  lUyrians, 
whose  queen,  Teuta,  procured  the  nuirder  of  the  ambassadors  sent  to 
remonstrate  against  the  outrages  of  her  subjects.  A  navy  was  soon 
established  in  the  Adriatic,  and  an  army  sent  into  lUyricum,  whose 
rapid  successes  compelled  Teuta  to  purchase  peace  by  resigning  the 
greater  part  of  her  territories  (b.  c.  227).  This  speedy  conquest  diffused 
the  fame  of  the  Romans  throughout  eastern  Europe  ;  for  most  of  the 
Greek  states  had  suffered  severely  from  the  piracies  of  the  Illyrians. 
The  Avar  was  subsequently  renewed  (b.  c.  218),  and  the  Illyrians 
again  overthrown  with  greater  disgrace  and  loss. 

The  Carthaginians  were  anxious  to  compensate  their  losses  in  Sicily 
by  the  subjugation  of  Spain  ;  and  their  extensive  conquests  in  that  pen- 
insula gave  great  umbrage  to  their  suspicious  rivals.  A  pretext  for  in 
terference  was  soon  found.  Han'nibal,  the  son  of  Hamil'car  Bar'ca, 
who  had  been  brought,  while  yet  a  child,  to  the  altar  by  his  father,  and 
sworn  never  to  relax  in  his  enmity  to  Rome,  laid  siege  to  Sagun^tum, 
a  Greek  colony  south  of  the  Ihcrus,  and  treated  with  contempt  the  re- 
niitnstrances  of  the  Roman  ambassadors  (e.  c.2I8).  His  conduct  hav- 
ing been  approved  by  the  Carthaginian  senate,  both  parties  made  instant 
preparations  for  renewing  hostilities,  and  soon  commenced  the  second 
Punic  war. 

Before  the  Roman  armies  were  ready  to  take  the  field,  Ilan'nibal  had 
completed  the  conquest  of  Spain,  and  crossed  the  Pyrenees  on  his  road 
to  Italy.  The  consul,  Scip'io,  hastened  to  prevent  hiin  from  passing 
the  Rhone  ;  but  being  frustrated  by  the  sup'erior  diligence  of  the  Car- 
vhagin^an  general,  he  sent  the  greater  part  of  Ids  forces  into  Spain,  and 
Bailed  with  the  remainder  lor  Italy,  in  order  to  intercept  his  enemies  as 
they  descended  from  the  Alps.  Even  hese  formidable  mountains 
caused  but  Utile  delay  to  the  enterprising  Ilan'nibal.  He  led  his  arm) 
across  them  in  fifteen  days  (b.  c.  217);  and,  advancing  through  the 
.'Ofntry  of  tho    Taurini,    took   their    capital    city    [Jnrin)    by  storm 


£22 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Scip'io  hasted  to  meet  the  invaders  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Ticmub 
bat  he  was  defeated  with  great  loss,  and  further  weakened  by  th«;  de- 
sertion of  his  Gallic  mercenaries,  who  eagerly  Hocked  to  the  standard 
Df  Ilan'nibal,  regarding  him  as  another  liren'nus. 

In  the  meantime,  .Scip'io  had  been  reinforced  by  Sempronius,  the 
other  consul ;  but  he  found  that  these  succors  were  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  impetuosity  of  his  colleague.  Sempronius,  eager  to 
engage,  imprudently  forded  the  river  Trebia.  though  its  waters  were 
swollen  by  rain  and  melted  snow.  The  Romaiis,  suddenly  attacked  afe 
they  came  out  of  the  river,  were  not  able  to  cope  with  their  enemies, 
who  were  fresh  and  vigorous ;  nevertheless  they  made  a  brave  resist- 
ance, and  the  central  division,  unbroken,  made  its  way  from  the  lield  to 
the  city  of  Placen'tia.  The  victory,  however,  was  of  the  rrreatest  ser- 
vice to  Han'nibal,^as  it  secured  him  the  aUiance  of  the  Gauls  in  north 
ern  Italy. 

Flamin'ius,  the  consul  of  the  next  year,  displayed  evt.i  more  impet- 
uosity and  imprudence  than  Sempronius.  Marching  incautiously  in 
search  of  Ilan'nibal,  he  fell  into  an  ambuscade  near  the  Thrasymenian 
laKe,  and  was  slain,  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army  (b.  c.  216).  The 
Romans  were"  so  alarmed  by  the  intelligence  of  this  great  calamity, 
that  they  created  Fabius  Max'imus  dictator,  tliough,  in  the  absence  of 
the  surviving  consul,  they  were  obliged  to  dispense  with  the  legal  for- 
malities. Fabius  adopted  a  new  system  of  tactics  ;  he  declined  light- 
ing ;  but  moving  his  camp  along  the  summit  of  the  hills,  he  closely 
watched  the  motions  of  the  invaders,  harassed  their  march,  and  inter- 
oepted  their  convoys.  From  his  steadfast  adherence  to  this  policy 
Fabius  received  the  name  of  Cunctator  (<//e  delayer).  During  tliis  pe- 
riod, the  Roman  armies  in  Spain,  under  the  command  of  the  Scip'ios, 
gained  many  important  advantages,  and  thus  prevented  the  Carthagin' 
ans  from  sending  succors  to  Han'nibal. 

At  the  close  of  the  year,  Fabius  resigned  his  authority  to  the  consul.-i 
Paul'lus  iEmirius  and  Teren'tius  Var'ro  (b.  c.  215).  The  latter  hur- 
ried Ids  more  prmlent  colleague  into  a  general  action  at  the  village  of 
Can'nai,  near  the  river  Autidus,  where  the  Romans  suffered  a  more  se- 
vere defeat  than  any  they  had  received  since  their  fatal  overthrow  by 
the  Gauls  on  the  Alalia.  This  victory  gave  Han'nibal  a  secure  position 
iu  southern  Itah  it  is  even  supposed,  that  he  would  have  got  posses- 
sion of  Rome  itself,  had  he  marched  thither  immediately  alter  the 
battle. 

But  the  Romans,  notwithstanding  their  great  losses,  did  not  despair . 
Scip'io,  a  young  man  destined  at  no  distant  period  to  raise  his  country 
lO  the  summit  of  greatness,  encouraged  the  nobles  of  his  own  age  to 
stand  firm  at  this  crisis ;  and  Fabius  Cunctator  being  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  army,  resumed  the  cautious  system,  the  advantages  of 
which  had  been  already  sO  fully  proved.  Han'nibal,  in  the  meantime, 
led  liis  forces  to  Cap'ui,  where  his  veterans  were  enervated  by  the  lux- 
ury and  debauchery  of  that  licentious  city.  At  the  same  time  he  con- 
cluded an  alliance  with  Pnilip,  king  i.f  Macedon ;  but  the  Romans,  bj 
their  intrigues  in  Greece,  found  sufricieni  employment  for  that  monarcl 
jX  home,  to  j)rev'ent  his  inierlerence  in  the  allairs  of  Italy.  They  evei, 
=:(MU  an  army  against  him.  under  the  command  of  the  praetor  Ii<t\nims 


KOMAN  REPUBLIC.  223 

and  thus,  though  exposed  to  such  danger  in  Italy,  they  jnaiataiaed  a  vig« 
nrous  contest  in  Greece,  Spain,  and  Sicily. 

It  was  in  Sicily  that  success  first  began  to  dawn  upon  the  Roman 
cause  (b.  c.  212) :  the  ancient  city  of  Syracuse  was  taken  by  the  prae 
tor  Marcel'lus;  and  the  celebrated  mathematician,  Archime'dcs,  by  whoso 
engines  the  defence  had  been  protracted,  was  slain  in  the  storm.  Two 
years  afterward,  Agrigen'tum,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Carthaginians, 
was  betrayed  to  Lasvinus  ;  and  the  Romans  remained  masters  of  the 
entire  island,  which  henceforth  became  a  regular  proA'ince. 

In  the  meantime  the  war  lingered  in  Italy  ;  the  Roman  generals  were 
rarely  able  to  cope  with  Hau'nibal,  though  Marcel'lus  is  said  to  have 
gained  a  general  battle  over  the  Carthaginians  ( )n  the  other  hand, 
Han'nibal,  receiving  no  reinforcements  from  Carthage,  feared  to  peril 
his  limited  resources  in  any  decisive  enterprise.  At  length  he  sum- 
moned his  brother  As'drubal,  who  had  long  maintained  the  Carthaginian 
cause  against  the  Scipios  in  Spain,  to  join  him  in  Italy ;  and  As'drubal, 
without  encountering  any  great  difficulty,  soon  crossed  the  Pyrenees 
and  Alps.  The  consuls,  Liv'ius  and  Nero,  having  discovered  the  di- 
rection of  the  Carthaginian's  march,  hastened  to  intercept  him.  As'- 
drubal, misled  by  his  guides,  was  forced  to  hazard  an  engagement  *at  a 
disadvantage  on  the  banks  of  the  Metaurus,  and  was  cut  to  pieces  with 
his  whole  army  (b.  c.  206).  The  first  inl'ormation  Han'nibal  received 
of  this  great  misfortune,  was  the  sight  of  his  brother's  gory  head,  which 
the  consuls  caused  to  be  thrown  into  his  camp.  Soon  after,  the  Romans 
alarmed  the  Carthaginians  by  the  prospect  of  a  war  in  Africa,  having  en- 
tered into  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Massinis'sa,  the  legitimate  king  of 
Numidia,  and  also  with  the  usurper  Sy'phax. 

At  length  Scip'io,  the  conqueror  of  Spain,  was  chosen  consul,  and, 
contrary  to  the  sWenuous  exertions  of  Fabius,  he  prevailed  upon  the  sen- 
ate to  permit  him  to  transi'er  the  war  into  Africa  ;  and  this  was  the  more 
readily  conceded,  as  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  Philip  (b.  c.  203)  had 
placed  a  fresh  army  at  their  disposal.  Scip'io,  on  landing  in  Africa 
(b.  c.  202),  found  that  Sy'phax  had  been  won  over  to  the  Carthaginian 
side  by  his  wife  Sophonis'ba,  the  daughter  of  As'drubal.  The  Romaij 
general,  knowing,  however  the  inconstancy  of  the  Numidian,  com- 
menced negotiations,  which  were  protracted  with  ecpial  duplicity. 
While  Sy'phax  was  thus  amused,  Scip'io  suddenly  surprised  and  burned 
his  camp  ;  then  attacking  the  Numidians  in  the  midst  of  the  confusion, 
he  put  forty  thousand  of  them  to  the  sword.  After  this  achievement, 
Scij/io  laid  siege  to  U'tica :  the  Carthaginians  raised  a  large  army  to 
relieve  a  place  of  so  much  importance  ;  but  they  were  routed  with  great 
slaughter,  and  pursued  to  their  very  walls.  This  victory  exposed  Cai- 
.ihage  .itself  to  the  perils  of  a  siege ;  Tunis,  alu,  ^st  within  siglit  of  the 
city,  opened  its  ga'es  to  .he  Romans  ;  and  the  Cardiaginiai  senate  driv- 
en  almost  to  despair,  recalled  Han'nibal  Irom  Italy  to  the  defence  of  hit 
own  country. 

Har'n'bal,  on  his  return  home,  would  have  made  peace  on  reasonable 
terms,  had  not  the  Carthaginian  populace,  elaied  by  the  presence  of  the 
nero  of  a  hundred  fights,  obstinately  resisted  any  concession.  With  £ 
heavy  heart  the  brave  old  general  made  preparatioiis  for  a  decisive  en- 
><agement  in  the  field  of  Zama.     Ilan'iiibaj's  abilities  were  not  less  cf)n 


224  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

spicuoiis  m  this  fatal  fight  than  in  the  battles  he  had  won  in  Italy  :  but 
the  greater  part  of  his  forces  were  raw  troops,  unfit  to  cope  with  Scip- 
io's  disciplined  legions.  After  a  dreadful  struggle,  the  Romans  prevail- 
ed, and  they  followed  up  their  advantages  with  so  much  eagerness,  tha 
twenty  thousand  of  the  Carthagiiuans  fell  in  the  battle  or  the  pursuit. 
Han'aibal,  after  having  performed  everything  that  a  general  or  brave 
soldier  could  do  to  restore  the  fortune  of  the  day,  fled  with  a  small  bod) 
of  horse  to  Adrumetum,  whence  he  was  soon  summoned  to  Carthage  t{. 
assist  the  tottering  republic  with  his  counsels  (b.  c.  201).  There  he 
informed  the  senate  that  "  Carthage  had  no  resource  but  in  peace  ;"  and 
these  Avords,  from  the  mouth  of  the  warlike  Han'nibal,  were  decisive. 
Ambassadors  were  sent  to  seek  conditions  from  the  conqueror ;  and  the 
humbled  Carthaginians  accepted  the  terms  of  peace  dictated  by  Scipio. 
who  henceforward  was  honored  with  the  title  of  Africanus.  The 
chief  articles  of  the  treaty  were,  that  Carthage  should  deliver  up  to  the 
Romans  all  their  deserters,  fugitive  slaves,  and  prisoners-of-war ;  sur- 
render all  her  ships-of-the-line,  except  ten  triremes,  and  all  her  ele- 
phants ;  restore  Nmnidia  to  Massinis'sa :  enter  into  no  war  without  the 
permission  of  the  Roman  people  ;  pay  as  a  ransom  ten  thousand  talents 
of  sliver  (about  two  millions  sterling) :  and  give  one  hundred  hostages 
for  the  performance  of  the  treaty.  To  these  harsh  terms  the  Cartha- 
ginians subscribed  :  Scip'io  returned  home,  and  was  honored  with  the 
most  magnificent  triumph  that  had  yet  been  exhibited  in  Rome. 

Rome  was  now  become  a  great  military  republic,  supreme  in  western 
Europe,  and  commanding  a  preponderating  influence  in  the  east,  where 
the  kingdoms  formed  from  the  fragments  of  Alexander's  empire  had  sunk 
into  weakness  from  the  exhaustion  of  mutual  wars.  The  Athenians, 
exposed  to  the  attacks  of  Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  sought  the  protection 
of  the  Romans,  which  was  readily  granted,  as  the  senate  had  long  been 
anxious  to  find  a  pretext  for  meddling  in  the  affairs  of  Greece  (b.  c.  200). 
War  was  declared  against  Philip,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the 
tribunes  of  the  people  ;  and  it  was  resolved  to  follow  up  Scipio's  policy, 
by  making  the  enemy's  country  the  theatre  of  hostilities.  An  army 
was  sent  into  Macedonia,  and  its  conduct  was  soon  intrusted  to  Quia'- 
tius  Flamin'ius,  whose  diplomatic  skill  was  even  more  conspicuous  than 
his  military  talents.  After  some  minor  engagements,  in  none  of  which 
did  Philip  evince  much  ability  as  a  general  or  statesman,  a  decisive  bat- 
tle was  fought  at  Cynosceph'alae  (a.  c.  197),  in  which  the  Macedoni- 
ans were  irretrievably  overthrown,  and  forced  to  submit  to  such  terms  of 
peace  as  the  conquerors  pleased  to  dictate.  This  success  was  followed 
by  the  solemn  mockery  of  proclaiming  liberty  to  Greece  at  the  Isthmian 
games,  which  filled  the  foolish  spectators  with  so  much  delight,  that 
they  virtually  became  slaves  to  the  Romans  through  gratitude  for  freedom. 

Antfochus,  king  of  Syria,  hoping  to  establish  the  empire  of  the  Se- 
leucidcB  in  the  east,  soon  caused  a  renewal  of  the  wars  in  Greece. 
Han'nibal  was  accused  to  the  Romans  by  his  treacherous  countrymen 
of  having  secretly  intrigued  with  this  monarch  ;  and  having  reason  to 
fear  that  he  would  be  surrendered  to  his  enemies,  he  fled  to  Antiochus 
in  Asia.  The  great  general,  however,  found  that  the  vain-glorious  Syr- 
ian was  unable  to  comprehend  his  prudent  plans  for  conducting  the  war, 
and  had  the  mortification  to  find  himself  susoected  of  beiny  secretly  )u 


EOMAN  EEI'UBLIC.  225 

.«ai.aib  with  the  Ronians.  In  the  meantime  the  ^tolians,  displeased  by 
the  pohcy  which  the  Romans  were  pursuing,  invited  Antiochus,  into 
Europe  ;  and  that  monarch,  passing  over  into  Greece,  made  himseli 
master  of  the- island  of  Eubce'a  (b.  c.  191).  War  was  instantly  de 
elared  ;  the  consul,  Acil'ius  Glabrio,  appeared  in  Greece  with  a  power- 
ful  army ;  he  gained  a  signal  victory  over  the  Syrians  at  the  straits  of 
Thermop'ylse,  and  reduced  the  iEtolians  to  such  great  extremities,  thai 
they  were  forced  to  beg  a  peace  ;  but  the  senate  demanded  such  harsh 
conditions,  that  they  resolved  to  endure  the  hazards  of  war  a  little  longer 
(b.  c.  190). 

In  the  following  year,  the  senate  intrusted  the  conduct  of  the  war  t(y 
Lucius  Scip'io,  under  whom  his  brother  Africanus  served  as  a  lieuten- 
ant. Having  soon  tranquillized  Greece,  the  two  brothers  passed  into 
Asia  :  after  many  minor  successes,  they  forced  Antiochus  to  a  general 
oattle  near  the  city  of  Magnesia,  in  which  that  monaich  was  complete- 
ly overthrown  (b.  c.  189).  He  was  forced  to  purchase  peace  by  re- 
signing all  his  possessions  in  Europe,  and  those  in  Asia  noith  of  Mount 
Taurus  ;  paying  a  fine  of  fifteen  thousand  Euboean  talents  (about  three 
millions  sterling)  ;  and  promising  to  give  up  Han'nibal.  That  illustri- 
ous exile  fled  for  refuge  to  Prusias,  king  of  Bith'ynia ;  but  finding  that 
he  was  still  pursued  by  the  vindictive  hatred  of  the  Romans,  he  put  an 
end  to  his  life  by  taking  poison,  which  in  anticipation  of  such  an  ex- 
tremity, he  always  carried  with  him  concealed  in  a  ring. 

On  their  return  home,  the  Scip'ios  were  accused  of  having  taken 
bribes  from  x\ntiochus  and  embezzling  the  public  money  (b.  c.  186) 
Africanus  refused  to  plead,  preferring  to  go  into  voluntary  exile  at  Li- 
ter'num,  where  he  died.  Lucius  was  condemned  ;  and  on  his  refusal  to 
pay  the  fine  imposed,  all  his  property  was  confiscated.  About  the  same 
time  Rome  exhibited  the  first  example  of  religious  persecution :  a  sect 
called  the  Bacchanalians,  having  been  accused  of  the  most  monstrous 
crimes,  several  laws  were  enacted  for  its  extirpation  ;  but  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  discover  how  far  the  charges  against  this  unfortunate  society 
were  supported  by  evidence. 

The  mastery  assumed  by  the  Romans  in  Greece  gave  great  and  jusl 
offence  to  the  principal  states  ;  but  their  yoke  was  felt  by  none  so  griev- 
ously as  Per'ses,  king  of  Macedon,  who  opened  for  himself  a  way  to  the 
throne  by  procuring  the  judicial  murder  of  his  brother  Demetrius.  Mu- 
tual complaints  and  recriminations  soon  led  to  open  war  (b.  c.  170) 
Per'ses  having  collected  his  forces,  entered  Thessaly,  captured  several 
important  towns,  defeated  a  Roman  army  on  the  river  Peneus,  and  was 
joined  by  the  greater  part  of  the  Epirote  nation.  His  successes  con- 
tinued until  the  Romans  intrusted  the  conduct  of  the  war  to  ^Einil'ius 
Paul'lus,  son  of  the  general  that  had  fallen  in  the  battle  of  Can'naa, 
though  he  was  past  the  age  at  which  they  usually  sent  out  commanders. 
While  the  new  general  advanced  against  Macedon,  the  praetor  Anciui 
invaded  lllyr'icum,  whose  monarch  had  entered  into  alliance  with  Per' 
ies,  and  subdued  the  entire  kingdom  in  the  short  space  of  thirty  days. 
Per'ses  being  hard  pressed,  resolved  to  hazard  a  battle  near  "the  walls, 
of  Pyd'na  (a.  c.  168).  After  both  armies  had  remaii.ed  for  some  davs 
in  sight  of  each  other,  an  accident  brought  on  an  engagement  contrary 
*jO  the  wishes  of  tho  leaders  ;  it  ended  in  a  complete  victory  of  the  Rn 


226  ANCIENT    HISTORY. 

luaus.  Pe  'ses  fled  to  Samothrace,  but  was  soon  forced  to  surrendei 
and  was  reserved  to  grace  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror.  Macedon, 
Epirus,  and  Illyr^'icum,  were  reduced  to  the  condition  of  provinces,  and 
it  became  evident  that  the  independence  of  the  remaining  Grecian 
Slates  would  not  long  be  respected.  The  triumph  of  iEmil'ius  Paul'- 
lus  was  the  most  splendid  which  had  been  yet  exhibited  in  Rome,  and 
it  became  the  precedent  for  the  subsequent  processions  of  victorious 
generals. 

The  destruction  of  the  Macedonian  monarchy  was  soon  followed  b} 
that  of  the  miserable  remains  of  the  once  proud  republic  of  Carthage. 
To  this  war  the  Romans  were  stimulated  by  the  rigid  Cato,  sumamcd 
the  Censor,  who  was  animated  by  his  envy  of  Scip'io  Nasica,  on  ac- 
count of  his  great  influence  in  the  senate,  and  by  a  haughty  spirit  of 
revenoe  for  some  slights  which  he  imagined  he  had  received  from  the 
Carthaginians  when  sent  as  ambassador  to  their  state.  The  pretext  for 
the  war  was  some  quarrels  between  the  Carthaginians  and  the  Numid- 
ians,  in  which,  however,  the  former  only  acted  upon  the  defensive. 
At  first,  the  Carthaginians  attempted  to  disarm  their  enemies  by  sub- 
mission ;  they  banished  all  who  had  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the 
Romans,  and  surrendered  their  arms  and  military  stores  to  the  consuls  ; 
but  when  informed  that  they  must  abandon  their  city  and  consent  to  its 
demolition,  they  took  courage  from  despair,  and  set  their  insulting  foes 
at  defiance  (b.  c.  148).  They  made  the  most  vigorous  exertions  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  weapons  they  had  surrendered :  men  of  every 
rank  and  station  toiled  night  and  day  in  the  forges ;  the  women  cut  off 
their  long  hair,  hitherto  the  great  source  of  their  pride,  to  furnish  string.'^ 
lor  the  bows  ol'  the  archers,  and  engines  of  the  slingers ;  and  the  ban 
ished  As'drubal  was  recalled  to  the  defence  of  his  country. 

From  this  unexpected  display  of  courage  and  patriotism,  the  RomauK 
found  Carthage  not  quite  so  easy  a  conquest  as  they  had  anticipated  : 
during  the  first  two  years  of  the  war  they  sufl"ered  repeated  disappoint- 
ments ;  but  at  length  they  intrusted  the  command  of  their  armies  tc 
Scip'io  yEmilianus,  the  adopted  son  of  the  great  Africanus  (b.  c.  147), 
On  his  arrival  in  Africa  Scip'io's  first  care  was  to  restore  the  discipline 
of  the  soldiers,  who  had  been  allowed  by  their  former  commanders  to 
indulge  in  dangerous  licentiousness.  His  strictness  and  moderation 
won  him  the  friendship  of  the  African  nations,  and  enabled  him  in  his 
second  campaign  (b.  ■'.  146)  to  press  vigorously  the  siege  of  Carthage 
After  a  severe  struggle,  the  Romans  forced  an  entrance  into  the  city  on 
the  side  of  Cothon,  or  the  p?rt,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  the 
great  wall.  Thence  Scip'io,  with  a  large  body  of  soldiers,  cut  his  way 
to  the  principal  square  of  the  city,  where  he  bivouacked  all  the  foUow- 
mg  night.  On  the  next  morning  the  fight  was  renewed,  and  the  whole 
city,  except  the  citadel  and  the  temple  of  iEsculapius,  taken  :  six  days 
w  ere  spent  in  preparation  for  the  siege  of  these  strongholds  ;  but,  on 
Jie  seventh,  the  garrison  in  the  citadel  surrendered  at  discretion  ;  and 
the  deserters  in  the  temple  of  iEsculapius,  setting  fire  to  ♦hat  buildh.g, 
perished  in  the  flames. 

Scanty  as  are  our  limits,  two  incidents  connected  witn  the  destruc- 
ion  of  this  ancient  commercial  metropolis,  so  long  the  rival  of  Rome 
for  supi  .^.niacy  in  the  vvt^ftern  world,  must  not  be  omitted.    When  Scio'ic 


lOMAN  REPUBLIC. 


<.4i  I 


lelield  Carthage  in  flames,  h^'s  soul  was  softened  by  letkctions  on  the 
instability  of  fortune,  and  he  could  not  avoid  anticipating  a  time  wher. 
Rome  herself  should  experience  the  same  calamities  as  those  which 
had  befallen  her  unfortunate  competitor.  He  vented  his  feelings,  by 
quoting  from  Homer,  the  well-known  lines  in  which  Hector  predicts 
the  fall  of  Troy  :— 

"  Yet  come  it  -will,  the  day  decreed  by  fates ; 
(How  my  heart  trembles,  while  my  tongue  relates  !) 
The  day  when  thou,  imperial  Troy,  must  bend. 
And  see  thy  warriors  fall,  thy  glories  end." 

The  second  incident  is  still  more  .ragic  :  As'drubal,  (he  first  mover 
of  the  war,  had  fled  with  the  deserters,  accompanied  by  his  wife  and 
children,  to  the  temple  of  ^sculapius,  but  went  over  tc  'he  Romans  a 
little  before  the  destruction  of  that  edifice.  While  the  fiie  was  kindling, 
the  wife  of  As'drubal,  having  decked  herself  in  the  best  manner  she 
could,  appeared  with  her  two  children  on  the  top  of  the  temple,  whence, 
calling  out  to  Scip'io,  she  begged  him  to  punish  her  husband  according 
to  his  deserts,  that  traitor  to  his  God,  his  country,  and  his  family.  Then 
directing  her  speech  to  As'drubal — "  Thou  wicked,  perfidious  wretch," 
she  exclaimed,  "  thou  most  cowardly  of  men  !  This  fire  will  quickly 
consume  me  and  my  children  :  but  thou,  once  ruler  of  mighty  Carthage, 
what  a  triumph  shalt  thou  adorn !  And  what  punishment  wilt  thou  not 
sufler  from  him  at  whose  feet  thou  art  sitting !"  This  said,  she  cut  the 
throats  of  her  children,  threw  their  bodies  into  the  burning  building,  and 
sprung  after  them  into  the  very  centre  of  the  flames. 

During  the  third  Punic  war,  the  disturbances  excited  in  Macedonia  by 
an  impostor,  Andris'cus,  who  pretended  to  be  the  son  of  Philip,  kindled 
a  new  war,  which  proved  fatal  to  the  independence  of  Greece.  The 
Acha;ans  stimulated  by  some  factious  leaders,  took  up  arms  but  were 
subdued  the  very  same  year  that  Carthage  was  destroyed.  Mum'mius, 
the  consul  who  conducted  this  war,  sacked  and  burned  Corinth  ;  and 
after  having  plundered  the  city  of  its  statues,  paintings,  and  most  valua- 
ble effects,  levelled  its  walls  and  houses  to  the  ground.  Thebes  and 
Chalcis  soon  after  shared  the  same  sad  fate.  If  we  may  believe  Vel- 
leius  Pater'culus,  Mum'mius  was  so  little  acquainted  with  the  value  of 
the  beautiful  works  of  art  which  fell  into  his  possession,  that  he*  cov- 
enanted with  the  masters  of  the  ships,  whom  he  hired  to  convey  from 
Corinth  to  Italy  a  great  number  of  exquisite  pieces  of  painting  and 
statuary,  that  "  if  they  lost  ^ny  of  them,  they  should  furnish  others  in 
their  stead." 

Spain  next  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Romans.  No  nation 
that  the  republic  had  subdued  defended  its  liberties  with  greater  obsti- 
nacy. The  war  for  the  subjugation  of  the  Spaniards  comuienced  six 
years  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Carthaginians  from  the  western  penin- 
sula, and  was  exceedingly  obstinate  (b.  c.  200).  This  struggle  was 
protracted  partly  from  the  natural  state  of  the  country,  which  was  thickly 
populated  and  studded  with  natural  fortresses,  partly  from  the  courige 
of  the  inhabitants,  and  partly  from  the  peculiar  policy  of  the  Romans, 
who  were  accustomed  to  employ  their  allies  to  subdue  other  nations 
The  chief  enemies  against  whom  the  invaders  had  to  contfd  v/ere  tht 


228  aXCIENT  history 

Celtiberians  and  Lusitanians  ;  and  so  often  were  the  Romai  s  defeated 
ihat  nothing  was  more  dreaded  by  the  soldiers  at  home  than  an  expedi- 
tion against  such  ^onnidable  foes.  At  length  the  Lusitanians  found  b 
leader  worthy  ol  their  bravery  (b.  c.  146)  in  Viriatus,  who,  from  a 
shepherd,  became  a  hunter  and  a  robber  ;  and  in  consequence  of  hie 
distinguished  v'alor  was  chosen  general-in-chief  by  his  countrymer. 
This  bold  leader  long  maintained  his  ground  against  the  Roman  armies 
and  was  equally  formidable  whether  victorious  or  vanquished.  Indeed, 
he  was  never  more  to  be  dreaded  than  immediately  after  defeat,  because 
he  knew  how  to  make  the  most  of  the  advantages  arising  from  hia 
knowledge  of  the  country,  and  of  the  dispositions  of  his  countrymen. 
Unable  to  compete  with  Viriatus,  the  consul  Cae'pio  treacherously  pro- 
cured his  assassination  (b.  c.  140)  ;  and  the  Lusitanians,  deprived  of 
their  leader,  were  easily  subdued. 

The  Numantine  war  in  hither  Spain  had  been  allowed  to  languish 
while  the  Lusitanians  remained  in  power  ;  it  was  now  renewed  with 
fresh  vigor  on  both  sides,  and  the  pro-consul  Pompey  laid  siege  to 
Numan'tia.  He  was  soon  compelled  to  raise  the  siege,  and  even  to 
enter  into  a  treaty  with  the  Numantines  ;  but  dreading  the  resentment 
of  the  senate,  he  disavowed  the  negotiation,  and,  by  his  great  interest, 
escaped  the  punishment  of  his  perfidy.  A  similar  disgrace  befell  Pom- 
pey's  successor,  Mancinus  ;  and  the  Romans,  alarmed  by  the  greai 
victories  of  the  Numantines,  raised  Scip'io  .'Emilianus  a  second  time  to 
the  consulship,  and  assigned  him  Spain  as  his  province.  Scip'io  spent 
his  entire  consular  year  in  restoring  the  discipline  of  soldiers  dispirited 
by  defeat,  and  neglected  by  their  former  generals ;  he  then  with  the 
inferior  title  of  pro-consul,  directed  all  his  attention  to  concluding  the 
war.  Having  obtained  reinforcements  from  Africa,  he  laid  close  siege 
to  Numan'tia,  blockading  every  avenue  to  the  town.  After  a  protracted 
defence  of  more  than  six  months,  the  Numantines  destroyed  their  wives 
and  children,  set  fire  to  their  city,  threw  themselves  on  their  swords  or 
into  the  fiames,  and  left  the  victors  nothing  to  triumph  over  but  empty 
walls  (b.  c.  133).  Spain  henceforth  became  a  Roman  province,  gov- 
erned by  two  annual  praetors. 

A  rich  province  in  Asia  was  olitained  nearly  at  the  same  time  on 
much  more  easy  terms.  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gamus,  dying,  bequeathed 
his  dominions  to  the  Roman  republic  :  and  the  senate  took  possession 
of  the  valuable  inheritance,  without  heeding  the  remonstrances  of  the 
legitimate  heir.  But  this  acquisition  of  the  wealthiest  and  finest  dis- 
tricts in  Asia  Minor  eventually  cost  the  Romans  very  dear,  both  by  the 
corniption  of  morals  consequent  on  the  great  influx  of  Asiatic  weahh, 
and  the  dreadful  wars  in  which  this  legacy  involved  them  with  Mithri- 
dates,  king  of  Pon'tus. 

Sjection   VI. — Fro7n    the   Bcs^inning  of  the    Civi\    Dissensions    under    tlit 
Gr'^.c'cki,  to  the    DownfaU  of  the  Rtpubiic  and  Death  of  Pompey. 

FROM  B.  c.   134  TO  B.  c.  48. 

During  the  Punic,  Macedonian,  and  Spanish  Avars,  the  power  of  the 
tienate,  on  which  the  administration  of  the  government  necessarily  de 
volved,  incre-i.-.ed  very  rapidly,  and  the  forixi  of  the  constitution  con 


ROMAN   REPUBLIC.  229 

deqviently  was  changed  more  and  more  into  that  of  a  hatefiil  aristocracy 
tigainst  which  the  tribunes  of  the  people  struggled  rather  as  factious 
demagogues  than  as  honest  defenders  of  popular  rights.  The  aristoc- 
racy acquired  vast  wealth  in  the  government  of  the  provinces,  and  thev 
employed  their  acquisitions  in  extending  their  political  influence.  The 
most  obvious  means  of  effecting  this  purpose  was  jobbing  in  the  public 
lands,  undertaking  the  management  of  extensive  tracts,  and  sub-letting 
them  to  a  crowd  of  needy  dependants. 

Tiberius  Grac'chus,  the  son  of  a  consul,  whose  mother  Cornelia  wa^-" 
a  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Scip'io  Africanus,  witnessed  with  indig- 
nation the  progress  of  corruption,  and,  to  check  it,  resolved  to  enforce 
the  Licinian  prohibition  against  any  individual  renting  more  than  five 
hundred  acres  of  the  public  land.  His  office  of  tribune  enabled  him  at 
once  to  commence  operations  ;  but  before  committing  himself  to  the 
hazards  of  a  public  struggle,  he  sought  the  advice  of  the  most  virtuous 
and  respectable  men  in  Rome,  all  of  whom  sanctioned  his  project.  Not 
daring  to  oppose  directly  the  attempt  to  enforce  a  well-known  .aw,  the 
corrupt  nobles  engaged  one  of  the  tribune's  colleagues  to  thwart  his 
measures.  Grieved,  but  not  disheartened,  Tiberius  procured  the  depo- 
sition of  this  unworthy  magistrate,  and  carried  a  law,  constituting  a 
triumvirate,  or  commission  of  three  persons,  to  inquire  into  the  admin- 
istration of  the  public  lands,  and  the  violations  of  the  Licinian  law 
(b.  c.  132).  This  was  followed  by  a  proposal,  that  the  treasures 
which  At'talus,  king  of  Per'gamus,  had  bequeathed  to  the  Romans 
should  be  distributed  among  the  poorer  classes  of  the  people.  During 
the  agitation  of  this  and  some  similar  laws,  his  year  of  tribuneship 
expired,  and  the  patricians  resolved  to  prevent  his  re-election  by  abso- 
lute violence.  So  great  was  the  uproar  on  the  first  day  of  the  comitia, 
that  the  returning  officer  was  obliged  to  adjourn  the  proceedings.  Early 
in  the  following  morning,  when  the  assembly  met,  Tiberius  received 
information  that  some  of  the  nobles,  accompanied  by  bands  of  armed 
retainers,  had  resolved  to  attack  the  crowd  and  take  his  life.  Alarmed 
by  this  intelligence,  he  directed  his  friends  to  arirv  themselves  as  well 
as  they  could  with  staves ;  and  when  the  people  began  to  inquire  the 
cause  of  this  strange  proceeding,  he  put  his  hand  to  his  head,  intima- 
ting that  his  life  was  in  danger.  Some  of  his  enemies  immediately 
ran  to  the  senate,  and  reported  that  Tiberius  Grac'chus  openly  demand- 
ed a  crown  from  the  people.  Scip'io  Nasica,  a  large  holder  of  public 
lands,  seized  this  pretext  to  urge  the  consul  to  destroy  the  reformer. 
On  the  refusal  of  that  magistrate  to  imbrue  his  hands  in  innocent 
blood,  Nasica,  accompanied  by  a  large  body  of  the  patricians,  with 
their  clients  and  dependants,  assaulted  the  unarmed  multitude ;  Tibe- 
rius was  slain  in  the  tumult,  and  many  of  his  friends  were  either  mur- 
dered or  driven  into  banishment  without  any  legal  process.  So  great 
'A'as  the  odium  Nasica  incurred  by  his  share  in  the  murder  of  his  kins- 
man, that  the  senate,  to  screen  him  from  popular  resentment,  sent  him 
tt'  Asia,  under  a  pretext  of  public  business,  but  in  reality  as  a  speciea 
of  honorable  exile  :  he  died  in  a  few  months,  the  victim  of  mortification 
and  remorse. 

While  the  city  was  thus  disturbed  by  civil  tumul's,  Sicily  ^^''as 
harassed  by  the  horrors  of  a  servile  war;  and  the  new  province   of 


280  ANCIENT  HI3T0RV 

Per'gamus  was  usurped  by  Aristonicus,  a  natural  brother  of  tlie  late 
kinor  At'talus.  Both  wars  were  terminated  by  disgraceful  means,  which 
the  Romans  would  have  scorned  to  have  used  at  an  earlier  period  oi 
their  history .  Eiinus,  the  leader  of  the  slaves,  was  betrayed  by  some 
wretches  the  consul  had  bribed :  and  Per'gamus  was  not  subdued  until 
the  springs  which  supplied  water  to  the  principal  towns  were  poi- 
soned. 

Caius  Grac'chus  had  been  a  mere  youth  when  his  brother  Tiberius 
was  so  basely  murdered  ;  but,  undaunted  by  that  brother's  fate,  he  re- 
solved to  pursue  the  same  course,  and  was  confirmed  in  his  determina- 
tion by  his  mother  Cornelia,  a  woman  of  undaunted  spirit,  animated  by 
the  purest  principles  of  patriotism.  He  commenced  his  career  by 
offering  himself  a  candidate  for  the  office  of  quaestor,  to  which  he  v/as 
elected  without  opposition.  His  integrity  and  ability  in  this  station 
won  him  "  golden  opinions  from  all  sorts  of  men."  On  his  return  to 
Rome  he  was  chosen  tribune  of  the  people  ;  and  he  immediately  began 
to  take  measures  for  enforcing  the  agrarian  law  (b.  c.  122).  In  his 
second  tribuneship,  he  procured  the  enactment  of  a  law  transferring 
the  power  of  judging  corrupt  magistrates  from  the  senators  to  the 
equestrian  order ;  a  change  rendered  absolutely  necessary  by  the  im- 
punity that  had  long  been  granted  to  the  grossest  delinquency  and 
extortion.  At  length  the  senate  set  up  Drusus,  another  tribune,  as  a 
rival  to  Grac'chus.  This  wretched  minion  of  an  unprincipled  faction 
made  several  grants  of  public  money  and  remissions  of  taxes  to  the 
people,  with  the  direct  sanction  of  the  senate ;  and  soon  became  a 
favorite  with  the  ignorant  multitude.  A  severer  blow  was  the  exclu- 
sion of  Grac'chus  from  the  tribuneship  when  he  stood  candidate  the 
third  time,  the  officers  having  been  bribed  to  make  a  false  return ;  and 
this  was  ibllowed  by  the  election  of  Opim'ius,  the  most  violent  of  the 
aristocratic  faction,  to  the  consulship. 

A.  contest  could  not  long  be  avoided :  the  nobles,  confiding  in  the 
numbers  of  their  armed  retainers,  were  anxious  to  provoke  a  battle ; 
but  Grac'chus,  though  personally  menaced  by  the  consul,  was  desirous 
that  peace  should  be  preserved.  An  accident  precipitated  the  struggle. 
While  the  consul  was  performing  the  customary  morning  sacrifice, 
A.ntyFius,  one  of  his  lictors,  carrying  away  the  entrails,  said,  with  con- 
temptuous voice  and  gesture,  to  the  friends  of  Grac'chus  and  Ful'vius, 
"  Make  way  there,  ye  worthless  citizens,  for  honest  men !"  The  pro- 
voked bystanders  instantly  assaulted  the  insolent  lictor,  and  slew  him 
with  the  pins  of  their  table-books. 

This  imprudence  afforded  Opim'ius  the  opportunity  he  had  so  eagerly 
desired  ;  the  senate  hastily  assembled,  and  passed  a  vote  investing  him 
with  dictatorial  power.*  Grac'chus,  with  his  most  zealous  followers, 
took  possession  of  Mount  Aventine  :  here  he  was  soon  attacked  by  the 
sanguinary  Opim'ius  ;  three  thousand  of  his  followers  were  slain,  and 
their  bodies  thrown  into  the  Tiber ;  and  Caius  himself  chose  to  fall  by 
the  hands  of  a  faithful  slave,  rather  than  glut  his  cruel  enemies  by  hia 
tortures  (b.  c.  120).     With  the  Grac'chi  perished  the  freedom  of  the, 

•  The  vote  by  which  absoIvUe  power,  in  cases  of  emergency,  was  given  to  the 
consuls,  consisted  in  the  following  formula :  "  Ut  darent  operam  cmsules  r.e  reifTii- 
wca  quid  delrimenii  caperet." 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  231 

Roman  republic ;  henceforth  the  supreme  power  of  the  state  wae 
vvielded  by  a  corrupt,  avaricious,  and  insolent  aristocracy,  from  whos^j 
avarice  and  oppression  even  the  v^^orst  tyranny  of  the  worst  of  the  em- 
perors would  have  been  a  desirable  relief. 

The  profligacy  and  corruption  of  the  senate,  now  that  the  check  of 
popular  control  was  removed,  soon  became  manifest  by  their  conduct  in 
the  Jugurthine  war.  Micip'sa,  king  of  Numidia,  the  son  of  Massi- 
nis'sa,  divided  his  monarchy  on  his  death-bed  between  his  two  sona 
Hiemp'sal  and  Ad'herbal,  and  his  nephew  Jugur'tha, though  the  latter 
was  of  illegitimate  birth.  Jugur'tha  resolved  to  obtain  possession  of 
the  entire  inheritance,  procured  the  murder  of  Hiemp'sal,  and  t-om- 
pelled  Ad'herbal  to  seek  refuge  at  Rome.  The  senate  at  rirst  seemed 
disposed  to  punish  the  usurper ;  but  soon  vron  over  by  his  bribes,  they 
actually  voted  him  a  reward  for  his  crimes,  decreeing  that  the  kingdom 
of  Numidia  should  be  divided  equally  between  him  and  Ad'herbal. 
Impunity  only  stimulated  Jugur'thato  fresh  iniquities  ;  he  declared  war 
against  his  cousin,  gained  possession  of  his  person  by  a  capitulation, 
and,  in  violation  of  the  terms,  put  him  to  death.  Even  this  atrocity 
failed  to  rouse  the  senate  ;  and  Jugur'tha  would  have  escaped  unpun- 
ished, had  not  Mem'mius,  one  of  the  tribunes,  exposed  the  profligate 
venality  of  the  aristocracy  in  a  general  assembly  of  the  people,  and 
persuaded  them  to  send  Cas'sius  the  praetor  into  Africa,  to  bring  Jugur' 
tha  thence  to  Rome,  on  the  public  faith,  in  order  that  those  who  had 
taken  bribes  might  be  convicted  by  the  king's  evidence. 

Jugur'tha,  being  brought  before  the  assembly,  Avas  interrogated  by 
Mem'mius  ;  but  Baj'bius,  another  tribune,  who  had  been  bribed  for  the 
purpose,  forbade  the  king  to  make  any  reply.  The  Numidian,  however, 
soon  added  to  his  former  crimes,  by  procuring  the  murder  of  his  cousin 
Maasiva  in  Rome,  suspecting  that  he  was  likely  to  be  raised  to  the 
throne  of  Numidia  by  a  party  in  the  senate.  Such  an  insult  could  not 
be  borne;  Jugur'tha  was  instantly  ordered  to  quit  Italy  (b.  c.  109),  and 
an  army  raised  against  him  was  intrusted  to  the  command  of  the  consul 
Al'binus.  Instead  of  prosecuting  the  war,  Al'binus  left  his  brother 
Aulus,  a  vain,  avaricious  man,  in  command  of  the  army,  and  returned 
[o  Italy.  Aulus  invaded  Numidia,  hoping  that  Jugur'tha  would  purchase 
his  forbearance  by  a  large  sum ;  but  he  was  surrounded,  betrayed,  and 
forced  to  capitulate  on  the  most  disgraceful  terms.  The 'Roman  people 
was  roused  to  exertion  by  this  infamy ;  a  commission  was  issued  for 
inquiring  into  the  criminality  of  those  who  had  received  bribes  ;  several 
"jf  the  leading  nobles,  among  whom  was  Opim'ius,  the  murderer  of 
Caius  Grac'chus,  were  convicted  on  the  clearest  evidence,  and  sen- 
tenced to  different  degrees  of  punishment.  Finally,  the  conduct  of  the 
war  was  intrusted  to  Quin'tus  Metel'lus,  a  strenuous  partisan  of  the 
aristocracy,  but  an  able  general,  and  an  incorruptible  statesman.  Whei. 
Metel'lus  had  almost  completed  the  conquest  of  Numidia,  he  was  sup- 
planted by  his  lieutenant  Caius  Marius,  a  man  of  the  lowest  birth,  but 
whom  valor,  talent,  and  a  zealous  devotion  to  the  popular  cause,  had 
elevated  to  fame  and  fortune.  Raised  to  the  consulship,  and  intrusted 
with  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Jugur'tha,by  the  favor  of  the  people, 
Marius  showed  little  respect  for  the  vote  of  the  senate  that  had  con- 
unufcd  Metel'lus  in  command.     He  raised  fresh  levi«s,  and  passed  over 


232  ANCIENT  HISTOllV 

into  Africa  j'lst  ^«hen  Jagur'tha  had  been  forced  to  seek  refuge  wnl 
Boc'clms,  king  of  Mduritania  (b.  c.  106).  The  principal  cities  and 
fortresses  of  Numidia  were  speedily  subdued,  and  the  united  army  of 
Jugur'lha  and  Boc'clus  routed  with  great  slaughter.  The  Moorish 
king,  terrified  by  his  losses,  was  at  length  prevailed  upon  to  betray 
Jugur'thato  Syl'la,  a  young  nobleman  who  held  the  important  office  of 
nucEstor  in  the  army  of  Marius  ;  and  this  wicked  usurper,  alter  having 
Seen  exhibited  in  the  conqueror's  triumph,  was  starved  to  death  ii; 
prison. 

In  the  meantime,  the  barbarous  hordes  of  the  Cim'bri^and  Teutone^ 
were  devastating  Transalpine  Gaul,  and  had  defeated  the  Roman  armies 
sent  to  check  their  ravages.  At  length,  their  total  defeat  of  Cae'pio's  ain;y, 
and  slaughter  of  eighty  thousand  men,  spread  such  gencrctl  consterna 
tion,  that  the  senate  and  people  combined  to  raise  Marius  to  the  con- 
sulate a  second  time,  contrary  to  law.  '  It  was  not,  however,  until  his 
fourth  consulship  (b.  c.  100),  that  Marius  brought  the  Teutones  to  a 
decisive  engagement  at  A'quas  Liitiae.  The  annals  of  war  scarcely  re- 
cord a  more  complete  victory  ;  more  than  one  hundred  thousand  of  ine 
mvaders  having  been  slain  or  made  prisoners.  He  was  no  less  fortu- 
nate in  a  second  engagement  with  the  Cimbrians  ;  but  on  this  occasion 
his  old  quaestor,  but  now  his  rival,  Lucius  Syl'la,  had  fair  grounds  for 
claiming  a  large  share  in  the  honors  of  the  day.  About  the  same  time, 
a  second  servile  war  in  Sicily  was  tenninated :  so  cruelly  was  the  re- 
volt of  these  unhappy  men  punished,  that  more  than  a  million  of  the 
insurgents  are  said  to  have  perished  in  the  field,  or  been  exposed  to 
wild  beasts  in  the  arena. 

A  much  more  dangerous  war,  called  the  Marsic,  the  Social,  or  the 
Italic,  was  provoked  by  the  injustice  with  which  the  Romans  treated 
their  Italian  allies.  The  different  states  having  in  vain  sought  a  re- 
dress of  grievances  from  the  senate  and  people,  entered  into  a  secret 
conspiracy,  which  soon  extended  from  the  Liris  eastward  to  the  ex- 
tremity nf  ancient  Italy.  The  Mar'si,  long  renowned  for  their  bravery, 
were  foreinost  in  the  revolt,  and  hence  their  name  is  frequently  given 
to  the  war.  After  a  tedious  contest  of  three  years,  in  which  half  a 
iiiillion  of  men  are  supposed  to  have  perished,  the  Romans  granted  the 
freedom  of  their  city  to  the  states  that  laid  down  their  arms  (b.  c.  87), 
and  tranquillity  was  restored  m  Italy. 

But  the  Roman  power  was  exposed  almost  to  equal  danger  in  Asia 
by  the  rising  greatness  of  Mithridates,  the  celebrated  king  of  Pon'tus, 
who,  in  a  short  time,  made  himself  master  of  all  the  towns  and  island.s 
in  Asia  Minor,  with  the  single  exception  of  Rhodes.  Marius  and 
Syl'la  eagerly  contended  for  the  chief  command  in  this  important  war ; 
the  latter  prevailed,  and  procured  the  banishment  of  his  rival,  who  very 
narrowly  escaped  with  his  life.  Syl'la  departed  with  his  army  to  Asia  ; 
but,  during  his  absence,  the  consul  Cin'na  recalled  Marius,  and  Italy 
was  involved  in  all  the  horrors  of  civil  war  (b.  c.  86).  After  a  severn 
vftruggle,  the  aged  exile  having  e/ery where  defeated  the  partisans  of 
the  nobles,  made  his  triumphant  e-  try  into  Rome,  and  filled  the  entire 
city  with  slaughter.  Having  caused  the  murder  of  most  of  the  leading 
Senators  and  knights  ;hat  had  joined  in  procuring  his  banishment,  b^ 


I 


ROMAN  RErUBLIC  2;53 

leclaicd  hiinself  consul  without  going  through  the  formality  of  an  elec- 
tion, and  died  soon  after,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age. 

In  the  meantime,  Syl'la  defeated  the  armies  of  Mithridates  in  Greece 
took  Athens  by  storm,  slaughtered  its  citizens  without  mercy  or  coiiv 
punction,  and  compelled  the  king  of  Pon'tus  to  solicit  peace.  Syl'la 
willingly  consented,  for  he  had  neither  ships  nor  money  to  carry  on 
the  war ;  and  he  longed  impatiently  to  be  in  Italy,  that  he  might  re- 
venge himself  on  his  enemies,  who  were  so  cruelly  persecuting  hi? 
partisans. 

On  the  news  of  the  approach  of  Syl'la  with  a  victorious  aimv  ^b.  c 
S3),  the  consuls  Cin'na  and  Car'bo  made  every  preparation  for  the  im 
pending  war  ;  but  the  former  was  murdered  by  his  mutinous  troops,  and 
the  latter,  though  aided  by  the  younger  Marius.  did  not  possess  abilities 
adequate  to  the  crisis.  iVfter  a  severe  struggle,  Syl'la  prevailed,  and 
became  master  of  Rome.  He  surpassed  even  the  cruelties  of  Marius, 
slaughtering  without  mercy  not  merely  his  political  opponents,  but  all 
whom  he  suspected  of  discontent  at  his  elevation.  While  the  city  was 
filled  with  mourning  and  consternation,  he  caused  himself  to  be  elected 
dictator  for  an  unlimited  time  (b.  c.  81)  ;  but,  to  the  great  astonishment 
of  everybody,  he  resigned  his  power  at  the  end  of  three  years,  and  re- 
tired to  private  life.  He  died  soon  after  (b.  c.  77)  of  a  loathsome  dis- 
ease brought  on  by  intemperance  and  debauchery. 

The  consid  Lep'idus  attempted  to  seize  the  power  which  Syl'la  had 
abdicated  ;  he  was  declared  a  public  enemy,  defeated  in  the  field,  for- 
saken by  his  friends,  and  al^andoned  by  his  faithless  wife  :  he  simk 
under  this  complication  of  misfortunes,  and  died  of  a  broken  heart.  But 
though  the  senate  escaped  this  danger,  they  were  alarmed  by  the  rapid 
progress  of  the  Marian  faction  in  Spain  (b.  c.  76),  where  Sertorius  had 
collected  a  powerful  army  from  the  relics  of  that  party.  After  some  de- 
liberation, the  management  of  this  war  was  intrusted  to  Pom'pey,  after- 
ward surnamed  the  Great,  though  he  had  not  yet  attained  the  consular  age 
and  was  still  a  simple  Roman  knight.  Sertorius  proved  more  than  a  match 
for  the  young  general,  defeating  him  in  several  engagements  ;  but  treach- 
ery proved  more  efficacious  than  valor ;  the  bold  adventurer  was  murdered 
by  Perper'na  (b.  c.  73) ;  and  the  insurgents,  deprived  of  their  able  leader 
were  finally  subdued  by  Pom'pey  (b.  c.  70).  Before  the  Spanish  wai 
was  terminated,  Italy  was  thrown  into  confusion  by  the  daring  revolt  of 
Spar'tacus  (b.  c.  72).  This  dangerous  insurgent,  with  about  eighty  com- 
panions, forced  his  way  out  of  a  school  for  training  gladiators  at  Cap'ua, 
and  resolved,  instead  of  hazarding  his  life  in  the  arena,  for  the  brutal 
sport  of  the  Roman  populace,  to  make  war  on  the  republic.  Two  bril- 
liant victories  so  established  his  fame,  that  the  slaves,  deserting  their 
masters,  flocked  to  his  standard  from  all  quarters,  and  he  soon  found 
himself  at  the  head  often  thousand  men.  Fresh  successes  now  crowned 
his  arms  ;  praetors  and  consuls  were  sent  against  him,  and  defeated ; 
his  forces  rapidly  increased  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  ;  and 
he  even  attempted  to  make  himself  master  of  Rome.  At  length  the 
[.raetor  Cras'sus  succeeded  in  suppressing  this  formidable  revolt ;  but 
his  victory  was  chiefly  owing  to  the  want  of  union  and  disciplini;  in 
the  army  of  the   insurgents  (b.  c.  70).     Spar^tacus  himself  fell  in  tht 


234  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

field,  and  great  numbers   of  his   followers  were    crui  ified   by  .be  t>ai 
barous  conquerors. 

Cras'sus  and  Pom'pey  were  chosen  consuls  the  next  year:  boll, 
were  ambitious  of  supreme  power,  and  both  began  to  pay  their  court  tc 
tlie  people  ;  Cras'sus  by  largesses  of  corn  and  money,  Pom'pey  by  re- 
storing the  tribuuitian  power,  and  repealing  many  of  the  unpopular  laws 
of  Syl'la.  These  measures  gave  Pom'pey  so  much  influence,  that  he 
was  chosen  to  manage  the  war  against  the  Cilician  pirates,  in  spite  of  the 
most  vigorous  opposition  of  the  senators  ;  and  to  this  commission  there 
were  addf^d,  by  the  Manilian  law,  the  government  of  Asia,  and  the  entire 
management  of  the  war  against  Mithridates  (b.  c.  65).  Liule  did  the 
tribune  Manil'ius  foresee  that  he  was  placing  the  whole  power  of  the 
Roman  empire  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  would  soon  become  the 
most  strenuous  supporter  of  the  senate. 

Pom'pey  made  a  judicious  use  of  the  power  Avith  which  he  was  in- 
trusted ;  he  subdued  Mithridates,  and  established  the  sway  of  the  Ro- 
mans over  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia.  But  while  he  was  thus 
engaged  gathering  laurels  in  *\e  remote  east,  the  republic  narrowly 
escaped  destruction  from  the  conspiracy  of  Cat'iline  (b.  c.  62).  The 
original  contriver  of  this  celebrated  conspiracy,  Ser'gius  Cat'iline,  was 
a  young  man  of  noble  birth,  sullied,  however,  by  the  most  infamous  de- 
bauchery and  crimes.  The  recent  examples  of  ]\Iarius  and  Syl'la 
stimulated  him  to  attempt  making  himself  master  of  his  country  ;  and 
he  found  many  associates  among  the  profligate  young  nobles,  whom 
their  riotous  extravagance  had  overwhelmed  with  a  load  of  debt.  The 
great  impediment  to  the  success  of  the  plans  of  the  conspirators  was 
the  vigilance  of  the  consul  Cicero,  who  had  raised  himself  to  the  high- 
est rank  in  the  state  by  his  consummate  eloquence  and  great  skill  in 
political  affairs.  His  murder  was  deemed  a' necessary  preliminary  to 
any  open  efl"orts  ;  but  Cicero  received  secret  warnings  of  his  danger 
from  Ciirius,  one  of  the  conspirators,  whose  mistress  had  been  bribed 
by  the  consul ;  and  he  was  thus  enabled  to  disconcert  all  the  plans  of 
Cat'iline.  While  the  c'ty  was  alarmed  by  rumors  of  danger,  Cat'iline 
had  the  hardihood  to  present  himself  in  the  senate-house,  where  Cicero 
pronounced  so  dreadful  an  invective  against  him,  that  the  hardened  con- 
spirator was  unable  to  reply,  and -fled  from  the  city  to  commence  open  war. 

In  the  meantime,  his  associates  in  the  city  attempted  to  form  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Allob'roges,  a  people  of  Gaul  that  had  sent  ambassadors 
to  petition  the  senate  for  some  relief  from. the  debt  with  which  their  na- 
tion was  oppressed.  These  ambassadors  betrayed  the  negotiations  to 
Cicero,  who  took  his  measures  so  well,  that  he  arrested  the  chiefs  of 
the  conspiracy  with  the  proofs  of  their  guilt  on  their  persons.  After  u 
warm  debate  in  the  senate,  it  was  resolved  that  the  traitors  should  be 
put  to  death  ;  Julius  Cajsar,  who  was  now  fast  rising  into  notice  as  the 
chief  of  the  popular  party,  protesting  almost  alone  against  the  danger- 
ous precedent  of  violating  the  Porcian  law,  which  forbade  the  capital 
punishment  of  a  Roman  citizen.  When  Cat'iline  heard  the  fate  of  his 
associates,  he  attempted  to  lead  his  forces  into  Gaul ;  but  he  was  over- 
taken by  a  consular  army,  defeated,  and  slain.  So  pleased  were  the 
senate  with  the  conduct  of  Cicero  on  this  occasion,  that  they  gave  hirj 
the  honorable  title  of  Father  of  his  Country 


ROMAN  REPUBLrc.  235 

Piim'pey  soon  afterward  returned  to  Rome,  and  the  old  jealousies  be- 
tween him  and  Cras'siis  were  renewed;  but  Juliufi  Cajsar,  whose  cmi 
nent  abilities  were  now  known  and  vahied,  succeeded  in  bringing  the 
rivals  together,  and  uniting  them  with  himself  in  a  partnership  of 
power,  generally  called  "the  first  triumvirate"  (b.  c.  59).  They  were 
supported  in  this  project  by  the  infamous  Clodius,  whose  sole  aim  was 
Id  be  revenged  on  Cicero  for  having  given  evidence  against  him  on 
^  criminal  trial.  To  wreak  his  vengeance  more  efl^ectually,  he  had 
himself  transferred  from  the  patrician  order  to  the  plebeian,  and  then 
becoming  a  candidate  for  the  tribuneship.  was  elected  without  much  op- 
position. By  the  exertions  of  Clodius,  Cicero  was  driven  into  banish- 
ment ;  but  he  was  honorably  recalled  after  a  year's  exile,  and  restored 
to  his  dignity  and  estates.  While  Clodius,  by  his  violence,  kept  the 
city  in  constant  agitation,  Pom'pey  and  Cras'sus  were  again  elected 
consuls  together ;  the  former  chose  Spain,  the  latter  Syria,  for  his 
province,  hoping  that  its  wealth  would  be  the  prey  of  his  boundless 
avarice  (b.  c.  54).  Caesar  was  in  the  meantime  winning  fame  by  the 
conquest  of  Gaul,  and  establishing  a  military  reputation  which  soon 
eclipsed  that  of  all  his  contemporaries. 

The  union  of  the  triumvirs  was  first  disturbed  by  the  death  of  Julia, 
Caesar's  daughter,  who  had  been  married  to  Pom'pey,  and  exercised 
great  influence  over  both  her  father  and  her  husband.  But  the  compact 
was  completely  broken  by  the  unfortunate  termination  of  the  rash  expe- 
dition which  Cras'sus  undertook  against  the  Parthians,  in  which  he 
perished,  with  the  greater  part  of  his  army  (b.  c.  52). 

Caesar's  victorious  career  in  Gaul  lasted  nearly  eight  years  (from 
B.  c.  57  to  B.  c.  49).  During  this  space  of  time  he  subdued  all  the 
barbarous  and  warlike  tribes  between  the  Pyrenees  and  the  German 
ocean ;  he  even  crossed  the  Rhine,  and  gained  several  victories  over 
the  Germans  ;  and,  passing  over  into  Britain,  he  subdued  the  southern 
part  of  the  island.  Pom'pey  at  first  favored  all  the  projects  of  his  col- 
league, procured  him  a  prolongation  of  his  command  and  supplies  of 
troops ;  but  he  soon  became  envious  of  exploits  that  obscured  the  fame 
i>f  his  own  achievements  ;  his  creatures  began  to  detract  from  the 
brilliancy  of  Caesar's  victories,  and  many  of  that  general's  o^cial  let- 
ters were  suppressed  by  the  senate.  It  became  soon  obvious  that  the 
jealousies  of  the  two  surviving  triunwirs  could  be  arranged  only  in  the 
field  of  battle,  and  their  partisans  began  to  prepare  for  combat  long  be- 
fore the  principals  had  any  notion  of  breaking  the  peace. 

The  contest  began  by  Caesar's  demanding  permission  to  hold  the 
uonsulsliip  while  absent.  He  had  secured  his  interest  and  in- 
creased his  adherents  by  the  most  lavish  bribes,  having  spent 
nearly  half  a  million  on  the  purchase  of  Caius  Curio  alone.  This 
powerful  and  popular  tribune  placed  the  senate  in  a  very  difficult 
position,  by  proposing  that  both  Pom'pey  and  Caesar  should  re- 
sign their  offices,  and  retire  into  private  lifo  (b.  c.  51).  Some 
time  was  wasted  in  negotiations  ;  but  at  length  the  senate  (Jan.  7, 
B.C.  49)  passed  a  decree  by  which  Caesar  was  ccmimanded  to  disband 
hiB  army  before  a  specified  day,  under  the  penalty  of  being  declared  a 
public  enemy.  Mark  Antony  and  Quin'tus  Cas'sius,  tribunes  of  th« 
people,  put  their  negative  on  thih  vote;  but  their  prerogative  was  Ji3 


2:-!b  ANCIENT  H;6Toav 

puied,  und  a  deba.3  ensued,  in  the  course  of  which  T.iaiiy  sevurt 
speeches  were  made  against  them.  Finally,  the  vote  for  suspending 
the  constitution  passed  by  a  large  majority  in  a  very  full  house.  It  was 
decreed  that  "  the  consuls,  praetors,  piroconsuls,  and  other  magistrates 
near  Rome,  should  take  care  that  the  republic  received  no  detriment." 
Antony  and  Cas'sius  fled  from  the  city  the  same  night,  disguised  at 
slaves.     They  were  followed  by  Ciirio  and  C&'lius. 

V/hen  Caesar  received  this  intelligence,  he  resolved  to  march  imme- 
diately into  Italy,  before  Pom'pey  could  collect  forces  sufficient  for  the 
defence  of  the  peninsula.  The  rapidity  of  his  movements  disconcerted 
his  enemies  ;  and  the  news  of  his  having  passed  the  Rubicon,  spread 
puch  alarm  at  Rome,  that  the  senate  and  Pom'pey's  party  abandoned  the 
city,  leaving  the  public  treasure  behind  them.  All  Italy  was  subdued 
in  sixty  days.  On  the  17th  of  March,  Pom'pey  sailed  from  Brundii- 
fiiuni  for  Greece,  abandoning  his  country  to  his  rival.  Sicily  and  Sai 
dinia  speedily  followed  the  fate  of  the  peninsula. 

Elated  by  this  great  success,  Caesar  returned  to  Rome,  took  the  funds 
from  'he  public  treasury,  and,  after  a  brief  respite  of  six  or  seven  days, 
set  out  to  attack  Pom'pey's  lieutenants  in  Spain.  He  met  with  unex- 
pected resistance  from  the  city  of  Marseilles,  but,  leaving  a  detachment 
10  besiege  the  place,  he  continued  his  march  to  Iler'da,  where  he  found 
his  enemies  posted  under  the  command  of  Afranius  and  Petreius.  An 
undecisive  battle  was  fought  at  Iler'da  ;  but  Caesar,  taking  advantage  of 
the  inexperience  and  incapacity  of  his  opponents,  soon  reduced  them 
to  such  straits,  that  they  were  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion.  .The 
reduction  of  the  remainder  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  was  soon  com- 
pleted, and  Caesar  returned  into  Gaul  to  finish  the  siege  of  Marseilles. 
Caesar's  presence  soon  forced  the  citizens  to  surrender.  Their  lives 
were  spared,  but  they  were  forced  to  give  up  all  their  arms,  magazines, 
and  money.  But  while  he  was  thus  everywhere  victorious  in  person, 
the  armies  commanded  by  his  lieutenants  mec  with  some  reverses  in 
lllyricum  and  Africa. 

On  his  return  to  Rome,  Caesar  was  created  dictator.  Having  made 
proper  arrangements  for  the  government  of  the  city,  he. prepared  to  fol- 
low Pom'pey  into  Greece,  where  that  general  had  collected  av  immense 
army  from  the  principal  states  of  the  east.  His  inferiority  by  sea  ex- 
posed Caesar's  soldiers  to  great  dangers  and  hardships  in  their  passage 
irom  Brundiisium  to  Dyrac'chium ;  but  they  were  finally  transported 
into  western  Greece,  and  a  tedious  campaign,  in  which  both  leaders 
showed  themselves  equally  reluctant  to  hazard  a  general  engagement 
From  Epirus  both  armies  moved  into  Thes  )aly ;  and  on  the  30lh  of 
July  (b.  c.  48),  the  battle,  which  decided  the  fate  of  the  world,  waa 
fought  on  the  plains  of  Pharsalia.  Pom'pey's  forces  were  completely 
routed,  their  camp  stonned,  and  the  bodies  of  fugitives  that  preserved  a 
semblance  of  regularity  in  their  retreat,  forced  to  yield  themseke^ 
prisoners.  The  unfortunate  general  himself  made  no  effort  to  retrieve 
the  fortune  of  the  day :  when  his  squadron  of  cavalry,  on  which  he 
[>lared  his  principal  reliance,  were  routed,  he  retired  to  his  tent,  whence 
he  utrd  in  disguise  when  the  enemy  began  to  storm  his  entrenchmeni^. 

From  the  field  of  battle  Pom'pey  fled  to  the  vEgean  sea.  probabl) 
lesigning  to  renew  the  war  in  Syria ;  but  finding  the  Asiatic  states  in 


ROMAN  REPUBLIC.  '-i'H 

alined  to  withdraw  their  allegiance  when  they  heard  of  his  defeat,  he 
steered  for  Egypt,  accompanied  by  his  wife  Cornelia,  trusting  he  would 
receive  protection  from  the  young  king  of  that  country,  with  whose  fa- 
ther he  had  been  united  by  the  strictest  bonds  of  friendship.  But  the 
guardians  of  the  young  king  resolved  to  murder  the  unfortunate  fugi- 
tive, and  intrusted  the  execution  of  the  crime  to  Septim'ius,  a  Roman 
deserter,  and  Achillas,  the  captain  of  the  Egyptian  guards.  Luc^n 
lias  given  a  very  vivid  description  of  the  catastrophe. 

"  Now  in  the  boat  defenceless  Pompey  sate. 
Surrounded  and  abandoned  to  his  fate; 
Nor  long  they  held  him  in  their  power  abroad, 
Ere  every  villain  drew  his  ruthless  sword : 
The  chief  perceived  their  purpose  soon,  and  spread 
His  Roman  gown,  with  patience,  o'er  his  head : 
And  when  the  cursed  Acliillas  pierced  his  breast, 
His  rising  indisrnation  close  repressed. 
"No  sighs,  no  groans  his  dignity  profaned. 
No  tears  his  still  unsullied  glory  stained  : 
Unmoved  and  firm  he  fixed  him  on  his  seat. 
And  died — as  wlien  he  lived  and  conquered — great." 

At  the  sad  sight  of  the  Egyptian  treachery,  Cornelia's  attendants 
disregarding  her  lamentations,  weighed  anchor  and  stood  out  to  sea 
Pom'pey's  body  was  flung  into  the  waves,  but  it  was  dragged  out  in  the 
light  by  one  Cor'dus,  Avho  had  been  Pom'pey's  quEiestor  in  Cy'prus, 
and  interred  with  the  Roman  rites  of  sepulture.  Plutarch  informs  us 
that  his  ashes  were  subsequently  removed  to  Italy,  and  deposited  in  a 
vault  in  his  Alban  villa,  by  Cornelia :  but  Lucan  asserts  that  they  re- 
mained in  Egypt,  and  remonstrates  against  the  neglect  shown  to  the 
remains  of  the  hero. 

Section  VII. —  The   Establishment  of  the  Roman  Emprc. 

FROM  B.  C.  48    TO    B.  C.  30. 

Trii:  news  of  Pom'pey's  death  occasioned  a  fresh  division  among 
his  fugitive  friends.  Many  who  were  attached  personally  to  him,  and 
who  held  out  in  hopes  of  seeing  "liim  again  at  their  head,  determined 
to  have  recourse  to  the  conqueror's  clemency.  Cornelia  returned  to 
Italy,  well  knowing  that  she  had  nothing  to  apprehend  from  Caesar 
Cato,  with  Pom'pey's  two  sons,  remained  in  Africa,  and  marched  over- 
land to  join  Varus  and  Jdba,  king  of  Numidia.  We  shall  see  imme- 
diately how  they  renewed  the  war,  and  exposed  the  victor  to  fresh 
fatigues  and  dangers. 

Caesar,  immediately  after  his  victory,  commenced  a  close  pursuit  ol 
his  competitor ;  and  did  not  hear  of  his  death  until  his  arrival  in  Alex- 
andria, when  messengers  from  the  Egyptian  king  brought  him  Pom'- 
pey's head  and  ring.  Caesar  turned  with  disgust  from  these  relics.  He 
ordered  the  head  to  be  inhumed  with  due  honor  ;  a.id  to  show  his  dis- 
approbaiion  of  Egyptian  treachery,  he  caused  a  temple  to  be  erected 
near  Pom'pey's  tomb,  dedicated  to  Nem'esis,  the  avenging  power  of 
r.niel  and  ii  human  deeds.  His  next  task  was  to  arrange  the  disputed 
succession  )f  the  crown  ;  but,  seduced  by  the  charms  of  the  princess 
Cleopatra,  he  showed  an  undue  preference  for  her  interests,  anl  thus 


2:^8  ANCIENT  HISTOHY. 

incluced  the  partisans  of  the  yoiin<^  king  Ptolemy  to  take  up  arms.  As 
CcEsar  had  only  brought  a  handful  of  men  with  him  to  Alexandria^  he 
was  exposed  to  great  danger  by  this  sudden  burst  of  insurrection.  A 
fierce  battle  was  fought  in  the  city.  Caesar  succeeded  in  firing  the 
Egyptian  fieet ;  but  unfortunately  the  flames  extended  to  the  celebrated 
publ-ic  library,  and  the  greater  part  of  that  magnificent  collection  of  the 
most  valuable  works  of  ancient  times  perished  in  the  flames.  After  tho 
struggle  had  been  protracted  for  some  time,  Caesar  at  length  received 
reinforcements  from  Syria,  and  soon  triumphed  over  all  his  enemies. 
From  Egypt  he  marched  against  Pharnaces,  the  unnatural  son  of  the 
great  Mithridates,  and  subdued  him  so  easily,  that  he  described  tht 
campaign  in  three  words,  ''  Veni,  Vidi,  Vict"— •(/  canip^  I  saw,  I  con- 
Quercd). 

Having  thus  settled  the  aff'airs  of  the  East,  he  departed  for  Rome, 
having  been  created  dictator  in  his  absence  ;  and  found  on  his  returr 
the  affairs  of  the  city  in  the  greatest  confusion,  caused  by  the  quarrels 
between  Antony  and  Dolabel'la.  Csesar  with  difficulty  reconciled  their 
difl^erences,  and  began  to  make  preparations  for  his  war  in  Africa 
against  Cato  and  the  sons  of  Pom'pey.  On  his  arrival  in  Africa,  he 
did  not  find  victory  quite  so  easy  as  he  had  anticipated ;  but  at  length 
he  forced  his  enemies  to  a  decisive  engagement  at  Thap'sus,  and  gave 
them  a  complete  overthrow.  Thence  he  advanced  to  U'tica,  which 
was  garrisoned  by  the  celebrated  Cato,  whose  hostility  to  Caesar  was 
inflexible.  It  was  not,  however,  supported  by  his  followers ;  and 
Cato,  seeing  his  friends  resolved  on  yielding,  committed  suicide.  The 
sons  of  Pom'pey  made  their  escape  into  Spain,  where  they  soon  col- 
lected a  formidable  party. 

Having  concluded  the  African  war  in  about  five  months,  Csesar 
returned  to  Rome  (b.  c.  45)  to  celebrate  his  triumph.  The  senate  placed 
no  bounds  to  their  adulation,  passing,  in  their  excessive  flattery,  the 
limits  even  of  ordinary  decency.  They  decreed  that  in  his  triumph 
his  chariot  should  be  drawn  by  four  white  horses,  like  those  of  Jupitei 
and  the  Sun  :  they  created  him  dictator  for  ten  years,  and  inspector  of 
morals  for  three  years :  they  commanded  his  statue  to  be  placed  in  the 
capitol,  opposite  to  that  of  Jupiter,  with  the  globe  of  the  earth  beneatn 
his  feet,  and  with  the  following  inscription,  "  To  Caesar,  the  demigod.'' 

During  his  residence  at  Rome,  the  dictator  distinguished  himself  hy 
several  acts  of  clemency,  more  truly  honorable  to  his  character  than 
all  the  titles  conferred  upon  him  by  a  servile  senate.  Having  provided 
for  the  safety  of  the  city  during  his  absence,  he  hasted  into  Spain  to 
terminate  the  civil  war  by  crushing  the  relics  of  his  opponents,  who 
still  made  head  under  the  sons  of  Pom^'pey.  Early  in  the  spring 
(i5.  c.  44),  the  two  armies  met  in  the  plains  of  Muu'da :  the  battle  was 
arduous  and  well  contested ;  Caesar  had  never  been  exposed  to  such 
danger ;  even  his  veterans  began  to  give  ground.  By  leading,  how- 
ever, his  favorite  tenth  legion  to  the  charge,  he  restored  the  fortune  of 
the  field,  and  his  exertions  were  crowned  with  a  decisive  victory, 
which  put  an  end  to  the  war.  The  elder  of  Pom'pey's  sons  was  taken 
and  slain  ;  Sex'tus  the  younger  escaped  lo  the  mountains  of  Celtiberia." 

Having  thus  completely  extinguished  thf  .ast  embers  '^^  thp.  civil 
A'ar,  Caesar  contemplated  several   vast  designs  foir  extending  and  im 


ROME  239 

pvoniig  the  empire  he  had  acquired.  He  resolved  to  revenge  the  defeal 
and  death  of  Cras'sus  on  the  Parthians ;  he  undertook  to  rebuild  and 
repair  several  towns  in  Italy,  to  drain  the  Pomptine  marshes,  to  dig  3 
new  bed  for  the  Tiber,  to  form  a  capacious  harbor  at  Os'tia,  and  to  cut 
a  canal  through  the  isthmus  of  Corinth.  But  these  gigantic  projects 
did  not  compensate,  in  the  minds  of  his  countrymen,  for  the  criminal 
design  he  was  understood  to  have  formed  of  making  himself  king  of 
Rome.  Mark  Antony,  it  is  supposed  at  Csesar's  secret  instigation,  of- 
fered the  dictator  "  regal  crown  at  the  feast  of  the  Lupercalia,  which 
Caesar,  perceiving  the  displeasure  of  the  people,  deemed  it  prudent  to 
refuse  :  Antony,  however,  had  it  entered  in  the  public  acts,  "  That  by 
the  command  of  the  people,  as  consul,  he  had  offered  the  name  of 
king  to  Caesar,  perpetual  dictator ;  and  that  Caesar  would  not  accept  of 
it." 

A  large  body  of  the  senators,  regarding  Caesar  as  a  usurper,  cor- 
spired  for  his  destruction,  among  whom  Brutus  and  Cas'sius  were  the 
most  conspicuous.  They  resolved  to  put  their  plot  into  execution  in 
the  senate-house  (March  15,  b.  c.  44)  ;  but  *hey  very  narrowly  escaped 
detection,  from  a  variety  of  untoward  accidents.  As  soon  as  Caesar 
had  taken  his  place,  he  was  surroimded  by  the  conspirators,  one  of 
whom,  pretending  to  urge  some  request,  held  him  down  by  his  robe : 
this  was  the  signal  agreed  upon ;  the  other  conspirators  rushed  upon 
him  with  their  daggers,  and  he  fell,  pierced  by  twenty-three  wounds, 
at  the  base  of  Pom'pey's  statue.  The  nmrderers  had  no  sooner  finished 
their  work,  than  Brutus,  lifting  up  his  dagger,  congratulated  the  senate, 
and  Cicero  m  particular,  on  the  recovery  of  liberty ;  but  the  senators, 
seized  with  astonishment,  rushed  from  the  capitol  and  hid  themselves 
in  their  own  houses.  Tranquillity  prevailed  until  the  day  of  Caesar's 
funeral,  when  Mark  Antony,  by  a  studied  harangue,  so  inflamed  the 
passions  of  the  populace,  that  they  stormed  the  senate-house,  tore  up 
its  benches  to  make  a  funeral  pile  for  the  body,  and  raised  su(?h  a  con- 
flagration that  several  houses  were  entirely  consumed.  This  was  a 
clear  warning  to  the  conspirators,  who  immediately  quitted  Rome,  and 
prepared  to  defend  themselves  by  force  of  arms. 

Mark  Antony  long  deceived  the  conspirators  by  an  appearance  of 
moderation,  and  an  affected  anxiety  to  procure  an  act  of  anmesty  ;  but 
when  joined  by  Octavius  Ciesar,  the  nephew  and  heir  of  the  nuirdertl 
dictator,  he  threw  off  the  mask,  and  proposed  extraordinary  honors  to 
the  memory  of  Caesar,  with  a  religious  supplication  to  him  as  a  divin- 
ity. Brutus  and  Cas'sius  at  length  discovering  that  Antony  meditated 
nothing  but  war,  and  that  their  affairs  were  daily  growing  more  desper- 
ate, left  Italy,  and  sought  refuge  in  the  East.  Octavius  Cajsar,  becom- 
ing jealous  of  Antony,  joined  the  party  of  the  senate  ;  and  Antony, 
retiring  into  Cisalpine  Gaul,  levied  an  army  of  veterans,  and  came  to  an 
engagement  with  the  armies  of  the  republic,  in  which  both  the  consuls 
were  slain.  Antony,  defeated  in  the  field,  fled  to  Lep'idus  in  Spain  : 
and  Octavius  Cajsar,  whom  the  death  of  the  consuls  had  placed  at  the 
fieitd  of  the  army,  entered  secretly  into  a  correspondence  with  the  ene- 
mies of  the  senate.  Their  mutual  interests  led  to  the  formation  of  a 
league  between  Octavius,  Lep'idus,  and  Antony,  called  the  second  tri- 
umvirate (November  27,  b.  c    43),  and  their  confederacv^  was  cemoiUDcl 


240  ANCIENT  HISTOKY. 

by  the  Wood  of  the  noblest  citizens  of  Rome,  shed  in  a  proscription 
more  ruthless  and  sanguinary  than  those  of  Marius  and  Syl'la.  The 
most  illustrious  of  the  victims  was  the  celebrated  Cicero,  whose  severe 
invectives  against  Antony  had  procured  him  the  relentless  hatred  of  the 
triumvir.  Octavius  is  said  to  have  hesitated  long  before  consenting  to 
the  sacrifice  of  the  greatest  orator  that  Rome  ever  produced,  and  the 
most  patriotic  of  her  recent  statesmen ;  but  at  length  he  permitted  the 
fatal  consent  to  be  extorted,  and  Cicero  fell  a  victim  to  a  band  of  assas- 
sins, headed  by  a  tribune  whom  he  had  formerly  defended  and  preserved 
in  a  capital  cause. 

The  triumvirs  having  taken  vengeance  on  their  enemies  in  Italy,  be- 
gan to  prepare  for  carrying  on  war  against  Brutus  and  Cas'sius.  Mace- 
donia became  the  theatre  of  the  new  civil  war :  the  republicans  at  first 
seemed  destined  to  conquer ;  they  appeared  to  possess  superior  talents 
and  greater  forces  by  land  and  sea.  But  in  the  double  battle  at  Phi- 
lip'pi,  fortune  rather  than  talent  gave  the  victory  to  the  triumvirs  ;  and 
Cas'sius  destroyed  himself  after  the  first  contest,  and  Brutus  after  the 
second  (b.  c.  42).  Antony  made  a  cruel  use  of  his  victory,  putting  to 
death  his  political  opponents  without  mercy.  Octavius  emulated  the 
crimes  of  his  colleague,  and  treated  the  most  illustrious  of  his  prison- 
ers with  barbarity  and  abusive  language. 

After  his  victory  Antony  visited  Greece,  where  he  was  received 
with  the  most  refined  flattery.  Thence  he  passed  into  Asia,  where  all 
the  sovereigns  of  the  East  came  to  offer  him  homage ;  but  he  was 
most  gratified  by  a  visit  from  the  celebrated  Cleopatra,  who  rendered 
the  voluptuous  triumvir  a  captive  to  her  charms.  Resigning  all  his 
plans  of  war  against  the  Parthians,  he  followed  this  celebrated  beauty 
into  Egypt,  and  in  her  company  neglected  all  care  of  public  affairs. 
Octavius  Ceesar,  on  the  other  hand,  proceeded  to  Italy,  and  took  the 
most  edicacious  means  for  securing  the  permanence  of  his  power. 
Lucius  tRe  brother,  and  Fid'via  the  wife  of  Antony,  excited  a  new  war 
against  Octavius  ;  but  they  were  soon  defeated,  and  the  capture  of  their 
principal  stronghold,  Perusia  (b.  c.  41),  rendered  Caesar's  nephew 
master  of  Italy,  and  almost  the  recognised  heir  of  his  uncle's  power. 

Antony  was  still  immersed  in  pleasure  at  Alexandria,  when  he  re- 
ceived the  account  of  his  brother's  defeat,  and  the  ruin  of  his  party  in 
Italy  ;  at  the  same  time  he  heard  that  Octavius  had  made  himself  mas- 
ter of  both  Gauls,  and  had  got  all  the  legions  into  his  hands  that  were 
quartered  in  those  districts.  He  was  roused  by  these  tidhigs  from  his 
lethargy,  and  immediately  proceeded  toward  Italy ;  but  blaming  Ful'via 
for  all  his  disasters,  he  treated  her  with  so  much  contempt,  that  she 
died  of  a  broken  heart.  This  circumstance  paved  the  way  to  a  recon- 
ciliation ;  Antony  married  Octavia,  the  half-sister  of  his  rival,  and  a 
iiew  division  was  made  of  the  Roman  emjiire.  Sex'tus  Pom'pey,  who 
during  the  troubles  had  become  powerful  by  sea,  was  included  in  the 
new  arrangements,  and  obtained  the  possession  of  the  Peloponnesus 
and  several  important  islands. 

But  the  mutual  jealousies  of  the  triumvirs  rendered  peace  of  short 
duration.  Octavius  drove  Pom'pey  from  Sicilv.  and  compelled  him  to 
seek  refuge  in  the  East,  where  he  was  put  to  death  by  one  of  Antony's 
lieutenants ;  and  about  the  same  time  he  deprived  Lep'idus  of  all  hh 


ROME.  241 

jKJwcr,  and  took  possession  of  his  dominions.  Antony,  while  his  rival 
was  thus  acquiring  strength,  degraded  himself  by  an  unsuccessful  wai 
against  the  Parthians  ;  alter  which  he  rpturned  to  Alexandria,  and  lost 
all  regard  to  his  character  or  his  interest  in  the  company  of  Cleopatra. 
Octavia  went  to  the  East,  hoping  to  withdraw  her  husband  from  the 
fascinating  siren  ;  but  the  infatuated  triumvir  refused  to  see  her,  and 
sent  her  orders  to  return  home.  He  completed  this  insult  by  sending 
her  a  bill  of  divorce,  and  professing"  a  previous  marna-ge  with  Cleopa- 
tra. Preparations  for  war  were  instantly  made  on  both  sides  ;  but 
Antony's  debauchery,  and  slavery  to  the  caprices  of  an  abandoned 
woman,  disgusted  his  best  friends,  and  many  of  them  deserting  him 
brought  such  an  account  of  his  extravagance  to  Rome,  that  the  indignan* 
citizens  passed  a  decree  for  deposing  him  from  the  consulship. 

The  great  rivals  were  soon  in  readiness  for  action.  Antony  had  the 
most  numerous  forces  ;  but  Octavius  had  the  advantage  of  a  more  disci- 
plined army,  and,  at  least  in  appearance,  a  better  cause.  Their  lleets  and 
armies  were  soon  assembled  at  the  opposite  sides  of  the  gulf  of  Ambracia, 
where  they  remained  for  several  months  without  coming  to  a  decisive 
engagement.  At  length,  Antony,  instigated  by  Cleopatra,  formed  the 
fatal  resolution  of  deciding  the  contest  by  a  naval  battle.  The  fleets 
met  off  the  promontory  of  Ac'tium  (September  2,  b.  c.  31),  while  the 
hostile  armies,  drawn  up  on  the  shore,  Avere  simple  spectators  of  the 
battle.  For  a  long  time  success  was  doubtful ;  until  Cleopatra,  wearied 
with  expectation,  and  overcome  with  fear,  unexpectedly  tacked  about, 
and  fled  toward  the  Peloponnesus  with  the  Egyptian  squadron  of  sixty 
sail ;  and,  what  is  more  surprising,  Antony  himself,  now  regardless  of 
his  honor,  fled  after  her,  abandoning  his  men  who  so  generously  ex- 
posed their  lives  for  his  interest.  The  battle,  notwithstanding,  con- 
tinued till  live  in  the  evening,  when  Antony's  forces  were  partly  con- 
strained to  sulmiit  by  the  great  conduct  of  Agrip'pa,  and  partly  persuaded 
by  the  liberal  promises  of  Octavius.  The  army  of  Antony  could  not 
believe  in  the  tiight  of  their  general,  and  held  out  for  seven  days  in  ex- 
pectation of  his  returning  to  join  them  ;  but  hearing  no  tidings  of  him, 
and  being  deserted  by  their  allies,  they  hasted  to  make  terms  with  the 
conqueror. 

Anfony  and  Cleopatra  continued  their  flight  to  Egypt,  where  the  queen 
displayed  more  courage  and  enterprising  spirit  than  her  lover.  She 
caused  some  of  her  galleys  to  be  carried  over  the  isthmus  (of  Suez)  into 
the  Red  sea,  proposing  to  save  herself,  with  her  treasures,  in  an  un- 
knowi'  worla  ;  but  the  Arabians  having  burned  her  vessels,  she  was 
forced  to  abandon  a  design  so  full  of  difficulties,  and  she  therefore  com- 
menced fortifying  ihe  avenues  of  her  kingdom,  and  making  preparations 
for  war.  She  also  solicited  foreign  assistance,  addressing  herself  to  all 
the  princes  in  the  alliance  of  Antony.  While  Cleopatra  was  thus  em- 
ployed, Antony  exhibited  the  most  lamentable  weakness  :  at  lirst  hx: 
affected  to  imitate  Timon  the  misanthrope,  and  shut  himself  up  without 
either  friends  or  domestics  ;  but  his  natural  temper  did  not  allow  him  to 
remain  long  in  this  state,  and  quitting  his  cell,  he  gave  himself  up  to 
leasting  and  every  kind  of  extravagance. 

In  the  meantime,  the  forces  of  Octavius  advanced  on  each  side  ot 
F.gypt.    Cornelius  Gal'lus  took  possession  of  Paretonium,  which  was  thf 

iP 


242  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

key  of  Egypt  on  the  west  side  ;  and  Antony,  who  speeded  with  hid  fleet 
and  army  to  wrest  it  out  of  his  hands,  was  forced  to  retire  with  greai 
loss,  especially  of  his  ships.  Pelusium,  the  eastern  security  of  the 
kingdom,  was  surrendered  to  Octavius  at  the  first  summons  :  it  was  re- 
ported that  Seleucus  the  governor  betrayed  the  place  by  Cleopatra's 
orders  ;  but  she,  to  clear  herself  from  such  an  imputation,  delivered  up 
nis  wife  and  children  into  Antony's  hands.  Csesar  advanced  to  besiege 
Alexandria ;  Antony  made  an  effort  *.o  impede  his  march,  but  he  was 
abandoned  by  his  soldiers  ;  and  finding  he  could  not  die  with  glory  in 
the  field,  he  returned  to  Alexandria,  overcome  with  rage  and  fury,  run- 
ning and  crying  out,  "  that  Cleopatra  had  betrayed  him,  when  he  had 
ruined  all  his  fortunes  for  her  sake  alone."  The  queen,  hearing  his 
violent  tr.'ii) sports,  retired  in  terror  to  a  monument  she  had  erected, 
secured  the  doors,  and  caused  a  report  to  be  spread  of  her  death. 
Upon  this  news,  Antony  attempted  to  commit  suicide,  and  inflicted  on 
himself  a  mortal  wound  :  hearing,  however,  in  the  midst  of  his  agonies^ 
that  Cleopatra  still  lived  he  caused  himself  to  be  transported  to  her 
monument,  and  expired  in  her  presence. 

Cleopatra  seems  to  have  formed  some  hope  of  ootaining  the  same 
influence  over  Octavius  Caesar  that  she  had  exercised  over  Antony ;  but 
finding  the  conqueror  insensible  to  her  charms,  and  having  received 
secret  information  that  he  reserved  her  to  adorn  his  triumph,  she  bribed 
a  countryman  to  convey  an  asp  to  her  in  a  basket  of  figs,  and  applied 
ihe  venomous  creature  to  her  arm,  and  thus  died.  Egypt  was  then 
reduced  into  the  form  of  a  Roman  province,  and  its  immense  riches 
transported  to  Rome,  which  enabled  Octavius  to  pay  all  he  owed  to  his 
soldiers.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  the  senate  saluted  him  by  the  hon- 
orable name  of  Augus'tus,  and  by  a  unanimous  vote  conceded  to  him 
the  entire  authority  of  the  state. 

The  era  of  the  Roman  empire  is  usually  dated  from  Jan.  1st,  b.  c. 
28.  The  title  of  Augus'tus  was  at  first  only  personal,  and  did  not  con- 
vey any  idea  of  sovereignty  :  several  of  the  imperial  family  took  it  v/ho 
never  were  emperors,  such  as  German'icus.  The  female  Une,  who  had 
not  the  least  shadow  of  sovereignty  with  the  Romans,  had  it  as  Antonia 
Major  ;  and  thus  Jjiv'ia  first  took  the  name  of  Augusta  when  she  was 
adopted,  by  her  h  -sband's  will,  into  the  Julian  family.  After  the  time 
L>f  Diocle5?ian  it  was  changed  mto  Sem'per  Augus'tus  ;  and  this  title  was, 
in  moderi  t;imes,  assumed  by  the  emperors  of  Germany  and  Austria. 
It  may  appear  surprising  that  the  Romans  made  no  vigorous  effort  to 
recover  their  republican  constitution ;  but,  in  truth,  Roman  liberty  wa.s 
destroyed  when  the  Grac'chi  were  murdered  :  all  the  subsequent  civil 
dissensions  were  contests  for  power  between  different  sections  of  the 
oligarchy  ;  and  the  peopk  ,  weary  o''  the  oppression  of  the  aristocracy, 
gladly  sought  shelter  from  the  tyrannj  of  the  nobles  in  the  despotic  swaj 
(jf  a  single  master. 


HOMAN  EMPIRE 


243 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

GEOGRAPHICAL  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITION  OF 
THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Section  I. — European  Countries. — Spain. 

lis  general  the  boundaries  of  the  Roman  empire  may  be  described  as 
tlie  ^reat  western  ocean,  the  rivers  Rhine  and  Danube  in  Europe,  the 
chain  or"  Mount  Caucasus,  the  river  Euphrates  and  the  Syrian  deserts 
in  Asia,  and  the  sandy  deserts  of  Africa.  It  thus  included  the  faiicst 
portions  of  the  known  world  surrounding  the  Mediterranean  sea. 

Its  most  western  province  was  the  Spanish  peninsula,  whose  bound- 
aries, bemg  fixed  by  nature,  continue  unvaried.  This  great  country, 
usually  called  Iberia  by  the  Greeks,  either  from  a  colony  of  Iberians, 
or  from  the  river  Iberus  (Ebro),  was  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  names 
Hispania  or  Hesperia.  It  was  usually  divided  into  three  great  portions, 
Lusitania,  Baetica  or  Hispania  Ulterior,  and  Tarraconensis  or  Hispania 
Citerior. 

The  chief  islands  were  the  major  and  minor  Baleares  {Majorca  and 
Minorca),  whose  inhabitants  were  celebrated  for  their  skill  as  slingers 
and  archers. 

Section  II. —  Transalpine  Gaul. 

Ancient  Gaul  was  boundea  on  the  north  and  south  by  the  sea,  on 
the  west  ^y  the  Pyrenees,  and  on  the  east  by  the  rivers  Rhine  and  Var. 
It  vvs  divided  into  three  great  sections,  Bel'gia,  Aquitania,  and  Gal'lia 
Propria ;  in  which  the  language,  manners,  and  customs,  differed  con- 
siderably. 

The  religion  of  the  ancient  Gauls,  like  that  of  the  ancient  Britons 
was  druidical ;  they  worshipped  a  supreme  deity  called  Hesus,  or  vEsar, 
to  whom  they  believed  the  oak  to  be  sacred,  especially  if  the  parasitical 
plant  called  mistletoe  were  found  growing  upon  it.  Their  riles  were 
very  sanguinary :  human  victims  were  sacrificed  in  their  groves  and 
circles  of  stone  ;  and  it  is  said  that  their  nobles  occasionally  volunteered 
to  offer  themselves  upon  the  national  altars.  Temples  were  not  erected 
ill  Gaul,  until  after  its  conquest  by  the  Romans ;  but  long  before  that 
period  the  worship  of  a  crowd  of  inferior  deities  had  been  introduced. 

The  several  Gallic  tribes  were  usually  independent  of  each  other  ,• 
but  on  great  occasions  a  general  council  of  the  nation  was  summoned. 


M4  ANCIENT   HISTORY 

especially  when  picparalions  were  made  for  any  of  tlie  great  migrations 
which  proved  so  calamitous  to  Greece  and  Italy.  Their  superior  'aloi 
rendered  these  tribes  very  formidable  to  all  the  southern  nations  ;  itwae 
commonly  said,  that  the  Romans  fought  with  others  for  conquest,  bui 
with  the  Gauls  for  actual  existence.  But  from  the  time  of  the  subju- 
gation of  their  country  by  Julius  Csesar,  their  valor  seemed  to  have 
disappeared  together  with  their  liberty  ;  they  never  revolted,  except 
when  the  extortions  of  their  rulers  became  insupportable  ;  and  their 
efforts  were  neither  vigorous  nor  well-directed.  In  no  province  did 
Roman  civilization  produce  greater  effects  than  in  Gaul  ;  many  public 
works  of  stupendous  size  and  immense  utility  were  constructed ;  roads- 
were  constructed  and  paved  with  stone  ;  durable  bridges  were  built, 
and  aqueducts  formed  to  supply  the  cities  with  water.  Remains  of 
these  mighty  works  are  still  to  be  found,  and  they  can  not  be  viewed 
without  wonder  and  admiration. 

Skctio.n  III. — Britain. 

Though  Britain  was  not  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  Roman  province 
until  long  after  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar,  yet,  as  that  general  brought  i 
nominally  under  subjection,  it  will  be  better  to  describe  its  ancient  state 
here  than  to  interrupt  the  history  of  the  empire  in  a  subsequent  chapter 
The  name  of  Britain  was  originally  given  to  the  cluster  of  islands  ir 
the  Atlantic  now  called  British,  the  largest  of  which  bore  the  name  of 
Albion.  The  southern  part  of  Albion,  or  England,  was  originally  colo- 
nized from  Gaul  ;  the  tribes  that  inhabited  the  east  and  north  are  said 
to  have  been  of  German  descent ;  and  there  is  a  constant  tradition,  that 
the  Scots  in  the  northwest  cam.e  originally  from  Ireland. 

That  part  of  Britain  now  included  in  the  kingdom  of  England  and 
principality  of  Wales,  was  anciently  divided  among  seventeen  tribes,  to 
whom  probably  some  of  inferior  note  were  subject. 

The  principality  of  Wales,  formerly  comprehending  the  whole  country 
beyond  the  Severn,  was  inhabited,  in  the  Roman  times,  by  the  Silures. 
vhe  Dem'etse,  and  the  Ordovlces.  The  last-named  tribe  possessed  North 
Wales,  and  long  bade  defiance  to  the  Roman  power  in  their  mountain 
fastnesses.  The  island  of  Mona  {Anglesey),  celebrated  as  the  ancient 
^eat  of  the  Druids,  belonged  to  the  Ordovices. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  country  beyond  the  Firths  of  Soiway  and  the 
Forth  were  named  Me'tse  and  Caledonii,  hut,  in  a  later  age,  the  Picts 
md  Scots.  Juverna,  or  Iliber'nia  [Ireland),  was  known  only  by  name 
to  the  Romans. 

Three  walls,  strengthened  by  castles,  were  successively  raised  to 
check  the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots  by  the  emperors  Adrian, 
Antoninus,  and  Severus.  The  last  was  the  most  important,  according 
to  Camden,  who  seems  to  have  traced  it  with  great  care.  It  began  at 
Bkitobul'gium  (Bubiess),  on  the  Irish  sea,  kept  along  the  side  of  Soiway 
Firth,  by  Buigh-upon-sands,  to  Lugoval'lum  {Carlis-le),  where  it  passed 
the  Itiina  [Eaen).  Thence  it  was  carried  on  over  the  little  rivers  Cam- 
beck,  Living,  and  Poltrose,  into  the  Northumbrian  hills,  along  which  i' 
passed  to  the  German  oc«  an.  This  Wall  was  about  *ight  feet  thick, 
md  was  protected  by  a  dit  ;h  twelve  yards  broad. 


I 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  245 

'Wlien  Britain  was  first  visited  by  tlie  Romans,  tlifc  inhaLitants  had 
^Tiade  considerable  advances  in  civilization.  Their  country  was  well 
peopled  and  stocked  with  cattle  ;  their  houses  were  as  good  as  those 
of  the  Gauls,  and  they  used  iron  and  copper  plates  for  money.  They 
made  litile  use  of  clothes,  instead  of  which  they  painted  and  tattooed 
their  skins.  In  Avar  they  made  use  of  chariots,  with  sharp  blades  fixed 
to  the  axle-trees,  which  they  drove  at  full  speed  against  the  hostile  ranks. 
Their  chief  traffic  was  with  the  Gauls  and  the  Phoenicians,  who  came 
to  the  Cassiter'ides  (^Scilly  islands),  for  tin.  Little  is  known  respecting 
their  religion,  except  that  they  were  held  in  mental  thraldom  by  a  caste 
of  priests  named  Druids,  and  that  they  were  guilty  of  off'ering  human 
sacrifices  to  their  gods.  Each  tribe  had  its  own  king ;  but  in  cases  of 
emergency,  a  common  chief  was  elected,  who  possessed,  however,  little 
more  than  a  nominal  authority.  The  most  singular  monument  of  the 
Druids  remaining  is  Stonehenge  in  Wiltshire,  a  circular  edifice  of 
enormous  stones,  which  probably  was  the  national  temple.  Britain  was 
finally  abandoned  by  the  Romans  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century. 

Section  IV. —  The  Northerti  Provinces  of  ihc  Empire. 

Italy,  Greece,  Sicily,  Macedon,  &c.,  having  been  already  described 
in  former  chapters,  we  shall  conclude  the  account  of  the  Roman  empire 
in  Europe  by  a  notice  of  the  countries  south  of  the  Danube,  which 
were  formed  into  provinces  during  the  reign  of  Augus'tus  Caesar. 

Vindelic'ia  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danu!)e,  on  the  east  by 
the  ^'nus  {Inn),  on  the  west  by  \\e\veim%(^Svntzerlaml),  and  on  the 
south  by  Rhse'tia :  it  derived  its  name  from  the  river  Vindo  (the  Wert). 
Its  chief  tribes  were  the  Vindelic'ii  and  Brigan'tii.  Two  others  are 
lUBOtioned  by  Horace  in  his  ode  celebrating  the  conquest  of  this  country 
ty  Tiberius  and  Driisus,  addressed  to  Augus'tus  : — 

"  Of  late  the  Vindelician?  knew 

Thy  skill  in  arms,  and  felt  thy  sword, 
When  Drusus  the  Genanni  slew, 

And  5reiim' swift,  a  lawless  horde. 

The  towers  which  covered  all  around 

The  rugged  Alps'  enormous  height, 

By  him  were  levelled  with  the  ground, 

And  more  than  once  confessed  his  might." 

Their  principal  towns  were  Augus'ta  Vindelicorum  (^Angsburgh)  and 
Brigan'tia  [Bregenz),  neither  of  which  were  remarkal)le  in  ancient  his- 
tory.    The  principal  rivers  were  the  Vedo  and  the  Ly'cus  [LecJi). 

Rhse'tia  nearly  coincided  with  the  country  now  called  the  territory  of 
the  Grisons ;  it  had  Vindelic'ia  on  the  north,  the  jE'nus  [Inn]  on  the 
east,  the  chain  of  the  Alps  from  Lacus  Verbanus  {Logo  Maggiore)  to 
Lacus  Brigaiitinus  [Lake  of  Constance)  on  the  south,  and  Helvetia  on 
the  west.  The  principal  tribe  were  the  Rhaj'ti,  whom  some  have  identi- 
fied with  the  Rasena  or  ancient  Etrurians.  They  were  a  brave,  but 
cruel  people  ;  and  when  thej  invaded  Italy  in  the  reign  of  Augus'tus 
Caesar,  their  ravages  exceeded  those  that  had  been  in  earlier  times  per- 
petrated by  the  Gauls. 

The  chief  towns  were  Curia  [Chiir),  which  became  the  capital  of  the 


^46  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

province  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Adrian,  Veldidena  ( Wildeji),  and 
Tridentum  [Trent). 

Nor'icum,  formerly  a  kingdom,  but  afterward  a  Roman  province,  ex- 
tended between  the  Danube  and  the  Alpes  Norise  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Trent  from  the  jE'nus  {Inn)  to  Mons  Cetius  (Kohlenberg),  and  conse 
quently  included  a  great  portion  of  modern  Austria,  the  archbishopric 
of  Saltzburgh,  and  all  Styria  and  Carinthia.  Its  southern  boundaries 
were  the  Julian  Alps  and  the  Savus  [Save).  Its  chief  cities  were,  in 
Nor'icum  Ripense,  or  the  part  bordering  on  the  Danube,  Jovavum  oi 
Jovavia  (Saltzburgh),  Boidurum  (Innstadt),  so  named  from  the  Boii,  thf 
most  important  of  the  Noric  tribes  ;  Lentia  [Lem)  and  Lauriacum 
[Lorch).  In  the  interior,  or  Noricum  Mediterraneum,  we  find  Pons 
M'm.  {Innspruck),  Vis'celli  (Weltz),  Graviacii  (Gurch),  Agun'tum 
(Innichen),  Teur'nia  {F«7/ac//),  and  Sol'va,  once  the  capital  of  the  country, 
but  long  since  buried  in  its  ruins. 

Pannonia  was  divided  into  Superior  and  Inferior.  The  former  had 
the  Danube  on  the  east  and  north,  the  Ar'rabo  (Raab)  on  the  west,  am' 
the  chain  of  Mons  Cetius  (Kahlenberg)  on  the  south.  It  consequentlj 
comprehended  Carniola,  Croatia,  Windesch,  Mark,  and  part  of  Austria. 
Pannonia  Inferior  had  the  Ar'rabo  on  the  north,  the  Danube  on  the  east, 
and  the  Savus  (Save)  on  the  south.  The  chief  cities  were  Seges'ta  oi 
Sescia  (Siseck)  on  the  Save  ;  Amona  (Unterlaubach),  a  Roman  colony  , 
Naupor'tum  (Oberlaubach),  upon  the  river  Naupor'tus  [Laubach)  ;  Vin- 
doniana  or  Vindebona  (Vien7ia),  obscure  in  ancient  times,  but  now  the 
capital  of  the  Austrian  empire,  Scaraban'lia  (Scarbing)  ;  Mur'scL (Ess eg); 
Sir'mium  (Sirrnich),  the  ancient  metropolis  of  Pannonia  on  the  Save  , 
and  Tauriinum  [Belgrade),  an  important  frontier  fortress  both  in  ancient 
and  modern  times. 

Moe'sia  was  the  name  given  to  the  country  between  the  conflux  of  tlie 
Save  and  Danube  and  the  Euxine  sea.  It  was  divided  into  two  unequal 
portions,  Superior  and  Inferior.  Moj'sia  Superior  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Danube,  on  the  south  by  the  Scordian  mountains,  on  the 
west  by  Pannonia,  and  on  the  east  by  the  river  Cebrus  [Ischia).  Its 
chief  cities  were  Singidunum  (Se/nlin)  and  Nais'sus  [Nissu).  This 
province  comprehended  the  countries  now  called  Bosnia  and  Servia. 

Moe'sia  Inferior,  nearly  coinciding  with  the  modern  Bulgaria,  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danube,  on  the  west  by  the  Cebrus,  on  the 
south  by  Mount  Hsemus  [the  Balkan),  and  on  the  east  by  the  Euxine 
sea.     Its  chief  cities  were   Odes'sus  [Varna)  and   Tomi  (Te?neswar). 

The  part  of  lower  Moe'sia  bordering  on  the  Euxine  was  frequently 
named  Pon'tus  ;  and  hence,  Tomi,  the  place  of  the  poet  Ovid's  exile,  is 
called  a  city  of  Pon'tus,  though  it  did  not  belong  to  the  kingdom  of  that 
name.  Tomi  is  said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Medea's  having  cut 
her  brother  Absyr'tus  to  pieces  in  that  place,*  in  order  that  her  fether'g 
pursuit  of  her  might  be  delayed,  while  he  gathered  the  scattered  limbs 
)f  his  child.     To  tliis  Ovid  alludes  in  a  well-known  distich: — 

"  Tomi  its  name  from  horrid  n^nrder  bore, 
For  tbere  a  >>rother's  limbs  a  sister  tore." 

•  From  rcnvM.,  to  cut. 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  247 

North  of  tlie  Danube  was  the  piovince  of  Dacia,  annexed  to  the  Ro 
man  empire  in  the  reign  of  Trajan.  Some  geographers  describe  it 
loosely  as  including  all  the  country  between  the  Borys'thenes  (Z)?uVper' 
and  the  Dau'ube ;  but  its  proper  boundaries  were  Mon'tes  Carp'atii 
[the  Krapac/c  cliain)  on  the  north,  the  Tibis'cus  [Theiss]  on  the  west 
the  Hier'asus  [Pruth)  on  the  east,  and'the  Danube  on  the  south.  I' 
consequently  included  Upper  Hungary,  Transylvania,  Moldavia,  and 
VVallachia.  The  inhabitants  were  called  Getae  by  the  Greeks,  and 
Daci  by  the  Romans  :  they  possessed  no  city  of  importance. 

Thrace  was  long  permitted  to  retain  its  own  sovereigns,  on  the  con- 
dition of  acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the  Romans ;  but  in  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Ciaudian  it  was  reduced  to  the  form  of  a  province. 
It  was  nearly  enclosed  by  the  chain  of  Mount  Hse'nms  and  the  sea. 
The  principal  cities  of  Thrace  were  the  Greek  colonies,  which  have 
already  been  noticed  in  a  preceding  chapter. 

iriyricum  is  a  name  sometimes  given  to  all  the  countries  south  of  the 
Danube,  but  it  is  properly  applied  only  to  the  strip  of  land  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  the  Adriatic,  irom  the  Rhajtian  Alps  to  the  river  Drinus 
(^Drino),  and  easterly  to  the  Savus  [Save).  Its  inhabitants  were  re- 
markable for  their  skill  in  naval  architecture  ;  and  infamous  for  their  in 
veterate  attachment  to  piracy.  Their  chief  cities  were  Salona,  Epidau- 
rus  [Ragusa),  and  Scodra  [Scutari). 

Section  V. — Asiatic  and  African  Provinces. 

The  Roman  provinces  in  Anatolia  were  :  1,  Asia,  as  the  Romans  with 
proud  anticipations  named  the  first  cession  of  country  made  to  them  east 
of  the  JEgean :  2,  Bithynia,  together  with  Paphlagonia  and  part  of 
Pon'tus :  and  3,  Cilicia,  with  Pisid'ia.  These  provinces  were  in  gen- 
eral the  most  tranquil  portion  of  the  empire  ;  and  the  most  peaceful,  if* 
not  the  most  happy  period,  in  the  history  of  Asia  Minor,  was  that  during 
which  it  remained  subject  to  Rome.  No  greater  proof  can  be  given  of 
the  wealth  to  which  individuals  attained,  than  that  the  sepulchres  of 
private  persons,  like  that  of  Icesius,  discovered  by  Mr.  Ainsworth,  rival- 
led those  of  the  ancient  Pontic  kings.  The  various  divisions  of  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Palestine,  and  Commagene,  for  the  purpose  of  government, 
can  not  easily  be  enurr  ^/ated.  At  first,  several  states  were  permitted  to 
retain  a  qualified  independence  ;  but  before  the  close  of  the  first  centu- 
ry of  the  Christian  era,  they  were  all  absorbed  in  the  empire.  Arme- 
nia and  Mesop'tamia  became  provinces  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  and 
part  of  Arabia  paid  nominal  allegiance  to  that  emperor ;  but  these 
acquisitions  were  abandoned  in  the  reign  of  his  successor. 

The  African  provinces  were  :  I,  Egypt,  which  became  a  province 
after  the  battle  of  Actum:  2,  Cyrenaica,  which  soon  followed  the  fate 
of  Eg)^pt  ;  Crete  was  annexed  to  this  government :  3,  Numid'ia  and 
Africa  Proper,  which  were  finally  subdued  by  Julius  Caesar :  and,  4 
Mauretania,  whose  king  was  dethroned  a.  d.  41,  and  the  country  di 
vided  into  two  provinces,  separated  by  the  river  Muluch'a  [Mahaiu), 
called  Caesarien'sis  and  Tingitania.  The  chief  towns  in  Mauretania  Cae- 
sarien'sis,  were  Igil'jD-Us  (Ze.zeli),  Sal'dae  [Dellnz),  lonynium  [Algifirs)_ 
Rususcucuni  [Koleahj,  Caesarea  [Tcunez),  and  Siga  (Sigale).     The  most 


248  ANCIENT   HISTOHY. 

remarkable  tribe  was  the  Massaesy'li,  on  the  river  Muluch'a,  near  tlie 
seacoast. 

Mauretania  Tingita'na  derived  its  name  from  its  chief  city  'i'in'gis 
[Tans^lfirs),  on  the  Fretum  Gaditanum  (Strnils  of  Gibraltar).  It  con< 
tained  also  tlie  towns  and  ports  of  Buandir  [Mclilla),  and  Ab'yla  {Ceuta), 
m  the  Mediterranean.  There^were  besides,  on  the  Atlantic  ocean,  Zilis, 
or  Julia  Constantina  (Arzillo)  ;  Ban'asa  Valen'tia  [Mehedund),  and  Sala 
{Sailer)  :  but  these  were  scarcely  known  to  the  Romans  until  a  very 
late  period  of  the  empire.  The  Gaetulians,  first  made  known  to  the  Ro- 
mans during  the  Jugurthine  war,  never  were  subdued  by  their  armies ; 
but  in  later  ages  paid  homage  to  the  proconsul  or  pra;fect  of  Africa. 

Though  the  Romans  had  thus  succeeded  in  Asia  to  the  great  commer- 
cial marts  of  the  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  Egyptians,  and  had  acquired 
in  Africa  the  ancient  stations  of  the  Carthaginians,  they  made  little  oi 
no  effort  to  encourage  traffic.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  opened  a  sin- 
gle new  route  for  trade  ;  and  under  their  government  many  of  the  an- 
cient highways  of  commerce,  particularly  in  Asia,  fell  into  disuse. 
One  principal  cause  of  this  was,  the  distance  of  Rome  from  the  chief 
trading  stations  in  the  eastern  seas,  by  which  the  attention  of  the  ruling 
powers  was  withdrawn  from  the  great  abuses  that  prevailed  in  the  pro- 
vincial administration  and  colonial  government.  This  appears  evident 
from  the  vast  improvement  in  the  commerce  between  Europe  and  Asia, 
which  took  place  immediately  after  the  seat  of  government  was  trans- 
ferred from  Rome  to  Byziintinm  (Conslaiitmople)  ;  and,  however  some 
politicians  may  be  disposed  to  blame  the  division  of  the  empire,  a  slight 
glance  at  the  nations  that  pressed  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Roman  do- 
minions will  show  that  the  interests  and  dangers  of  the  eastern  arid 
western  empires  were  so  very  different,  that  the  course  of  policy  which 
suited  the  one  would  be  injurious  to  the  other. 

JSection  VI. —  Th.T  Principal  Nafions  on  the  Frontiers  of  the  Empire. 

German V  v/as  a  name  loosely  given  by  the  Romans  to  all  the  coun- 
tries north  of  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  Sarmatia,  in  as  uncertain  a  sense, 
was  applied  to  the  countries  now  called  Poland  and  Lithuania  ;  while 
the  greater  part  of  the  vast  dominions  of  Russia  in  Europe  and  Asia 
were  included  under  the  general  name  of  Scythia,  and  were  almost 
wholly  unknown  in  ancient  times.  In  the  northwest  of  Europe  the 
countries  about  the  Sinus  Codanus  (Baltic  sf-a),  though  probably  visited 
in  very  ancient  times  by  the  enterprising  Phceuicians,  remained  unvis- 
ited,  or  at  least  unexplored,  by  the  Romans,  who  were  never  remarka- 
ble for  their  zeal  in  maritime  discovery.  Indeed,  they  seem  to  have 
regarded  Scandinavia,  or  Scan'dia  (Sweden),  Nerigon  (Norway),  and 
Erin'gia,  or  Furnin'gia  (Finland),  as  isles  of  the  German  ocean 
When  Britain  was  circumnavigated,  the  Or'cades  [Orkney  islands)  were 
discovered :  but,  previous  to  that  time,  some  indistinct  account  had 
been  received  of  a  distant  island,  named  Thule,  which  some  believe  tu 
have  been  ore  of  the  Zetland  cluster,  and  other.' -Iceland. 

The  Germans  took  their  name  from  their  own  'anguage,  Ghar-mans 
signifying  warlike  men,  or  warriors  ;  for,  like  most  savage  tribes,  they 
:)rincipallj'  prided    thenK-jelvcs  on  their  military  virtues.     They  were 


llOMAiN"  ExVIPIRE. 


249 


called  in  the  earliest  ages  Cim'briand  Tei/ttnes  by  the  Roma,ns;  bu 
it  is  not  easy  to  determine  whether  these  may  not  have  been  very  dif- 
ferent races,  accidentally  united  in  a  common  migration.  The  Cim'bri 
gave  their  name  to  the  Chersonesus  Cim'brica  (Jutland)  ;  from  that  of 
theTeu'tones  the  modern  names  Teutschen  and  Dutch  have  manifestly 
been  derived.  A  confederation  of  several  tribes,  formed  in  the  third 
century,  took  the  name  of  AUeman'ni,  or  All-mans,  that  is,  complete 
men,  from  which  the  French  of  the  present  day  call  Germany  Alk' 
magne. 

It  would  be  impossible,  within  our  limits,  to  enumerate  all  the  iribes 
of  ancient  Germany,  but  a  few  of  the  principal  may  be  noticed.  On 
the  east  bank  of  the  Al'bis  (Elbe),  between  that  river  and  the  Vistula, 
were  the  Cim'bri  and  Saxones,  of  whom  the  former  were  the  most  re- 
markable in  ancient  times,  and  the  latter  during  the  middle  ages.  West 
of  the  Al'bis  were  the  upper  and  lower  Chauci,  divided  from  each 
other  by  the  Visurgis  (Wcser)  ;  and  the  Fris'ii,  separated  from  the 
Chauci  by  the  river  Amasia  {Eras),  whose  territory  still  preserves  the 
name  of  Friesland.  The  Marcoman'ni  anciently  possessed  all  the 
country  between  the  sources  of  the  Rhenus  (Rhine)  and  the  Is'ter,  or 
Danubius  (Danube)  :  they  afterward  fixed  themselves  in  Bohemia  and 
Moravia,  and  also  in  part  of  Gaul,  driving  the  Boii  before  them. 

On  this  side  of  the  Rhine,  between  that  river  and  the  Mosa  (Maese), 
were  the  U'bii,  who  were  invited  by  Agrip'pa  to  this  country  during  the 
reign  of  Augus'tus.  To  commemorate  this  migration  they  named  their 
capital  Colonia  Agrippi'na  {Cologne),  in  honor  of  their  patron.  Higher 
up  the  Rhine,  and  beyond  the  Mosella  [Moselle]  were  the  Treviri, 
whose  chief  city  was  Augusta  Trevirorum  (Triers),  and  some  minor 
tribes,  possessing  the  city  of  Argentoratum,  or  Argentinae  {Strasburgh). 
The  Hercynian  forests  and  mountains,  by  which  the  Romans  seem  to 
have  understood  all  the  unexplored  part  of  eastern  Germany,  appear  to 
have  been  the  original  abode  of  the  Quadi,  the  Suevi,  and  the  Herman- 
diiri,  who  became  very  formidable  to  the  Romans  in  the  age  of  Antoni- 
nes.  The  original  seat  of  the  Longobar'di,  celebrated  in  Italy  under 
the  name  of  Lombards,  was  the  upper  part  of  the  Elbe  :  they  are  said 
to  have  derived  their  national  appellation  from  their  "  long  barts,"  or 
spears ;  but  others  think  that  they  were  so  called  from  the  length  of 
their  beards  or  from  having  been  formed  by  a  coalition  of  the  Lingones 
and  Bar'di.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula  were  the  Gep'idae  ;  and 
it  is  supposed  that  the  first  seat  of  the  warlike  Burgundians  was  on  the 
same  river ;  but  they,  as  well  as  the  Semnones,  had  pushed  forward  to 
the  Elbe  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era.  The  iEs'tui,  cele- 
brated for  their  trade  in  amber,  resided  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  sea. 

Beside  the  Hercynian  forest  already  mentioned,  Germany  contained 
Sylva  Melibo'ca(^//e  Harlz),  Sylva  Barcenia  (the  Black  Forest),  Sylva 
Sudeta  (the  Thuringian  Forest),  and  Sylva  Caj'sia  (Forest  of  Teutobcrg) 
Most  of  the  rivers  have  been  already  m.entioned ;  but  we  must  notice 
the  northern  embouchure  of  the  Rhine,  called  Flavum  Os'tium  (  Vlit) 
in  the  territory  of  the  Batavians  ;  the  I'sela  (Isel),  separating  the  Bruc 
teri  from  the  Fris'ii  ;  the  Lupias  (Lippe),  in  the  territory  of  the  Warsi ; 
and  the  Viadrus  (Oder),  near  whose  source  many  authors  place  the 
original  habitation  of  the  Burgundian* 


250  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

In  considering  the  state  of  ancient  Germany  it  must  be  home  in 
mind  that  the  tribes  frequently  migrated  from  ( ne  quarter  to  another 
especially  after  the  second  century  of  our  era,  and  that  the  name  of  a 
principal  tribe,  such  as  that  of  the  Suevi,  was  frequently  given  to  a 
large  confederation.  This  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  Frankfi 
{free  men),  who  were  not  so  much  a  tribe,  as  a  union  of  several  hordea 
determined  to  maintain  their  national  independence. 

The  religion  of  the  ancient  Germans  seems  to  have  resembled  thai 
of  the  Gauls,  except  that  it  was  rather  more  sanguinary,  and  thai 
greater  regard  was  paid  to  oracles  and  old  prophetesses.  Their  chief 
deity  was  Odin,  or  Woden,  their  god  of  war,  whose  name  is  preserved 
in  our  Woden's  day,  or  Wednesday.  Their  notion  of  future  happiiiese 
was  to  sit  for  ever  in  Odin's  presence,  quaffing  beer  from  the  sculls  of 
their  enemies.  This  opinion  is  forcibly  expressed  in  the  death-soniJ 
which  Lodbrog  sings  for  himself  in  the  Edda : — 

"With  flashins;  swo'ds  our  ini2:ht  we  proved; 
jint  this  my  heart>  laughter  moved, 
That  bliss  eternal  shall  be  mine 
Where  the  halls  ot"  Odin  shine; 
I'o  him,  great  sire,  my  deeds  are  known, 
For  me  he  has  p'-epared  a  throne. 
Where  richest  ale  incessant  flows 
In  the  hollow  sculls  of  foes. 
The  brave  man  never  shrinks  at  dent'n, 
Gladly  I  resit^n  my  breath ; 
No  regrets  my  soul  appal 
As  I  haste  to  Odin's  hall." 

This  is  manifestly  the  creed  of  a  savage  race  of  warriors,  and  sucn 
all  the  Germans  were  ;  they  took  no  pleasure  but  in  military  weapons  ; 
they  never  attended  any  festival  or  public  assembly  without  arms  ;  and 
so  sacred  was  the  sword  among  them,  that  their  most  solemn  oath  was 
taken  by  kissing  its  naked  blade. 

In  Asia,  the  Roman  empire  was  bounded  by  the  wild  tribes  of  the 
Caucasus,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Armenia  and  Parthia.  On  the  south  it 
was  limited  by  the  unconquered  Arabs,  who  defied  every  effort  made  to 
reduce  them  to  obedience. 

India  became  known  to  the  Romans  after  the  conquest  of  Egj'pt ; 
and  some  efforts  were  made  to  establish  an  extensive  commerce  with 
that  empire  by  the  route  of  the  Red  sea,  in  the  reigns  of  the  later  em- 
perors. It  was  divided  into  India  Proper,  or  India  at  this  side  of  the 
Ganges,  whose  western  coast  (Malabar)  a])pears  to  have  been  pretty 
well  known ;  and  ^ndia  beyond  the  Ganges,  which  included  the  Bur- 
man  empire  and  the  peninsula  of  Malacca.  The  extreme  south  of  the 
Indian  peninsula,  called  Regio  Pandionis  (the  Carnatic),  was  said  to 
have  been  the  seat  of  a  powerful  and  enlightened  dynasty,  whose  capi- 
tal was  Madura.  Malacca  was  known  as  the  Chersonesus  Aurea 
{tfoldm  peninsula)  ;  the  island  of  Ceylon  was  called  Taprobane  or  Sal'- 
ice,  and  that  of  Sumatra,  Labodii  or  Hor'dei. 

The  frontier  races  of  the  empire  in  Africa  have  been  mentioned  in 
he  preceding  section. 


aOMAN  EMPIRE.  251 

Section   VIT. —  Toimgraj>luj  of  the  City  of  Rome. 

Rome  was  oiiginally  built  in. a  square  form,  whence  it  is  called  Roma 
Quadrata,  on  \\ii'.  Palatine  hill.  When  the  city  was  founded,  and  when 
t  was  at  any  subsequent  period  enlarged,  the  first  care  was  to  mark 
out  the  Pomce'rium,  a  consecrated  space  round  tne  walls  of  the  city  or 
which  it  was  unlawful  to  erect  any  edifice.  This  custom  maiiifestlj 
arose  from  the  necessity  of  preventing  besiegers  from  finding  sheltei 
near  the  fortifications  ;  and  in  this,  as  in  a  thousand  other  instances,  the 
early  legislators  gave  utility  the  sanction  of  superstition.  A  set  form 
was  prescribed  for  marking  the  Pomce'rium  ;  a  bullock  and  heifer  were 
yoked  to  a  bronze  or  copper  ploughshare,  and  a  furrow  was  drawn 
marking  the  course  of  the  future  wall.  The  plough  was  so  guided  that 
all  the  sods  fell  to  the  inside,  and  if  any  went  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion, care  was  taken  that  they  should  be  turned  into  the  proper  way 
As  the  plough  was  sacred,  it  would  have  been  profanation  if  anything 
impure  passed  over  the  ground  which  it  had  once  touched ;  but  ae 
things  clean  and  unclean  must  necessarily  pass  into  a  city,  when  the 
plough  came  to  a  place  where  the  builders  designed  to  place  a  gate,  it 
was  taken  up,  and  carried  to  the  spot  where  the  wall  was  resumed. 
Hence  the  Latins  named  a  gate  porta,  from  the  verb  portare,  to  carry. 
The  comitmm,  or  place  of  public  assembly,  was  next  consecrated :  the 
most  remarkable  part  of  this  ceremony  was  the  preparation  of  a  vault, 
named  mundus,  in  which  were  deposited  the  first-fruits  of  all  things 
used  to  support  life,  and  a  portion  of  each  colonist's  native  earth.  To 
this  structure  many  superstitious  notions  were  attached  ;  it  was  sup- 
posed to  be  the  entrance  to  the  invisible  world  ;  and  it  was  opened  three 
days  in  the  year,  with  many  solemn  forms,  to  admit  the  spirits  of  the 
deceased. 

It  is  probable  that  the  first  extension  of  the  Pomce'rium  was  occa- 
sioned by  enclosing  the  Quirinal  hill  for  the  Sabines,  when,  under 
Tatius,  they  united  themselves  to  the  people  of  Rom'ulus.  The  next 
addition  was  the  Ca3lian  hill,  on  which  the  followers  of  Coe'les  Viben'- 
na,  whoever  that  Etruscan  adventurer  may  have  been,  erected  their 
habi*.?.tion.  Tul'lus  Hos'tilius  enclosed  the  Viminal  hill  after  the  de- 
struction of  Al'ba,  to  which  An'cus  Mar'tius  added  the  Aventine,  which 
was  regarded  as  the  peculiar  habitation  of  the  plebeians.  In  the  reign 
of  the  first  Tar'quin,  Rome  was  increased  by  the  Esquiline  and  Capito* 
line ;  these  completed  the  number  of  the  seven  hills  for  which  the  city 
was  celebrated.  At  a  much  later  period  the  Pmcian  and  Vatican 
mounts  were  added  ;  and  these,  with  the  Janic'ulum  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Tiber,  made  the  number  ten. 

An'cus  Mar'tius  was  the  first  who  fortified  the  city  with  outworks, 
especially  by  raising  a  castle  and  garrison  on  the  Janic'ulum,  which 
was  connected  with  Rome  by  a  wooden  bridge  [pons  sitblicms).  Bu^ 
he  elder  Tar'quin  was  the  first  who  beautified  his  capital  with  splen- 
Jid  buildings,  not  only  ornamental,  but  useful.  To  him  the  great  sewe^ 
by  which  the  city  was  drained,  whose  vast  proportions  still  claim  ad- 
miration, is  generally  attributed. 

Though  Rome  began  to  be  more  regrilarly  built  when  it  was  re- 
stored   afte^  the  departure  of  the  Gauls,  and    many  hpleudid  edifice? 


^S'-i  ANC:ENT  HISTOKV^. 

both  public  and  privite,  were  erected,  when  wea.th  was  so  \'abtly  if. 
creased  as  it  must  have  been  after  the  conquest  of  Carthage  and  west 
*»rn  Asia ;  it  could  scarcely  be  called  a  splendid  city  before  the  reigii 
of  Augus'tus,  who  boasted  that  "  he  found  it  brick,  and  left  it  marble." 
When  Corinth  was  subdued  by  Mum'mius,  so  little  were  the  Romans 
acquainted  with  the  fine  arts,  that  many  precious  pieces  of  statuary 
were  destroyed  for  the  sake  of  their  materials  ;  but  from  that  time  taste 
was  improved  by  a  more  constant  intercourse  with  the  Greeks,  es- 
pecially wlien  Athens  became  the  university  of  the  empire.  But  the 
long  civil  wars  between  the  aristocratic  and  democratic  factions  pre- 
vented the  development  of  these  improvements,  until  the  battle  of 
Ac'tium  gave  Rome  tranquillity  and  a  master.  In  the  days  of  its  great- 
est prosperity  the  circumference  of  Rome,  enclosed  by  walls,  was  abou 
twenty  miles  •  but  there  were  also  very  extensive  suburbs.  The  city 
had  thirty  gates,  some  authors  say  more,  of  which  the  most  remarkable 
were  the  Tergeminal,  the  Carmental,  the  Triumphal,  and  the  Naval ;  to 
which  we  Uk  v  add  the  Cape'na,near  the  great  aqueduct. 

The  most  lomarkable  buildings  were  the  amphitheatres,  the  Capitol 
with  its  temples,  the  senate-house,  and  the  forum. 

The  first  amphitheatre  was  the  Cir'cns  Max'imus,  erected  by  Tar- 
quiiiius  Priscus  ;  but  so  enlarged  by  subsequent  additions,  that  it  was 
capable  of  containing  two  hundred  thousand  spectators.  In  the  arena 
were  exhibited  the  cruel  fights  of  gladiators,  in  which  the  Romans  tool; 
a  pleasure  equally  infamous  and  extravagant,  together  with  races,  ex 
hi!)itions  of  strange  animals,  and  combats  of  wild  beasts.  A  still  largei 
edifice  was  erected  for  the  same  purpose  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian 
whose  massive  ruins  are  called  the  Colos'seum.  Theatres,  public 
baths,  and  buildings  for  the  exhibition  of  naumachiae,  or  naval  combats, 
were  erected  by  the  emperors,  who  seemed  anxious  to  compensate  the 
people  for  the  loss  of  their  liberty  by  the  magnificence  of  their  public 
shows  and  entertainments. 

The  Capitol  was  commenced  on  the  Saturnian  hill,  which  received 
the  name  Capitoline  from  a  human  head  being  found  by  the  laborers 
digg-'ng  the  foundatior  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin'ius  Pris-'cus.  It  was 
erected  on  the  northern  summit  of  the  hill ;  the  rocky  eminence  to  the 
south  WIS  called  the  Tarpeian  clitf,  to  commemorate  the  treason  of 
Tarpeia ;  and  public  criminals  were  frequently  executed  by  being  pre- 
cipitated from  its  peak.  The  temple  of  Jupite-  Capitolinus  was  usually 
regarded  as  the  national  sanctuary  of  the  Romans  :  it  was  begun  by 
Tarquin'ius  Pris'cus,  and  finished  by  Tarquin'ius  Super'bus,  and  it  was 
almost  yearly  improved  by  the  rich  presents  that  successful  generals 
and  foreign  princes,  eager  to  conciliate  the  Romans,  offered  as  votive 
gifts.  Augus'tus  alone  presented  gold  and  jewels  exceeding  five  thou- 
sand pounds  in  value.  During  the  civil  wars  between  Marius  and 
Sylla  this  temple  was  burnt  to  the  ground  ;  but  it  was  rebuilt  with 
greater  splendor ;  and  Cicero  informs  us,  hat  the  statue  of  Jupitel 
Capitoliims  was  erected  on  its  pedestal  at  the  very  time  that  the  con- 
spiracy of  Cat'iline  was  discovered.  It  was  destroyed  twice  agaiii 
during  the  reigns  of  Vespasian  and  Domitian,  but  was  restored  eacli 
lime  with  additional  splendor.  The  Sibylline  books,  and  other  oracles 
i^iipposed  to  contain  important  predict  ions  respecting  the  face  of  the  citv 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  253 

were  preserved  in  the  sanctuary,  under  the  charge  of  fifteen  persons  ot 
the  highest  rank,  called  the  Quindecemviri.  Here,  also,  were  pre- 
served the  chronological  archives  of  the  city.  A  nail  was  annually 
driven  into  the  temple  by  the  chief  magistrate  ;  and  this  curious  custom 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  rude  mode  of  marking  the  lapse  of 
time. 

There  were  several  other  temples  on  this  hill,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  was  that  of  Jupiter  Feret'rius,  erected  by  Rom'ulus  where  the 
spolia  opima  were  deposited.  The  spolia  opima  were  the  trophies  pie- 
sented  by  a  Roman  general  who  had  slain  the  leader  of  the  enemy  with 
his  own  hand  ;  they  were  only  thrice  offered,  by  Rom'ulus,  Cossus,  and 
Marcellus.  From  the  ferel'mm,  or  bier,  on  which  these  spoils  were 
borne  to  the  temple,  the  deity  was  called  Feret'rius. 

The  Capitol  was  the  citadel  of  Rome,  except  la  the  reign  of  Numa, 
when  the  Quir'inal  was  chosen  as  the  chief  place  of  strength.  This 
circumstance  tends  greatly  to  confirm  Niebuhr's  theory,  that  an  ancient 
Sabine  town,  named  Quir'ium,  stood  on  that  hill,  which  modern  writers 
confounded  with  Cures  :  perhaps  the  double-faced  Janus,  whose  temple 
was  closed  during  peace,  was  the  symbol  of  the  united  cities,  and  the 
opening  of  the  temple  gates  was  to  enable  the  inhabitants  of  the  one  in 
time  of  war  to  assist  the  other. 

In  the  valley  between  the  Palatine  and  Capitoline  hills  was  tho 
forum,  or  place  of  public  assembly  and  great  market.  It  was  sur- 
rounded with  temples,  halls  for  the  administration  of  justice,  called 
basilicas,  and  public  offices  ;  it  was  also  adorned  with  statues  erected  in 
honor  of  eminent  warriors  and  statesmen,  and  with  various  trophies 
from  conquered  nations.  Among  these  memorials  of  conquest  were 
several  rostra,  or  prows  of  ships  taken  at  Antium,  which  were  used  to 
ornament  the  pulpits  from  which  the  magistrates  and  public  orators 
harangued  the  general  assemblies  of  the  people  :  from  this  custom  the 
phrase  "  to  mount  the  rostrum"  originated.  In  the  middle  of  the  forum 
was  a  drained  marsh,  called  the  Curtian  lake,  to  which  a  singular  le- 
gend was  attached.  Traditions  recorded  that  an  immense  chasm  had 
suddenly  opened  in  this  place,  which  the  augurs  declared  coidd  not  bo 
closed  until  .he  most  precious  things  in  Rome  were  thrown  into  it. 
Cur'tius,  a  Roman  knight,  armed  and  mounted,  leaped  into  the  yawning 
p.t,  declaring  that  nothing  was  more  valuable  than  courage  and  patriot- 
ism ;  after  w>ich  it  is  added  that  the  fissure  closed.  A  much  more 
probable  account  is,  that  the  place  derived  its  name  from  a  Sabine 
general  named  Cur  *lus,  smothered  there  while  the  place  was  as  yet  a 
swamp. 

In  the  forum  was  the  celebrated  temple  of  Janus,  built  entirely  of 
bronze,  supposed  to  have  been  erected  during  the  reign  of  Numa.  Its 
gates  were  only  closed  three  times  in  eight  centuries,  so  incessant  were 
the  wars  in  which  the  Romans  were  engaged.  Not  far  from  this  was 
the  temple  of  Concord,  in  which  the  senate  frequently  assembled . 
storks  were  encouraged  to  build  in  the  roof  of  the  edifice,  on  account 
r)f  the  social  instincts  attributed  to  those  birds.  In  the  same  quarter 
of  the  city  was  the  temple  of  Ves'ta,  where  a  perpetual  fire  was  main- 
laiiied  by  the  Vet^ta)  virgins  :  in  it  were  said  to  be  preserved  the  Pa!la 


254  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

dium,  or  sacred  image  of  Pal'las  Min'erva,  on  which  the  fate  of  Troj 
depended,  and  other  relics  consecrated  by  superstition. 

The  senate-house  was  above  the  pulpits  belonging  to  the  public 
orators :  it  was  said  to  have  been  originally  erected  by  Tul'lus  Ilostil'- 
ius :  but  the  senate  had  several  other  places  of  meeting,  fretpiently  as- 
sembling in  the  temples.  Near  it  was  the  c.  mitium,  or  court  in  which 
the  patrician  cnrm  were  convened :  it  was  not  roofed  until  the  end  of 
the  second  Punic  war,  soon  after  which  the  comitia  curidta  fell  grad- 
ually into  disuse.  This  space,  before  it  was  covered,  was  called  a 
temple  ;  because  templum  properly  sigriilies  not  merely  an  edifice,  bat 
an  enclosure  consecrated  by  the  augurs.  The  principal  theatres  and 
public  baths  were  erected  in  this  vicinity. 

The  elections  of  magistrates,  reviews  of  troops,  and  the  census  or 
reg^.stration  of  the  citizens,  were  held  in  the  Cam'pus  Mar'lius,  which 
was  also  the  favorite  exercise-ground  of  the  young  nobles.  It  was 
originally  a  large  common,  which  had  formed  part  of  the  estate  of  the 
younger  Tar'quin,  and  being  confiscated  after  the  banishment  of  that 
monarch,  was  dedicated  to  the  god  of  war,  because  the  Roiiians  be- 
lieved Mars  to  be  the  father  of  their  founder.  It  long  remained  un- 
improved ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Augus'tus  it  began  to  be  surrounded  by 
several  splendid  edifices ;  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  were  planted  in 
different  parts,  and  porticoes  erected,  under  which  the  citizens  might 
continue  their  exercises  in  rainy  weather.  Most  of  these  improvements 
were  due  to  Mar'cus  Agrip'pa,  the  best  general  and  wisest  statesman 
in  the  court  of  Augus'tus.  He  erected,  near  the  Cam'pus  Marlias,  the 
celebrated  Pantheon,  or  temple  of  all  the  gods ;  the  most  perfect  and 
splendid  monument  of  ancient  Rome  that  has  survived  the  ravages  of 
time.*  At  present  it  is  used  as  a  Christian  church,  and  is  universally 
admired  for  its  circular  form,  and  the  beautiful  dome  that  forms  its  roof. 
Near  the  Pantheon  were  the  gardens  and  public  baths,  which  Agrip'pa 
at  his  death  bequeathed  to  the  Roman  people. 

Perhaps  no  public  edifices  at  Rome  were  more  remarkable  than  the 
aqueducts  for  supplying  the  city  with  water.  Pure  streams  were  sought 
at  a  great  distance,  and  conveyed  in  these  artificial  channels,  supported 
by  arches,  many  of  which  were  more  than  a  hundred  feet  high,  over 
(Steep  mountains,  deep  valleys,  and,  what  was  still  more  difficult,  dan 
gtrous  morasses,  which  less  enterprising  architects  would  have  deemed 
insuperable.  The  first  aqueduct  was  erected  during  the  censorship  of 
Ap'pius  Caj'cus,  about  four  hundred  years  after  the  foundation  of  the 
citj' ;  but  under  the  emperors  not  fewer  than  twenty  of  these  stupendous 
and  useful  structures  were  raised,  which  brought  such  an  abundant 
supply  of  water  to  the  metropolis,  that  rivers  seemed  to  flow  through 
the  streets  and  sewers.  Even  at  the  present  day,  when  oidy  three  of 
ttie  a(iueducts  remain,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries,  the  neglect  of  rulers, 
and  the  ravages  of  barbarians,  no  city  in  Europe  has  a  better  supply  of 
wholesome  water  than  Rome. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  all  the  public  buildings  that  deco- 
rated "the  Eternal  City;"  we  may  therefore  conclude  by  o!)stu.ing 
{hat  Rome,  when  in  the  zenith  of  its  glory,  contained  four  hundred  and 

•The  Collosseum  in  the  Regent's  Park  is  built  on  tlie  nioilel  of  the  Pantheon- 


ROMAN  EMPIRii.  255 

twenty  temples,  five  regular  theatres,  two  amphitheatres,  and  seven  cir- 
cuses of  vast  extent :  there  were  sixteen  public  baths,  built  of  marble 
and  furnished  with  every  convenience  that  could  be  desired.  From 
the  aqueducts  a  prodigious  number  of  fountains  were  supplied,  many 
of  which  were  remarkable  for  their  architectural  beauty.  The  pala- 
ces, public  halls,  columns,  porticoes,  and  obelisks,  were  without  num- 
ber ;  and  to  these  must  be  added  the  triumphal  arches  erected  by  the 
later  emperors. 

The  public  roads  in  the  various  parts  of  the  empire,  but  more  espe- 
cially in  Italy,  though  less  ostentatious  than  the  aqueducts,  were  not 
inferior  to  them  in  utility  and  costliness.  Of  these  the  most  remarka- 
ble was  the  Appian  road,  from  Rome  to  Brundusium,  through  the 
Pomptine  marshes,  which  were  kept  well  drained  during  the  flourish 
ing  ages  of  the  empire,  but  by  subsequent  neglect  became  a  pestilential 
swamp.  This  road  extended  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  was 
paved  through  its  entire  length  with  enormous  square  blocks  of  hard 
stone.  Nineteen  centuries  have  elapsed  since  it  was  formed,  and  yet 
many  parts  of  it  still  appear  nearly  as  perfect  as  when  it  was  first 
made. 

Rome  was  inferior  to  Athens  in  architectural  beauty,  but  ?t,  far  sur- 
passed it  in  works  of  public  utility.  Every  succeeding  emperor  deemed 
It  necessary  to  add  something  to  the  edifices  that  had  been  raised  for 
the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  citizens :  even  after  the  seat  of 
government  had  been  transferred  to  Constantinople,  we  find  the  son  of 
Constantine  evincing  his  gratitude  for  the  reception  he  met  with  in  the 
ancient  capital,  by  sending  thither  two  magnificent  obelisks  from  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt, 


250  ANCIENT  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE. 

Skc:tiun  I. —  The   Reigns   of  Oie    Family  of  the  Ccesara 

FROM  B.   C.   30    TO   A.   D.  96. 

Though  the  battle  of  Ac'tium  made  Octaviiis  Caesar  sole  sovereign 
of  the  empire,  the  forms  of  the  republic  were  faithfully  presei  ^e  J  ;  the 
senate  sat  as  a  council  of  state,  and,  though  little  weight  wat;  attached 
to  its  deliberations,  the  freedom  of  speech  and  comment  pre.sHrved  the 
government  from  sinking  into  absolute  despotism.  With  supreme 
power,  Octavius,  or  Augus'tus,  as  he  was  about  this  time  named  by  the 
senate,  assumed  an  entirely  new  character ;  the  cruelty  vir.ii  which  he 
may  justly  be  reproached  in  the  early  part  of  his  career  disappeared  ; 
he  became  a  mild  and  merciful  ruler,  truly  anxious  to  iusare  the  happi- 
ness of  the  people  intrusted  to  his  charge.  Under  sucli  a  benignant 
administration,  the  Romans  ceased  to  regret  their  ancient  freedom,  if, 
indeed,  such  a  term  can  be  applied  to  the  oppressive  government  estab- 
lished by  the  aristocracy  during  the  preceding  centui)'  ;  and  before  the 
close  of  the  first  emperor's  reign,  the  last  traces  of  tne  republican  spirit 
had  disappeared.  It  is  said  that  Augus'tus  at  first  wisned  to  resign  his 
power,  after  the  example  of  Syl'la ;  but  was  dissuaded  by  his  friends 
Agrip'pa  and  Mecae'nas,  who  represented  to  him,  with  great  truth,  that 
the  Roman  state  could  no  longer  be  governed  by  its  old  constitution, 
and  that  he  would  retire  only  to  make  room  for  another  master.  He 
went  through  the  form,  however,  of-  an  abdication  in  the  senate ;  but 
on  the  urgent  request  of  that  body,  he  resumed  his  sway ;  instead 
however,  of  taking  the  supreme  authority  for  life,  he  would  only  accept 
it  for  a  term,  of  ten  years.  This  example  was  followed  by  the  succeed- 
ing emperors,  and  gave  rise  to  the  sacra  deccnndlia,  festivals  celebrated 
at  each  renewal  of  the  imperial  authority. 

Amid  all  the  adulations  of  tiie  senate  and  people,  Augus'tus  felt  that 
it  was  to  the  army  he  was  indebted  for  empire,  and  therefore  exerted 
himself  diligently  to  attach  the  soldiers  to  his  interest.  He  dispersed 
his  veterans  over  Italy  in  thirty-two  colon'es,  dispossessing,  in  many 
places,  the  ancient  inhabitants,  to  make  room  for  these  settlers.  He 
maintained  seventeen  legions  in  Europe  ;  eight  on  the  Rhine,  four  or 
the  Danvbe,  tliree  in  Spain,  and  two  in  Dalmatia.  Eight  more  were 
k"Dt  in  Asia  and  Africa:  so  that  the  standing  army  of  the  empire 
exceeded  one  hundred  and  severity  thou'-and  men..    Twelve  cohort« 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  257 

^.ino  Anting  to  about  ten  thousand  men,  were  quartered  in  Rome  and  its 
ncinity ;  nine  of  these,  called  the  prajiorian  bands,  were  intended  lo 
protect  the  emperor's  person,  the  others  were  destined  for  the  guard  of 
f'.he  city.  These  household  troops  became  afterward  the  author  of  inanv 
changes  and  revolutions,  until  they  were  all  dismissed  by  Constautin<.' 
ihe  Great  (a.  d.  312).  Two  powerful  fleets  were  established  in  tnc 
I  talian  seas  ;  one  at  Ravenna,  to  guard  the  Adriatic,  the  other  at  Mise- 
iium,  to  protect  the  western  Mediterranean.  It  is  calculated  that  tb-? 
revenues  of  the  empire  at  this  time  exceeded  forty  millions  sterling  ; 
but  this  sum  was  not  more  than  sufHcient  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
jivii,  naval,  and  military  establishments,  and  of  the  public  works  un- 
dertaken to  adorn  the  metropolis. 

Some  disturbances  in  Spain  and  Gaul  induced  the  emperor  to  cross 
;he  Alps  and  Pyrenees  ;  he  subdued  the  Cantabrians,  who  inhabited 
the  province  now  called  Biscay  (a  country  whose  mountains  and  defiles 
have  always  proved  formidable  obstacles  to  an  invading  army),  and  the 
Asturians.  To  restrain  these  tribes  in  future,  he  erected  several  new 
iortified  cities,  of  which  the  most  remarkable  were  Cssarea  Augus'ta 
(Saratfossa)  and  Augus'ta  Emer'ita  [Mcrida),  so  called  because  it  was 
colonized  by  the  veteran  soldiers  [emeriti).  While  resting  at  Tar'raco 
[Tarragona)  from  the  fatigues  of  his  campaign,  Augus''tus  received  am- 
bassadors from  the  most  remote  nations,  the  Scythians,  the  Sarmatians, 
the  Indians,  and  even  the  Seres,  who  inhabited  northern  China. 

On  his  recovery  from  a  fit  of  illness  which  spread  universal  alarm 
throughout  the  empire,  the  senate  conferred  the  tribuneship  for  life 
upon  Augus'tus,  which  rendered  his  person  sacrosanct.  This  dignity 
was  henceforth  annexed  to  the  empire,  and  consequently  all  attempts 
against  the  life  of  the  sovereign  became  high  treason  (Joisa  rnajesias) 
At  the  same  time  he  declined  the  title  of  dictator,  which  had  been  ren- 
dered odious  by  the  cruelties  of  Syl'la.  Havhig  made  a  tour  in  the 
east  of  the  empire,  he  was  overwhelmed  with  adulations  by  the  degen- 
erate Greeks  (b.  c.  20) ;  but  the  honor  most  gratifying  to  him  and  the 
Roman  people  was  the  restoration  of  the  standards  that  had  been  taken 
from  Cras'sus.  '}\  his  return  to  Italy,  he  drove  back  the  Rhaitians, 
who  had  invaded  the  peninsula,  and  intrusted  their  subjugation  to  Tibc 
rius  and  Drusus  Nero,  his  step-sons,  youths  of  great  promise  and 
v^alor.  They  succeeded  in  conquering  Vindclicia  and  Nor'icum  ;  bui 
their  efforts  to  subdue  Germany  were  baffled  by  the  undaunted  valoT 
of  the  native  tribes,  and  the  great  difficulties  of  the  country,  who.*- 
forests  and  marshes  rendered  discipline  unavailing. 

When  the  second  decennial  period  of  the  imperial  authority  termm-j. 
ted,  Augus'tus,  harassed  by  domestic  calamities,  as  well  as  the  cares  o' 
empire,  seemed  really  anxious  to  resign,  and  enjoy  the  quiet  of  domes- 
tic life  ;  but  the  character:  of  Tiberius,  now  generally  regarded  as  lua 
successor,  gave  so  much  alarm  to  the  senate  and  people,  that  they 
cordially  joined  in  supplicating  the  emperor  to  continue  his  reign.  The 
greatest  calamity  he  had  to  endure  was  the  disgraceful  conduoi  of  Jiih 
daughter  Julia,  whose  scandalous  debaucheries  filled  Rome  with  horror  : 
she  and  the  partners  of  her  crimes  were  banished  to  various  parts  ol'  th»^ 
f^uipire,  and  some  of  her  paramours  were  put  to  death. 

When  peace  was  established  in  every  part  of  the  Roman  dommiou" 

17 


258  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Augiis'tus  closed  the  temple  of  Jar.us,  and  issued  a  decree  for  a  generaJ 
census,  or  enrolment,  of  all  his  subjects.  It  was  at  this  period  thai 
lesus  Christ  was  born  ;  and  thus,  literally,  was  his  advent  the  signal  of 
''  on  earth  peace,  and  good  will  toward  men." 

The  great  prosperity  of  the  reign  of  Augus'tus  was  first  interrupted 
by  the  rebellion  of  the  Germans,  which  the  extortions  of  QuintiPius 
Var'us  provoked.  Armin'ius,  a  young  prince  of  the  Cat'ti,  united  hia 
countrymen  m  a  secret  confederacy ;  and  then,  pretending  friendship  to 
Var'us,  conducted  him  into  the  depths  of  a  forest,  where  his  troops 
could  neither  fight  nor  retreat.  In  this  situation  Armin'ius  attacked  the 
Romans,  from  whose  camp  he  stole  by  night,  and  so  harassed  them  that 
most  of  the  officers  slew  themselves  in  despair  (a.  d.  10).  The  legion- 
aries, thus  left  without  leaders,  were  cut  to  pieces ;  and  thus  the 
Romans  received  the  greatest  overthrow  that  they  had  suffered  since  the 
defeat  of  Cras'sus.  When  the  news  of  this  calamity  w-as  brought  to 
Rome,  everybody  expected  that  the  Germans  would  immediately  cross 
he  Rhine,  and  advance  against  the  city.  Augus'tus,  though  over- 
whelmed with  sorrow,  made  every  exertion  to  allay  the  general  con- 
sternation :  he  sent  his  son-in-law  and  heir,  Tiberius,  to  guard  the 
Rhine ;  but  he  prohibited  him  from  following  the  wild  tribes  to  their 
fastnesses.  For  several  months  the  emperor  abandoned  himself  to 
transports  of  grief,  during  which  he  frequently  exclaimed,  "  Var'us,  re- 
store me  my  legions !"  and  he  observed  the  fatal  day  as  a  mournful  so- 
lemnity until  his  death.  This  event  probably  tended  to  hasten  his 
dissolution ;  he  was  seized  with  a  dangerous  attack  of  illness  at  Naples, 
and  as  he  was  returning  home  to  the  capital,  the  disease  compelled  him 
to  stop  at  Nola,  in  Campania,  where  he  expired  (a.  d.  14).  It  was  cur- 
rently reported  that  the  empress  Liv'ia  accelerated  his  death  by  admin- 
istering poisoned  figs,  in  order  to  secure  the  succession  for  Tiberius. 

Tiberius  Claudius  Nero,  or,  as  he  was  called  after  his  adoption, 
Augus'tus  Tiberius  Cee'sar,  commenced  his  reign  by  procuring  the 
murder  of  young  Agrip'pa,  grandson  of  the  late  emperor,  whom  he 
dreaded  as  a  formidable  rival.  As  soon  as  his  accession  was  known  at 
Rome,  the  consuls,  senators,  and  knights,  ran  headlong  into  slavery 
pretending  to  hail  Tiberius  with  extravagant  joy,  while  they  professed 
equally  extravagant  sorrow  for  the  loss  of  Augus'tus.  Tiberius  met 
them  with  duplicity  equal  to  their  own  :  he  affected  to  decline  the  sov- 
ereign power ;  but,  after  long  debates,  allowed  himself  to  be  won  over 
by  the  general  supplications  of  the  senators.  Having  bound  himself 
by  oath  never  to  depart  from  the  regulations  of  his  predecessor,  he  ex- 
erted himself  to  win  the  affections,  or  rather  disarm  the  suspicions,  of 
the  virtuous  German'icus,  whom  Augus'tus  had  compelled  him  to  declare 
his  heir.  But  the  jealousies  of  the  emperor  were  greatly  aggravated 
by  a  mutiny  of  the  troops  in  Germany,  who  offered  to  raise  German'icus 
to  the  throne  ;  and  though  he  firmly  refused,  and  severely  rebuked  their 
disloyalty,  yet  Tiberius  thenceforth  was  resolved  upon  his  destruc- 
tion. The  glory  which  the  young  prince  acquired  in  several  successful 
campaigns  against  the  Germans,  at  length  induced  the  emperor  to  recall 
him  to  Rome,  under  the  pretence  of  rewarding  him  with  a  triumph 
But  Tiberius  soon  became  anxious  to  lemove  from  Rome  a  person  whost 
mildness  and  virtue  were  so  powerfully  contrasted  with  his  own  tvranr,\ 


^ 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  259 

md  debauchery :  he  appointed  him  governor  of  the  eastern  provinces  ) 
Dut  at  the  same  tmie  he  sent  Piso,  with  his  infamous  wife  PLancina,  into 
Syria,  secretly  instructing  them  to  thwart  German'icus  in  all  his  under 
takings.  The  wicked  pair  obeyed  these  atrocious  commands  ;  and  the 
brave  prince,  after  undergoing  many  mortifications,  at  last  sunk  under 
them.  Attacked  by  a  severe  disease,  aggravated  by  suspicions  of  Piso's 
treachery,  whom  he  believed  to  have  compassed  his  death  by  magic  or 
by  poison,  he  sent  for  his  wife  A.grippina ;  and  having  besought  her  to 
humble  her  haughty  spirit  for  the  sake  of  their  children,  expired,  to  the 
general  grief  of  the  empire  (a.  d.  19).  Kis  ashes  were  brought  to 
Rome  by  Agrippina;  and  though  she  arrived  in  the  very  middle  of  the 
Saturnalia,  the  mirth  usual  at  that  festival  was  laid  aside,  and  the  whole 
city  went  into  mourning. 

In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  Tiberius  had  affected  to  imitate  the 
clemency  of  Augus'tus  ;  but  he  soon  began  to  indulge  his  natural  cruelty 
and  many  of  the  most  eminent  nobles  were  put  to  death  under  pre- 
tence of  high  treason.  The  emperor's  depravity  was  exceeded  by  tha. 
of  his  minister,  the  infamous  Sejanus,  whose  name  has  passed  into  a 
proverb.  This  ambitious  favorite  secretly  aspired,  at  the  empire,  and 
applied  himself  to  win  the  favor  of  the  proetorian  guards  :  he  is  also  ac- 
cused of  having  procured  the  death  of  Drusus,  the  emperor's  son,  and 
of  having  tried  to  destroy  Agrippina  and  her  children.  But  his  most 
successful  project  was  the  removal  of  Tiberius  from  Rome,  persuading 
him  that  he  would  have  more  freedom  to  indulge  his  depraved  passions 
in  Campania  than  in  the  capital.  The  emperor  chose  for  his  retreat 
the  little  island  of  Cap'reae,  where  he  wallowed  in  the  most  disgusting 
and  unnatural  vices  :  while  Sejanus,  with  an  entire  army  of  spies  and 
inforg.iers,  put  to  death  the  most  eminent  Romans  after  making  them 
undergo  the  useless  mockery  of  a  trial.  Tiberius,  however,  soon  began 
to  suspect  his  minister,  and  secret  warnings  were  given  him  of  the 
dangerous  projects  that  Sejanus  had  formed.  It  was  apparently  neces- 
.•^ary,  however,  to  proceed  with  caution,  and  the  emperor  felt  his  way 
by  withdrawing  some  of  the  honors  he  had  conferred.  Finding  that  the 
people  gave  no  signs  of  discontent,  Tiberius  sent  the  commander  of  the 
praetorian  guards  privately  to  Rome  with  a  letter  to  the  senate,  instruct- 
ing him  to  inform  Sejanus  that  it  contained  an  earnest  recommendation 
to  have  him  invested  with  the  tribunitian  power.  The  minister,  deceived 
by  this  hope,  hastily  convened  the  senate,  and  on  presenting  himself  to 
that  body,  was  surrounded  by  a  horde  of  flatterers,  congratulating  him 
on  his  nevs  dignity.  But  when  the  fatal  epistle  was  read,  in  which  he 
was  accused  of  treason,  and  orders  given  for  his  arrest,  he  was  imme- 
diately abandoned,  and  those  who  had  been  most  servile  in  their  flat- 
eries  became  loudest  in  their  invectives  and  execrations.  A  hurried 
decree  was  passed  condem_uing  him  to  death,  and  was  put  in  execution 
the  very  same  day ;  a  general  slaughter  of  his  friends  and  relations  fol- 
.ovved;  his  innocent  children,  though  of  very  tender  years,  were  put  to 
death  with  circumstances  of  great  barbarity  ;  and  the  numerous  statues 
that  had  been  erected  to  his  honor  were  broken  to  pieces  by  the  fickle 
multitude.  This  memorable  example  of  the  instability  of  human  gran- 
deur is  powerfully  described  by  Juvenal,  in  his  satire  on  the  Vanity  of 
Human  Wishes.     The  passage  is  thus  translated  by  Dryden  : — 


2C0 


ANCIENT  HISTOllV 


'^  J^me  asked  for  envied  power,  which  pu!)li'c  hn'e 
Pursues  and  hurries  headlons;  to  their  fate; 
Down  so  the  titles,  and  tlie  statue  crowned 
Is  by  base  hands  in  the  next  river  drowned. 
The  guiltless  horses  and  the  chariot-wheel 
The  same  efl'ects  of  vulijar  fury  feel : 
The  smith  prepares  his  hammer  for  the  stroke, 
While  the  lunged  bellows  hissing  fire  provoke ; 
Sejanus,  almost  first  of  Roman  names, 
The  great  Sejanus  crackles  in  the  flames ! 
Formed  in  the  forge  the  pliant  brass  is  laid 
On  anvils  :  and  of  head  and  limbs  are  made 
Pans,  cans,  and  gridirons,  a  whole  kitchen  trade. 

Adorn  your  doors  with  laurel ;  and  a  bull, 
Milk-white  and  large,  lead  to  the  Capitol; 
Sejanus,  with  a  rope,  is  dragged  along. 
The  sport  and  laughter  of  the  giddy  throng  ! 
'  Good  Lord,'  they  cry,  '  what  Ethiop  lips  he  bear.s ! 
See  what  a  hang-dog  face  the  scoundrel  wears ! 
By  Jove,  I  never  could  endure  his  sight ; — 
But,  say,  how  came  his  monstrous  crimes  to  light  ? 
What  is  the  charge,  and  who  the  evidence  ? 
The  savior  of  the  nation  and  the  prince?' — 
'  Nothing  of  this ;  but  our  old  Cresar  sent 
A  tedious  letter  to  his  parliament.' — 
'  Nay,  sirs,  if  Ccesar  wrote,  I  ask  no  more  ; 
He's  guilty,  and  the  question's  out  of  door.' 
How  goes  the  mob  !  for  that's  a  mighty  thing — 
When  the  king's  trump,  the  mob  are  for  the  kmi<- 
They  follow  fortune,  and  the  common  ciy 
Is  still  against  the  rogue  condemned  to  die. 

But  the  same  very  mob,  that  rascal  crowd, 
Had  cried  Sejanus,  with  a  shout  as  loud> 
Had  his  designs  by  fortune's  favor  blest, 
Succeeded,  and  the  prince's  age  opprest." 


The  cruelly  of  Tiberius  was  increased  tenfold  after  the  removal  ol 
his  favorite  ;  the  least  circumstance  rendered  him  suspicious  ;  and  whcr. 
once  a  noble  was  suspected,  his  fate  Avas  sealed.  In  all  his  extravagan- 
cies- he  was  supported  by  the  servile  senate ;  and  this  body,  once  so 
independent,  never  ventured  even  to  remonstrate  aijainst  his  sanguinarj' 
decrees.  At  length,  continued  debauchery  undermined  the  emperor's 
constitution :  but  with  the  usual  weakness  of  licentious  sovereigns,  ho 
endeavored  to  disguise  the  state  of  his  health,  not  merely  from  his 
court,  but  his  physicians.  At  length,  finding  death  approach  very 
rapidly,  he  bequeathed  the  empire  to  Caius  Calig'ula,  the  only  surviving 
son  of  his  nephew  and  victim  German'icus.  It  is  said  that  he  chose 
this  prince,  though  well  aware  of  his  natural  depravity,  that  his  own 
reign  might  be  regretted,  when  contrasted  with  the  still  more  sanguinary 
rule  of  his  successor.  Soon  after  having  signed  his  will,  Tiberius  was 
seized  with  a  fainting  fit,  and  the  courtiers,  believing  him  dead,  hastened 
to  offer  their  homage  to  Calig'ula ;  but  the  emperor  rallied,  and  there 
was  reason  to  fear  his  vengeance.  -Mac'ro,  the  commander  of  the 
yiiards,  averted  the  danger  by  smothering  the  weak  old  man  with  a 
U'eight  of  coverings,  under  pretence  of  keeping  him  warm  (a.  d.  37) 
In  iliis  reign,  though  the  forms  of  the  constitution  were  retained,  its 
spirit  and  substance  were   completely  altered  ;  the  oovemment  bec^nu 


ROMAN  EMPIRE  26 1 

\  complete  despotism  ;  and  the  only  use  of  thu  senate  was  to  registei 
the  edicts  of  the  sovereign.  While  Tiberius  was  emperor,  Jesus  Christ 
was  crucified  in  Judea,  under  the  propraetorship  of  Pontius  Pilate 
(a.  d.  33).  It  is  said,  but  on  very  doubtful  authority,  that  Tiberius, 
having  received  an  account  of  his  miracles,  wished  to  have  him  en- 
rolled among  the  gods,  but  that  his  designs  were  frustrated  by  the  op- 
position of  the  senate. 

Caius,  surnamed  Calig'ula  from  the  military  boots  (cali^^a)  which  he 
was  accustomed  to  wear,  was  received  on  his  accession  with  the 
utmost  enthusiasm  by  both  the  senate  and  the  people,  on  account  of  the 
great  merits  of  his  father  German'icus.  He  began  his  reign  by  libera- 
ting all  the  state  prisoners,  and  dismissing  the  whole  horde  of  spies  and 
informers  whom  Tiberius  had  encouraged.  By  thee e  and  other  similar 
acts  of  generosity,  he  became  so  popular,  hat  when  he  was  attacked 
by  sickness,  the  whole  empire  was  filled  with  sorrow,  and  innumerable 
sacrifices  were  offered  in  every  temple  for  his  recovery.  This  sickness 
probably  disordered  his  brain,  for  in  his  altered  conduct  after  his  resto- 
ration to  health  there  appears  fully  as  much  insanity  as  wickedness. 
Young  Tiberius,  whom  he  had  adopted,  was  his  first  victim ;  he  then 
ordered  all  the  prisoners  in  Rome  to  be  thrown  to  wild  beasts  without 
a  trial.  But  Calig'ula  was  not  satisfied  with  simple  murder  ;  it  was  his 
fiendish  pleasure  to  witness  the  sufferings  of  his  victims,  and  protract 
their  tortures,  in  order  that  they  might,  as  he  said,  feel  themselves 
dving.  Finding  no  one  dare  to  oppose  his  sanguinary  caprices,  he 
began  to  regard  himself  as  something  more  than  a  mere  mortal,  and  to 
claim  divine  honors  ;  and  finally,  he  erected  a  temple  to  himself,  and 
instituted  a  college  of  priests  to  superintend  his  own  worship.  A  less 
guilty  but  more  absurd  proceeding  was  the  reverence  he  claimed  for  his 
favorite  horse  Incitatus,  whom  he  frequently  invited  to  dine  at  the  im- 
perial table,  where  the  animal  fed  on  gilt  oats,  and  drank  the  most 
costly  wines  from  jewelled  goblets.  It  is  even  said  that  nothing  but 
his  death  prevented  him  from  raising  this  favorite  steed  to  the  consul- 
ship. While  the  whole  city  was  scandalized  by  his  outrageous  licen- 
tiousness, men  were  suddenly  astounded  to  hear  that  the  emperor  had 
resolved  to  lead  an  army  against  the  Germans  in  person,  and  the  mos* 
extensive  preparations  were  made  for  his  expedition.  As  might  have 
oeen  expected,  the  campaign  was  a  mere  idle  parade  ;  and  Calig'ula, 
notwithstanding,  claimed  the  most  extravagant  honors ;  and  finding  the 
senate  slower  in  adulation  than  he  expected,  seriously  contempla 
ted  the  massicre  of  the  entire  body.  At  length  the  Romans  became 
weary  of  a  monster  equally  wicked  and  ridiculous  ;  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  for  his  destruction  ;  and  he  was  slain  in  one  of  die  passages  of 
the  Cir'cus  by  Chserea,  the  captain  of  the  praetorian  guards  (a.  d.  40). 
His  body  lay  a  long  time  exposed,  but  was  finally  interred  like  that  of 
a  slave :  his  wife  and  infant  child  were  murdered  by  the  conspirators 
uho  dreaded  future  vengeance. 

Claudius,  the  brother  of  German'icus  and  uncle  of  the  late  emperor 
a  prince  of  weak  intellect,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  conspirators 
whose  choice  was  sanctioned  by  the  senate.  The  unfortunate  idiot, 
thus  placed  at  the  head  of  the  empire,  was  during  his  entire  reign  the  pup- 
pet of  worthless  and  wicked"  favorites,  among  whom  the  most  iiifaniou.^ 


262  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

were  the  empress  VIessalina  and  Agrippina.  the  eunucli  Posfdes,  and 
the  frecdmcn  Pal'las  and  Narcis'sus.  •  His  reign  commenced  with  the 
punishmpfit  of  those  who  had  conspired  against  Calig'ula :  they  werf 
slain,  not  for  the  crime  they  had  committed,  but  because  they  were  sus- 
pected of  a  design  to  restore  the  ancient  constitution.  Notwithstanding 
his  weakness,  Claudius  undertook  an  expedition  into  Britain,  where 
the  native  tribes  were  wasting  their  strength  in  mutual  wars,  and  he 
commenced  a  series  of  campaigns  which  eventually  led  to  the  complete 
subjugation  of  the  southern  part  of  the  island.  The  senate  granted  him 
a  masfnificent  triumphal  procession  on  his  return  ;  and  Messalina,  whose 
infidelities  were  now  notorious,  accompanied  the  emperor  in  a  stately 
chariot  during  the  solemnity.  The  cruelty  of  the  empress  was  as  great 
as  her  infamy :  at  her  instigation  Claudius  put  lo  death  some  of  the 
most  eminent  nobles,  and  the  confiscation  of  their  fortunes  supplied  her 
with  money  to  lavish  on  her  paramours.  At  length  she  proceeded  tn 
such  an  extravagant  length,  that  she  openly  manied  Sil'ius,  one  of  hei 
adulterers  :  and  Narcis'sus,  whom  she  had  displeased,  gave  the  em- 
peror private  information  of  her  guilt,  and  she  was  slain  in  the  gardens 
which  had  been  the  chief  theatre  of  her  crimes. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Messalina,  Claudius  married  his  niece  Agrip- 
pina, the  widow  of  Domitius  Ahenobar'bus,  by  whom  she  had  one  son, 
originally  called  after  his  father,  but  better  known  in  history  by  the 
name  of  Nero.  The  new  empress  did  not,  like  her  predecessor,  render 
the  state  subservient  to  her  amours,  but  she  grasped  at  power  to  indulge 
her  insatiable  avarice,  boundless  ambition,  and  unparalleled  cruelty. 
She  ruled  the  emperor  and  the  empire,  appeared  with  him  in  the  senate, 
sat  on  the  same  throne  during  all  public  ceremonies,  gave  audience  to 
foreign  princes  and  ambassadors,  and  even  took  a  share  in  the  admin- 
istration of  justice.  She  at  length  prevailed  upon  Claudius  to  adopt  hei 
child  Domitius  (Nero),  and  constitute  him  heir  of  the  sovereignty,  in 
preference  to  his  own  son  Britan'nicus.  But  Claudius  showing  some 
signs  of  an  intention  to  change  the  succession  again,  Agrippina  pro- 
cured him  to  be  poisoned  by  his  favorite  eunuch  and  the  state  physician 
(a.  d.  54).  Having  previously  gained  over  Bur'rhus,the  captain  of  the 
praetorian  guards,  to  her  interest,  the  empress  concealed  her  husband's 
death  until  she  had  secured  the  army  in  favor  of  her  son,  rightly  judging 
that  the  senate  would  confirm  the  choice  of  the  soldiers. 

Nero  Claudius  Cae'sar  had  been  nurtured  in  the  midst  of  crimes,  and 
educated  for  the  stage  rather  than  the  state  ;  he  was  still  a  youth  of 
seventeen,  and  he  looked  on  the  empire  as  only  an  extensiv^e  field  for 
the  indulgence  of  his  passions.  He  soon  became  weary  of  his  mother's 
imperious  rule  ;  and  Agrippina,  finding  herself  neglected,  threatened  to 
restore  the  crown  to  Britan'nicus.  This  was  the  signal  for  the  destruc- 
tion of  that  young  prince  :  poison  was  administered  to  him  by  one  of 
the  emperor's  emissaries,  and  a  few  hours  after  his  death,  his  body  was 
borne  to  the  pile  ;  for  so  litlle  care  had  the  emperor  of  concealing  his 
share  in  the  murder,  tha  the  preparations  for  the  prince's  funeral  were 
made  before  the  poison  was  administered.  An  infamous  woman,  Pop- 
pae'a  Sabina,  who  had  abandoned  her  husband  to  live  in  adultery  with 
the  empetor,  stimulated  Nero  to  still  greater  crimes.  Persuaded  thai 
luring  the  lifetime  of  Agrippina  she  could*not  hope  to  remove  Octivia 


ROMAN   EMPIRE.  20.'^ 

Nero's  wife,  and  become  herself  a  partner  in  the  empire,  she  urged  hei 
paramour,  by  every  means  in  lier  power,  to  the  murder  of  his  mother 
Nero  himself  was  anxious  to  remove  one  whom  he  so  greatly  feared 
but  he  dreaded  the  resentment  of  the  Romans,  who,  in  spite  of  he; 
crimes,  reverenced  the  last  representative  of  the  family  of  German'icug 
After  various  attempts  to  destroy  her  secretly  had  failed,  a  body  ol 
armed  men  were  sent  to  her  house,  and  she  was  murdered  in  her  bed 
A  labored  apology  for  this  matricide  was  soon  after  published,  which, 
it  is  painful  to  learn,  was  composed  by  the  philosopher  Sen'eca. 

The  death  of  Bur'rhus,  whether  by  poison  or  disease  is  uncertain,  led 
to  a  great  deterioration  of  Nero's  character .  for  the  influence  of  that 
able  statesman  had  restrained  the  emperor  from  many  extravagances 
in  which  he  was  anxious  to  indulge.  Tigellinus,  a  wretch  infamous 
for  all  the  crimes  that  are  engendered  by  cruelty  and  iust,  became  the 
new  minister ;  and  Nero  no  longer  kept  whhin  the  bounds  of  ordinary 
decency.  Sen'eca  was  banished  from  the  court ;  the  empress  Octavia 
was  divorced,  and  afterward  murdered ;  finally,  Poppae'a  was  publicly 
married  to  the  emperor.  A  tour  through  Italy  gave  Nero  an  opporturiity 
of  appearing  as  a  singer  on  the  stage  at  Naples,  and  he  was  excessively 
gratified  by  the  applause  v/ith  which  the  Neapolitans  and  some  Alex- 
andrians fed  his  vanity.  Soon  after  his  return  to  Rome,  a  dreadful  con- 
flagration, which  lasted  nine  days,  destroyed  the  greater  part  of  the 
city ;  and  it  was  generally  believed  that  the  fire  had  been  kindled  by 
the  emperor's  orders.  Upon  the  ruins  of  the  demolished  city  Nero 
erected  his  celebrated  golden  palace,  which  seems  to  have  been  more 
remarkable  for  its  vast  extent,  and  the  richness  of  the  materials  used  in 
its  construction,  than  for  the  taste  or  beauty  of  the  architectural  design. 
To  silence  the  report  of  his  having  caused  the  late  calamity,  Nero 
transferred  the  guilt  of  the  fire  to  the  new  sect  of  the  Christians,  whose 
numbers  were  rapidly  increasing  in  every  part  of  the  empire.  A  cruel 
persecution  commenced ;  first,  all  who  openly  acknowledged  their  con- 
nexion with  the  sect  were  arrested  and  tortured :  then  from  their  ex- 
torted Confessions,  thousands  of  others  were  seized  and  condemned,  not 
for  the  burning  of  tlie  city,  but  on  the  still  more  ludicrous  charge  of 
hatred  and  enmity  to  mankind.  Their  death  and  torture  were  ag- 
gravated with  cruel  derision  and  sport ;  for  they  were  either  covered 
with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  torn  to  pieces  by  devouring  dogs,  or 
fastened  to  crosses,  or  wrapped  up  in  combustible  garments,  that  when 
the  daylight  failed,  they  might  serve,  like  torches,  to  illuminate  the  dark- 
ness of  the  night.  For  this  tragical  spectacle  Nero  ieni  his  own  gar- 
dens, and  exhibited  at  the  same  time  the  public  diversions  of  the  circus  ; 
sometimes  driving  a  chariot  in  person,  and  sometimes  standing  among 
the  people  as  a  spectator,  in  the  habit  of  a  charioteer. 

The  extravagant  expenses  o.'  the  golden  palace,  the  res  toration  of 
the  city,  the  emperor's  luxuries,  and  the  entertainments  given  to  the 
people,  exhausted  the  exchequer,  and  led  to  a  system  of  plunder  and 
extortion  which  nearly  caused  the  dissolution  of  the  empire.  Wot  only 
Italy,  but  all  the  provinces,  the  several  confederate  nations,  and  all  the 
cities  that  had  the  title  of  free,  were  pillaged  and  laid  waste.  The 
tejnples  of  thb  gods  and  the  houses  of  individuals  were  equally  stripped 
of  their  treasures  ;  but  still  enough  could  not  be  obtained  to  support  tbf 


264 


ANCIENT   HISTORY 


emperor's  bounoiess  prodi<^ality.  At  length  a  consj  iracy  was  formed 
for  his  destruction  by  Cneius  Piso,  in  \vhich  the  greater  part  of  the  Ro- 
man nobility  engaged.  It  was  accidentally  discovered ;  and  Nerc 
eagerly  seized  such  a  pretence  for  giving  loose  to  his  sanguinary  disp*"'- 
sitions.  Among  the  victims  weie  the  philosopher  Seu'eca,  the  poe: 
Lucan,  Piso,  and  most  of  the  leading  nobles.  In  the  midst  of  the 
massacres,  Nero  appeared  on  the  stage  as  a  candidate  for  the  prize  of 
music  which  of  course  he  obtained.  About  the  same  time  he  killed 
■;he  empress  Popp3e''a  by  kicking  her  while  pregnant. 

It  may  appear  strange  that  such  repeated  atrocities  should  not  have 
driven  the  Roman  people  to  revolt ;  but  the  lower  classes  felt  nothing 
of  the  imperial  despotism,  and  did  not  sympathize  with  the  calamities 
of  the  nobles,  because  the  ancient  oppressions  of  the  aristocracy  were 
still  remembered.  They  were,  besides,  gratified  by  a  monthly  distribu- 
tion of  corn,  by  occasional  supplies  of  wine  and  meat  [congtana  a 
eviscerationes),  and  by  the  magnificent  shows  of  the  circus  (wvri^ra). 
In  fact,  the  periods  of  tyranny  were  the  golden  days  of  the  poor  ;  and 
Nero  was  far  more  popular  with  the  rabble  than  any  statesman  or  general 
of  the  republic  had  ever  been. 

Not  satisfied  with  his  Italian  fame,  Nero  resolved  to  display  his  mu 
sical  skill  at  the  •Olympic  games,  and  for  this  purpose  passed  over  into 
Greece.  The  applauses  he  received  in  his  tour  from  the  spectators  so 
gratified  him,  that  he  declared  "the  Greeks  alone  perfectly  understand 
music."  He  transmitted  a  particular  account  of  his  victories  to  the  sen- 
ate, and  ordered  thanksgivings  and  sacrifices  to  be  ofiered  for  them  iu 
every  temple  throughout  the  empire.  That  no  monuments  of  other  vic- 
tors might  remain,  he  commanded  all  their  statues  to  be  pidled  down, 
dragged  through  the  streets,  and  either  dashed  to  pieces,  or  thrown  into 
the  common  sewers.  While  he  was  thus  engaged,  the  dreadful  rebel- 
lion, which  destroyed  the  Jewish  nation,  commenced  in  Palestine  :  Ces'- 
tius  Gal'lus,  the  governor  of  Syria,  having  been  defeated  in  an  attempt 
to  besiege  Jerusalem,  the  conduct  of  the  war  was  intrusted  to  the  cele- 
brated Vespasian.  Though  Nero  had  been  greatly  delighted  by  the  ex- 
cessive adulations  of  the  Acha;ans,  he  did  not  abstain  from  plundering 
their  country ;  and  A/chaia  suffered  more  from  his  peaceful  visit  than 
from  the  open  war  of  Mum'mius  or  Sylia. 

Soon  after  the  emperor's  return  to  Rome,  formidable  insurrection.e 
burst  forth  in  the  western  provinces,  occasioned  by  the  excessive  taxa- 
tion to  which  they  were  subjected.  Julius  Vin'dex,  descended  from  the 
ancient  kings  of  Aquitain,  was  the  firs  t  to  raise  the  standard  of  revolt 
in  Celtic  Gaul,  of  which  he  was  govern  )r.  Gal'ba  soon  after  was  pro- 
claimed emperor  in  Spain  by  his  soldiers,  and  was  supported  by  O'tho, 
the  governor  of  Lusitania.  Nero  was  not  much  disturbed  by  the  re- 
bellion of  Vin'dex;  but  the  hostility  of  Gal'ba  filled  him  with  conster- 
nation. He  was,  however,  consoled  for  a  time  by  the  intelligence  of 
the  defeat  of  the  Gauls,  who  were  so  completely  overthrown  by  Vir- 
ginius,  the  imperial  lieutenant,  that  Vin'dex  slew  himself  in  despair 
Gal'ba  would  now  have  been  ruined,  had  not  Nymphid'ius,  whom  Nerc 
bad  appointed  the  colleague  of  Tigellfnus,  seduced  the  praetorian  guards 
o  renounce  their  allegiance.  The  emperor  was  immediately  abandonee' 
ov  all  his  mitiit:ters  and  servants  ;  he  fled  from  Rome,  and  sought  refuef 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  26.5 

id  thf;  house  of  Phaon,  one  of  his  freedmen.  Here  he  soon  lea/nca 
that  he  had  been  declared  an  enemy  to  the  state,  and  sentenced  to  bti 
executed  according  to  ancient  custom  {inbre  majorum).  Inquiring  the 
nature  of  this  punishment  he  was  informed  that  he  was  to  be  placed 
in  a  pillory,  and  beaten  to  death  with  rods  (a.  d.  68).  At  the  prospect 
of  such  a  cruel  fate  he  was  filled  with  horror,  and  declared  that  he 
would  commit  suicide  ;  but  his  courage  failed  when  he  was  about  to  use 
the  dagger.  At  length,  hearing  the  galloping  of  the  horse  sent  to  ar- 
rest him,  he  requested  the  aid  of  his  freedman  Epaphroditus,  and  re- 
ceived a  mortal  wound.  He  was  not  quite  dead  when  the  centurion, 
sent  by  the  senate,  arrived,  and  endeavored  to  stop  the  blood.  Nero 
looking  at  him  sternly,  said,  "  It  is  too  late.  Is  this  your  fidelity  ?"  and 
soon  after  expired.  His  body  was  interred  privately,  but  honorably ; 
and  many  of  the  lower  ranks,  whose  favor  he  aad  wen  by  his  extrava- 
gant liberalities,  lamented  his  loss,  honored  his  memory,  and  brought 
flowers  to  decorate  his  tomb. 

During  this  reign  the  provinces  were  harassed  by  frequent  revolts 
in  addition  to  those  we  have  already  noticed,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
mention  the  revolt  of  the  Iceni  in  Britain,  under  the  command  of  their 
heroic  queen  Boadicea.  She  took  up  arms  to  revenge  the  gross  insults 
and  injuries  she  had  received  ;  falling  unexpectedly  on  the  Roman  col 
onics  and  garrisons,  she  destroyed  a  great  number  both  of  them  and 
their  allies  ;  and  could  she  have  secured  the  co-operation  of  all  the  na 
live  tribes,  might  have  liberated  her  country.  This  dangerous  insur- 
rection was  quelled  by  Suetonius  Paulinus,  who  added  the  island  of 
Anglesey  to  the  Roman  dominions  ;  thus  taking  from  the  Druids,  the 
secret  instigators  of  resistance  to  all  foreign  power,  the  great  centre 
both  of  their  religion  and  their  influence. 

The  family  of  the  Caesars,  properly  speaking,  ended  with  Calig'ula ; 
but  as.  both  Nero  and  Claudius  were  maternally  descended  from  Augus'- 
tus,  they  are  usually  reckoned  among  the  members  of  the  Julian,  or  first 
imperial  house.  Its  extinction,  notwithstanding  the  vices  of  its  later 
members,  was  a  serious  calamity  to  the  empire  ;  it  led  to  a  series  of 
sanguinary  wars,  arising  from  disputed  successions,  during  which  the 
supreme  authority  o^  the  state  was  wrested  equally  from  the  emperors 
and  senate  by  a  liceniious  soldiery. 

Section  II. — F^oni  the  Exlinction  of  the  Julian  to  that  of  the  first  Flavian 

Family. 

FROM    A.   D.   68    TO    A.   D.   96. 

!Ser'vius  Sul'pitius  Gal'ba,  universally  acknowledged  seventh  em- 
peror after  the  death  of  Nero,  "was  descended  from  an  illustrious  family 
that  had  been  eminently  distinguished  for  warlike  achievi  ments  during 
the  la'er  ages  of  the  republic.  He  was  now  in  the  seventy-third  yeai 
of  his  age,  and,  on  account  of  his  infirmities,  travelled  very  slowh 
toward  Rome.  Nymphid'ius  took  advantage  of  this  delay,  to  make  j 
struggle  for  empire  by  bribing  the  praetorian  guards  ;  but  his  conduct  du 
ring  the  reign  of  Nero  had  rendered  him  so  deservedly  unpopular,  tha 
ne  was  murdered  by  the  very  soldiers  who  had  taken  his  money 
This  rash  conspiracy  induced  Gal'ba  to  sully  the  commencement  of  his 


2GG 


AhCIENr   HISTORY. 


reigi  by  unseasonable  severities,  which  gave  the  mofe  oflence  tJ  hw 
subj(  cts,  as  they  had  not  been  anticipated.  It  was  soon  discovered  that 
the  new  emperor,  however  virtuous  himself,  was  the  tool  of  unworthy 
farorites,  who,  under  the  sanction  of  his  name,  plundered  the  people 
and  deprived  the  soldiers  of  their  usual  donative.  A  revolt  of  the  le- 
gions in  Upper  Germany  induced  Gal'ba  to  nominate  a  successor ;  he 
chose  Cncius  Piso,  descended  I'rom  the  old  triumvirs  Cras'sus  and  Pom'- 
pey,  who  was  greatly  esteemed  for  his  talents,  virtues,  and  engaging 
manners.  But  this  appointment  gave  great  oflence  to  O'tho,  who  had 
been  foremost  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Gal'ba  :  taking  advantage  of  the 
discontent  of  the  praetorian  guards,  he  went  to  their  camp,  and  easily 
induced  these  turbulent  warriors  to  proclaim  him  emperor.  Gal'ba  pre- 
pared to  make  a  vigorous  struggle  for  his  ^rown,  out  his  soldiers  refused 
to  obey  the  orders  of  their  commander ;  and  when  he  was  bornii  in  a 
litter  to  enforce  obedience,  those  who  carried  him,  terrified  by  thp  tu- 
jiiult,  threw  down  the  chair,  and  the  aged  emperor,  thus  lying  helpless, 
vv'as  slain  by  one  of  the  veterans  (a.  d.  69).  His  body  was  treated 
with  the  greatest  indignity  by  the  factious  troops  ;  Piso,  his  appointed 
successor,  was  murdered  ;  and  the  praetorian  guards  threatened  destruc- 
tion to  all  who  did  not  acquiesce  in  their  decision. 

O'tho,  thus  raised  to  the  empire,  was,  during  his  brief  reign,  a  pas- 
sive instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  licentious  soldiers.  Scarcely  had 
he  been  fixed  upon  the  throne,  when  he  found  that  he  would  have  to 
struggle  for  empire  with  a  formidable  rival,  Vitel'lius,  the  commande' 
of  the  legions  in  lower  Germany.  Valens  and  Caecina  joined  the 
usurper  with  numerous  forces,  and  intelligence  soon  arrived  of  their 
advance  toward  Italy  through  Gaul.  Their  cirrival  in  Italy  filled  Rome 
with  consternation,  which  the  licentious  indolence  in  which  O'tho  in- 
dulged by  no  means  tempted  to  abate.  But  on  the  near  approach  of 
danger,  the  emperor  laid  aside  his  pleasures  and  debaucheries,  making 
the  most  vigorous  measures  for  resistance.  Most  of  the  provinces  de- 
clared in  his  favor,  and  could  he  have  protracted  the  war,  he  would 
probably  have  preserved  his  crown.  But  the  praetorian  guards,  wearied 
of  the  unusual  hardships  of  a  campaign,  and  eager  to  return  to  the 
pleasures  of  the  capital,  demanded  to  be  led  instantly  against  the  en- 
emy. O'tho  withdrew  to  a  place  of  safety,  but  ordered  his  generals  to 
give  battle  without  delay.  The  decisive  engagement  was  fought  at 
Bedriacum,  near  the  banks  of  the  Po :  early  in  the  day,  the  praetorian 
guards,  attacked  in  flank  by  a  Batavian  column,  fled  in  disorder,  and 
threw  the  rest  of  the  army  into  confusion.  This  unexpected  disastet 
gave  Vitel'lius  an  easy  victory  ;  and  following  up  his  success,  he  took 
possession  of  the  imperial  camp.  O'tho,  having  learned  the  news  of 
the  battle,  convened  the  rest  of  his  soldiers,  thanked  them  for  their  fi- 
delity, and  inlimated  his  resolution  not  to  permit  his  life  to  be  the  cause 
of  further  bloodshed.  That  n'^'ht  he  committed  suicide,  having  only 
reigned  three  months.  He  was  honorably  interred  by  his  soldiers,  who 
showed  sincere  sorrow  for  his  loss. 

Vitel'lius  was  a  slave  to  gluttony  and  debauchery :  he  received  very 
coldly  the  congratula.'ions  of  the  senate  on  his  victory  and  accessioa 
md  he  was  reluctant  to  expose  himself  to  the  dangers  of  the  turbu 
leuces  that  the  soldiers   both  of  his  and  O'tho's  army,  excited  in  Italv 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  267 

K.t  length  lie  made  his  public  entiance  into  Rome,  and  ende;  vored  to. 
win  the  favor  of  the  populace  by  large  donatives  and  expensire  enter« 
tainments  in  the  circus.  Intrusting  all  the  power  of  the  state  to  unworthy 
favorites,  he  devoted  himself  wholly  to  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  or. 
which  he  squandered  nearly  seven  millions  of  money  in  less  than  foul 
months.  Nothing,  however,  gave  greater  scandal  to  the  higher  ranks 
of  the  senators,  than  his  solemnizing,  with  gieat  pomp,  the  obsequies 
of  Nero,  and  compelling  the  Augustal  priests,  an  order  consecrated  by 
Tiberius  for  superintending  the  religious  rites  of  the  Julian  family,  to 
attend  at  that  ceremony.  While  he  was  thus  insulting  his  subjects,  and 
wasting  the  wealth  of  the  empire,  fortune,  or  rather  Providence,  was 
raising  him  up  a  competitor  in  a  distant  province.  Vespasian  was  car- 
rying on  the  war  against  the  Jews  with  great  success,  when  he  heard 
of  the  death  of  Nero,  and  the  election  of  Gal'ba  :  he  sent  his  son  Ti- 
tus to  present  his  allegiance  to  the  new  emperor  :  but  ere  lie  could 
reach  Italy,  Gal'ba  was  no  more,  and  O'tho  and  Vitel'lius  were  con- 
tending for  the  empire.  Titus  returned  to  his  father,  whom  he  found 
ready  to  swear  allegiance  to  Vitel'lius,  though  the  army  wished  him  to 
declare  himself  emperor.  Vespasian's  reluctance,  whether  real  or  af- 
fected, was  overcome  by  the  exhortations  of  Mucianus,  governor  of 
Syria,  and  the  tributary  monarchs  of  the  east,  whose  friendship  he  had 
v^on  by  his  justice  and  moderation.  No  sooner  did  he  commence  his 
march  toward  Europe,  than  the  legions  quartered  in  lUyr'icum  and 
Pannonia  declared  in  his  favor ;  nor  was  there  any  province  on  which 
Vitel'lius  could  rely  for  support  except  Africa.  Primus  and  Varus,  at 
the  head  of  the  lUyrian  armies,  crossed  the  Alps,  and  made  themselves 
masters  of  Verona,  and  at  the  same  time  the  fleet  at  Ravenna  declared 
in  favor  of  Vespasian.  Csecina,  who  had  the  principal  share  in  raising 
Vitel'lius  to  the  throne,  followed  the  same  course,  b'lt  his  soldiers  dis- 
approved his  conduct,  and  put  him  in  irons.  Primus,  advancing  south- 
ward, encountered  t.he  forces  of  Vitel'lius  near  Cremona,  and  totally 
routed  them,  after  a  battle  which  lasted  the  entire  day  and  a  great  part 
of  the  following  night.  The  city  of  Cremona,  after  a  desperate  resist- 
ance, was  taken  by  storm,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  put  to 
the  sword  Valeiis,  who  went  to  raise  an  army  in  the  western  provin- 
ces to  suppor'  the  emperor,  was  taken  prisoner,  upon  which  Gaul, 
Spain,  and  Britain,  declared  in  favor  of  Vespasian. 

Vitel'lius  at  first  refused  to  believe  the  evil  tidings  that  reached  him 
om  every  quarter ;  but  at  length  on  the  near  approach  of  danger,  he 
hasted  to  secure  the  passes  of  the  Apennines.  Primus,  however,  by  a 
hazardous  march  through  the  snow,  forced  his  way  over  the  mountains 
and  sent  the  head  of  Valens  to  be  displayed  to  the  imperial  army,  as  a 
proof  of  Ids  success  in  othei  quarters.  Immediately  Vitel'lius  wa3 
abandoned  by  his  troops  :  he  fled  hastily  to  Rome,  and  receiving  no  en- 
couragement from  senate  or  people,  abdicated  his  authority.  Some  of 
the  prtetorian  guards,  however,  dreading  the  strict  discipline  of  Vespa- 
sian, compelled  the  wretched  monarch  to  resume  the  purple.  The  city 
was  distracted  by  a  horrid  civil  tumult,  in  which  many  of  the  principa 
nobles  perished,  and  the  Capitol  v,  as  burned  to  the  ground.  Primus 
Searing  of  ♦hese  disorders,  advanced  with  all  speed  to  Rome,  forced  an 
entrance  into  the  city,  and  took  the  camp  of  the  praetorian  guards  by 


208  ANCIENT  HISTORV 

storm.  Vitel'lius  hid  himself  in  the  palace,  but  was  discovert  d  in  hb 
retreat  by  the  licentious  populace,  ready  to  rise  under  any  pretext 
ihrou<jh  hopes  of  plunder,  dragged  ignominiously  through  the  streets  tc 
the  place  of  couunon  execution,  and  put  to  death  with  a  thousand 
wounds  (a.  d.  69).  His  brother,  Lucius  Vitel'lius,  who  was  advancing 
to  his  aid  with  an  army  from  the  south  of  Italy,  surrendered  at  discre- 
tion, and  was  put  to  death.  The  factions  that  had  been  formed  durinj; 
this  disgraceful  reign  of  eight  months,  took  advantage  of  the  confusion 
to  wreak  mutual  vengeance.  Prinuis,  and  Vespasian's  second  son.  Do 
mit'ian,  abandoned  themselves  to  debauchery  and  plunder  :  Rome  ap- 
peared on  the  very  brink  of  ruin  from  the  madness  of  its  own  citizens. 

At  length  tranquillity  was  restored  by  the  arrival  of  Vespasian,  whose 
accession  difl'used  universal  joy.  His  first  care  was  to  restore  *he  dis- 
cipline of  the  army,  which  he  found  in  a  shocking  state  of  deir.jraliza- 
tion :  he  next  revived  the  authority  of  the  senate,  supplying  its  dimin- 
ished ranks  with  eminent  men  from  the  provinces  and  colonies  ;  finally, 
he  reformed  the  courts  of  law,  which  had  long  ceased  to  be  courts  of 
justice.  The  virtues  of  Vespasian,  supported  by  a  firm  temper,  led  ta 
a  great  improvement  in  the  social  condition  of  Rome.  His  only  fault 
was  an  extravagant  love  of  money,  which,  however,  was  probably  ex- 
aggerated by  those  who  compared  his  parsimonious  expenditure  with 
the  lavish  extravagance  of  former  emperors. 

The  early  part  of  his  reign  was  signalized  by  the  final  termination 
of  the  Jewish  war,  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  its  holy  tem- 
ple. It  would  be  impossible  to  give  even  a  faint  outline  of  this  mem- 
orable war  here  ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  Jews,  deceived  by  false 
prophets,  who  promised  them  a  temporal  deliverer,  persevered  in  their 
rebellion  long  after  every  reasonable  chance  of  success  had  disappeared  ; 
that  they  were  divided  into  hostile  factions,  who  fought  against  each 
othe'  in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem,  while  the  walls  of  the  city  quivered 
under  the  battering  engines  of  the  common  enemy  ;  and  that  they  re- 
fused profiered  mercy  when  the  Roman  ensigns  were  waving  above 
their  battlements.  Dreadful  was  the  punishment  of  this  fated  nation  : 
their  city  and  temple  were  redu^sd  to  heaps  of  shapeless  ruins ;  their 
best  and  bravest  fell  by  the  swords  of  the  Uomans  or  each  other ;  most 
of  the  wretched  survivors  were  sold  into  slavery,  and  the  Jews,  since 
ihat  period,  dispersed  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  have  become  a  mock- 
ery, a  by-word,  and  a  reproach  among  nations.  Titus  and  his  father 
triumphed  together  on  account  of  this  success,  and  the  rich  ornaments 
>f  the  temple  were  displayed  in  the  procession.  A  triumphal  arch  was 
also  erected  for  Titus,  on  which  his  noble  deeds  were  sculptured  :  it 
continues  nearly  perfect  to  the  present  day,  a  lasting  monument  of  hiu 
victories  over  the  Jewish  nation.  The  Batavian  war,  which  threatened 
great  dangers  to  the  Roman  dominions  in  Gaul  and  Germany,  was  con- 
cluded about  the  same  time  by  the  prudence  and  valor  of  Ceiealis  ;  am' 
Comagene,  which  had  been  permitted  to  retain  its  own  sovereigns,  waj 
reduced  to  a  province. 

Britain  had  yet  been  very  imperfectly  subdued,  and  the  completion 
)f  its  conquest  was  intrusted  to  Cneius  Julius  Agric'ola,  a  native  of 
Gaul,  justly  celebrated  for  his  great  merits  as  a  general  and  a  states- 
man.     His  first  erterprise  was  to  recover  the  island  of  vWglesey  froir 


ROMAN  EMPIKE.  2tJ9 

ihe  Ordovices.  His  success  was  owing  to  his  promptitude  as  much  as 
to  his  valor  •  he  appeared  in  the  midst  of  the  hostile  country  before  the 
enemy  knew  of  his  having  passed  the  frontiers ;  and  the  Britons,  dis* 
concerted  by  a  sudden  attack,  agreed  to  purchase  safety  by  submission. 
The  advantages  thus  won  by  military  prowess,  he  resolved  to  confirm 
and  secure  by  enlightened  policy.  He  induced  the  Britons  to  lay  aside 
their  own  barbarous  customs,  and  adopt  the  Roman  manners  ;  but  un- 
fortunately, in  giving  them  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  of  civilization,  he 
also  inspired  them  with  a  taste  for  luxury.  He  next  proceeded  to  attack 
the  Caledonians  ;  a  fleet  was  ordered  to  examine  the  coast ;  and  by  this 
expedition  Britain  was  first  discovered  to  be  an  island.  The  Caledo- 
nians drew  together  under  the  command  of  Gal'gacus,  and  hazarded  a 
pitched  battle  with  the  army  of  Agric'ola,  in  which  they  were  utterly 
routed,  and  pursued  with  great  slaughter ;  but  the  fastnesses  of  the 
Scottish  highlands  were  too  formidable  to  be  overcome  ;  and  tl:<^  north- 
urn  part  of  Britain  was  never  subdued  by  the  Romans. 

Several  conspiracies  were  formed  against  Vespasian,  whose  rigid 
v'ule  was  found  a  severe  check  on  the  licentiousness  of  the  nobles  ;  but 
they  were  all  detected  and  punished.  At  length,  his  close  attention  to 
the  affairs  of  state  brought  on  a  mortal  disease.  He  retired  to  his 
country-seat  for  change  of  air ;  but  the  sickness  was  aggravated  by  the 
alteration,  and  he  died  in  the  seventieth  year  of  his  age  (a.  d.  78).  He 
was  the  second  of  the  Roman  emperors  that  died  a  natural  death,  though 
some  suspicion  is  attached  to  the  fate  of  Augus'tus,  and  he  was  the  first 
who  was  succeeded  by  his  son.  His  obsequies  were  performed  with  ex- 
traordinary pomp  by  Titus  ;  but  the  solemnity  was  disturbed  by  a  ludi- 
crous circumstance,  too  characteristic  of  the  age  to  be  omitted.  The 
Romans  were  so  preposterously  fond  of  mimics  and  farces,  that  they 
were  even  exhibited  at  funerals,  where  actors  personated  the  deceased, 
imitated  his  actions,  mimicked  his  voice,  and  satirized  his  peculiarities. 
At  Vespasian's  obsequies,  a  pantomime  named  Favor  personated  that 
emperor,  and  took  an  opportunity  of  attacking  his  parsimony.  Imita- 
ting the  voice  of  the  deceased  emperor,  he  loudly  demanded  the  price 
of  the  ceremony ;  a  large  sum  was  named  in  reply.  "  Give  me  the 
money,"  he  continued,  holding  out  his  hand,  "  and  tlirow  my  body  into 
the  Tiber." 

Vespasian  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Titus,  whose  first  action  after 
his  accession  was  a  sacrifice  of  his  dearest  affections  to  the  popular 
will.  He  dismissed  the  beautiful  Berenice,  daughter  U)  Agrip'pa,  the 
last  king  of  Judea,  because  that  his  connexion  with  a  foreigner  wa? 
displeasing  to  the  senate  and  people.  Nor  was  this  the  oidy  instance 
of  his  complaisance  ;  he  allowed  the  spectators  to  choose  their  own 
entertainments  in  the  circus  and  he  never  refused  audience  to  a  peti- 
tioner. His  clemency  was  equally  remarkable  ;  he  abolished  the  law 
af  treason ;  and  severely  punished  spies  and  informers. 

In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  Camj)ania  was  alarmed  and  devastated 
i>y  the  most  dreadful  eruption  of  Vesuvius  on  record  ;  it  laid  waste  the 
country  for  many  miles  round,  overwhelming  several  cities  with  their 
inhabitants,  among  which  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  were  the  most 
remarkable.  This  was  followed  by  a  dreadful  conflagration  at  Rome, 
which  lasted  three  days,  and  destroyed  a  vas    number  of  edifices,  bo'.b 


270  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

public  and  private.  The  exertions  of  Titus  to  remeily  bot}  tiles': 
calamities  procured  him,  from  his  grateful  subjects,  the  hoiioratio  title 
of  "  benefactor  of  the  liuman  race."  A  plague  afforded  him  fresh  op- 
portunities of  displaying  his  native  goodness  of  heart ;  but  these  excr 
tions  proved  too  much  for  his  constitution  ;  he  was  seized  with  a  fever 
which  terminated  fatally  in  a  few  days  (a.  d.  81).  His  death  diffused 
universal  sorrow  throuiihout  the  empire  ;  e\ery  family  lamented  as  if  ii 
had  been  deprived  of  its  natural  protector  ;  and  his  name  has  become  a 
proverbial  designation  for  wise  and  virtuous  princes. 

Flavins  Domitian  succeeded  his  brother  without  any  opposition, 
though  his  character  for  debauchery  and  cruelty  was  sufficiently  noto- 
rious. He  was  naturally  tiinorou*,  and  fear,  of  course,  aggravated  his 
sanguinary  disposition  ;  yet  he  professed  a  passionate  attachment  to 
riiihtary  sports,  and  possessed  so  much  skill  in  archery,  that  he  could 
shoot  arrows  through  the  expanded  fingers  of  a  doinesUc  placed  at  a 
considerable  distance  without  ever  inflicting  a  wound.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  his  reign,  lie  studied  to  gain  the  favor  of  the  people  by  a  line 
of  conduct  worthy  of  an  upright  sovereign — disguising  his  vices,  and 
affecting  the  opposite  virtues.  He  presented  large  sums  to  his  minis- 
ters and  officers  of  state,  that  they  might  be  raised  above  the  temptation 
of  receiving  bribes ;  he  refused  the  inheritances  bequeathed  to  him, 
distributing  the  legacies  among  the  nearest  relations  of  the  deceased ; 
and  he  pretended  to  have  such  a  horror  of  shedding  blood,  that  he  is- 
sued an  edict  forbidding  the  sacrifice  of  oxen  or  any  other  living  ani- 
mals. He  confirmed  all  the  grants  made  by  the  preceding  emperors, 
increased  the  pay  of  the  soldiers,  and  finished,  at  an  immense  charge, 
all  the  public  buildings  which  had  been  begun  by  Titus. 

In  the  second  year  of  his  reign  he  attacked  the  Cat'ti,  the  most  war- 
like of  the  German  tribes  ;  and,  as  the  invasion  was  unexpected,  made 
several  of  the  peasants  prisoners.  Hearing,  however,  that  the  enemies 
were  preparing  an  army,  he  retreated  with  great  speed  ;  yet  the  servile 
senate  voted  him  a  triumph  for  this  pretended  success.  But  flattery 
could  not  hide  from  the  emperor  his  vast  inferiority  to  Agric'ola,  whose 
concjuests  in  Britain  were  the  theme  of  universal  praise  :  he  recalled 
this  victorious  general,  who  deemed  it  prudent  to  decline  a  triumph, 
2nd  retire  into  the  seclusion  of  private  life.  From  this  time  forward 
the  emperor  indulged  in  the  most  sanguinary  excesses,  putting  to 
death,  without  the  form  of  trial,  the  most  eminent  senators  and  knights. 
The  herd  of  informers,  discouraged  and  punished  during  the  preceding 
reign,  once  more  came  into  favor ;  and  such  was  their  activity,  that  the 
most  innocent  conversation  was  frequently  made  the  ground  of  a  capi- 
tal charge.  The  infamous  vices  of  the  palace  were  so  far  from  being 
hidden,  that  they  were  ostentatiously  displayed  to  the  public  ;  and  when 
Domit'ian  had  thus  degraded  himself  in  the  eyes  of  his  subjects  to  the 
condition  of  a  beast,  he  required  ♦o  be  worshipped  as  a  god,  and  all  the 
.streets  leading  to  the  Capitol  were  daily  crowded  with  victims  to  be 
ijffered  in  sacrifices  before  his  altars  and  statues. 

The  Dilci  and  Geta;,  under  their  gallant  king  Deceb'alus,  invaded 
the  Roman  frontiers,  and  defeated  the  generals  sent  to  oppose  them  hi 
:wc  great  battles.  Domit'ian,  encouraged  by  the  news  of  a  subsequont 
victory,  resolved  *o  take  the  field  in  person ;  but  instead  of  marchinp 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  271 

iguinst  the  Daci,  he  attacked  the  Quadi  and  MarcomaniH;  and  was 
shamefully  beaten.  Discouraged  by  this  overthrow,  he  concluded  a 
dishonorable  peace  with  the  Dacians,  engaging  to  pay  Deceb'alus  a 
yearly  tribute  :  but  he  wrote  to  the  senate,  boasting  of  extraordinar}- 
victories  ;  and  that  degraded  body,  though  well  aware  of  the  truth,  im- 
mediately decreed  him  the  honors  of  a  triumph. 

Wearied  by  the  tyranny  of  Domit'ian,  Lucius  Antonius,  the  governor 
uf  upper  Germany,  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in  his  province,  but 
was  easily  defeated  and  slain.  This  abortive  insurrection  stimulated 
ihe  cruelty  of  the  emperor :  vast  numbers  were  tortured  and  executed, 
under  pretence  of  having  been  accomplices  of  Antonius.  An  edict 
was  published,  banishing  all  philosophers  from  Ron-;  2,  and  prohibiting 
instruction  in  the  liberal  sciences ;  for  Domit'ian  felt  that  all  learning 
was  a  satire  on  his  own  ignorance,  and  all  virtue  a  reproof  of  his  infa- 
my. But  though  thus  tyrannical,  Domit'ian  had  little  fear  of  rebellion ; 
he  had  secured  the  support  of  the  troops  by  increasing  their  pay,  and 
his  splendid  entertainments  rendered  him  a  favorite  with  the  degraded 
populace.  The  adherents  to  the  national  religion  were  also  gratified 
by  a  second  general  persecution  of  the  Christians,  who  were  odious  to 
the  emperor  because  they  refused  to  worship  his  statues  (a.  d.  95). 
Among  the  most  illustrious  martyrs  in  the  cause  of  truth  on  this  occa- 
sion was  Flavins  Clem'ens,  cousin-german  of  the  emperor,  whose 
example  proves  that  the  new  religion  was  now  beginnmsr  to  spread 
among  the  higher  ranks  of  society. 

It  was  the  custom  of  Domit'ian  to  inscribe  on  a  roll  the  nam.es  of  the 
persons  he  designed  to  slaughter.  One  day  a  young  child  with  whom 
he  used  to  divert  himself  took  this  paper  from  under  the  pillow  on 
which  the  emperor  was  sleeping,  and  unaware  of  its  important  con- 
tents, gave  it  to  the  empress  Domit'ia.  She  saw  with  surprise  and 
consternation  her  own  name  on  the  fatal  list,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
imperial  chamberlain  and  the  captain  of  the  prpctorian  guards,  to  whom 
she  immediately  communicated  their  danger.  They  at  once  conspired 
for  his  destruction,  and  he  was  murdered  in  his  bed  (a.  d.  96).  The 
Roman  populace  heard  his  fate  with  indifl'erence  ;  but  the  soldiers, 
whose  pay  h^  had  increased,  and  with  whom  he  had  often  shared  his 
plunder,  lamented  him  more  than  they  had  Vespasian  Titus  ;  it  is  even 
said  that  they  would  have  avenged  his  fate  by  a  general  massacre,  had 
they  not  been  restrained  by  their  officers. 

During  this  reign  flourished  a  philosopher,  Apollonius  Tyaneus 
whose  austere  life  and  extensive  knowledge  procured  him  so  much 
fame,  that  he  pretended  to  have  the  power  of  working  miracles,  and 
aspired  to  become  the  founder  of  a  new  religion.  Like  Pythag'oras,  he 
travelled  into  the  remote  east,  and  incorporated  in  his  system  many  of 
the  tenets  that  are  now  held  by  the  Buddhists.  During  his  life,  this 
impostor  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation  ;  but,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts 
of  his  disciples,  his  system,  after  his  death,  sank  rapidly,  i  ilo  nerited 
oblivion. 


'<J72  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Section  III. — From  the  Extinction  of  the  first  Flavian  Family  to  the  latl  of 

the  Antonines. 

FROM   A.   D.  96  TO  A.   D.    193. 

Domit'ian  was  the  last  of  the  emperors  commonly  called  the  twelve 
CiEsars  :  he  was  succeeded  by  Mar'cus  Cocceius  Ner'va,  who  was 
chosen  to  the  sovereignty  by  a  unanimous  vote  of  the  senate.  He  was 
a  native  of  Narn'ia  in  Umbria,  but  his  family  came  originally  from  Crete ; 
and  we  may  therefore  regard  him  as  the  first  foreigner  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  empire.  Though  past  the  age  of  seventy,  he  applied  him 
self  to  the  reformation  of  abuses  with  all  the  zeal  of  youth,  punishing 
infornier-s,  redressing  grievances,  and  establishing  a  milder  and  more 
equitable  system  of  taxation.  His  greatest  fault  was  excessive  lenity, 
which  encouraged  the  profligate  courtiers  to  persevere  in  their  accus- 
tomed peculations.  The  turbulent  praetorian  guards  raised  an  insurrec- 
tion, under  pretence  of  avenging  the  death  of  Domit'ian,  and  not  only 
compelled  the  emperor  to  abandon  such  victims  to  their  fury  as  they 
demanded,  but  actually  forced  him  to  return  them  public  thanks  for  their 
proper  and  patriotic  conduct.  This  outrageous  indignity,  however,  pro- 
duced a  highly  beneficial  result.  Ner'va,  finding  himself  despised  on 
account  of  hib  old  age  and  infirmities,  resolved  to  adopt  Mar'cus  Ul'pius 
Trajan,  the  greatest  and  most  deserving  person  of  his  age,  as  his  col- 
league and  successor,  though  he  had  many  relations  of  his  own,  who 
might,  without  incurring  the  imputation  of  presuiription,  aspire  to  that 
dignity.  The  news  of  this  appointment  was  received  with  great  joy  by 
the  senate  and  people,  and  the  soldiers  immediately  returned  to  theii 
duty.  Soon  after,  Ner'va,  while  chiding  severely  an  infamous  informer, 
so  healed  himself,  that  he  was  seized  v/ith  a  fever,  which  proved  mor- 
tal, in  the  sixteenth  month  of  his  reign  (a.  d.  98).  He  was  ranked 
among  the  gods  by  his  subjects  ;  and  Trajan,  out  of  gratitude,  caused 
several  temples  to  be  erected  to  his  memory,  i)0th  at  Rome  and  in  the 
provinces. 

Trajan  was  by  birth  a  Spaniard,  descended  from  a  family  that  had 
some  claim  to  royal  honors.  He  was  equally  great  as  a  ruler,  a  general, 
and  a  man ;  free  from  every  A'ice,  except  an  occasional  indulgence  in 
wine.  After  completely  abolishing  the  trials  for  high  treason  [judicio 
majf'stdtiy),  he  restored  as  much  of  the  old  constitution  as  was  con 
sistent  with  a  monarchy ;  binding  himself  by  oath  to  observe  the  laws, 
reviving  the  comitia  for  the  election  of  civic  officers,  restoring  freedom 
oi  speech  *to  the  senate,  and  their  former  authority  to  the  magistrates 
Deceb'alus  having  sent  to  claim  the  tribute  granted  to  him  by  Domit'ian, 
Trajan  peremptorily  refused  to  be  bound  by  such  a  disgraceful  treaty, 
and  hastily  levying  an  army,  marched  against  the  Dacians,  who  had 
already  crossed  the  Danube.  A  dreadful  battle  was  fought,  in  which 
the  Romans  gained  a  complete  victory ;  but  so  great  was  the  carnage 
on  both  sides,  that  linen  could  not  be  found  to  dress  the  wounds  of  the 
soldiers,  and  Trajan  tore  up  his  imperial  robes  to  sujiply  that  want, 
pursuing  his  advantages,  the  emperor  soon  reduced  Deceb'alus  to  such 
distress,  that  he  was  forced  to  purchase  peace  by  giving  up  all  his 
engines  of  war,  and  acknowledging  himself  a  vassal  of  the  Romans 
After  sometime    however,  the  Daciau  monarch,  uinised  to   servitude 


ROMAN  EMPiaE.  273 

again  had  recourse  to  arms,  and  was  proclaimed  a  public  enemy  by  the 
aonate.  Trajan  once  more  took  the  field  in  person.  To  facilitate  the 
advance  of  his  army,  he  constructed  a  stupendous  stone  bridge  over  the 
Danube,  fortified  with  stong  castles  at  both  ends  ;  and  having  thus 
sec.ired  his  communications,  he  marched  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
country,  and  made  himself  master  of  the  capital  (a.  d.  106).  Deceb'alus 
despairing  of  success,  committed  suicide  ;  and  after  his  death,  the  coun- 
try was  easily  formed  into  a  province,  and  several  Roman  CDlonies  and 
garrisons  for  the  first  time  planted  north  of  the  Danube.  In  the  same 
year  Arabia  Petraea  was  subdued,  and  annexed  to  the  empire  by  the 
•governor  of  Syria. 

•  These  successes  rendered  Trajan  ambitious  of  further  ;onquebt.  and 
he  resolved  to  contend  with  the  Parthians  for  the  sovereignty  of  ceu 
cral  Asia.  He  commenced  by  subduing  Armenia,  which  he  made  u 
new  province,  and  thence  he  advanced  into  Mesopotamia.  A  bridgre 
not  less  remarkable  than  that  over  the  Danube  was  constructed  across 
the  Tigris ;  and  the  Romans  passing  this  river  to  a  country  where  their 
eagles  had  never  before  been  seen,  conqueied  the  greater  part  of  ancient 
Assyria.  Seleucia  and  Ctes'iphon  [El  Mudam),  the  capital  of  the 
Parthian  kingdom,  were  besieged  and  taken ;  after  which,  tiie  emperor, 
lescending  the  Tigris,  displayed  the  Roman  standards  for  the  first  time 
m  the  Persian  gulf.  Thence  he  sailed  to  the  southern  part  of  the 
Arabian  peninsula  (Arabia  Felix),  a  great  part  of  which  he  annexed  to 
the  empire.  He  is  said  to  have  meditated  the  invasion  of  India ;  but 
was  probably  deterred  by  considering  the  great  difficulties  with  which 
he  would  have  to  contend  in  the  deserts  of  eastern  Persia. 

No  permanent  advantages  resulted  from  these  conquests.  No  sooner 
had  the  emperor  returned,  than  most  of  the  nations  which  he  had  coi> 
quered  revoked,  and  massacred  the  Roinai\  garrisons.  The  Jew&, 
prompted  by  false  prophets,  raised  a  dangerous  insurrection  in  the  prov- 
inces through  which  they  had  been  dispersed  :  after  having  committed 
the  most  shocking  excesses,  they  were  subdued,  and  their  treason  pun- 
ished with  remorseless  severity.  Trajan  was  making  vigorous  prep- 
arations to  regain  his  conquests,  when  he  was  attacked  by  dropsy  and 
palsy,  which  niduced  him  to  return  to  Italy.  He,  however,  only  pro- 
ceeded so  far  as  Selinus  in  Cilicia,  when  the  disease  assumed  a  mortal 
character  ,  ai  d  in  this  little  town  the  best  of  the  Roman  monarchs  died, 
in  the  twentieth  year  of  his  reign  (a.  d.  117).  His  ashes  were  carried 
to  Rome,  and  deposited  under  the  stotely  column  he  had  erected  to 
commemorate  his  Dacian  victories,  though  it  stood  within  the  city, 
where  no  one  had  ever  been  buried  bel  jre.  One  stain  on  Trajan's 
character  must  not  be  omitted  ;  he  sanctioned  the  persecution  orf  the 
Christians,  and  even  when  convinced  that  they  were  innocent  of  the 
atrocious  charges  brouglit  against  them  by  the  pagans,  he  only  forbade 
inquisitions  to  be  made,  but  continued  the  punishment  of  all  who  were 
accused. 

Adrian,  the  cousin-gernian  and  pupil  of  Trajan,  succeeded  to  the  empire 
ii  is  said,  by  adoption  ;  but  there  is  some  reason  to  doubt  the  truth  of  ihc 
■jssertion.  A  much  stronger  claim  was  the  uiiannnous  declaration  of 
the  Asiatic  armies  in  his  favor,  whose  potent  choice  was  ratified  by  the 
•;finat<^.     Anxious  to  preserve  peace,  he  at  once  abandoned  all  th«'  con 

18 


274  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

quests  made  by  his  prtdecessors,  both  in  Asia  and  Europe,  destroyia^ 
the  bridges  over  the  Tigris  and  Danul)e.  On  his  return  to  Rome  tht 
senate  offered  him  a  triumph,  which  he  had  the  good  sense  to  refuse  , 
at  the  same  time,  to  show  his  moderation  and  love  of  tranquillity,  he 
diminished  the  military  establishments,  and  lowered  the  taxes  througli- 
out  the  empire.  But  the  virtues  of  Adrian  were  not  unalloyed  ;  he  wae 
a  cruel  persecutor  of  tne  Jews  and  Christians  ;  he  allowed  himself  to 
be  influenced  by  unworthy  favorites,  and  too  often  lent  an  ear  to  the 
tales  of  slanderers  and  informers.  Deeming  that  all  parts  of  the  empire 
had  a  claim  to  the  protection  of  the  sovereign,  he  resolved  to  make  a 
tour  through  the  provinces,  and  began  his  course  by  visiting  Gaul. 
Germany,  and  Britain.  He  found  the  Britons  far  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion ;  but  no  longer  able  to  contend  with  the  barbarous  Caledonians. 
In  order  to  check  the  incursions  of  these  savages,  he  erected  the  first 
Roman  wall  from  the  Eden  to  the  Tyne,  as  has  been  mentioned  in  a 
preceding  chapter. 

He  twice  visited  Asia,  and  ordered  that  a  Roman  colony  should  be 
established  at  Jerusalem,  whose  name  he  changed  to  iElia  Capitolina 
(a.  d.  131).  The  introduction  of  idolatry  into  the  holy  city  provoked 
a  fierce  insurrection  of  the  Jews,  headed  by  an  impostor  calling  him- 
self Bar-Cochab  [the  sun  of  a  star),  who  pretended  to  be  the  expected 
Messiah.  After  a  sanguinary  war,  which  lasted  three  years,  the  infat- 
uated insurgents  were  subdued,  but  their  revolt  was  punished  by  the 
most  horrible  cruelties,  and  their  name  and  nation  were  all  but  exter 
minated. 

While  Adrian  continued  in  the  East,  SaTvius  Julianus,  the  mosi 
eminent  lawyer  in  the  empire,  was  employed  in  compiling  the  edictuw* 
verpclmi/n,  a  code  containing  all  the  laws  which  had  been  published  by 
the  praitors  in  their  annual  edicts.  This  celebrated  statute  gave  per- 
manence and  uniformity,  to  the  system  of  Roman  jurisprudence,  and  in 
some  degree  raised  law  to  the  dignity  of  a  science.  Athens,  which  had 
long  been  neglected,  naturally  engaged  the  attention  of  a  sovereign  so 
enthusiastically  attached  to  literature  and  the  arts  as  Adrian.  He  com- 
pleted many  of  its  buildings,  which  had  remained  incomplete  since  the 
fall  of  the  republic,  and  added  so  many  new  edifices,  that  a  whole  quar- 
ter of  the  city  was  called  after  his  name.  In  commemoration  of  the 
great  benefits  he  had  conferied  on  the  empire  a  medal  was  struck  in  his 
honor,  bearing  the  inscription  Reslilutori  orbis  terrdrum — "  to  the 
Restorer  of  the  World." 

On  his  return  to  Rome  he  fell  into  a  lingering  disease,  and  adopted 
Com'modus  Verus  as  his  successor ;  but  he  soon  repented  his  choice 
of  a  weak,  debauched  young  man,  whose  constitution  was  greatly  im- 
paired by  his  guilty  excesses.  When  he  was  sufficiently  recovered,  he 
retired  to  his  magnificent  villa  at  Tiisculum  [TivoH),  where  he  sank  into 
',he  same  filthy  debauchery  as  Tiberius  at  Capreae.  These  excesses 
brought  on  a  relapse  ;  sickness  rendered  him  cruel  and  jealous,  and 
some  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  Rome  were  sacrificed  to  his  diseased 
suspicions.  On  the  death  of  Verus,  Adrian  adopted  Titus  Antoninus, 
Du  condition  of  his  adopting  Mar'cus  Aurelius  and  Verus,  the  son  of  his 
former  choice.  Scarcely  had  this  arrangement  been  completed  wheu 
the  emperor's  ailments  were  aggravated  to  such  a  degree,  that  no  medi' 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  275 

eincs  could  give  him  iclief ;  and,  tlirougli  impatience  of  pain,  he  made 
several  attempts  to  commit  suicide.  Hoping  for  some  relief  from  ba- 
thing, he  removed  to  Baias,  where  he  soon  died  (a.  d.  139). 

Adrian,  by  his  cruelties  toward  the  close  of  his  reign,  provoked  public 
hatred  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  senate  was  disposed  to  annul  all  his 
acts  ;  but  the  entreaties  of  Antoninus,  and  the  fear  of  tlie  soldiers,  with 
whom  Adrian  had  been  a  great  favorite,  induced  them  not  only  to  aban< 
don  their  intention,  but  to  enrol  him  in  the  number  of  gods,  and  ordei 
temples  to  be  erected  to  his  honor. 

Antoninus,  immediately  after  his  accession,  gave  his  daughter  Faus- 
tina in  marriage  to  Mar'cus  Aurelius,  procured  for  him  the  tribunitian 
and  proconsular  power  from  the  senate,  and  associated  him  in  all  the 
labors  of  government ;  but  he  showed  no  regard  for  the  profligate  young 
Verus,  whose  misconduct  he  tolerated  solely  from  respect  for  the 
memory  of  Adrian.  The  mild  and  merciful  reign  of  this  emperor 
deservedly  surnamed  Pius,  was  undoubtedly  the  most  tranquil  and  hap 
py  to  be  found  in  the  Roman  annals.  He  suspended  the  persecution  oii 
the  Christians  throughout  the  empire,  and  ordered  that  their  accusers 
should  be  punished  as  calumniators.  Peace  prevailed  through  the  wide 
dominions  of  Rome  ;  the  virtues  of  the  sovereign  conciliated  the  aflec- 
».ion  of  foreigners,  and  distant  nations  chose  him  to  arbitrate  their  dilfer- 
ences.  For  the  first  time  the  government  of  the  provinces  engaged  the 
earnest  attention  of  the  sovereign  :  the  lieutenants  of  the  emperor,  per- 
ceiving that  their  conduct  was  closely  watched,  ceased  to  oppress  those 
intrusted  to  their  charge  ;  and  instead  of  seeing  their  revenues  wasted 
to  support  a  profligate  court,  or  gratify  a  degraded  populace,  the  provin- 
cials beheld  public  schools  erected  for  the  instruction  of  youth,  harbors 
cleaned  out  and  repaired,  new  marts  of  trade  opened,  and  every  exer- 
tion made  to  realize  the  magnificent  project  formed  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  of  constituting  an  empire  whose  parts  should  be  held  together  by 
the  bonds  of  commerce  and  mutual  interest.  After  a  useful  reign  of 
twenty-two  years,  the  prosperity  of  which  is  best  proved  by  its  afford- 
ing no  materials  for  history,  he  died  of  a  fever  at  one  of  his  villas,  be- 
queathing nothing  beyond  his  own  private  fortune  to  his  family  (a.  d. 
163).  The  Romans  venerated  so  highly  the  memory  of  this  excellent 
monarch,  that  during  the  greater  part  of  the  ensuing  century,  every 
emperor  deemed  it  essential  to  his  popularity  to  assume  the  surname  of 
Antoninus. 

Mar'cus  Auieliu*,  surnamed  the  Philosopher,  on  account  of  his  at- 
tachment to  the  doctrines  and  austerities  of  the  Stoics,  succeeded  to  the 
empire  ;  but  his  power  was  shared  by  Lucius  Verusj  to  whom  he  gave 
his  daughter  in  marriage  He  took,  however,  an  early  opportunity  of 
sending  his  unvvorthy  colleague  from  Rome,  intrusting  him  with  the 
command  of  the  army  sent  against  the  Parthians,  who  had  overrun 
Syria.  Verus  took  up  his  residence  at  Antioch,  where  he  abandoned 
himself  to  every  species  of  infamy  and  debauchery,  while  the  conduct 
.)f  the  war  was  intrusted  to  his  lieutenants.  Fortunately,  these  oflicei^ 
were  worthy  of  the  high  trust  confided  to  them :  they  upheld  the  repu- 
tation of  the  Roman  arms  in  four  brilliant  campaigns,  and  conquered 
-ome  of  the  principal  cities  of  Parthia. 

While  ^'^erus  was  disgracing  himself  in  Asia,  Rome   enjoyed  happi 


276  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

uess  and  tranquillity  under  the  merciful  hut  firm  administration  of  Au 
relius.  But  this  prosperity  was  interrupted  by  the  return  of  Verus,  whr, 
came  to  claim  a  triumph  for  the  victories  obtained  by  his  officers.  Th? 
eastern  army  unfortunately  brought  the  plague  with  it  into  Europe :  in- 
fection was  communicated  to  every  province  through  which  they  passed: 
rhe  violence  of  the  pestilence  did  not  abate  for  several  years,  and 
among  its  victims  were  some  of  the  most  illustrious  men  in  Rome  and 
the  principal  cities  of  Italy. 

Scarcely  had  the  affairs  of  the  east  been  arranged,  when  a  dangcvouj 
war  was  commenced  by  the  Marcoman'ni  on  the  German  frontiers ; 
both  emperors  took  the  field ;  but  at  the  very  opening  of  the  campaign, 
Verus  fell  a  victim  to  his  intemperance  (a.  d.  171).  Aurelius  honored 
his  remains  with  a  magnificent  funeral,  and  eve.i  persuaded  the  senate 
to  enrol  this  miserable  debauchee  in  the  number  of  the  gods.  The  em 
peror  now  devoted  his  entire  attention  to  the  conduct  of  the  German 
war ,  but  in  the  first  engagement  the  Romans  were  routed  with  great 
slaughter ;  and  it  was  only  by  the  sale  of  the  imperial  plate,  furniture, 
and  crown  jewels,  that  a  sum  could  be  raised  sufficient  to  repair  their 
great  losses.  Aurelius  having  by  this  sacrifice  assembled  a  fresh  army, 
soon  restored  the  fortune  of  the  empire.  He  took  up  his  residence  at 
Sir'mium  (Sirfnich),  and  from  this  central  position  directed  the  moA'e- 
ments  of  his  officers,  whom  he  had  directed  to  harass  and  wear  out  the 
barbarians,  by  marches,  counter-marches,  and  skirmishes,  rather  than 
peril  their  armies  in  pitched  battles.  Once  only  he  abandoned  this 
prudent  policy,  advancing  beyond  the  Danube  into  the  territorj'  of  the 
Quadi.  This  temerity  had  nearly  proved  his  ruin :  the  barbarians, 
craftily  pretending  flight,  drew  the  Romans  into  a  barren  defile,  where 
the  army  was  on  the  point  of  perishing  by  thirst.  In  this  distress  the 
Romans  were  relieved  by  a  great  thunder-storm  ;  the  lightning  fired  the 
tents  of  their  enemies,  and  the  rain  relieved  their  pressing  wants.  The 
barbarians,  believing  this  event  miraculous,  at  once  submitted  ;  and  Au- 
relius was,  for  the  seventh  time,  proclaimed  imperator  by  the  senate 
Many  ancient  fathers  ascribe  this  seasonable  shower  to  the  prayers  of 
a  Christian  legion  in  the  imperial  army  ;  but  the  evidence  by  which  the 
miracle  is  supported  has  been  more  than  once  shown  to  be  a  fraudulent 
falsification. 

In  consequence  of  this  success,  the  German  nations  besought  term?; 
of  peace,  which  Aurelius  readily  granted,  as  he  was  anxious  to  suppress 
a  dangerous  rebellion  in  the  east,  where  his  lieutenant,  Avid'ius  Cas'- 
sius,  had  proclaimed  himself  emperor.  But  Cas'sius,  though  a  formi- 
dable rival,  had  hot  the  prudence  necessary  for  success  in  a  civil  war  ; 
he  disgusted  his  soldiers  by  the  excessive  severity  of  his  discipline, 
ttnd  was  murdered  by  one  of  his  own  centurions.  Aurelius  showed 
great  regret  for  the  destruction  of  his  rival,  lamenting  that  he  had  been 
deprived  of  an  opportunity  of  showing  mercy.  He  forbade  the  prose- 
cution of  those  who  had  joined  in  the  revolt,  and  took  the  young  family 
oi  Cas'sius  under  his  own  protection.  Having  restored  tranquillity,  the 
emperor  returned  to  Rome,  which  he  entered  in  triumph  with  his  sor< 
Com'modus,  whom  he  had  recently  declared  his  successor,  and  invested 
'A'lth  the  tribunitian  power. 

The  persecution  ol'  the  Christiang  ho-d  been   renewed   in  this  reiern 


HOMAN  EMPIRE.  277 

^jrobal)!}'  at  the  insliffaiion  of  the  Stoic  philosophers,  to  whom  the  su- 
perior purity  of  the  Christian  doctrines  gave  great  offence  ;  and  among 
the  nT>st  ilhistrious  victims  of  imperial  bigotry  was  the  celebrated  Jus' 
tin  M.T'tyr,  whose  apologies  for  Christianity,  addressed  to  the  emperors 
A-Utonmus  and  Aurelius,  are  among  the  best,  as  well  as  the  earliest 
works,  written  to  refute  the  calumnies  with  which  in  every  age  the  true 
faith  has  been  assailed.  Toward  the  close  of  his  reign  the  emperor 
became  more  tolerant;  some  say  in  consequence  of  the  miidculous 
shower  ;  others,  with  more  probability,  ascribe  the  change  to  his  hav- 
ing learned  the  falsehood  of  the  charges  brought  against  the  Christians. 

Aurelius  had  not  been  long  in  Rome  when  war  was  unexpectedly  re- 
newed aloiig  the  Rhine  and  Danube.  The  great  migration  of  nations, 
which  was  ere  long  to  change  the  entire  face  of  the  civilized  world, 
had  now  commenced,  and  the  German  tribes  along  the  frontiers,  pressed 
forward  by  hordes  in  their  rear,  were  necessarily  forced  to  encroach  on 
the  limits  of  the  empire.  So  formidable  was  t^  e  invasion,  whose 
cause  was  as  yet  unknown,  that  the  emperor  found  it  necessary  to  take 
the  field  in  person.  He  gained  several  important  victories,  and  was 
preparing  to  reduce  Germany  into  a  province,  when  he  was  seized  with 
a  violent  fever  at  Vindobona  ( Vienna),  to  which  he  fell  a  victim  in  a 
few  days  (a.  d.  180).  The  glory  of  the  empire  may  be  said  to  have 
expired  with  Aurelius  :  he  was  the  last  emperor  who  made  the  good  of 
his  subjects  the  chief  object  of  his  government ;  and  he  was  one  of  the 
few  princes  who  attained  a  high  rank  in  literature.  His  Meditations, 
which  have  come  down  to  our  time,  contain  a  summary  of  the  best  rules 
for  a  virtuous  life  that  have  ever  been  devised  by  xmassisted  reason  or 
simple  philosophy. 

Com'modus  was  the  first  emperor  that  was  born  in  his  father's  reign, 
and  the  second  that  received  the  empire  as  a  paternal  inheritance.  He 
had  been  spoiled  in  youth  by  his  mother  Faustina,  a  woman  of  very 
violent  passions  and  sanguinary  temper,  who  corrupted  her  son's  mmd 
both  by  precept  and  example.  His  debaucheries  exceeded  those  of  all 
his  preder  ^ss  ■'rs  in  extravagance  and  iniquity :  even  his  own  sisters 
became  the  victims  of  his  lust,  and  one  of  them,  having  reproached 
him,  was  murdered  by  his  hand.  All  his  sports  were  cruel  :  he  loved 
to  roam  through  the  streets  wounding  and  slaying  the  unsuspicious  pab- 
sengers  ;  he  frequently  contended  with  the  gladiators  on  the  public 
stage,  and  delighted  to  display  feats  of  strength,  for  his  muscular  pow- 
ers were  unrivalled.  But  he  showed  no  disposition  for  foreign  war ; 
on  the  contrary,  he  concluded  a  peace  with  the  Quadi  and  Marco- 
man'ni,  abandoning  the  territories  that  had  been  conquered  by  his  fa- 
ther. All  attempt  made  to  asassinate  this  monster,  in  the  third  year  of 
his  reign,  stimulated  his  natural  cruelty  to  the  most  savage  excess  :  his 
assailant,  aiming  a  blow  at  him  with  a  dagger,  exclaimed,  "  The  senate 
sp.nds  thee  this  !"  and  though  the  murder  was  prevented  by  the  prompt 
interference  of  the  guards,  the  words  sank  deep  into  the  emperor's 
breast,  and  thenceforward  he  showed  inveterate  suspicion  and  hatred 
to  the  whole  body  of  senators.  Scarcely  had  he  escaped  this  danger, 
when  he  wa?  exposed  to  one  more  formidable,  arising  from  the  war  of 
the  deserters.  A  common  soldier,  named  Mater'nus  guilty  of  the  un- 
usual crime  of  abandor'ng  his  colors,  assembled  a  band  of  robbers  ir 


278  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Gaul,  and  being  joined  by  profligates  from  every  part  of  the  empire 
pillaged  and  laid  waste  that  province.  Being  reduced  to  great  straits 
by  the  exertions  of  Pescen'nius  Niger,  Mater'nus  divided  his  men  intc 
several  small  bands,  and  marched  privately  with  them  by  dilTorent  wayt 
into  Italy,  designing  to  murder  Com'modus  at  a  public  festival,  and  in 
the  confusion  seize  the  empire.  The  conspirators  reached  Rome  in 
safety,  but  just  as  the  plot  was  on  the  point  of  exploding,  they  were  be 
trayed  by  their  accomplices,  arrested,  and  put  to  death. 

An  alarming  insurrection  of  the  Roman  populace,  directed  not  so 
much  against  the  emperor  as  his  minister  Clean'der  was  produced  by 
the  exhortations  of  an  unknown  woman  The  praetorian  horse  charged 
the  multitude,  but  were  defeated  with  loss,  as  cavalry  gen'erally  are 
when  acting  against  a  mob  in  narrow  streets.  Com'modus,  alarmed  by 
the  tumult,  sacrificed  his  minister,  and  the  fury  of  the  Romans  wa» 
appeased. 

Having  formed  the  wild  project  of  entering  on  the  consular  dignity 
armed  as  a  gladiator,  and  marching  in  procession  from  the  gladiatorial 
school  instead  of  the  palace,  he  was  so  enraged  by  the  remonstrances 
of  his  concubine  Mar'cia,  that  he  resolved  to  put  her  to  death.  Having 
accidentally  discovered  her  danger,  she  determined  to  murder  Cum'- 
modus.  and  being  aided  by  some  officers  of  the  household,  strangled 
him  in  his  bed  (a.  d.  192).  No  sooner  was  his  death  known,  than  the 
senate,  without  waiting  for  the  return  of  day,  assembled  hastily,  annulled 
his  acts,  ordered  all  his  statues  to  be  thrown  down,  and  demanded  that 
his  body  should  be  dragged  through  the  streets  and  cast  into  the  Tiber 
The  latter  indignity  was  prevented  by  a  private  and  hurried  funeral. 

Section  IV. — Foreign  Commerce  of  the  Romans  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines. 

If  the  reign  of  Augustus  be  justly  celebrated  for  the  perfection  of  Ro- 
man literature,  those  of  the  Antonines,  including  even  that  of  the  wick- 
ed Com'modus,  deserve  to  be  honored  for  the  great  improvements  made 
in  trade  and  commerce  especially  by  the  opening  of  new  communica- 
tions with  India.  Tad'mor,  or  Palmyra,  the  wondrous  city  of  the  des- 
ert, distant  only  eighty-five  miles  from  the  Euphrates,  and  about  one  hun- 
dred and  seventeen  from  the  nearest  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  was 
the  centre  of  the  trade  between  Europe  and  southern  Persia,  inchiding 
♦he  countries  bordering  on  the  Indus,  and  the  districts  now  attached  to 
the  Bombay  presidency.  In  consequence  of  the  great  exports  that  this 
trade  naturally  caused  from  the  harbors  of  the  Levant,  great  numbers 
of  Syrian  merchants  settled  in  Rome,  some  of  whom  attained  the  high- 
est honors  of  the  state.  It  would  appear  that  some  merchants  used  a 
more  northern  route  by  the  Caspian  and  Oxus ;  for  we  find  the  Roman 
geographers  tolerably  well  acquainted  with  the  countries  that  now  form 
the  kingdoms  of  Khiva  and  Bokhara.  The  great  caravan  route  across 
Asia,  however  commenced  at  Byzantium  [Constantinople),  which  was 
ong  the  seat  of  flourishing  commerce  before  it  became  the  metropolis 
of  an  empire.  Having  passed  the  Bos'phorus,  the  merchant  adventu- 
rers proceeded  through  Anatolia,  and  crossed  the  Euphrates  near  Hie- 
rap'olis  (^Bamhitcli)  ;  thence  they  proceeded  to  Ecbatana  {Hama(}an),tht 
an(iient  capital  of  the  Medes,  and  Hecatompy'los  (^Damaghnn),  the  me 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  M79 

tropoliy  of  the  Parthians.  Thence  they  proceeded  circuitoiisly  to  Hyr- 
oaiiia  (Jorjan)  and  A'ria  (Herat).  Finally  they  came  to  Bactra  [Dalkh), 
long  the  principal  mart  of  central  Asia.  From  Bactra  there  were  two 
caravan  routes,  one  to  north  India,  over  the  western  part  of  the  Hima 
laya,  called  the  Indian  Caucasus  [Hindu  Kush),  the  other  toward  the 
frontiers  of  Ser'ica  (C/iina),  over  the  lofty  mountain-chain  of  Imaua 
[Belur  Tag),  through  a  winding  ravine  which  was  marked  by  a  celebra- 
ted station  called  the  Stone  Tower,  whose  ruins  are  said  still  to  exist, 
under  the  name  of  Chihel  Sutun,  or  the  Forty  Columns-  Little  was 
known  of  the  countries  between  the  Imaus  and  Ser'ica,  whicli  were  prob- 
ably traversed  by  Bactrian  rather  than  European  merchants  ;  but  the 
road  was  described  as  wonderfully  difficult  and  tedious. 

As  the  progress  of  the  caravans  was  liable  to  frequent  interrupti.nis 
from  the  Parthians,  and  the  conveyance  of  manufactured  silks  through 
the  deserts  very  toilsome,  the  emperor  Antoninus  attempted  to  open  a 
communication  with  the  Chinese  by  sea.  Of  this  singular  transaction 
no  record  has  yet  been  found  in  any  of  the  Greek  or  Latin  authors  ; 
but  M.  de  Guignes  discovered  it  stated  in  a  very  old  Chinese  historical 
work,  that  an  embassy  had  come  by  sea  from  Antun,  the  king  of  the 
people  of  the  v/estern  ocean,  to  Yan-ti,  or  rather  Han-huan-ti,  who 
ruled  over  China  in  the  hundred  and  sixty-sixth  year  of  the  Christian 
era.  The  name  and  date  sufficiently  identify  Antun  with  Antoninus,  and 
the  projected  intercourse  was  well  worthy  the  attention  of  that  en- 
lightened emperor  ;  but  nothing  is  known  respecting  the  results  of  this 
embassy. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  great  increase  of  intercourse  between 
Egypt  and  India,  when  the  former  country  was  governed  by  the  Ptole- 
mies. The  navigation  was  long  confined  to  circuitous  voyages  round 
the  peninsula  of  Arabia  and  the  coasts  of  the  Persian  gulf;  but  about 
a  century  after  the  establishment  of  the  Roman  dominion,  Ilar'palus, 
the  commander  of  a  ship  long  engaged  in  the  Indian  trade,  observing 
the  regular  changes  of  the  periodical  winds,  ventured  to  steer  from  the 
Angus'tiae  Diirae  [straits  of  Bah-d-Mandeb  or  "  the  Gale  of  Tears ") 
right  across  the  Erythraean  sea  [Indian  ocean),  and  was  waited  by  the 
western  monsoon  to  Musiris  (Marjun),  on  the  Malabar  coast.  This 
great  improvement  was  deservedly  regarded  as  of  the  highest  import- 
ance ;  and  the  western  monsoon  received  the  name  of  Har'palus,  ii 
memory  of  the  courageous  navigator,  who  had  turned  it  to  such  a  good 
account. 

The  route  of  the  Egyptian  trade  under  the  Romans  has  been  de- 
scribed with  considerable  accuracy  by  Pliny.  Cargoes  destined  foi 
India  were  carried  up  the  Nile  in  beats  to  Cop'tos  [Ghoufi),  thence  they 
were  transferred  by  caravans  to  My'os  Hor'mus  [Cosseir),  or  Berenice 
{Hnbbesh).  The  latter,  though  the  longer,  was  the  more  frequented 
road,  because  the  Ptolemies  had  raised  excellent  stations  and  watering- 
places  at  convenient  distances  along  the  road.  From  Berenice  the  Heel 
sailed  in  June  or  July  for  O'celis  [Gella),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arabian 
julf,  and  Cane  [Fartash),  a  promontory  and  emporium  on  the  south- 
oast  coast  of  Arabia  Felix.  Thence  they  steered  right  across  tht 
ocean  for  the  Malabar  coast,  and  usually  made  Musiris  in  forty  days 
TIjcv  began  their  voyage  homeward  early  in  December,  and  generall> 


280  ANCIENT  HISTORV 

encoanlured  more  difficulty  on  their  return  on  account  of  thy  unsteMdi 
ness  of  the  winds. 

The  chief  imports  from  India  were  spices,  precious  stones,  and  mus 
Uns.  There  is  a  singular  confusion  in  the  Latin  authors  between  thf 
(iner  cotton  woods  and  manufactured  silks,  which  has  led  to  their  mix 
ingup  the  Chinese  and  Indian  trade  together.  The  principal  exports 
were  light  woollens,  chequered  linens,  glass,  wine,  and  bullion. 

Com'modus,  with  a  providence  which  could  scarcely  have  been  ex- 
pected from  him,  made  some  efforts  to  open  the  old  Carthaginian  trade 
with  the  interior  of  Africa;  but  the  result  of  his  labors  is  unknown. 
He  also  paid  some  attention  to  the  corn-trade,  so  essential  to  the  pros- 
perity of  his  central  dominions,  when  Italy  had  long  ceased  to  produce 
sufficient  grain  for  the  support  of  its  inhabitants  ;  and  he  established  a 
company  to  supply  corn  from  northern  Africa  whenever  the  crops  failec' 
m  Egypt. 

The  irade  of  the  Black  sea,  so  flourishing  in  the  age  cf  the  Gretl^ 
republics,  appears  to  have  been  greatly  diminished  after  the  Romans 
became  masters  of  the  countries  at  both  sides  of  the  JEgean  ;  and  it 
seems  p>obable  that  little  or  no  commerce  passed  through  the  straits  of 
Hercules  (straits  of  Gibraltar)  into  the  Atlantic  ocean.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  change,  the  amber-trade  was  transferred  from  the  coasts 
of  the  northern  sea  to  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  the  barbaroua 
tribes  who  brought  it  from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  are  said  to  have  been 
astonished  at  the  prices  they  received  for  what  seemed  to  them  so  use- 
less a  commodity.  Furs  were  purchased  from  the  Sc\thian  tribes  ;  but 
this  branch  of  trade  appears  never  to  have  been  of  any  great  amuunt. 
The  British  tin-trade  was  rather  neglected  by  the  Romans  ;  indeed,  it 
p.pnears  to  have  been  monopolized  by  the  Gauls,  and  consequently  was 
conHned  to  the  British  channel.  From  this  slight  sketch  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  Romans  were  not  naturally  a  mercantile  people.  We  must  now 
leturn  to  the  history  of  the  civil  wars  and  revolutions  which  frustrated 
the  plans  of  the  Antonines  for  making  commercial  pursuits  the  spurce 
of  unity  and  happiness  to  the  empire. 

Section  V. — From  the. Extinction  of  the  Flavian  Family  to  the  Establish 
ment  of  Military  Des])otism,  after  the  murder  of  Alexander  Severus. 

FROM    A.  D.    192    TO    A.   D.    235. 

After  the  conspirators  had  murdered  Com'modus,  they  proceeded 
to  the  house  of  Pub'Iius  Hel'vius  Per'tinax,  and  declared  that  they  had 
come  to  ofler  him  the  empire,  as  being  the  person  who  best  deserved 
sovereignty.  Per'tinax  at  first  believed  that  this  was  some  plot  for  his 
destruction  ;  but  on  further  inquir}%  having  learned  that  Com'modus  was 
really  dead,  he  proceeded  to  the  pnetorian  camp,  and  was  saluted  em- 
peror rather  reluctantly  by  the  guards.  He  met  a  much  warmer  recep- 
Uon  from  the  senators,  who  expected  that  his  firmness  and  virtue  would 
be  displayed  in  checking  the  turbulence  of  the  soldiers,  now  the  r^'al 
■naisters  of  the  empire.  Nor  did  his  conduct  disappoint  their  expecta 
lions  :  he  diminished  the  lavish  expenditure  of  the  palace,  restored  the 
property  that  his  predecessor  had  unjustly  confiscated  to  the  rightfu} 


ilOMAN  EMPIRE. 


281 


■)^vTlcrs,  and  punished  those  who,  by  false  informations,  had  stimulated 
Com'modiis  to  cruehy.  These  reforms  endeared  him  to  the  senate  and 
people,  but  provoked  the  anger  of  the  turbident  prsetorians  :  three  days 
after  his  accession,  they  attempted  to  make  Laciv'ius  emperor,  but  that 
senator  fled  from  their  violence  and  sought  shelter  with  Per'tinax  him- 
self. Their  next  choice  was  the  consul  Fal'co,  who  showed  equal  re- 
luctance to  accept  the  precarious  station.  The  emperor,  to  prevent  the 
recurrence  of  similar  outrages,  prepared  to  restore  the  ancient  military 
discipline  :  but  this  exasperated  the  mutineers  still  more,  and  a  party  of 
them,  breaking  suddenly  into  the  palace,  slew  Per'tinax,  after  a  brief 
reign  of  less  than  three  months.  The  Romans  lamented,  but  did  not 
venture  to  revenge  his  death  ;  most  of  the  citizens  shut  themselves  up  in 
their  houses,  leaving  the  soldiers  to  choose  a  master  for  the  empire  at 
their  discretion. 

When  the  praetorians  heard  that  Per'tinax  was  dead,  they  issued  a 
proclamation,  declaring  that  the  empire  was  for  sale,  and  would  be 
given  to  the  highest  bidder.  Did'ius  Julianus,  the  wealthiest  man  in 
Rome,  oflered  to  become  a  purchaser ;  his  money,  and  his  promise  that 
he  would  restore  all  things  to  the  condition  in  which  they  were  under 
Com'modus,  so  pleased  the  dissolute  soldiers,  that  they  proclaimed 
hun  emperor,  and  compelled  the  senate  to  recognise  their  choice.  But 
the  Roman  populace  showed  their  indignation  at  this  scandalous  traffic 
by  showering  curses  and  reproaches  on  Did'ius  whenever  he  appeared 
in  public,  and  even  assailing  him  with  stones  and  other  missiles.  The 
weak  emperor  bore  these  attacks  with  great  equanimity,  relying  for  se- 
curity on  the  praetorians,  whose  favor  he  secured  by  fresh  largesses. 

Put  though  Did'ius,  by  the   favor  of  the  household  troops,  was   able 
to  secure  himself  in  Rome,  he  could  not  secure  the  respect  or  allegiance 
of  the  provinces  ;  and  the  distant  armies,  deeming  that  they  had  as  good 
a  right  to  confer  empire  as  the  praetorian  cohorts,  ofle"red  sovereignty 
to  their  commanders.     Three  competitors  together  appeared  to  contest 
the  throne  with  the   ambitious  merchant ;  Clodius  Albi'nus  in  Britain, 
Pescen'nius  Niger  in  Syria,  and  Septim'ius  Severus  in  lUyria.     Did'ius 
prepared  to  meet  the   storm  with  more  fortitude  than  could  have  been 
expected ;  he  convoked  the  senate,  and  had  Severus,  the  nearest  of  hit? 
rivals,  declared  a  public  enemy :  he   also  sent  deputies  to  exhort  the 
Illyrian  soldiers  to  return  to  their  allegiance.     But  the  unfortunate  em- 
peror  was  betrayed  by  his  own  officers  ;  the  deputies,  tendered  theii 
homage  to  Severus,  and  exhorted   him  to   expedite   his  march  toward 
Rome.     The  rapid  advance  of  the   Illyrians,  the  capture  of  Ravenna 
and  the  Roman  fleet,  and  the  desertion  of  the  troops  sent  to  guard  the 
passes  of  the  Apennines,  so  alarmed  the  praetorians,  "^hat  they  resolved 
to  abandon  Did'ius,  and  make  terms  with  Severus.     They  communica 
ted  their  resolutions  to  the  consul,  who  forthwith  convoked  the  senate 
A  decree  was  passed  for  the  deposition  and  death  of  Did'ius,  and  ere  ii 
was  enrolled,  the  band  of  executioners  was  on  its  march  to  the  palace 
Did'ius  was  found  trembling  and  in  tears,  ready  to   resign  empire,  pro 
vided  his  life  might  be  spared.     At  sight   of   the   arm(^d  band,  he    ex 
claimed  "  What  crime  have  1   committed  ?    whose    life    have   I   taken 
away  ?"     But  his  remonstrances  were  cut  short,  by  one  of  the  soldiers 
who  struck  off  his  head.     The  body  was  exposed  to  insult  and  mockery 


2P2  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

in  the  public  streer.s,  and  thus  ended  the  two  months'  reign  of  '  the  iin 
perial  merchant." 

Severus,  as  he  approached  Rome,  issued  orders  for  the  execution  of 
all  who  had  shared  in  the  murder  of  Per'tinax,  and  for  disbanding  the 
praetorian  cohorts  ;  but  he  chose  new  guards,  four  times  as  numerous, 
m  the  place  of  those  he  had  dismissed,  which  filled  Rome  with  soldiers^ 
and  proved  the  fruitful  source  of  many  future  disorders.  Having  con- 
ciliated Al  binus  by  procuring  for  him  the  titles  of  Ctusar  and  emperor 
from  the  senate,  he  marched  to  contend  against  Pescen'nius  Niger  in 
the  east,  previously  inducing  the  senate  to  declare  him  a  public  enemy. 
His  progress  appears  to  have  been  uninterrupted  until  he  reached 
Cyz'icus,  where  he  routed  the  lieutenant  of  his  rival,  and  by  this  vic- 
tory gained  possession  of  lower  Asia.  Niger  did  not  despair,  but  col- 
lecting a  numerous  army,  occupied  the  mountain-passes  between  Cilicia 
and  Syria,  posting  his  main  body  along  the  Is'sus,  where  Alexander 
and  Darius  had  long  before  contended  for  the  sovereignty  of  Asia. 
After  several  engagements,  Niger  was  completely  defeated :  be  at- 
tempted to  seek  safety  among  the  Parthians,  but  was  overtaken  near 
Antioch,  and  put  to  death  (a.  d.  194).  Severus  made  a  cruel  use  of 
his  victory,  slaughtering  without  mercy  all  who  had  favored  the  cause 
of  his  competitor.  Byzantium  remained  faithful  to  the  defeated  general 
even  after  his  death :  it  sustained  a  siege  of  three  years'  duration ;  but 
was  finally  taken  by  storm,  its  inhabitants  sold  as  slaves,  and  its  walls 
levelled  to  the  ground. 

Thus  successful,  Severus  resolved  to  destroy  Al'binus,  whose  sus- 
picions he  had  calmed  while  he  was  engaged  in  war  with  Niger.  He 
first  attempted  to  remove  him  by  assassination  ;  but  Al'binus  discovered 
the  plot,  and  made  vigorous  preparations  for  open  war.  This  second 
contest  for  empire  was  decided  in  Gaul ;  Al'binus,  having  been  com- 
pletely routed  near  Lugdunum  (Li/ons),  committed  suicide  ;  and  Severus 
could  only  vent  his  brutal  spite  on  a  senseless  carcass.  The  friends 
of  Al'binus  met  the  same  fate  as  the  partisans  of  Niger.  Severus  re- 
turned to  Rome,  v/here  he  insulted  the  senate  by  pronouncing  a  labored 
eulogy  on  Com'modus ;  and  imitated  that  wicked  monarch's  example 
by  sentencing  to  a  cruel  death  the  most  eminent  of  the  nobility. 

A  war  with  Parthia  recalled  the  emperor  to  Asia.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  his  sons  Caracal'la  and  Geta,  who  were,  like  their  father, 
learned  in  camps  from  infancy.  Severus  obtained  distinguished  suc- 
cess ;  he  captured  Seleucia,  Ctes'iphon,  and  Bab'yion  ;  but  he  was  com- 
pelled to  raise  the  siege  c^  Hat'ra  (Hadhr),  which  had  previously 
baffled  the  exertions  of  Trajan.  These  exploits  might  have  procured 
the  empire  all  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  rule  of  a  gallant 
soldier,  had  not  Severus  chosen  for  his  prime  minister  Plautianus,  the 
captain  of  the  praetorian  guards :  a  man  of  insatiable  avarice,  whom  he 
intrusted  with  almost  absolute  power.  The  ruin  of  the  premier,  how- 
ever, was  occasioned  by  the  very  means  he  took  to  confirm  his  secu- 
rity :  he  procured  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  with  Caracal'la ;  bu' 
the  young  prince,  disgusted  by  her  imperious  temper,  became  the  bittei 
enemy  of  lier  and  Plautianus.  He  soon  inspired  his  father  with  a  sus- 
picion that  the  minister  secretly  aimed  at  empire  ;  a  charge  to  which 
^he  conduct  of  Plautianus  gave  some  color  of  probability ;  and  whe» 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  283 

St<v6rus  called  his  servant  to  account,  tlie  prince  rushed  upon  him,  and 
alew  him  in  the  imperial  presence. 

A  revolt  in  Britain  once  more  called  the  emperor  into  the  field.  He 
proceeded  to  that  island,  easily  quelled  the  disturbances,  and  marching 
northward,  gained  several  victories  over  the  Caledonians.  He  extended 
the  frontiers  beyond  Adrian's  wall,  and  erected  a  new  line  of  fortitiea 
lions  between  the  friths  of  Clyde  and  Forth ;  but  .ho  adxlitional  ter- 
ritory was  abandoned  in  the  reign  of  his  successor.  The  fatigues  of 
fhese  campaigns,  and  the  grief  caused  by  the  misconduct  of  his  son 
Caracal'la,  brought  the  emperor's  gray  hairs  with  sorrow  to  the  grave. 
He  died  at  Eboracum  (Yo)'k),  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign  (a.  d. 
211).  Severus  deserves  to  be  ranked  among  great  rather  than  good 
princes  ;  he  was  cruel  on  system,  attributmg  the  misfortunes  of  Pompey 
and  the  murder  of  Caesar  to  their  excessive  clemency :  indeed,  he 
wrote  a  vindication  of  his  excessive  severity,  which,  unfortunately,  has 
not  come  down  to  our  times. 

Caracal'la  and  Geta  succeeded  their  father ;  but  liie  former  was  the 
bitter  enemy  of  his  more  virtuous  brother,  and  soon  after  his  return  to 
Rome,  he  slew  him  in  his  mother's  arms.  To  prevent  the  consequen- 
ces of  this  atrocious  murder,  he  gained  the  support  of  the  praetorian 
coJiorts  by  large  donatives,  and  then,  with  strange  inconsistency,  pre- 
vailed upon  the  senate  to  rank  his  brother  in  the  number  of  the  gods. 
His  sole  dependance  being  on  the  army,  he  used  the  most  iniquitous 
means  to  procure  money  for  purchasing  their  venal  support.  The 
richest  men  in  Rome  were  massacred  under  false  accusations  of  trea- 
son, their  properties  confiscated,  and  their  families  insulted.  He  im- 
poverished his  subjects  in  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire  by  excessive 
laxes ;  yet  he  gave  away  such  immense  sums  to  his  guards,  and  paid 
such  heavy  annuities  to  the  barbarous  tribes  on  the  frontiers,  that  he 
was  forced  to  debase  the  coinage.  To  lower  the  pride  of  the  Romans, 
he  granted  the  name  and  privileges  of  free  citizens  to  all  the  subjects 
of  the  empire,  and  soon  after  commenced  a  tour  through  the  provinces, 
to  escape  from  his  unpopularity  at  home.  He  undertook  an  expedition 
against  the  Cat'ti  and  Alleman'ni,  but  was  defeated  with  great  loss,  and 
forced  to  buy  a  peace.  From  Germany  he  passed  into  Asia,  where  he 
gained  some  advantages  over  the  Armenians  ;  and  then  visiting  Egypt, 
he  almost  depopulated  Alexandria,  massacring  the  greater  part  of  its 
citizens,  on  account  of  some  lampoons  that  had  been  published  against 
him.  He  was  at  length  assassinated  near  Edes'sa  by  Macrinus,  the 
prefect  of  the  praetorian  guard,  an  ofiicer  who  since  the  time  of  Se- 
verus, ranked  next  to  the  emperor  (a.  d.  217). 

The  soldiers  were  greatly  enraged  at  the  murder  of  Caracal'la ;  but 
Macrinus,  by  concealing  his  share  in  it,  procured  his  election  to  the 
tmpire.  Immediately  after  his  accession,  he  proclaimed  his  son  Dm 
dumenus  his  successor,  giving  him  the  names  of  Caesar  and  Antoninus. 
when  the  troops  were  assembled  to  witness  this  ceremony,  they  de- 
manded, with  one  accord,  the  deification  of  Caracal'la  ;  and  this  dis 
tfrace  to  humanity  was  actually  ranked  among  the  gods.  While  he 
was  thus  engaged,  the  Parthians  passed  the  Roman  frontiers,  defeated 
.he  imperial  armies,  and  tompelled  Macrinus  to  purchase  a  disgraceful 
J  eace  by  a  vast  sacrifice  of  wealth  and  territorv'      His  extreme  severity 


284  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

it  length  provoked  the  resentment  of  the  licentious  soldiery ,  they  v.cii 
persuaded  by  Moe'sa,  maternal  aunt  of  the  late  emperor,  that  her  grand 
son  Heliogabalus,  a  youth  of  fourteen,  was  the  son  of  their  favorite 
Caracal'la  ;  and  a  conspiracy  was  formed  to  place  this  young  Syriar 
priest  upon  the  throne.  Macrinus,  deserted  by  most  of  the  legiona, 
marched  against  his  competitor  with  the  piaetorian  cohorts ;  but  he  fled 
from  his  men  the  moment  that  a  battle  commenced ;  and  the  guards, 
enraged  by  his  cowardice,  pursued  and  slew  him  (a.  d.  218).  His  son 
was  at  the  same  time  taken  prisoner,  and  executed  as  a  common  male- 
factor. 

Heliogabalus  being  thus  victorious,  sent  intelligence  of  his  success 
from  Antioch  to  the  senate,  and  was  immediately  acknowledged  emperor. 
Though  a  mere  boy,  he  was  the  most  infamous  monster  tha*  ever  dis- 
graced a  throne.  He  exceeded  Nero  in  cruelty,  Calig'ula  in  piodigality, 
and  Com'modus  in  lewdness  and  debauchery.  Soon  after  his  arrival 
in  Rome,  he  brought  his  grandmother  to  the  senate,  and  ordered  that 
he  should  for  the  future  rank  among  the  members  ;  he  also  instituted  a 
a  senate  of  women,  under  the  presidency  of  his  mother,  the  subjects  of 
whose  debates,  consultations,  ana  ^iccrees,  were  the  dresses  of  the 
Roman  ladies,  and  the  ceremony  and  etiquette  to  be  observed  in  visits 
and  entertainments.  The  Roman  ladies  scarcely  wanted  such  an  in- 
centive, they  were  at  this  time  remarkable  for  the  great  attention  they 
paid  to  decorating  their  persons,  and  especially  ornamenting  the  head  ; 
false  hair  was  very  commonly  worn,  and  imported  from  Gaul,  Germany, 
and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe. 

The  lascivious  and  superstitious  idolatry  of  .Syria  was  established  in 
Rome,  and  the  old  forms  of  the  national  worship  neglected — a  change 
which  gave  great  offence  even  to  the  demoralized  guards.  Moe'sa, 
foreseeing  that  the  Romans  would  not  long  endure  the  yoke  of  so  con- 
temptible a  profligate,  persuaded  him  to  nominate  his  cousin,  the  vir- 
tuous Alexander  Severus,  heir  to  the  empire  ;  but  scarcely  had  the  ap- 
pointment been  made,  when  Heliogabalus  attempted  to  assassinate  the 
worthy  prince.  This  crime  provoked  a  mutiny  ui  che  praetorian  cohorts. 
HeUogabalus,  and  his  mother  Sce'mis,  were  murdered  by  the  enraged 
soldiers,  and  their  bodies  thrown  into  the  Tiber  (a.  d.  222).  The 
senate  imra  -^diately  passed  a  decree  excluding  women  from  their  body 
for  ever. 

Alexander  Severus  commenced  his  reign  by  revoking  all  the  edicts 
that  had  been  issued  by  former  emperors  against  the  Christians.  It  is 
probable  that  his  mother  was  a  convert  to  the  faith  ;  for  he  was  wel! 
acquainted  with  its  principles,  and  constantly  repeated  the  golden  rule, 
"  Do  unto  others  as  you  would  they  should  do  unto  you,"  which  he 
•laused  to  be  inscribed  on  his  palace  and  several  other  edifices.  Sup- 
ported by  the  favor  of  the  guards,  he  introduced  many  beneficial  re- 
forms, restoring  the  authority  of  the  senate,  and  purifying  the  adminis- 
tion  of  justice. 

In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign  (a.  d.  22 G),  an  i.nportant  revolution  .n 
the  east  produced  a  total  change  in  the  political  condition  of  central 
Asia.  Ardeshir  Babegan,  called  Artaxerxes  by  the  western  writers, 
re.stored  the  ancient  dynasty  and  religion  of  Persia,  or,  as  it  was  called 
tiy  the-  natives    Iran.     His    standard  was  the   apron  of  a   blacksmith 


ROMAN  EMriRE.  285 

named  Gavah,  who,  at  an  unknown  age,  hac'  heaJed  an  insurrectioi 
against  the  oppressors  of  his  country,  similar  to  that  of  Wat  Tyler  in 
England.  Multitudes  flocked  to  the  popular  flag,  and  the  Parthian,  or 
Arsacid  dynasty,  was  speedily  subverted.  One  great  eflect  of  this  rev- 
olution was  to  give  a  sudden  and  complete  check  to  the  progress  of 
ChrisVlanity  eastward  ;  it  was  thrown  oack  upon  the  west ;  but  it  long 
retained  the  marks  of  its  contact,  with  the  mystic  and  gloomy  doctruice 
that  have  from  unknown  ages  prevailed  in  central  Asia.  The  Magiar 
religion  was  restored  to  its  pristine  splendor  :  the  sacred  fire,  that  had 
been  concealed  in  the  mountains,  once  more  burned  on  ihe  ancien' 
altars  ;  and  the  Sassanides,  as  Ardeshir  s  dynr  sty  was  named  from 
Sassan,  the  most  celebrated  of  his  ancestors,  refused  to  tolerate  any 
idith  but  that  of  Zerdusht,  or  Zoroaster. 

The  great  aim  of  the  Sassanid  dynasty  was  to  restore  the  nationality 
of  Persia  ;  many  of  the  edifices  of  the  Hystaspid  times  were  i  :ipaired, 
and  all  new  buildings  erected  by  the  successors  of  Ardeshir  were,  aa 
much  as  possible,  constructed  on  ancient  models.  Hence  many  of  their 
buildings  are  attributed  to  the  earlier  races  of  kings  ;  and  it  is  not  often 
easy  to  determine  from  external  evidence  to  which  age  of  Persian  his- 
tory their  splendid  halls  and  palaces  should  be  assigned.  The  remauis 
of  the  magnificent  palace  of  the  Persian  kings  in  Ctesiphon,  which 
oears  the  name  of  Cyrus,  maybe  unquestionably  regarded  as  a  Sissanid 
monument ;  and  as  such  the  building  affords  proof  of  the  great  power 
dud  wealth  of  the  house  of  Sassan. 

Ardeshir,  placed  upon  the  throne  of  Cyrus,  claimed  that  monarch's 
empire  as  his  inheritance,  and  prepared  to  drive  the  Romans  from  Asia. 
Alexander  hastened  to  Antioch,  and  marched  against  the  Persians,  ovei 
whom  he  gained  a  great  victory ;  but  a  pestilence  breaking  out  in  liis 
army  prevented  him  from  improving  his  advantages.  He  returned  to 
Rome,  and  entered  the  city  in  triumph,  his  chariot  being  drawn,  not,  as 
was  usual,  by  four  white  horses,  but  by  four  of  the  elephants  he  had 
captured.  Soon  after  his  return,  intelligence  arrived  that  the  Germans 
had  passed  the  Rhine,  and  were  devastating  Gaul ;  upon  which  the 
emperor,  to  the  gr  st  grief  of  the  senate  and  people,  led  his  victorious 
armies  to  protect  that  province.  He  found  the  legions  quartered  in 
Gaul  demoralized  by  a  long  course  of  indulgence,  and  immediately  ex- 
erteJ  lumself  to  restore  the  ancient  discipline.  The  licentious  soldiers 
could  not  endure  the  change,  and  their  discontents  w»^re  fomented  by 
Maximin,  a  Thracian  peasant,  who  had  risen  from  the  ranks  to  high 
connnand  by  his  unconnnon  strength  and  valor.  The  prince's  guards 
were  bribed  to  quit  their  posts  ;  and  a  band  of  assassins  entering  the 
imperial  teut  slew  him  without  resistance  (a.  d.  235).  Thus  fell  this 
e;vcellent  prince  in  the  very  bloom  of  youth,  just  as  his  plans  lor  restc 
ring  the  ancuiut  glory  of  the  empire  were  beginning  to  be  matured. 

Sect;o.v    VI. — From  the  Murder  of  Alexaruler  to  the  Captivity  oj    Valerian 
and  the  Utiurj)ation  oJ' the  Thirty  Tyrants. 

fKOM  A.   D.  235    TO    A.   D.  259. 

Thk  murder  of  Alexander  occasioned  a  great  tumult,  and  confusior 
itj   the  ^•anip,  d  iring  which  the  Pannonians  proclaimed  Maximin  era 


2Rf) 


ANCIENT  HISTOK\. 


peror  ,  and  the  rost  of  the  army  seeing  no  other  candidate  come  for 
ward,  acquiesced  in  their  choice.  Great  personal  strength  was  tiie 
Vir:jt  cause  of  me  new  emperor's  elevation :  it  is  said  he  could  draw  a 
wagon  which  two  oxen  could  not  move,  tear  trees  up  by  the  roots,  and 
crush  pebbles  to  dust  in  his  hands.  But  he  was  a  brutal,  ignorant  bar- 
barian, uniting  the  cunning  to  the  ferocity  of  a  savage.  He  commenced 
his  reign  by  massacring  all  who  had  been  intimate  with  the  late  emperor, 
or  who  had  shown  sorrow  for  his  death ;  and  he  sent  orders  to  the 
senate  to  register  his  sanguinary  decrees,  without  asking  that  body  to 
confirm  his  election.  The  war  against  the  Germans  was  continjed 
with  great  success  ;  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  their  villages  were  burned 
to  the  ground  ;  their  country,  to  an  extent  of  four  hundred  square  mile? 
laid  desolate  ;  and  an  incredible  number  of  prisoners  sent  to  be  sold  a& 
slaves  in  Italy.  Maximin  marched  next  against  the  Dccians  and 
Sarmatians,  over  whom  he  gained  several  victories  ;  and  it  is  believed 
that  he  would  have  extended  the  frontiers  of  the  empire  to  the  northern 
ocean,  had  not  his  avarice  and  cruelty  provoked  a  civil  war.  The 
revolt  commenced  in  Africa,  where  two  young  men  of  high  rank  being 
condemned  by  the  emperor's  receiver-general  to  pay  a  fine  that  would 
have  reduced  them  to  beggary,  conspired  to  save  their  fortunes  by  de- 
stroying hun  ;  they  were  joined  by  several  of  the  legionaries,  and  so 
rapid  was  their  success,  that  they  ventured  to  proclaim  Gordian,  pro- 
consul of  Africa,  then  in  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  sovereign  of  the 
empire.  When  news  of  this  event  reached  Rome,  the  senators  with 
one  accord  revolted  from  Maximin,  and  ordered  all  his  friends  in  the 
city  to  be  murdered.  Intelligence  of  these  events  being  conveyed  to 
Maximin,  he  made  peace  with  the  northern  barbarians,  and  led  his 
army  toward  Italy,  promising  his  soldiers  that  they  should  be  enriched 
by  the  forfeited  estates  of  his  enemies.  On  his  march  he  learned  that 
Gcrdian  and  his  son  had  been  defeated  and  slain  by  Capelianus  in 
Africa,  but  that  the  senate,  undaunted  by  this  calamity,  had  conferred  the 
empire  on  Pupicnus  and  Balbinus.  This  choice  did  not  satisfy  the 
people  ;  a  vast  multitude  assembled  while  the  new  emperors  were  ofTer- 
ing  the  usual  sacrifice,  and  demanded  with  loud  clamor  a  prince  of  the 
Gordian  family.  After  vainly  attempting  to  disperse  the  mob,  Balbinus 
and  Pupienus  sent  for  young  Gordian,  then  only  twelve  years  old,  and 
proclaimed  him  Caesar.  In  the  meantime,  Maximin  entered  Italy,  and 
laid  siege  to  Aquileia.  The  garrison  made  a  very  brave  defence  ;  and 
the  besiegers,  hated  by  the  entire  empire,  suffered  more  than  the 
besieged,  their  stragglers'  being  cut  off,  and  their  convoys  intercepted 
Exasperated  by  their  sufferings,  the  imperialists  resolved  to  remove  the 
cause  ;  a  large  body  marched  in  the  noonday  to  the  tent  of  Maximin 
and  slew  him,  his  son,  and  all  his  principal  favorites  (a.  d.  238) 
Though  several  legions  of  Pannonians  and  Thracians  were  in  the  camp 
they  did  not  attempt  to  revenge  the  dearfh  of  an  emperor  who  had 
always  shown  more  favor  to  the  barbarian  than  the  Roman  legions. 

Scarcely  had  domestic  tranquillity  been  restored,  when  the  empire 
was  involved  ir  foreign  wars.  The  Car'pi  and  Goths,  passing  the 
Danube,  ravaged  the  province  of  Mce'sia ;  while  the  Persians  renewed 
their  hostilities  on  the  eastern  frontiers.  It  was  agreed  among  the 
Dviuces,  that  Pupienus  should  undertake  the  defence  of  Syria.  Balliinu? 


KOMAN  EMPIRE.  287 

aiarch  against  tjip  Goins,  and  Gordian  remain  at  tlie  head  of  Ine  admin- 
istration in  Rome  But  while  the  necessary  armaments  weie  in  prepa- 
ration, a  dangerous  mutiny  broke  out  among  the  prsetorians  :  Pupienua 
and  Balbinus,  divided  by  nuitual  jealousies,  coidd  not  unite  for  its  sup- 
Dression :  they  were  both  murdered,  and  young  Gordian  remained  sole 
emperor. 

Misith'eus,  captain  of  the  praetorian  guards,  and  father-in-law  of  the 
i^mperor,  acted  as  minister  and  guardian  of  young  Gordian.  He  was 
admirably  qualified  fur  such  an  important  office,  uniting  the  valor  of  a 
soldier  to  the  wisdom  of  a  statesman.  The  rapid  successes  of  Sbah 
pur,  or,  as  he  was  called  by  the  Romans,  Sapor,  ttie  second  prince  of 
uie  Sassanid  dynasty,  directed  the  attention  of  the  emperor  to  the  Per- 
sian war,  and  he  went  in  person  to  protect  the  province  of  Syria.  On 
his  march  toward  the  Hellespont,  Gordian  was  defeated  in  a  tumultu- 
ous engagement  by  the  Alans  ;  but  the  barbarians  did  not  know  how  to 
improve  their  success,  and,  after  a  short  delay,  he  arrived  safely  ia 
Asia.  The  Persians  were  defeated  in  every  engagement ;  and  Sapor, 
forced  to  abandon  Mesopotamia,  was  pursued  to  the  very  gates  of 
Ctes'iphon.  But  these  victories  were  more  than  counterbalanced  by 
the  death  of  I\Iisith^eus,who  showed  his  patriotism,  even  in  his  last 
moments,  by  bequeathing  all  his  estates  to  the  Roman  people.  Gordian, 
having  appointed  Philip,  the  Arabian,  his  prime  minister,  continued  the 
war  against  Sapor,  and  gave  the  Persians  a  decisive  overthrow  on  the 
banks  of  the  Chab'oras  [Khabur),  a  tributary  to  the  Euphrates,  in  Mes- 
opotamia. But  while  the  young  conqueror  was  pursuing  the  advantages 
of  his  victory,  a  mutiny  was  excited  in  his  army  by  the  traitor  Philip, 
whom  he  was  compelled  to  make  a  partner  of  his  empire.  Not  content 
with  this  elevation,  Philip  procured  the  assassination  of  his  youthful 
benefactor  (a.  d.  244) ;  but  the  soldiers  soon  repented  of  their  crime 
and  raised  a  splendid  mausoleum  to  the  memory  of  the  youthful  hero. 

Philip,  being  elevated  to  the  empire  by  the  army,  wrote  to  the  sen- 
ate, ascribing  the  death  of  Gordian  to  a  natural  disease  :  he  then  con- 
cluded a  hasty  peace  with  the  Persians,  and,  returning  to  Syria,  made 
all  speed  to  Rome.  Though  the  senate  and  people,  warmly  attached 
to  the  (xordian  family,  at  first  regarded  him  with  aversion,  he  soon  won 
their  affections  by  his  mild  administration  and  obliging  behavior.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  secretly  a  Christian,  but  many  of  his  actions  show 
that  he  had  little  regard  for  any  religion  ;  however,  he  was  a  decided 
enemy  to  persecution.  His  reign  was  rendered  remarkable  by  the 
celebration  of  secular  games  for  the  thousandth  anniversary  of  the 
foundation  of  the  city :  it  was  also  disturbed  by  several  insurrections, 
especially  in  Pannonia,  the  suppression  of  which  he  intrusted  to  Traja- 
nus  Decius.  Scarcely  had  this  general  reached  lllyr'icum,  when  his 
soldiers  compelled  him,  by  the  threat  of  instant  death,  to  assmne  the 
imperial  purple.  Philip,  leaving  his  son  to  protect  Rome,  marched 
against  Decius,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  near  Verona  (a.  d.  249) 
His  son  was  massacred  by  the  prastorian  guards. 

Decius  commenced  his  reign  by  one  of  the  most  sanguinary. perse- 
cutions that  ever  oppressed  the  church.  The  Christians  throughout 
(he  empire  were  driven  from  their  habitation'^,  dragged  to  execution 
like  common  malefactors,  and  subjected  to  the  mo'-^t  exquisite  tortures 


288  ANCIENT    HISTORY. 

cruelty  itself  could  invent.  The  laws  of  nature  and  humanity  were 
violated,  friend  betrayed  friend,  brother  informed  against  brother,  chil- 
dren against  their  parents,  and  parents  against  their  children ;  every 
one  thinking  it  meritorious  to  discover  a  Christian  and  procure  his 
death.  l>ecius  vented  his  rage  chiefly  against  the  bishops.  Among 
his  victims  were  Fabian,  bishop  of  Rome  ;  Bab'ylaz,  bishop  of  Anti- 
och ;  and  Alexander,  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  Great  numbers  of  Chris 
lians  betook  themselves  to  mountains,  rocks,  and  deserts,  choosing 
rather  to  live  among  w41d  beasts  than  with  men  wao  had  divested  them- 
selves of  reason  and  humanity.  Among  these  was  the  celebrated 
Paul,  who  withdrew  into  the  deserts  of  Egypt,  where  he  is  said  to 
have  lived  a  solitary  life  for  the  greater  part  of  a  century.  He  is  usu- 
ally regarded  as  the  father  and  founder  of  the  order  of  anchorets,  oi 
hermits,  whose  superstitious  austerities  appear  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  extraordina.ry  penances  practised  by  the  fanatics  of  central 
d,nd  southern  Asia. 

This  persecution  was  interrupted  by  an  invasion  of  the  Goths,  who. 
for  the  first  time,  crossed  the  Danube  in  considerable  numbers,  and 
devastated  Moe'sia.  Decius  marched  against  them,  and  gained  some 
important  advantages  ;  but  in  his  last  battle,  charging  into  the  midst  of 
the  enemy  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  son,  he  was  overpowered  and 
slain  {\.  D.251).  A  great  nnmber  of  the  Romans,  thus  deprived  of 
their  leader,  fell  victims  to  the  barbarians  ;  the  survivors,  grateful  foi 
the  protection  afforded  them  by  the  legions  of  Gallus,  who  commanded 
in  the  neighborhood,  proclaimed  that  general  emperor. 

Gallus  concluded  a  dishonorable  peace  with  the  Goths,  and  renewed 
the  persecutions  of  the  Christians.  His  dastardly  conduct  provoked 
general  resentment ;  the  provincial  armies  revolted,  but  the  most  dan 
gerous  insurrection  was  that  headed  by  iEmilianus,  who  was  proclaimed 
emperor  in  Mce'sia.  He  led  his  forces  into  Italy,  and  the  hostile  annies 
met  at  Interamna  (^Terni)  ;  but  just  as  an  engagement  was  about  to 
commence,  Gallus  was  murdered  by  his  own  soldiers  (a.  d.  253),  and 
iEmilianus  proclaimed  emperor.  In  three  months  iEmilianus  him- 
self met  a  similar  fate,  the  army  having  chosen  Valerian,  the  governor 
of  Gaul,  to  the  sovereignty. 

Valerian,  though  now  sixty  years  of  age,  possessed  powers  that 
might  have  revived  the  sinking  fortunes  of  the  empire,  which  was  now 
invaded  on  all  sides.  The  Goths,  who  had  formed  a  powerfcl  monar- 
chy on  the  lower  Danube  and  the  northern  coasts  of  the  Black  sea, 
extended  their  territories  to  the  Borys'thenes  (Dnieper)  and  Tanais 
{Don):  they  ravaged  Mce'sia,  Thrace,  and  Macedon  ;  while  their  fleets, 
which  soon  became  formidal)le  after  the  capture  of  the  Tauric  Cherso- 
nese {Crim  Tartary),  devastated  the  coasts  both  of  the  European  and 
Asiatic  provinces.  The  great  confederation  of  the  Franks  became  for- 
midable on  the  lower  Rhine,  and  not  less  dangerous  was  that  of  the 
Allemanni  on  the  upper  part  of  that  river.  The  Carpians  and  Sarma- 
dans  laid  Mce'sia  waste. 

The  Sarmatians  were  particularly  formidable  for  their  cavalry :  both 
horses  and  men  were  covered  with  a  curious  kind  of  scale  armor 
formed  of  the  sliced  hoofs  of  animals,  which  hung  sufficiently  loose  not 
to  impede  the   motions  of  the  warrior,  and  was  yet  strong  enough  to 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  289 

oirn  aside  arrows  and  javelins.  The  light  cavalry  of  the  Persia'is  at 
ihe  same  time  devastated  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia,  extendino 
their  ravages  even  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Gallieaus,  the  emperor's  son,  whom  Valerian  had  chosen  for  his  col- 
league, and  Aurelian,  destined  to  succeed  him  in  the  empire,  gained 
several  victories  over  the  Germanic  tribes,  while  Valerian  marched  in 
person  against  the  Scythians  and  Persians,  who  had  invaded  Asia.  He 
gained  a  victory  over  the  former  in  Anatolia,  but,  imprudently  passing 
the  Euphrates,  he  was  surrounded  by  Sapor's  army  near  Edes'sa,  in  a 
situation  where  neither  courage  nor  military  skill  could  be  of  any  avail, 
and  was  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion  (a.  d.  259).  During  nine 
years  Valerian  languished  in  hopeless  captivi.y,  the  object  of  scorn  and 
insult  to  his  brutal  conqueror,  while  no  effort  was  made  for  his  libera 
'ion  by  his  unnatural  son. 

Skctio'   VII. — From  the  Captivity  of  Valerian  to  the  Resignation  of 
Dioclesian. 

FRO.M    A.  D.  260    TO    A.  D.   305. 

Gallie'nus  succeeded  to  the  throne,  receiving  the  news  ot  nis  fa- 
ther's misfortunes  with  secret  pleasure  and  open  indifference.  He 
seemed  to  be  versed  in  everything  but  the  art  of  government ;  "  he  was 
master  of  several  curious  but  useless  sciences,  a  ready  orator  and  ele- 
gant poet,  a  skilful  gardener,  an  excellent  cook,  and  most  contemptible 
prince."*  At  the  moment  of  his  accession,  the  barbarians,  encouraged 
by  the  captivity  of  Valerian,  invaded  the  empire  on  all  sides.  Italy 
itself  was  invaded  by  the  Germans,  who  advanced  to  Raven'na  buf 
they  were  forced  to  retire  by  the  emperor.  Gallienus,  after  this  exer- 
tion, sunk  into  complete  inactivity  :  his  indolence  roused  a  host  of  com- 
petitors for  the  empire  in  the  different  provinces,  commonly  called  "  the 
thirty  tyrants,"  though  the  number  of  pretenders  did  not  exceed  nine- 
teen. It  would  be  impossible  to  describe  the  various  struggles  for 
power  between  these  rivals,  which  distracted  every  part  of  the  empire 
Far  the  most  remarkable  of  them  was  Odenatus,  who  assumed  the  pur- 
ple at  Palmy'ra,  gained  several  great  victories  over  the  Persians,  and 
besieged  Sapor  in  Ctes'iphon.  Though  he  failed  to  take  the  city,  he 
checked  for  a  long  time  the  progress  of  the  Sassan'ides.  Gallienus, 
hearing  of  these  great  achievements,  resolved  to  convert  a  rival  into  a 
:riend,  and  proclaimed  Odenatus  his  partner  in  the  empire.  But  this 
great  man  was  murdered  by  some  of  his  own  family  :  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  wife,  the  celebrated  Zenobia,  who  took  the  title  of  Queen  of  the 
East.  Gallienus  did  not  long  survive  him  :  he  was  murdered  while  be- 
sieging Aureolus,  one  of  his  rivals,  in  Alediolanum  [Milan) ;  but  before 
his  death  1:  e  transmitted  his  rights  to  Claudius,  a  general  of  great  rep- 
utation (a  d.  268).  Most  of  the  other  tyrants  had  previously  fallen  in 
battle  or  by  assassination. 

Mar'cus  Aurelius  Claudius,  having  conquered  his  only  rival,  Aureo- 
ins,  marclied  against  the  Germans  and  Goths,  whom  he  routed  with 
gxoM  slaughter.     He  then  prepared  to  march  against  Zenobia,  who  hnr' 

*  Gibbon. 

19 


290  ANCIENT  HISTORV 

conquered  Egypt;  bui  a  pestilence  broke  out  in  his  army,  and  he  eiu 
peror  himself  was  one  of  its  victims  (a.  d.  270).  Extraordinary  hon 
ors  were  paid  to  his  memory  by  the  senate.  His  brother  was  elecle3 
emperor  bv  acclamation  ;  but  in  seventeen  days  he  so  disoleased  the 
armv  by  attempting  to  revive  t.ie  ancient  discipline,  that  he  vvas  deposeiJ 
and  murdered. 

Aurelian,  a  native  of  Sir'mium,  in  Pannonia,  was  chosen  emperor  by 
the  army  ;  and  the  senate,  well  acquainted  with  his  merits,  joyfully 
confirmed  the  election.  He  made  peace  with  the  Goths,  and  led  hia 
army  against  the  Germans,  who  had  once  more  invaded  Italy.  Aure- 
lian was  at  first  defeated;  but  he  soon  retrieved  his  loss,  and  cat  the 
whole  of  the  barbarian  army  to  pieces.  His  next  victory  was  obtained 
over  the  Vandals,  a  new  horde  that  had  passed  the  Danube ;  and  hav- 
ing thus  secured  the  tranquillity  of  Europe,  he  marched  to  rescue  the 
eastern  provinces  from  Zenobia. 

The  queen  of  Palmy'ra  was  one  of  the  most  illustrious  women  re- 
corded in  history  :  she  claimed  descent  from  the  Egyptian  Ptolemies, 
but  was  probably  of  Jewish  origin,  since  she  is  said  to  have  professed 
the  Jewish  religion.  She  was  well  acquainted  with  the  principal  lan- 
guages of  the  eastern  and  western  worlds,  skilled  in  the  leading  sci- 
ences of  her  day,  and  so  well  versed  in  affairs  of  state,  that  the  suc- 
cesses of  her  husband,  Odenatus,  are  generallj'  attributed  to  his  having 
acted  by  her  advice.  For  nearly  six  years  she  ruled  Syria  and  Meso- 
potamia, discharging  all  the  duties  of  an  excellent  sovereign  and  intrepid 
commander.  Ambition,  however,  precipitated  her  ruin:  not  satisfied 
with  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  she  aspired  at  the  sovereignty  of  Asia,  and 
Aurelian  resolved  to  put  an  end  to  usurpations  so  disgraceful  to  the 
Roman  fame. 

On  his  march  through  Thrace,  the  emperor  fought  a  great  battle  \rith 
the  Goths.  Not  satisfied  with  a  single  victory,  he  pursued  them  across 
the  Danube,  routed  their  forces  a  second  time,  and  slew  one  of  their 
kings.  Passing  over  into  Asia,  he  encountered  the  forces  of  Zenobia 
near  Antioch ;  the  battle  was  sanguinary  and  well  contested,  but  in  the 
end  the  Romans  prevailed.  A  second  victory  enabled  Aurelian  to  be- 
siege Palmy'ra,  which  the  dauntless  queen  defended  with  great  spirit 
and  resolution.  At  length,  finding  that  there  was  no  hope  of  succor, 
she  attempted  secretly  to  fly  into  Persia,  but  was  betrayed  by  her  ser- 
vants, and  taken  prisoner.  Palmy'ra  surrendered ;  but  the  citizens 
bOon  revolting,  this  great  commercial  capital  was  stormed,  its  inhabitants 
put  to  the  sword,  and  its  trade  and  prosperity  irretrievably  ruined. 

Scarcely  had  this  revolt  been  subdued,  when  Aurehan  was  called 
upon  to  quell  a  formidable  insurrection  in  Egypt.  'Yht,  celerity  of  his 
march  disconcerted  the  rebels  ;  they  were  speedily  cori.,iiered  ;  and  the 
emperor,  having  thus  suppressed  all  the  trouljles  of  the  east,  resolved  to 
recover  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  which  had  now  lv..f  thirteen  years 
been  the  prey  of  diflerent  tyrants.  A  single  campaijjii  restored  these 
provinces  to  the  empire  ;  and  Aurelian,  returning  to  Rome,  was' honored 
with  the  most  magnificent  triumph  that  the  city  had  ever  beheld.  Fai 
more  honorable  to  him,  however,  was  his  generous  tieatment  of  his  cap- 
nv<  s — a  suitable  estate  was  granted  at  Tibur  {Tivi  n)  to  Zer:  )bia  and 
hc)  children       The  princess,  reconciliiio   herself  to   Her  lot,  becj.,n^^  a 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  291 

respectable  Runian  iiiatroii  ;  and  her  family  was  not  extinct  in  the  fifth 
century. 

Tranquillity  was  first  disturbed  by  a  violent  insurrection  excited  ai 
Rome  by  the  debasing  of  the  coinage.  The  imperial  troops,  sent  to 
drive  the  mob  from  the  Coelian  hill,  were  routed  with  the  loss  of  seven 
thousand  men,  and  it  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  the  insurgents 
were  reduced.  Aurelian  punished  the  principal  authors  of  the  tumult 
with  great  severity,  not  to  say  cruelty,  and,  finding  that  he  had  thus  be- 
come unpopular,  left  the  city.  He  directed  his  course  to  Gaul,  where 
he  appeased  some  growing  disturbances ;  thence  he  marched  to  Vinde- 
licia,  and  restored  it  to  the  empire  :  but  he  abandoned  the  province  of 
Dacia  to  the  barbarians,  withdrawing  all  the  Roman  garrisons  that  had 
been  stationed  beyond  the  Danube. 

Aurelian's  virtues  were  sullied  by  the  sternness  and  severity  that 
naturally  belongs  to  a  peasant  and  a  soldier.  His  officers  dr'^aded  h:.s 
inflexibility,  which  had  been  already  shown  in  his  sentencing  his  » wn 
nephew  to  death.  While  he  was  thus  preparing  to  lead  his  army 
against  the  Persians,  he  discovered  an  act  of  p'jculation  committed  by 
Mnestheus,  one  of  his  secretaries,  and  threatened  a  severe  punishment. 
The  guilty  functionary,  havnig  no  other  hope  of  escape,  conspired  with 
several  others  exposed  to  legal  vengeance  :  they  assailed  the  emperor, 
escorted  only  by  a  few  friends,  on  his  road  to  Byzantium,  and  slew  him 
with  innumerable  wounds  (a.  d.  275).  But  the  assassins  did  not  escape 
the  punishment  due  to  their  crimes  ;  the  soldiers,  attached  fondly  t6  an 
emperor  who  had  so  often  led  them  to  victory,  tore  the  authors  of  his 
death  to  pieces.  They  showed,  at  the  same  time,  greater  respect  for 
the  law  than  had  ever  been  displayed  by  their  predecessors,  cheerfully 
referring  the  choice  of  an  emperor  to  the  senate. 

After  a  tranquil  interregnum  of  more  than  six  months,  the  senate  elect- 
ed Mar'cus  Claudius  Tacit'us,  a  member  of  their  own  body,  in  spite  of 
his  great  age,  for  he  was  already  passed  his  seventy-fifth  year.  Having 
enacted  some  usefsal  laws,  the  emperor  marched  against  the  A'lans,  who 
nad  overrun  Asia  Minor.  He  defeated  the  barbarians  ;  but  the  fatigues 
')f  the  campaign  pro^'ed  too  much  for  his  constitution,  and  he  died  in 
'Jappadocia,  after  a  short  reign  of  about  seven  months. 

Florian  the  brother  of  Tacit'us,  was  elected  emperor  by  the  scmate, 
but  Mar'cus  Aurelius  Pr6l)us  was  the  choice  of  the  Syrian  army  ;  and 
a  civil  vv'ar  soon  began  between  these  rivals.  But  Florian's  own  soldiers 
took  offence  at  some  part  of  his  conduct,  rose  in  sudden  mutiny,  and  put 
him  to  death.  Probus,  now  undisputed  master  of  the  empire,  led  his 
troops  from  Asia  to  Gaul,  which  was  again  devastated  by  the  German 
tribes  ;  he  not  oidy  defeated  the  barbarians,  but  pursued  them  into  their 
own  country,  where  he  gained  greater  advantages  than  any  of  his  pre- 
decessors. Thence  he  passed  into  Thrace,  where  he  humbltd  the 
Goths;  and  returning  to  Asia,  he  completely  subdued  the  insurgent 
Isaurians,  whose  lands  he  divided  among  his  veterans.  Alarmed  at 
these  victories,  Bahram  II.,  king  of  Persia,  called  Var'ame.s  by  ihe 
western  writers,  sent  ainl)assa(lors  to  solicit  peace,  and  submitted  to  iht 
terms  dictated  by  the  emperor.  Three  conij)etitors  in  different  provin- 
ces were  next  subdued  ;  but  when  wars  were  at  an  ei  d,  the  eniperol 
employed  his  armies  in  u.sclul  public  works,  which  so  offended  the  licen 


292  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

tious  soldiery,  that  tlicy  suddenly  attacked  and  slew  him  (a  d  282) 
They  subsequently  repented  of  the  crime,  and  united  to  raise  a  staleh 
(iionu merit  to  his  memory. 

Cams,  the  capta.n  of  the  prajtorian  guards,  was  elected  emperor  hv 
the  army ;  and  the  senate,  not  without  reluctance,  assented  to  the  ar- 
raigemen-.  The  new  emperor  gave  the  title  of  Caisar  to  his  sons  Ca- 
rii  'is  and  Numerianus,  the  former  of  whom  was  or\e  of  the  most 
de|  raved  young  men  of  his  time;  the  latter  a  model  of  every  virtue. 
The  new  emperor  signalized  his  accession  by  a  brilliant  victory  ovci 
ihe  Sarmatians :  he  would  have  pursued  these  barbarians  into  their  na- 
tive wilds,  had  he  not  been  summoned  to  Asia  by  a  new  invasion  of  tiic 
Persians.  Leaving  the  care  of  the  western  provinces  to  Carnius,  the 
emperor,  accompanied  by  Numerianus,  hastened  into  Mesopotamia, 
where  he  defeated  Bahram,  and,  pursuing  the  Persians  nito  their  own 
country,  besieged  Ctes'iphon.  The  city  would  probably  have  been 
taken,  had  not  the  emperor  fallen  a  victim  to  disease,  or,  as  others  say. 
to  a  thunderbolt  (a.  d.  283).  Numerianus  was  chosen  his  successor; 
but,  after  a  few  months'  reign,  he  was  assassinated  by  A'per  his  father- 
in-law  and  captain  of  his  guards.  The  crime,  however,  v/a;;  discovered, 
and  the  murderer  put  to  death  by  the  army. 

Dioclesian,  said  to  have  been  originally  a  slave,  was  unanimously 
saluted  emperor,  by  the  army.  He  was  proclaimed  at  Chal'cedon  on 
the  1 7th  of  September,  a.  d.  284  ;  an  epoch  that  deserves  to  be  remem- 
bered, as  it  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  called  "  the  era  of  Dio- 
clesian," or  "  the  era  of  martyrs,"  which  long  prevailed  in  the  church, 
and  is  still  used  by  the  Copts,  the  Abyssinians,  and  other  Airican  na- 
tions. When  Carinus  heard  of  his  brother's  death,  he  assembled  a  nu 
merous  army,  marched  from  Gaul  into  lUyr'icum,  where  he  conquered 
a  usurjier  named  Julianus,  and  thence  advancing  into  M<e'sia,  indicted 
a  severe  defeat  on  the  army  of  Dioclesian,  in  the  plains  of  Mar'gus 
[Morava  Hissar).  But  in  the  very  moment  of  victory  a  tribune,  whose 
wife  he  had  seduced,  seized  the  opportunity  of  revenge,  and  by  a  single 
blow  put  an  end  to  the  civil  war. 

Dioclesian  made  a  generous  use  of  his  victory  :  in  an  age  when  death, 
exile,  and  confiscation,  were  the  usual  fate  of  the  conciuered  pary,  the 
new  emjjeror  did  not  even  dejirive  his  rival's  ministers  of  oftice.  The 
troul)les  of  the  empire  appearing  too  great  to  be  managed  by  a  single 
mind,  Diocjeoian  voluntarily  gave  himself  a  colleague,  selecting  for  this 
high  situation  his  friend  Maximian,  a  lirave  and  skilful  soldier,  but  un- 
fortunately also  an  ignorant  and  ferocious  barliarian.  Scarcely  had  the 
uppoiiitment  been  made,  when  Maximian  was  called  upon  to  exert  his 
military  talents  in  Gaul,  both  in  suppressing  insurrections  and  checking 
the  barliarians.  He  eifected  his  purposes  with  great  skill ;  while  his 
colleague  gained  several  victories  over  the  Sarmatians  in  the  east. 

A  brief  interval  of  traniiuillity  was  followed  by  new  and  more  alarm- 
ing disturbances  in  every  part  of  the  empire.  The  two  sf)vereigns,  in 
threat  alarm,  resolved  on  a  further  division  of  nutlmrity  ;  each  chose  an 
associate  and  successor,  with  the  title  of  (':rs:ir.  who  was  to  be  invested 
with  a  couisidcrahle  share  oi'  imperial  power:  to  this  new  dignity  Dio- 
clesian noil  iiiated  .\l;)x'iinin  Galeriu.s  ;  nwd  .Maxniuaii,  ('onstan'tius 
t^hlorus.      /    livision  of  th:;  empire  follow    d  :    i)iorli'si;.ii  look  the  prov 


jaOMAN  EMPIRE  293 

Lnces  teyoiid  ihe  ^Egean  sea;  Tlirace  and  Illyr'icim  were  assigned  to 
Galerius  ;  Maximian  received  Italy  and  Africa  ;  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Biii 
ain,  were  intrusted  to  Constan'tius. 

Although  this  arrangement  appears  to  nave  been  rendered  necessary 
by  the  circumstanced  of  the  empire,  it  undoubtedly  hastened  its  decline  ; 
l.'ur  courts,  with  all  their  expensive  adjuncts,  were  now  to  be  maintaxu- 
ed,  instead  of  one  :  taxes  were  multiplied ;  the  inhabitants  of  several 
provinces  reduced  to  beggary,  and  agriculturists,  unable  to  meet  the 
imposts  levied  on  land  and  produce,  left  the  fields  in  many  districts  un- 
cultivated. Italy,  which  had  hitherto  borne  a  very  light  share  of  the 
public  burdens,  was  no  longer  permitted  to  claim  exemption  as  the  seat 
of  domestic  empire,  and  was  soon  reduced  to  a  deplorable  condition. 

Britain,  w^hich  had  been  usurped  by  Carausius,  early  claiuicd  the  at- 
tention of  Constan'tius :  it  was,  however,  necessary  to  prepare  a  Heel 
for  the  invasion,  as  the  usurper  was  powerful  by  sea ;  and  while  the 
naval  armament  was  preparing,  Constan'tius  gamed  several  victories 
over  the  German  hordes.  Just  as  he  was  about  to  set  sail,  he  learneJ 
that  Carusius  had  been  deposed  and  murdered  by  a  new  usurper,  named 
Allec'tus,  far  inferior  to  his  victim  in  talent  and  popularity.  The  Cccsar 
instantly  hastened  to  cross  the  channel ;  AUec'tus  was  defeated  and  slain 
in  Kent,  the  remainder  of  the  province  quickly  reduced  to  obedience, 
and  the  ravages  of  the  barbarians  on  the  northern  frontiers  prevented. 
Galerius  was  as  successful  on  the  Danube  as  Constan'tius  in  Britain 
and  on  the  Rhine  ;  Maximian  reduced  the  barbarous  tribes  that  had  in- 
vaded Africa,  while  Dioclesian  quelled  a  dangerous  revolt  in  Egypt. 
He  was  sooii  summoned  to  protect  the  empire  from  a  dangerous  inva- 
sion of  the  Persians  ;  Galerius  had  been  sent  from  the  Danube  to  the 
Euphrates  to  check  their  progress,  but  he  was  defeated  by  the  Sassa- 
nid  monarch  Narsi,  on  the  very  field  which  had  been  so  fatal  to  Cras'- 
sus  and  his  legions.  Dioclesian  showed  great  indignation  at  the  mis- 
conduct of  Galerius,  to  which  he  attributed  the  recent  calamity  ;  but  at 
length  he  permitted  hiinself  to  be  mollified,  and  intrusted  the  Caesar 
with  a  new  army  for  a  second  campaign. 

In  the  following  ysar  the  Romans  again  invaded  Persia ;  but,  profit- 
ing  by  recent  and  biiier  experience,  the  leader  left  the  plains  of  Meso- 
potamia on  the  right,  and  led  his  forces  through  the  Armenian  moi.iit- 
ains,  which  were  more  favorable  for  the  operations  of  his  infantry,  in 
which  the  principal  strength  of  his  army  consisted.  Masking  his 
course  from  the  enemy,  Galerius  unexpectedly  rushed  down  from  the 
the  hills  on  the  Persian  lines  :  the  surprise,  the  impetuosity  of  the  at- 
tack, and  the  desire  for  revenge  which  animated  the  Romans,  rendered 
their  onset  irresistible.  Narsi  was  severely  wounded,  but  escaped  by 
the  swiftness  of  his  horse,  le<  ving  his  entire  family,  his  magiiificeul 
tsi.ts,  and  his  sumptuous  camp-equipage,  as  a  prize  to  the  conquerors 
A  bag  of  embossed  leather  filled  with  pearls,  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 
private  scldier :  unacquainted  with  the  value  of  his  prize,  he  flung  the 
pearls  away,  keeping  the  bag  as  something  that  might  be  useful.  Ga- 
lerius treated  his  royal  captives  with  the  greatest  kindness  and  gener 
osity  ;  his  conduct  produced  such  an  effect  on  Narsi's  heart,  that  he  so 
liciled  p>eace.  The  great  province  'A'  Mesopotamia  {(^Juzirah)  was 
/ielded  to  the  Romans,  together  with  five  districts  beyond  the  Tigris 


294  A-NCiENT  HISTORY. 

* 

"melutling  the  greatijr  part  of  Cardiichia  (Kurdistan),  a  country  more 
fruitful  in  soldiers  than  grain,  but  which,  from  its  strength  and  position 
commands  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia.  These  districts  were  taken 
from  Tiridates,  king  of  Armenia,  the  ally  of  the  Romans  ;  but  he  was 
indemnified,  at  the  experise  of  Persia,  by  the  fine.province  of  Atropa 
.ene  [Azerhijdn).  When  the  Armenian  took  possession  of  this  country, 
he  made  its  chief  city,  Tauris  (Tabriz),  the  metropolis  of  his  kingdom, 
and  gready  improved  that  ancient  capital. 

But  these  triumphs  were  sullied  by  a  general  persecution  of  the 
Christians  (the  tenth  and  last),  which  Dioclesian  is  said  to  haA'e  com- 
menced at  the  instigation  of  Galerius  (a.  d.  303).  It  lasted  ten  entire 
vears,  and  exceeded  all  the  preceding  in  its  indiscriminate  massacres 
and  severities.  Such  multitudes  of  Christians  suffered  death,  in  all  the 
provinces  of  the  empire,  that  the  emperors  believed  that  they  had  ac 
complished  their  purpose,  and  completely  extirpated  Christianity. 
They  told  the  world  in  a  pompous  inscription,  that  they  had  extinguish- 
ed the  Christian  name  and  superstition,  and  everywhere  restored  the 
worship  of  the  gods  to  its  former  purity  and  lustre.  But  the  church 
triumphed  over  all  their  artifices  and  power ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  ut- 
most efforts  of  tyranny,  many  years  had  not  elapsed  after  the  publica- 
tion of  this  boast,  when  it  reigned  triumphant  in  the  very  metropolis  of 
idolatry  and  superstition. 

Dioclesian  prepared  to  return  to  Rome,  but  was  delayed  for  some 
time  by  a  strange  rev^olt  in  Syria.  Eugenius,  an  officer  of  little  or  no 
reputation,  had  been  intrusted  with  the  command  of  five  himdred  men 
in  Seleucia,  who,  being  employed  all  day  in  cleansing  the  harbor,  and 
compelled  to  work  all  night  baking  their  own  bread,  resolved  to  de- 
liver themselves  from  such  insupportable  drudgery ;  and  forthwith  pro- 
claimed their  governor  emperor.  Eugenius  at  first  refused  the  dignity ; 
but  being  threatened  with  instant  death,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  in- 
vested with  the  purple,  and  by  a  rapid  march,  got  possession  of  Anti- 
och.  When  the  citizens,  however,  recovered  from  their  surprise,  they 
fell  upon  the  insurgents,  and  cut  them  to  pieces.  Dioclesian,  instead 
of  rewarding  the  people  of  Antioch  for  their  fidelity,  ordered  their  chief 
magistrates  to  be  put  to  death  without  inquiry  or  trial ;  a  crime  which 
rende  sd  him  so  odious  to  the  Syrians,  that  for  more  than  ninety  years 
.hey  could  noi  hear  his  name  pronounced  without  a  shudder. 

Rome,  on  the  return  of  the  two  emperors,  witnessed  for  the  last  time, 
the  splendid  ceremonial  of  a  triumph;  it  was  less  costly  than  those  oi 
Aurelian  and  Probus,  but  it  commemorated  greater  and  more  useful  vic- 
tories. In  his  triumph,  and  in  the  spectacles  that  followed  it,  however, 
Dioclesian  having  displayed  more  parsimony  than  was  pleasing  to  the 
people,  he  was  assailed  by  jests  and  lampoons,  which  annoyed  him  so 
much,  that  he  quitted  the  city  for  Raven'na.  On  his  journey  a  severe 
sstorm  arose,  and  the  cold  which  he  caught  produced  a  long  and  linger- 
ing disease  that  aflfected  his  reason.  After  he  had  beg-un  to  recover,  he 
was  induced,  or  perhaps  compelled,  to  resign  the  empire,  by  Galerius 
(a.  d.  305).  He  persuaded  Maximian  to  abdicate  aioO.  The  two 
Cccsars  became  emperors,  and  chose  two  other  nobles  to  fill  the  station 
■liey  had  occupied. 

Dioclesian   survived   his    abdication  nearly  nine   years;  he  ?'2sided 


i 


aOMAN  EMPIRE.  295 

Jnrini^  this  lime  at  his  country-seat  near  Salona  [Spalatrd),  where  the 
luins  of  his  palace  may  still  be  seen.  He  never  regretted  the  power 
he  had  resigned  ;  and  when  Maxiinian  and  others  wrote,  inviting  him 
to  make  a  struggle  for  empire,  he  replied :  "  I  wish  you  would  come  to 
Salona,  and  see  the  cabbages  I  have  planted :  after  liaving  once  visited 
my  garden,  you  would  never  again  mention  to  me  the  name  of  empire.'' 
The  close  of  his  life  was  embittered  by  domestic  misfortune,  by  the  in- 
gratitude of  Constantine  and  Licin'ius,  and  by  the  calamities  which  he 
foresaw  that  the  dissensions  of  these  rivals  would  bring  upon  the  em- 
pire. There  are  various  accounts  given  of  the  manner  of  his  death,  and 
it  is  impossible  to  discover  whether  he  fell  by  his  own  hand  or  by 
natural  disease 

Sf.ction   V^Ill. — From  the  Abdication  of  Dioclcsian  to  the  Death  of  Cmstan 

tine  the  Great, 

FROM   A.   D.  303   TO  A.   D.   337. 

The  Caesars,  Severus  and  Max'imin,  owed  their  elevation  to  Gale 
rius  ;  but  they  were  not  quite  so  subservient  to  his  wishes  as  he  ex- 
pected, both  showing  themselves  favorable  to  the  toleration  of  the 
Christians.  Arrangements  were  made  for  the  division  of  the  empire  ; 
Constan'tius  and  Severus  received  the  western  provinces  ;  Galerius  and 
Max'imin  ruled  all  the  territories  east  of  the  Adriatic.  Constantine,  the 
celebrated  son  of  Constan'tius,  was  sick  iu  the  provinces  assigned  to 
Galerius  when  the  empire  was  thus  divided ;  some  eflbrts  were  made 
to  assassinate  a  prince  whose  talents  and  popularity  had  already  ren- 
dered him  formidable.  He  escaped  the  danger  by  a  rapid  flight,  and 
came  to  his  father,  who  was  just  about  to  embark  at  Gessoriacum 
'^Boulogne)  for  Britain.  The  presence  of  Constan'tius  was  required  in 
that  island  by  a  formidable  invasion  of  the  Picts,  a  nation  now  for  the 
first  time  nieutior.ed  in  history ;  but  while  on  his  march  against  these 
barbarians,  he  was  seized  with  a  mortal  disease,  and  died  at  Ebor'acum 
[York),  where  his  body  was  honorably  interred  bv  his  son  Constantine 
(a.  d.  306). 

Constantine  was  instantly  proclaimed  Augustus  by  the  soldiers ;  but 
Galerius  would  only  give  him  the  title  of  Caesar,  declai-^ng  that  Severus 
was  his  partner  in  the  empire.  Maxen'tius,  the  son  of  Maximian,  in- 
dicant at  his  exclusion  from  power,  caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed 
emperor  by  the  dissatisfied  soldiery,  and  induced  his  father  to  abandci 
his  solitude,  and  remount  the  throne.  Severus  led  an  army  agains'. 
them ;  but  he  was  abandoned  by  the  greater  part  of  his  troops,  taken 
prisoner,  and  put  to  death  (a.  d.  307).  Maximian,  knowing  that  Ga- 
lerius would  revenge  the  murder  of  Severus,  strengthened  himself  by 
entering  into  close  alliance  v/ith  Constantine,  to  whom  he  gave  his 
daughter  Fausla  in  marriage.  Nor  did  he  dread  Galerius  without  a 
cause  :  that  emperor  hastened  from  the  east  with  a  large  army,  and 
^ttempted  to  besiege  Rome  ;  but  failing  in  ti.is  enterprise,  he  permitted 
nis  soldiers  to  devastate  Italy.  Maximian  had  gone  to  Gaul,  hoping  lo 
receive  aid  from  Constantine  ;  but  finding  that  prudent  prii  ce  by  no 
means  disposed  to  encounter  the  hazards  of  a  dangerous  war,  and  hear 
tng   that    Galerius  hid  retreated   precipitately,  he  returned  to  Ruiiif 


296  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

vvhere  he  leigncd  conjointly  with  his  son.  In  the  meantime,  GaJenuii 
conferred  the  title  of  emperor  on  his  friend  Licinius  ;  and  thus  the  em- 
pire was  shared  between  six  sovereigns.* 

Maximian  having  quarrelled  with  his  son,- returned  to  Gaul,  where  he 
began  to  plot  against  the  life  of  Constantine ;  but  his  treachery  wa? 
discovered,  and  he  was  deservedly  executed  (a.  d.  310).  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  a  loathsome  disease,  produced  by  debauchery,  removed 
Galerius  from  the  stage  ;  his  dominions  were  divided  between  Maximin 
and  Licinius.  It  was  scarcely  possil)le  that  pfc..ce  could  long  continue 
between  the  four  prhices  who  now  shared  the  empire.  Constantint 
had  won  the  affections  of  his  subjects  by  his  wise  and  beneficent  ad- 
ministration in  Gaul,  while  the  cruelty  and  rapacity  of  Maxen'tius  filled 
Italy  and  Africa  Avith  confusion.  But  the  tyrant  was  not  conscious  of 
the  weakness  that  resulted  from  his  crimes.  Under  pretence  of  re- 
venging the  death  of  his  father,  he  ordered  all  the  statues  erected  in 
honor  of  Constantine  throughout  Italy  to  be  thrown  down,  and  thus  pro- 
voked a  war  Avith  the  most  able  prince  of  the  age.  Constantine  having 
passed  the  Alps,  defeated  the  lieutenants  of  Maxen'tius  at  Augusta  Tau- 
rinorum  [Turvi)  and  Vero'na,  while  the  tyrant  himself  remained  sunk  in 
sloth  and  luxury  at  Rome.  At  length  he  was  roused  from  his  lethargy 
by  the  rapid  approach  of  the  victorious  army ;  a  dreadful  battle  was 
fought  at  a  place  called  Sax'a  Rubra,  within  nine  miles  of  Rome,  near 
the  little  river  Cremera,  so  memorable  for  the  destruction  of  the  Fabii. 
The  result  was  fatal  to  Maxen'tius  ;  the  prjetorian  guards,  on  whom  he 
chiefly  relied,  were  broken  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the  repeated  charges 
of  the  Gallic  horse.  The  tyrant  himself  was  drowned  in  the  Tiber, 
while  attempting  to  make  his  escape  through  the  crowd  over  the  IVIilvian 
bridge  (a.  d.  312).  It  was  during  this  campaign  that  Constantine  is 
said  to  have  seen  a  miraculous  vision  of  a  luminous  cross  in  the  heavens, 
a  little  before  sunset ;  and  to  have  been  warned  in  a  dream  to  take  this 
sacred  symbol  as  his  standard.  The  principal  evidence  for  the  truth 
of  this  miracle  is  the  emperor's  own  account  of  the  event,  related  many 
years  afterward  to  Eusebius ;  one  circumstance,  however,  greatly 
weakens  his  testimony ;  the  vision  was  so  far  from  producing  the  con- 
version of  Constantine,  that  he  did  not  receive  baptism  until  a  short, 
time  before  his  death. 

No  sooner  had  the  death  of  Maxen'tius  made  Constantine  master  of 
Rome,  than  he  removed  the  great  source  of  all  the  calamities  that  had 
befallen  the  city  under  the  empire,  by  disbanding  the  praetorian  guards 
and  destroying  their  fortified  camp.  He  restored  the  authority  of  the 
senate  and  magistrates,  recalled  all  those  who  had  been  banished  by 
Maxen'tius,  and  dismissed  the  entire  tribe  of  spies  and  informers.  He 
revoked  all  the  edicts  that  had  been  issued  against  the  Christians  and 
paid  great  res'^ect  to  the  bishops  and  clerg"/,  either  on  account  of  the 
miraculous  vision  already  mentioned,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  through 
gratitude  for  the  efficient  aid  he  had  received  fr^m  the  Christians  in  the 
« ^jcent  contest,  LTid  anxiety  to  secure  their  assistance  in  any  futiirf 
struggle. 

Maximin  was  a  devoted  adherent  of  paganism;  he  viewed  the   in 
'locations  of  Constantino  with  great  hostility  ;  and  when  Licinius  mai 
•  Maximian,  Galerius,  Licinius,  Maximin,  Cnnstantine,  and  Maxentius. 


iiOMAJsr  EMPmE.  297 

.-led  the  sister  of  that  prince,  lie  resolved  to  destroy  both.  Taking  ad 
7anta<J'e  of  the  war  in  which  Constantino  was  involved  with  the  Franks 
ne  marched  against  Licin'ius,  hoping  to  destroy  him  before  any  as- 
sistance could  arrive  from  the  west.  His  first  efforts  were  crowned 
with  success ;  but  being  totally  defeated  near  Adrianople,  he  fled  with- 
out attendants  to  Nicomedia,  where  he  soon  died  of  rage  and  disap- 
pointment (a.  d.  313).  Licin'ius  made  a  cruel  use  of  his  victory 
slaughtering  without  mercy  all  whom  he  deemed  likely  to  become  com- 
petitors for  empire :  among  the  most  illustrious  of  his  victims  were  the 
wife  and  daughter  of  Dioclesian. 

Constantine,  during  this  war  was  engaged  in  securing  the  tranquil- 
lity of  western  Europe  ;  he  gcve  an  unquestionable  proof  of  his  attach- 
ment to  Christianity  by  convening  a  general  council  of  the  bishops  at 
Arelate  {Aries),  to  suppress  the  heresy  of  the  Donatists  ;  but  before  the 
assembly  met,  he  was  forced  to  take  the  field  against  Licin'ius,  who  had 
thrown  down  his  statues  in  iEnona  (Lai/bach),  a  city  of  upper  Pan- 
nonia.  With  his  usual  celerity,  Constantine  hastened  into  Panncnia 
before  Licin'ius  could  expect  his  arrival ;  but  he  found  that  prince  al- 
ready in  the  field.  A  fierce  battle  was  fought  at  the  little  town  of 
Cib'alis  or  Ceb'alee  {Sevilei),  not  far  from  Sir'mium,  in  which  Licin'iut5 
was  defeated,  and  forced  to  fly  into  Thrace.  Thither  he  was  followed 
by  Constantine,  vanquished  a  second  time,  and  forced  to  consent  to 
an  accommodation,  by  which  lUyr'icum,  Macedon,  Greece,  and  lower 
Moe'sia,  were  yielded  to  Constantine  (a.  d.  314).  The  conqueror  im- 
mediately took  the  most  prudent  measures  to  secure  his  new  acquisi- 
tions ;  while  Licin'iu*  continued  to  provoke  his  subjects  by  repeated 
cruelties  and  exactions. 

Foreign  invasions  led  to  a  renewal  of  the  civil  Avar.  Constantine 
Iiavinff  conquered  the  Sarmatians  and  Goths,  pursued  the  latter  into  ter- 
ritories of  Licin'ius,  and  that  prince  immediately  declared  that  the 
recent  articles  of  peace  had  been  violated  (a.  d.  322).  Great  prepara- 
tions were  made  on  both  sides  for  the  renewal  of  hostilities,  but  Con- 
stantine was  the  first  to  take  the  field,  and  entering  Thrace  he  found 
his  rival  encamped  on  the  Hel^rus  [Mantza),  not  far  from  Adrianople 
The  battle  was  in  some  measure  a  struggle  between  Christianity  and 
paganism :  Constantine  displayed  the  banner  of  the  cross,  Licin'i  uy 
the  ancient  idolatrous  staiidards  of  the  empire :  the  struggle  wa;> 
fierce — it  ended  in  the  total  overthrow  of  Licin'ius,  who  had  the  further 
mortification  of  learning  that  his  fleet  had  been  destroyed  hi  the  straits 
of  Callip'ohs  (Gallipoh)  by  Crispus,  the  eldest  son  of  Constantine 
An  attempt  was  made  to  terminate  the  struggle  by  negotiation,  but  ii 
was  frustrated  by  the  insincerity  of  Licin'ius  :  ho  hazarded  a  second 
engagement,  and  was  irretrievably  ruined.  From  the  field  of  battle  the 
defeated  tyrant  fled  to  Nicodemia,  but  he  (vas  soon  taken  prisoner,  and 
put  to  death  (a.  d.  324).  Constantine  being  thus  sole  master  of  the 
empire,  restored  the  churches,  of  which  the  Christiai/s  had  been  de- 
prived in  the  eastern  provinces,  to  their  respective  pastors,  and  issued 
several  edicts  for  the  suppression  of  idolatry. 

New  controversies  in  the  church  led  to  the  convocation  of  the  cele- 
brated council  of  Nice,  in  Aihich  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  iJxt^J, 
trA  defined,  the  heresy  of    Arius  condemned,  and  the  spiritual  supren. 


298  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

acy  of  the  emperor  \irtually  acknowledged  (a.  d.  325).  Wjiuu  tht 
laoors  of  this  celebrated  assembly  terminated,  Constantine  returned  to 
the  western  provinces,  and  paid  a  visit  to  Rome.  His  reception  in  ihc 
city  was  anything  but  flattering ;  the  populace  loaded  him  with  insulte 
and  execrations  (or  abandoning  the  religion  of  his  forefathers  ;  and  his 
rage  at  such  injurious  treatment  is  said  to  have  greatly  influenced  hin 
determination  of  transferring  the  seat  of  government  from  Rome  to  By- 
zantium. At  the  same  time  he  was  harassed  by  domestic  troubles, 
which  led  him  to  commit  a  horrid  crime.  Instigated  by  the  empres.s 
Fausta,  he  put  his  eldest  son,  the  virtuous  Crispus,  to  death  without  a 
trial ;  and  when  he  too  late  discovered  his  error,  he  caused  T^^uista 
and  her  accomplices  to  be  slain.  These  horrors  aggravated  his  unpop- 
idarity  among  the  Romans  ;  but  he  no  longer  regarded  their  displeas- 
ure, having  finally  resolved  to  give  a  new  capital  to  the  empire  (a.  d 
330). 

Anger  and  caprice  were  not  the  only  causes  that  induced  Constan- 
tine to  make  such  an  important  change ;  indeed,  the  removal  of  the 
seat  of  government  was  justified  by  considerations  of  the  soundest 
policy.  The  eastern  provinces  were  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  a  pow- 
erful dynasty,  the  Persian  Sassan'ides,  who  openly  aspired  to  the  an- 
cient empire  of  Cy'rus ;  the  frontier  of  the  Danube  was  not  sufficient 
tu  restrain  the  Goths  and  Sarmatians  ;  the  emperors  would  therefore 
have  endangered  the  most  faithful  and  wealthy  portions  of  their  domin- 
ions, had  they  continued  to  reside  in  western  Europe.  A  metropolis 
on  the  confines  of  Europe  and  Asia  was  at  once  recommended,  by  the 
political  advantages  of  its  central  situation,  and  the  opportunities  it  af- 
forded for  reviving  the  lucrative  commerce  of  the  Euxine  and  the  east 
ern  Mediterranean.  A  slight  glance  at  the  natural  advantages  of  By- 
zantium, will  show  that  it  was  worthy  of  being  made  the  metropolis  of 
an  empire  by  the  wise  sovereign  whose  name  it  bears. 

The  area  of  Constantinople  is  an  irregular  triangle,  whose  apex,  an 
obtuse  point  advancing  to  the  east  and  toward  the  Asiatic  coast,  meets 
and  repels  the  waters  of  the  Thracian  Bosphorus.  On  the  north  is  a 
winding  harbor,  known  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times  by  the  name 
of  Ckryso-Keras,  or  the  Golden  Horn :  it  is  about  seven  miles  in 
length,  with  good  anchorage  through  the  greaiei  part  of  its  extent:  the 
entrance  is  not  more  than  five  hundred  yards  wide,  and  may  be  easily 
defended  against  a  hostile  armament.  On  the  southeastern  side  the 
walls  of  the  city  are  washed  by  the  Propon'tis  {sea  of  Marmora),  and 
the  west  forms  the  base  of  the  triangle  which  is  connected  with  the 
continent.  Thus  situated,  the  Euxine  sea  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
^^gean  on  the  other,  could  supply  it  with  the  richest  productions  of 
Euiope  and  Asia;  while  its  shape  rendered  it  easily  defensible  against 
the  savage  and  plundering  tribes  of  Thrace. 

Enormous  sums  were  expended  by  Constantine  in  embellishing  hit- 
new  capital;  unfortunately,  there  was  equal  prodigality  in  the  other 
branches  of  the  administration,  and  the  emperor's  rule  became  grinding 
and  severe.  But  he  did  not  abandon  his  warlike  character  ;  he  se- 
verely chastised  the  Goths  and  Sarmatians,  who  invaded  Thrace,  and 
compelled  them  to  give  hostages  for  th(;ir  future  good  conduct.  In  the 
tlocline  of  his  .ife.  he  appears  to  have  adopted  much  of  the  pomp  an/! 


R01I\N  EMJflRE. 


'299 


ipxiiiy  characteristic  of  Asiatic  despots  ;  but  when  increasing  disease 
warned  him  of  approaching  dissolution,  he  received  the  sacrament  of 
baptism,  and  expired  ten  months  afterward,  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  liis 
reign  (a.  d.  335).     He  left  three  sons  to  inherit  his  empiie. 

The  removal  of  the  seat  of  government  consummated  the  revolutior 
in  thb  Roman  constitution  which  had  been  commenced  in  the  reign  of 
Dioclesian ;  it  became  a  simple  despotism,  with  more  of  a  politiccJ 
than  mihtary  character.  An  entire  change  was  made  in  the  fonn  o( 
administration  ;  the  magistrates  being  divided  into  three  classes,  the 
illustrissinii,  the  speclab'iles,  and  the  clarissimi  (illustrious,  respectable 
and  honorable). 

The  magistrates  of  the  first  class  were,  the  consuls  and  patricians, 
the  prsstorian  and  metropolitan  praefects,  the  masters-general  of  cavalry 
and  infantry,  and  the  seven  great  officers  of  the  houseL^ld.  The  titles 
of  consul  and  patrician  were  merely  honorary.  They  were  conferred 
by  the  emperor  at  his  pleasure,  and  in  both  cases  the  distinctions  were 
personal,  not  hereditary.  The  power  of  the  praetorian  praefects  ranked 
next  to  that  of  the  emperors.  The  Roman  dominions  were  divided 
into  four  great  prajfectures,  and  these  again  were  subdivided  into  dio- 
ceses and  provinces.  The  praefectures  were  named,  those  of  the  East, 
lUyr'icum,  Italy,  and  Gaul.  To  the  praetorian  prrefects  was  assigned 
the  civil  government  of  these  several  divisions  ;  but  Constantine  had 
taken  can-  that  such  power  should  not  be  rendered  too  dangerous  by 
being  unite  I  with  military  command.  To  their  charge  were  intrusted 
the  coinage,  the  highways,  the  ports,  the  granaries,  the  manufactures, 
and  everything  that  could  interest  the  public  prosperity  of  their  respect- 
ive districts.  They  were  empowered  to  explain,  enforce,  and  in  some 
udses  modify,  the  imperial  edicts.  They  could  remove  or  punish  the 
provincial  governors  ;  an  appeal  lay  to  their  tribunal  from  all  inferioi 
jurisdictions  ;  and  the  sentence  of  the  prajfect  was  final. 

Rome  and  Constantinople  had  praefects  of  their  own.  The  superioi 
dignity  of  their  tribunals  caused  those  of  the  praetors  to  be  deserted, 
and  the  most  ancient  title  of  Roman  magistracy  soon  fell  into  desue- 
tude. The  peace  of  both  capitals  was  preserved  by  a  vigilant  police  ; 
and  so  numerous  were  the  s^•alues  with  which  ihey  were  adorned,  that 
a  magistrate  was  specially  appointed  to  preser\s  them  from  injury. 

The  great  ofiicers  of  the  state  and  court  were,  1.  The  pra'positin 
snncti  cubiculi  (lord  chamberlain),  whose  duty  it  was  "  to  attend  the 
emperor  Iv  his  hours  of  state  or  amusement,  ai  d  to  perfbrm  about  his 
person  all  those  menial  offices  which  can  onl_,'  derive  their  splendor 
from  the  influence  of  royalty."  Under  him  were  all  the  comi/es  palatii 
(lords  of  the  palace),  and  ciihicularii  (chamberlains),  many  of  whom,  at 
a  later  age,  were  eunuchs  of  great  influence.  2.  The  magistcr  vfficio- 
rum  (minister  for  the  home  department)  :  to  him  was  intrusted  tlie  man- 
agement of  all  correspondence  between  the  princ  .  and  his  subjects, 
m3moria]s,  petitions,  letters,  and  their  answers.  He  was  also  inspector- 
general  of  the  civil  and  military  schools,  and  appeals  lay  to  his  tribunal 
from  every  part  of  the  empire,  in  cases  where  the  privileges  of  the 
imperial  officers  were  concerned.  3.  The  comes  sacrarum  largitiomim 
(lord  hioh  treasurer),  was  the  chief  minister  of  finance  :  his  duties 
'/rcre  not  confined  to  the  charge  of  the  exchequer  and  superintendence 


300  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

31  tax-gatherers :  he  lud  also  the  charge  over  manufactures  and  com 
merce,  which  Constanline,  with  more  wisdom  than  most  of  his  prede 
cessors,  brought  under  the  especial  care  of  the  state.  4.  The  queestoi 
(principal  secretary  of  state)  was  the  representative  of  the  emperor's 
legislative  power,  and  the  original  source  of  civil  jurisprudence  ;  some 
of  his  functions  appear  to  have  been  similar  to  those  of  the  British  lord 
chancellor.  5  The  comes  rei  prmcipis  (keeper  of  the  privy  purse) 
had  the  charge  of  the  imperial  private  estates,  which  were  scattered 
through  the  provinces,  from  Mauritania  to  Britain.  6  and  7.  The  cum- 
ites  dumesticorum  (commanders  of  the  household  guards)  presided  cvei 
the  sf-ven  scholcB  (troops  or  squadrons)  of  cavalry  and  infantry  that 
guarded  the  emperor's  person. 

The  commanders  of  the  army  were  the  mag.otn  eqnitum  (generals  of 
cavalry),  magistri  pedilum  (generals  of  infantry),  and  the  mcgistri  uiri- 
usqiie  milUicB  (commander-in-chief) ;  those  who  commanded  under  them 
were  called  daces  and  comites  (dukes  and  counts)  ;  they  were  distin- 
guished by  wearing  a  golden  belt,  and  received,  in  addition  to  their  pay, 
a  liberal  allowance,  sufficient  to  maintain  one  hundred  and  ninety  ser- 
^•ants,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight  horses.  Constantine  changed 
the  entire  constitution  of  the  legions,  diminishing  their  number  to  less 
than  one  fourth :  to  secure  a  regular  supply  of  y^ung  soldiers,  he  made 
it  one  of  his  conditions,  in  assigning  lands  to  the  veterans,  that  their 
sons  should  be  trained  to  the  profession  of  arms.  But  the  necessity  for 
such  a  stipulation  is  not  the  only  proof  we  have  of  the  decay  of  military 
spirit.  Such  was  the  dislike  the  degenerate  Romans  entertained  for  a 
soldier's  life,  that  many  young  men  in  Italy  mutilated  the  fingers  of 
their  right  hand  to  avoid  being  pressed  into  the  service.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  reluctance,  the  custom  of  employing  the  barbarians  aa 
soldiers  became  every  day  more  frequent  and  more  fatal.  They  were 
not  only  enlisted  in  the  ranks,  but  many  of  them  were  raised  to  tho 
highest  dignities  of  the  state. 

These  changes  in  the  constitution  of  the  civil  and  military  aJminis 
tration  of  the  empire  rendered  the  government  more  costly,  and  required 
an  entirely  new  system  of  taxation  for  their  support.  It  is  one  of  the 
few  advantages  of  an  arbitrary  government,  that  it  is  not  tempted  to  de- 
lude its  subjects  by  the  onerous  and  expensive  machinery  of  indirect 
taxation  through  the  excise  and  customs,  where  an  apparent  choice  is 
left  to  the  purchaser,  and  his  payment  of  the  tax,  by  buying  the  taxed 
diticle,  sesms  to  be  voluntary.  A  despot  may  venture  on  direct  taxa- 
tion of  property  or  person ;  and,  though  this  is  apparently  more  harsh, 
it  is  in  reality  more  favorable  to  the  subject  The  first  of  the  new 
taxes  was  the  indiction,  an  annual  land-tax,  levied  proportionately  to  the 
fertility  of  the  estates  possessed  by  landed  proprietors  ;  and  a  genera! 
census,  or  survey  of  property,  was  made  throughout  the  empire  everj 
fifteen  years,  to  regulate  this  assessment.  Hence  the  name  of  indiction 
is  given  indifi'erently  to  the  tax  and  to  the  cycle  of  registration.  Trade 
and  commerce  were  subjected  to  an  impost  called  the  aurum  hislraJc, 
which  was  collected  every  fourth  year.  "  The  honorable  merchant  of 
Alexandria,  who  imported  the  gems  and  spices  of  India  for  the  western 
world;  the  usurer  who  derived  from  the  interest  of  money  a  silent  and 
gnominious  profit;  the  ingenious  manufacturer,  the  diligent  nifchanic 


ROMAN  EMPIRE  301 

:!!jd  evou  the  inos..  obs  jure  retailer  of  a  sequestered  village,  were  oblioej 
CO  admit  the  ofTscer'*  of  the  revenue  into  the  partnership  of  their  gain 
:ind  the  sovereign  of  the  Roman  empire,  who  tolerated  the  profession. 
Lionsented  to  share  the  infamous  gain  of  prostitutes."*  The  last  impo 
oition  that  need  be  noticed  was  originally  a  free  gift,  called  aurii?n  coro- 
narium,  being  a  compensation  for  the  crown  of  gold  presented  by  the 
allies  of  the  Romans  to  generals  who  had  been  the  authors  of  their  de- 
liverance, or  who  had  conferred  upon  them  any  remarkable  favor.  This 
spontaneous  offering  was  at  length  exacted  as  a  debt,  whenevei  the 
emperor  announced  any  remarkable  event  which  might  give  him  a  real 
or  apparent  claim  to  the  benevolence  of  his  subjects,  such  as  his  ac- 
cession, the  birth  of  a  son,  or  a  victory  over  the  barbarians.  To  these 
must  be  added,  the  municipal  expenses,  which  fell  almost  wholly  on  the 
civic  officers.  Instead  of  having  a  system  of  local  taxation,  the  rich- 
est citizens  were  obliged  to  take  in  turn  the  duty  of  providing  for  the 
administrative  wants  of  the  towns  in  which  they  resided  ;  but  our  in- 
formation respecting  the  practical  operation  of  this  plan  is  too  limited 
.^or  us  to  pronounce  any  opinion  upon  its  efficiency. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  evil  alone  resulted  from  these  changes  ; 
on  the  contrary,  under  the  circumstances  of  the  empire,  Constantines 
innovations  were  for  the  most  part  useful  reforms.  The  great  curse  of 
the  Romans  during  several  centuries  had  been  military  despotism  ;  but 
the  license  of  the  turbulent  soldiery  was  checked  and  restrained  by 
'•  the  pride,  pomp,  and  circumstance,"  with  which  the  civil  administra 
cion  was  surrounded.  The  despotism  of  a  court  was  put  in  place  of 
the  despotism  of  a  camp,  and  it  needs  not  to  be  told,  how  vast  was  tlu; 
improvement  that  must  have  resulted  from  such  an  alteration. 

Under  Constantine,  Christianity  became  the  established  religion  of 
the  empire.  He  found  the  constitution  of  the  church  already  organized 
--its  form  of  government  firmly  established.  Even  in  the  reign  of  Dio- 
clesian  the  bishops  held  an  honorable  rank  in  their  respective  provinces, 
and  were  treated  with  proper  respect,  as  men  of  high  and  sacred  sta- 
tion, not  only  by  the  people,  but  the  magistrates  themselves.  Constan- 
tino saw  clearly  the  advantages  that  would  result  to  the  extent  and  sta- 
bility of  his  power  by  cementing  the  union  between  the  church  and  the 
state  ;  he  therefore  appropriated  a  great  portion  of  the  revenue  of  cities 
to  the  endowment  of  churches  and  the  sup])ort  of  the  clergy.  Thus 
religion  came  to  the  aid  of  police  in  checking  turbulence,  and,  but 
for  the  crimes  and  follies  of  the  rulers,  the  Roman  empire  migb*  have 
enjoyed  a  long  course  of  prosperity  under  the  constitution  of  Constan- 
'ine. 


SECxnjN  IX. — From  the  Dnath  of  Constantine  In  the  Keunion  of  Lite  Empire 
under  Theodosius  the  Great. 

FROM  A.   D.  337  TO  A.   D.   394. 

Constantine  bequeathed  portions  of  his  dominions  to  his  nej  hews 
Dalmatius  and  Ilanriibiliaiius  ;  but  no  notice  was  taken  of  their  claims 
ny  die  army  or  the  Roman  senate,  the  late   emperor's  three  sons  beiru 

•  Gibbon. 


302  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 

[iroclaimed  unanimously  heirs  of  his  dominions.  There  pnnc«3s  had 
been  educated  with  the  greatest  care ;  the  most  pious  of  the  Christian 
teachers,  the  most  celebrated  professors  of  Grecian  philosophy  and  Ro- 
man jurisprudence,  were  engaged  to  superintend  their  instruction  ;  bui 
the  youths,  Constantine,  Constai/tius,  and  Constans,  resembled  their 
mother  Fausta  more  than  their  illustrious  father,  and  were  as  similar  in 
depravity  of  disposition  as  they  were  in  name.  Some  portion  of  thtii 
faults,  must,  however,  be  attributed  to  paternal  weakness.  Ere  they 
had  emerged  from  boyhood  they  were  successively  invested  with  the 
title  of  Ctt-sar  and  invited  to  share  in  the  administration.  Such  inju 
dicious  indulgence  neceoearily  surrounded  them  with  a  crowd  of  flatter- 
ers, ready  to  take  advantage  of  the  warm  passions  and  confiding  dispo- 
sitions of  youth:  they  were  summoned  too  early  from  their  studies,  and 
were  permitted  to  exchange  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  for  the  enjoymem 
.if  luxury,  and  the  expectation  of  a  throne. 

Constan'tius  was  the  nearest  of  the  brothers  to  the  capital  when  their 
father  died ;  he  hastened  to  take  possession  of  the  palace,  and,  to  re- 
move the  apprehensions  of  his  kinsmen,  who  justly  suspected  his 
jealous  temper,  he  took  a  solemn  oath  to  protect  them  from  all  danger. 
in  a  very  few  days  a  forged  scroll  was  placed  in  his  hands  by  the  bishop 
of  Niconiedia,  purporting  to  be  the  genuine  testament  of  the  late  emperor, 
in  which  Constantine  was  made  to  declare  that  he  had  been  poisoned 
by  his  brothers,  and  to  exhort  his  children  to  vengeance.  The  soldiers, 
secretly  prepared  to  second  this  incredible  charge,  loudly  demanded 
the  punishment  of  the  accused  ;  all  legal  forms  were  violated  ;  a  pro- 
miscuous massacre  was  made  of  the  Flavian  family.  The  two  brothers 
of  the  great  Constantine,  seven  of  his  nephews,  the  patrician  Optatus, 
who  had  married  his  sister,  and  his  chief  favorite,  the  praefect  Ablavius, 
were  I)utchered,  without  being  permitted  to  speak  a  word  in  their  owr 
defenc.",.  Gallus  and  Julian,  the  youngest  sons  of  Julius  Constantius 
were  Muth  difficulty  concealed  until  the  rage  of  the  assassins  had  sub- 
sided. 

A  new  division  of  the  empire  was  made  by  the  princes.  Constan 
tine,  the  eldest,  took  possession  of  the  capital ;  Constan'tius  received 
Thrace  and  the  Asiatic  provinces;  the  western  dominions  were  as- 
signed to  Constans.  Ere  long,  the  enemies  of  Rome,  that  had  been 
daunted  by  the  fame  of  Constantine,  began  to  harass  his  successors  ; 
but  far  the  most  dangerous  of  the  wars  in  which  they  had  to  engage 
was  that  waged  by  Shah-pur  II.,  king  of  Persia,  against  Constan'tius. 

Shah-pdr's  previous  history  deserves  to  be  noticed.  His  fatliei  Hor 
miiz  (I/or/rnsdr"')  died,  leaving  no  son  (a.  d.  310) :  the  kingdom  was 
on  the  point  of  i/'ing  thrown  into  confusion,  when  it  was  announced  bj 
f.he  principal  mobeds,  or  priests,  that  one  of  the  ladies  in  th-e  harem  was 
pregiianl  and  that  from  certain  indications,  they  knew  tnat  the  child 
would  be  a  male.  A  strange  ceremony  of  coronation  was  performed 
or  the  unl)orn  infant.  From  the  hour  of  his  birth  the  whole  nation 
wat'died  over  his  progress  with  the  most  anecti'juate  interes*,  and  the 
eatiy  proofs  he  exhibited  of  spirit  and  ability  spread  universal  joy 
through  Persia.  He  had  not  emerged  from  boyhood,  when  the  fierce 
Arab  trilies  from  the  neigboring  peninsula  took  advantage  of  his  minor 
ft_w  to  desolite  his  kingdom :   the  royal  youth  m.-»-clied  against  thent 


ROMAN  EMPIRE  SOo 

routed  their  forces,  slew  many,  and  took  a  greater  nuinner  prisuiiers. 
To  terrify  their  countrymen  irom  renewing  such  an  invasion,  he  cause'! 
the  shoulders  of  his  captives  to  be  pierced,  and  then  dislocated  by  a 
~»rrig  passed  through  them ;  and  from  this  circumstance  he  received 
the  formidable  title  of  Zulaktdf,  or  "  Lord  of  the  shoulders.'' 

Shah-pur,  or  Sapor  as  he  is  called  by  western  writers,  inherited  the 
pretensions  of  the  Sassanides  to  the  empire  of  Cyrus ;  but  he  was  par- 
ticularly anxious  to  recover  the  five  provinces  that  had  been  ceded  to 
the  Romans  bevond  the  Tigris,  and  to  assert  the  ancient  supremacy  of 
his  family  over  Mesopotamia.  Constan'tius  hastened  to  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates  on  the  first  news  of  the  approach  of  so  formidable  an  inva- 
der ;  but  the  war  long  continued  to  be  a  series  of  petty  skirmishes  and 
predatory  incursions  Nine  sanguinary  but  indecisive  engagement? 
were  fought ;  but  at  length  the  Romans,  by  their  own  imprudence,  re 
ceived  a  decisive  overthrow  in  the  plains  of  Sin'gara  (Suijar),  not  far 
from  the  ruins  of  Bab'ylon  (a.  d.  348).  Sapor,  encouraged  by  this 
victory,  laid  siege  to  Nis'ibis  (Ntsibin) ;  but.  after  he  had  lost  more  than 
twenty  thousand  men  before  the  walls,  he  was  forced  to  relinquish  the 
enterprise,  and  hasten  to  the  defence  of  his  eastern  provinces,  which 
were  invaded  by  the  fierce  tribes  from  beyond  the  Gxus.  This  war  in- 
duced him  to  propose  terms  of  truce  to  Constan'tius,  which  that  prince 
readily  accepted  (a.  d.  350),  as  the  troubled  state  of  the  empire  ren-. 
dered  his  presence  necessary  in  Europe. 

Three  years  had  scarcely  elapsed  from  the  partition  of  the  empire, 
when  the  ambition  of  Constan'tine  kindled  the  flames  of  civil  war 
(a.  d.  34-0).  Not  content  with  wresting  the  African  provinces  froni 
Constans,  he  invaded  that  prince's  dominions  through  the  Julian  Alps, 
and  devastated  ^he  country  round  Aquileia.  But,  advancing  with  great 
imprudence,  he  i^ell  into  an  ambuscade  near  the  little  river  A_l'sa  (Ansa), 
and  was  slain  with  the  greater  part  of  his  followers.  Constans  took 
possession  of  his  brother's  provinces,  and  showed  no  inclination  to  re- 
serve any  share  for  the  absent  Constan'tius. 

During  ten  years  Constans  remained  master  of  two  thirds  of  the  em- 
pire, which  he  plundered  by  his  rapacity,  and  disgraced  by  his  vicec. 
He  usually  resided  in  Gaul,  whose  forests  afforded  him  opportimities 
for  hunting,  the  only  manly  sport  to  which  he  was  addicted.  While 
pursuing  game  ii,  a  neighboring  forest,  Magnen'tius,  who  commanded 
the  imperial  forces  sta/:ioned  at  Augustodunum  {Ai/tun),  caused  himself 
to  be  proclaimed  emperor,  and  closed  the  gates  of  the  cky.  Tidings 
of  the  revolt  were,  however,  conveyed  to  Constans  :  he  fled  toward 
Spain,  but  was  overtaken  at  EUib'eris  {Elne),  or,  as  it  was  then  called, 
Hel'ena,  in  memory  of  the  mother  of  Constantino,  and  put  to  death. 

The  usurpation  of  Magnen'tius  in  Gaul  was  followed  by  that  of  Ve- 
franio  in  Illyria  ;  but  the  latter  general  assumed  the  purple  very  reluc- 
tantly, being  compelled  by  the  clamors  of  his  soldiers,  ami  urged  by  the 
princess  Constaritina,  who  placed  the  crown  on  his  head  with  her  own 
hand.  This  ambitious  woman  had  been  the  wife  of  llanniliilianus,  her 
cousin,  whose  sad  fate  has  been  already  mentioned.  She  was  eager  to 
possess  power,  and  so  unscriipidous  about  the  means,  that  she  persuaded 
Votranio  to  form  an  alliance  with  Matrnen'tius,  whose  hands  yet  reeked 
with  the  blood  of  her  brother  Constans. 


P04  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Coiistan'tius,  having  concluded  a  truce  with  Sapor  intrusted  the  caie 
of  the  east  to  his  lieutenants,  but  afterward  to  his  cousin  Gallus,  whom 
he  thus  raised  from  a  prison  to  a  throne.  He  then  hastened  to  Europe, 
deceived  Vetranio  by  offering  to  make  him  his  colleague,  and  obtained 
admission  into  Constantinople.  In  a  public  assembly  of  the  army  and 
people,  the  artful  prince,  in  a  studied  address,  asserted  his  claims  to  the 
empire  ;  a  unanimous  burst  of  applause  was  followed  by  shouts  for  the 
deposition  of  the  usurpers  ;  Vetranio  quietly  submitted,  and,  taking  the 
diadem  from  his  head,  tended  his  homage  to  Constan'tius.  The  prince 
not  only  spared  his  rival's  life,  but  assigned  him  a  considerable  pension. 
Vetranio  retired  to  Prusa  [Bru.sa),  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  ii. 
retirement,  without  ever  expressing  a  desire  to  resume  the  sceptre. 
Magnen'tius  foresaw  that  he  would  be  the  next  assailed,  and  he  led  his 
anny  into  lower  Pannonia,  which  became  the  theatre  of  a  fierce  and 
sanguinary  war. 

The  armies  finally  met  for  a  decisive  battle  on  the  plains  of  Mur'sa 
(Essek)  ;  the  heavy  cavalry  of  Constan'tius,  sheathed  in  full  panoply  of 
plates  of  steel,  decided  the  fate  of  the  day,  the  very  weight  of  their 
onset  breaking  the  lines  of  the  western  legions,  while  the  light  archers 
of  Asia  harassed  the  naked  German  auxiliaries,  on  whom  Magnen'tius 
chiefiy  relied,  and  reduced  them  to  such  despair,  that  battalions  threw 
.themselves  into  the  rapid  stream  of  the  Drave.  Still,  so  obstinate  was 
the  battle,  that  fifty-four  thousand  fell  in  the  field,  and  the  victors  sul- 
fered  more  severely  than  the  vanquished.  It  has  been  justly  observed 
hat  the  destructive  plains  of  iMur'sa  absorbed  the  strength  of  the 
empire ;  for  never  again  could  the  Roman  rulers  collect  such  noble 
bands  of  veterans  as  perished  there  by  mutual  slaughter. 

iMagnen'iius  fled  to  Italy,  whither  he  was  followed  by  Constan'tius 
in  the  Ibllowing  spring.  The  peninsula  soon  submitted  to  its  legitimate 
sovereign  ;  but  the  usurper  escaped  into  Gaul.  Finding,  however,  that 
he  covdd  not  long  protract  resistance,  he  batfled  the  vengeance  of  Con- 
stan'tius by  suicide  ;  his  associates  were  reduced  either  to  follow  his 
example,  or  suffer  the  penalties  of  treason. 

Constan'tius  had  given  Constantina  in  marriage  to  his  cousin  Gallus, 
invested  him  with  the  title  of  Caesar,  and  intrusted  him  with  the  admin-' 
istration  of  Asia.  The  Caesar,  naturally  of  a  sullen  and  morose  temper, 
had  been  soured  by  the  sutf'^nngs  of  his  early  youth,  and  his  evil 
passions  were  stimulated  by  the  ambitious  intrigues  of  the  princess  to 
whom  he  was  unlortunately  united.  His  excesses  at  length  compelled 
Constan'tius  to  send  commissioners  to  investigate  the  state  of  the  east : 
these  otiicers  proceeded  to  Ant'och,  where  they  seem  to  have  conducted 
themselves  with  unnecessary  and  ofiensive  haughtiness  ;  but  their  faults 
afford  no  sullicient  excuse  lor  the  crime  of  Gallus,  who  urged  the 
populace  ol  Antioch  to  put  the  commissioners  to  death  with  torture  and 
insult,  and  then  ordered  their  budies  to  be  thrown  into  the  Oron'tes 
{Auszij).  Constan'tius,  instead  of  openly  resenting  the  outrage,  invited 
Gallus  to  visit  him  :  the  Caesar  delayed  until  further  procrastination  was 
impossible ;  he  proceeded  on  the  road  to  Milan  through  Asia  and 
Thrace,  in  safety  ;  but  when  he  passed  the  frontiers  of  Pannonia,  he 
was  i)laced  under  arrest,  hurried  to  a  distant  castle  in  Istria,  and  secretly 
put  to  (V;>th  (a.  d.  354).     Julian,  the  only  surviving  descendant  of  Con 


KOMAN    EMPIRE  305 

slin'tius  Chlorus,  except  the  reigning  emperor,  would  have  shared  his 
brother's  fate,  but  for  the  generous  interference  of  the  empress  Eusebia. 
She  procured  him  permission  to  prosecute  his  studies  in  Athens,  where 
dazzled  bv  the  false  philosophy  of  the  schools,  he  forsook  Christianity 
for  paganism,  and  earned  for  himself  the  unenviable  title  of  Apostate 
After  he  had  been  more  than  a  year  in  retirement,  he  was  summoned 
to  court,  united  to  Hel'ena,  the  sister  of  the  emperor,  and  appointed  to 
govern  the  countries  north  of  the  Alps,  with  the  title  of  Cajsar. 

Constan'tius  himself  had  gained  several  victories  over  the  Germanic 
tribes ;  but  he  delayed  in  the  west  after  the  departure  of  Julian,  to  sup- 
port the  cause  of  the  Arians  against  the  orthodox  prelates.  Before  re- 
turning to  the  east,  he  resolved  to  ^-isit  the  ancient  capital  of  the  em- 
pire ;  and  Rome,  after  an  interval  of  thirty-two  years,  was  gladdened 
with  the  presence  of  its  sovereign.  Constan'tius  was  so  pleased  with 
his  reception,  that  he  presented  to  the  city  the  splendid  Theban  obelisk, 
with  which  his  father  had  intended  to  adorn  Constantinople.  He  was 
compelled  to  hurry  his  departure  by  intelligence  of  the  Sarmatians  hav- 
ing invaded  Pannonia.  Constan'tius  soon  appeared  on  the  Danube  : 
he  gained  several  important  victories  over  the  barbarians  ;  but  scarcely 
had  he  secunjd  the  tranquillity  of  his  northern  frontiers,  when  he  was 
iiireatened  with  more  dangerous  hostilities  on  the  side  of  Persia. 

Having  subdued  the  fierce  tribes  of  Turkestan,  Sapor  renewed  his 
attacks  upon  the  Roman  empire,  and,  guided  by  a  deserter,  entered 
Mesopotamia.  Irritated  by  the  insolence  of  the  inhabitants,  he  laid 
siege  to  Am'ida  (Diarbckr) ;  and  though  he  captured  that  strong  city,  hts 
lost  the  favorable  season  of  invading  Syria,  and  was  forced  to  content 
himself  with  reducing  Sin'gara  [Sanjar)  and  Bezabde  (^Jezirah).  Con- 
stan'uus  made  an  effort  to  recover  Bezabde,  but  was  compelled  to  raise 
the  siege.  He  returned  to  Antioch,  where  his  mortification  was 
increased  by  intelligence  of  the  brilliant  achievements  of  Julian  in 
Gaul.  The  young  prince  had  vanquished  the  AUemans,  the  Franks, 
and  several  other  formidable  tribes  ;  he  had  pursued  his  victorious 
career  beyond  the  Rhine,  and  by  his  rapid  conquests  filled  Germany 
with  confusion  ;  while  the  prudence  of  his  civil  administration  raised 
Gaul  to  unexampled  prosperity.  Constan'tius  resolved  to  weaken  the 
strength  of  the  Caesar,  and  summoned  his  best  legions  from  Gaul  to 
defend  the  east ;  the  soldiers  refused  to  obey,  and  proclaimed  Julian 
3mperor.  Preparations  for  civil  war  were  made  on  both  sides  ;  but  its 
calamities  weie  averted  by  the  death  of  Constan'tius  (a  d.  361).  During 
'.his  entire  reign,  the  Christian  church  was  scandalized  and  distracted 
by  fierce  disputes  arising  out  of  the  Arian  heresy :  Constan'tius  was 
the  avowed  partisan  of  the  Arians,  and  encouraged  them  in  their  per- 
secution of  the  orthodox,  especially  sanctioning  the  efforts  made  or  the 
destruction  of  the  celebrated  Athanasius,  bishop  of  Alexandria. 

When  Julian  reached  Ileracloa(£r<A/<),  though  he  was  still  sixty  miles 
distant  from  the  capital,  the  whole  population  of  Constantinople  came 
out  to  welcome  his  arrival,  and  he  made  his  triumphal  entry  amid 
general  acclamations.  One  of  his  earliest  measures  was  to  constitute 
a.  court  at  Chal'codon  (Scutaii)  for  the  trial  of  such  ministers  of  Con- 
sJan'tins  as  might  be  accused  of  peculation.  Many  of  them  indeed  well 
rleper\ed   punishment ;  but  the  ostentatious    mode  in  which   they  ^ve~^ 

20 


SO(j  ANCIENT  IIISTORV. 

brought  10  trial  was  an  ungenerous  attack  on  the  memory  of  the  latt 
3mperor,  and  the  inquisitions  were  conducted  with  such  indiscriminate 
severity,  that  many  innocent  persons  sufi'ered  with  the  guilty.  He  then 
commenced  a  complete  reform  cf  the  court,  banishing  the  eunuchs  and 
other  ministers  of  luxury;  but  with  the  idle  parade  of  pomp,  Julian 
discarded  many  of  the  decencies  of  life,  ostentatiously  exhibiting  a  dis- 
regard for  personal  cleanliness,  as  if  filth  was  a  necessary  element  of 
philosophy.  But  the  great  object  of  his  ambition  was  to  restore  ancient 
paganism ;  he  revoked  the  edicts  that  had  beeii  issued  against  idolatry, 
under  the  plausible  pretext  of  granting  freedom  oi  opinion  to  all  his  sub- 
jects ;  he  encouraged  the  philosophers  to  veil  the  most  revolting  fictions 
of  mythology  under  allegorical  explanations  ;  he  showed  a  marked  dis- 
like to  the  Christians  who  visited  the  court ,  and  finally  he  closed  the 
schools  which  were  kept  by  the  clergy. 

But  the  most  remarkable  of  his  enterprises  for  the  overthrow  of 
Christianity  was  his  celebrated  attempt  to  rebuild  the  temple  of  Jeru- 
salem, which  appears  to  have  been  miraculously  defeated.  Seeing  that 
the  condition  of  the  Jews  was  a  standing  miracle  in  proof  of  Chris- 
tianity, he  resolved  to  weaken  or  destroy  its  effect,  by  restoring  to  that 
people  their  ancient  city  and  national  worship,  erecting  for  them  at  the 
same  time  a  temple  on  Mount  Moriah,  whose  splendor  should  surpass 
that  of  the  church  of  the  holy  sepulchre.  This  measure  was  frustrated, 
after  great  expense  had  been  incurred  in  making  preparations  for  its 
execution,  as  most  historians  declare,  in  consequence  of  balls  of  fire  that 
burst  from  the  earth,  and  scared  the  workmen  employed  to  dig  the  foun- 
dation. Whether  the«e  phenomena  were  supernatural,  or  whether  they 
ever  had  existence,  is  really  of  little  importance  in  the  great  weight 
that  the  occurrence  gives  to  the  evidence  in  favor  of  the  divine  origin 
of  Christianity :  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  the  earth  attempted  to 
erect  a  building  in  one  of  his  cities  ;  he  was  aided  by  a  wealthy  and 
zealous  people  ;  pride,  passion,  and  interest,  equally  urged  him  to  per- 
severe ;  yet  was  he  forced  to  abandon  the  enterprise.  Assuredly  we 
must  say,  "  the  finger  of  God  is  here  !" 

While  Julian,  by  withholding  his  countenance  from  sincere  believers 
on  the  one  hand,  and  placing  every  possible  impediment  in  the  way  of 
instruction  on  the  other,  was  using  all  his  efforts  to  check  the  progres? 
i/f  (Christianity,  he  was  summoned  to  take  the  field  against  the  Persians, 
who  had  renewed  their  incursions.  Juhan  invaded  their  dominions, 
and  gained  several  great  triumphs,  though  he  was  unable  to  bring  the 
enemy  to  a  decisive  engagement.  His  march  led  him  through  the 
deserts  of  Hat'ra,  which  skirt  the  Tigris  ;  but  the  city  of  Hai'ra,  erected 
like  Palmy'ra  in  a  fertile  oasis,  ^^. pears  to  have  been  deserted  at  his 
approach.  From  the  magiuficence  of  its  ruins,  and  the  fact  that  the 
oity  continued  to  be  inhabited  until  the  twelfth  century  of  our  era,  it  is 
probable  that  this,  witli  several  otlier  cities,  was  dismantled  b/  the 
Persians  to  deprive  the  Romans  of  the  resources  which  these  "  settle- 
ments in  the  desert,"  might  have  supplied.  At  length,  deceived  by 
treacherous  guides,  he  burned  his  bouts,  and  advanced  into  a  deserl 
country,  where  his  army  was  soon  reduced  to  great  distress  from  wan 
:)f  provisions.  Under  these  circumstances  he  resolved  to  return  ;  bul 
his  retrograde    march  was  greatly  impeded   by  the  light  cavalry  of  thf^ 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  307 

Persians,  who  hovered  round  the  flanks  and  rear,  discharging  showers 
of  darts  and  arrows,  but  retreating,  like  the  Parthian s  their  predecessors 
whenever  any  effort  was  made  to  bring  them  to  a  legular  engagemeni 
At  length  Julian  himself  was  mortally  wounded,  in  a  skirmish  whirl 
proved  favorable  to  the  Romans.  He  died  the  same  night  (a.  d.  363) 
about  twenty  months  after  his  becoming  sole  master  of  the  empire. 

Jovian,  the  first  of  the  domestics,  was  saluted  Augustus  by  the  army 
and  his  first  care  was  to  conclude  a  dishonorable  peace  with  the  Per 
sians,  resigning  to  Sapor  not  only  the  five  provinces  beyond  the  Tigris, 
but  the  whole  of  Mesopotamia,  including  the  fortified  cities  of  Nis'ibis 
and  Sin'gara,  which  had  so  often  baffled  the  most  vigorous  efforts  of  the 
Sassan'ides.  His  next  enterprise  was  more  glorious  :  he  restored  the 
Christian  religion  to  its  ancient  supremacy  ;  but  he  calmt^d  the  fears 
of  his  pagan  subjects  by  a  wise  edict  of  toleration,  in  which  he  pro- 
hibited no  rites,  however  idolatrous,  save  those  of  magic.  On  his  jour- 
ney toward  Constantinople,  he  slept  in  a  damp  room,  which  his  attend- 
ants had  heated  with  charcoal ;  he  was  suffocated  by  the  mephitic  va- 
por, and  found  dead  in  his  bed  (a.  d.  364). 

For  ten  days  after  the  death  of  Jovian,  the  empire  remained  without 
a  sovereign.  Al  length  the  Count  Valentinian  was  chosen  by  the  coun- 
cil of  ministers  and  generals,  and  the  army  unanimously  acquiesced  in 
their  decision.  Soon  after  his  election  the  new  emperor  divided  his 
dominions  with  his  brother  Valens,  to  whom  he  assigned  the  eastern 
provinces,  reserving  to  himself  Illyr'icum,  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  Britain, 
and  Africa.  The  emperor  of  the  west  made  Milan  the  seat  of  his  gov- 
ernment ;  Valens  established  his  court  at  Constantinople.  This  divis- 
ion of  the  Roman  dominions  into  eastern  and  western  empires  was  so 
manifestly  required  by  the  necessity  of  the  times,  that  it  provoked  nei- 
ther observation  nor  remonstrance.  Henceforth  their  histories  re- 
quire separate  consideration  ;  and  we  shall,  in  the  first  place,  direct  our 
attention  to  the  reign  of  Valentinian. 

The  emperor  had  scarcely  reached  Italy,  when  he  was  summoned  to 
cross  the  Alps  by  an  invasion  of  the  Germans,  who  devastated  all  north- 
ern and  western  Gaul,  defeating  two  Roman  armies  that  had  been  sent 
to  check  their  inroads.  Valentinian  made  the  most  vigorous  efforts  to 
retrieve  the  fame  of  the  empire,  and  succeeded  ;  but  his  exertions 
brought  on  a  disease  that  nearly  deprived  him  of  life.  The  angry  dis- 
putes respecting  the  succession  which  had  taken  place  during  his  ill- 
ness, filled  him  with  just  alarm :  and  immediately  after  hib  recovery, 
he  tjok  care  to  have  his  soi.  Gratian  recognised  as  his  heir,  and  pro- 
claimed Caesar  in  the  presence  of  the  army.  The  piracies  of  the  Sax- 
ons in  the  northern  seas  first  began  to  attract  attention  in  the  reign  of 
Valentinian  ;  and  so  severely  did  they  harass  the  northern  coasts  of 
Gaul,  that  it  was  necessary  to  apponil  a  maritime  court  for  their  pro- 
faction.  At  the  same  time  the  province  of  Britain  was  invaded  bj'  the 
Plots  and  Scots  :  so  ra[)id  was  the  progress  of  the  barbarians,  aided 
probably  l)y  some  of  tlie  discontented  natives,  that  Britain  would  have 
been  lost  to  the  empire,  but  for  the  heroic  exertions  of  'i'heodosius,  ..' 
whom  Valentinian  intrusted  the  pacification,  or  rather  the  recovery  of 
the  island.  This  ai)le  commander  not  urdy  restrained  the  barbarians 
hut  in   some  measure    restored  the  ancient  prosperity  of  the  province  : 


308 


ANCIENT  HISTORY 


ue  was  rewarded  by  tlie  emperor  with  the  office  of  master-general  oc 
the  cavalry,  and  ap  pointed  to  protect  the  frontier  of  the  upper  Danube 
from  the  inroads  of  the  Allemans,  until  he  was  chosen  to  a  more  im- 
portant station,  and  intrusted  with  the  suppression  of  the  formidable  re- 
v'oh  of  Africa. 

Count  Romanus,  the  military  governor  of  Africa,  had  provoked  gen- 
oral  resentment  by  his  avarice  and  exactions  ;  complaints  were  made 
if  him  to  Valentinian,  and  a  commissioner  ap])ointed  to  investigate  hit- 
delinquency  ;  but  the  count  bribed  the  imperial  ministers  and  commis- 
sioners, purchased  security  from  a  venal  court,  and  severely  punished 
those  who  had  been  guilty  of  the  treason  of  complaint.  Provoked  by 
such  accumulated  wrongs,  the  Africans  revolted,  choosing  for  their 
leader  Fin'nus,  the  son  of  the  wealthy  Nabal,  who  had  been  summoned 
to  appear  before  the  governor's  tribunal  on  a  cliarge  of  murdering  his 
brother.  Numidia  and  Mauritania  were  already  in  possession  of  the 
insurgents,  when  the  entire  face  of  the  war  was  changed  by  the  arrival 
of  Theodosius  :  from  the  moment  of  his  landing,  the  revolters  seem  to 
have  lost  all  courage  ;  after  a  weak  struggle,  Fin'nus  abandoned  his 
army,  to  seek  refuge  with  the  prince  of  a  native  trilie  in  the  interior ; 
but  he  was  betrayed  to  the  Romans,  and  could  only  escape  a  public  ex- 
ecution by  committing  suicide.  Scarcely  had  this  war  terminated, 
when  Valentinian  died  suddenly,  while  waging  war  against  the  Quadi 
(a.  d.  375).  He  had  conquered  these  savage  warriors,  and  deputiee 
had  been  sent  to  deprecate  his  resentment  ;  but  while  reproaching  the 
ambassadors  with  national  perfidy,  he  worked  himself  into  such  a  pas- 
sion, that  he  burst  a  blood-vessel,  and  instantly  expired.  Valentinian 
was  naturally  cruel  and  severe,  but  he  was  disposed  to  be  inflexibly 
just  •  and  the  many  unmerited  executions  that  he  sanctioned  must  be 
attributed  to  the  artifices  of  corrupt  ministers.  He  was  warmly  attached 
to  the  orthodox  faith,  and  readily  gave  shelter  to  the  bishops  and  clergy 
who  sought  refuge  in  his  court  from  the  persecutions  of  his  brother 
Valens. 

The  emperor  of  the  east,  soon  after  his  accession,  went  into  Syria, 
which  was  threatened  by  a  Persian  invasion  ;  but  before  he  could 
complete  his  preparations  for  war,  he  was  alarmed  by  the  revolt  of  Pro- 
copius,  a  kinsman  of  the  emperor  Julian,  but  possessing  no  other  merit, 
whose  pretensions  were  acknowledged  by  a  considerable  body  of  the 
army,  and  the  citizens  of  Constantinople.  Valens  was  defeated  in  hisr 
first  efl'urls  to  overthrow  the  usurper;  but  Procopius  soon  disgusted  his- 
suppcjriers  by  excessive  haughtiness  and  tyraimy ;  he  was  deserted  by 
those  who  had  been  foremost  in  placing  him  upon  the  throne,  and  waf- 
taken  prisoner  almost  witliout  a  c  )ntest.  His  fate  involved  that  of  many 
others,  for  Vahnis  was  a  stranger  to  mercy.  The  emperor  was  sooi 
more  honorably  engaged  in  a  war  with  the  fJoths,  whom  he  completely 
subdued,  and  f()tn[)('lle(l  to  submit  to  humiliating  conditions  of  peace. 

The  dangerous  schism  in  the  church  caused  hv  the  heresy  of  A'riud 
was  greatly  aogravatcd  by  tlie  iiitemperaie  zeal,  and  in  some  instances 
by  the  unhallowed  ambition  of  rival  prelat*  s:  Valens  declared  himself 
d  pairoii  of  tin!  Anans,  and  c;ai:>eil  no  fewer  than  eighty  orlhodo? 
"icclHyiasrics  to  he  nniplered,  for  mamtaininir  the  election  of  a  bishop  of 
heir   creed   to   the    see  of  Consiaritm.  i-le,      Armenia  was  at  the  same 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  306 

.ime  invcided  by  the  Persians  ;  but  Sapor  having  received  a  &e\eie  de- 
feat, and  the  Armenian  prince  Paras,  on  whose  aid  he  relied,  havinii 
been  treacherously  murdered  by  the  Romans,  the  tmce  was  once  nio'e 
renewed. 

In  the  western  empire  Valentinian  had  been  succeeded  by  his  son- 
Gratian  and  Valentinian  II. ;  the  latter,  a  child  only  fire  years  old,  was 
added  as  a  colleague  to  Gratian  by  the  general  council  of  the  army. 
Gratian  II.  commenced  his  reign  by  punishing  those  ministers  and  sen- 
ators who  had  been  guilty  of  extortion  ;  but  yielding  to  the  suggestion,^ 
of  envious  courtiers,  he  sanctioned  the  execution  of  the  gallant  Theodo- 
sius,  who  had  just  completed  his  conquest  of  the  Moors  :  the  emperor, 
after  some  time,  discovered  by  what  gross  misrepresentations  he  had 
been  led  to  commit  so  great  a  crime,  and  bitterly  repented  of  his  guilt. 
He  made  several  laws  favorable  to  the  interest  of  the  church,  ordaining 
that  all  controversies  respecting  religion  should  be  decided  by  the  bishop 
and  synod  of  the  provinces  in  which  they  occurred  ;  that  the  clergy 
should  be  free  from  personal  charges  ;  and  that  all  places  where  hetero- 
dox doctrines  were  taught  should  be  confiscated. 

The  western  empire  was  enjoying  profound  peace,  and  the  jasteru 
provinces  were  beginning  to  taste  the  unusual  sweets  of  repose,  when 
a  people  more  ferocious  than  any  barbarians  hitherto  known  appeared 
for  the  first  time  on  the  northeastern  frontiers.  The  Huns,  crossing 
the  Tanais  (Dwn)  and  Palus  Maeotis  [Sea  of  Azov),  drove  before  them  the 
nations  that  dwelt  north  of  the  Danube  ;  and  these  fugitives,  hurled  one 
upon  another,  were  forced  to  invade  the  Roman  provinces,  and  com- 
mence the  dismemberment  of  the  empire.  The  earliest  accounts  of  the 
Huns  are  to  be  found  in  the  Chinese  historians,  who  call  these  savages,- 
"  Huing  Nu,"  and  describe  them  as  masters  of  the  country  between 
the  river  Irtish,  the  Altaian  mountains,  the  Chinese  wall,  and  Mantchew 
Tartary.  Their  personal  appearance  v/as  almost  a  caricature  of  hu- 
mnnity ;  so  that  the  Romans  compared  them  to  a  block  of  wood  which 
had  been  only  partially  trimmed  :  this  is  said  to  have  been  in  some  de- 
gree caused  by  the  strange  custom  of  flattening  the  nose  of  male  in-  ■ 
fants  the  moment  they  were  born,  in  order  that  the  vizor  which  they 
wore  ill  battle  should  fit  closer  to  the  face,  and  also  to  their  plucking 
out  the  beard  by  the  roots  as  soon  as  it  began  to  grow.  They  lived  on 
raw  flesh,  or  at  best  only  sodden  by  being  placed  under  their  saddles 
and  pressed  against  the  backs  of  their  steeds  during  a  sli(^rp  gallop  : 
devoted  to  war  and  the  chase,  they  left  the  cultivation  of  their  fields  to 
v/omer  and  slaves  ;  they  built  no  cities  ;  they  erected  no  houses  ;  any 
place  encircled  by  walls  they  looked  upon  as  a  sepulchre,  and  never 
believed  themselves  in  safety  beneath  a  roof.  About  the  commence- 
ment of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  southern  Huns, 
aided  by  the  Chinese  and  the  eastern  Tartars,  expelled  their  northen: 
brethren  from  their  ancient  habitations,  and  compelled  them  to  seek 
refuge  in  the  territories  of  the  Bashkirs.  Here  they  were  brought  into 
contact  with  a  fiercer  but  less  warliiie  race,  the  A'lans,  whom  they 
^adually  drove  before  them,  being  pressed  forward  themselves  by  fresh 
nordes  from  the  east,  until  they  took  possession  of  the  plains  between 
ilie  Ilha  (  Volga)  and  the  Tanais. 

Joined  by  the  A'lans  ard  other  barbarous  tribes  that  they  had  con 


310  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

quered,  the  innumerable  cavaliy  of  ths  Ilun'^  passed  the  lov^'or  Tunais, 
r.nd  swept  the  rich  fields  of  the  Ostrogoths.  The  Gothic  armies  were 
:3eioated,  and  at  length  the  greater  part  of  that  nation  abandoned  the 
country  that  they  had  laboriously  brought  to  a  high  state  of  cultivation 
?,nd  retired  beyond  the  Borys'thenes  {Dnifpcr)  and  the  Danas'tiit 
(Dniester).  The  Huns  made  a  horrible  carnage  of  those  who  remained, 
sparing  neither  women  nor  children  ;  and  all  who  did  not  save  them- 
selves by  a  precipitate  flight,  perished  by  the  edge  of  the  sword.  The 
conquerors  soon  passed  the  Danas'tus,  and  inflicted  the  same  calami- 
tics  on  the  Visigoths  to  which  they  had  already  subjected  their  eastern 
brethren.  Athan'aric,  the  Gothic  monarch,  after  having  suffered  a  se- 
vere defeat,  saw  no  better  mode  of  defence  than  to  fortify  himself  be- 
tween the  Hieras'sus  [Prnt/i)  and  the  Danube,  by  a  wall  extending  from 
one  river  to  the  other,  leaving  the  rest  of  his  country  exposed  to  the 
ravages  of  the  dreadful  Huns. 

The  whole  Gothic  nation  was  redviced  to  despair ;  their  warrior-s, 
who  had  so  often  maintained  a  fierce  struggle  against  the  legions,  now 
appeared  as  suppliants  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  petitioning  for  per- 
mission to  cultivate  the  waste  lands  of  Thrace.  Their  request  was 
granted,  on  condition  of  their  resigning  their  arms  ;  but  the  officers  sent 
to  see  this  stipulation  enforced  were  bribed  to  neglect  their  duty :  most 
of  the  Goths  retained  their  weapons,  which  they  regarded  as  the  means 
of  obtaining  more  valuable  possessions  than  those  they  had  lost. 

About  the  same  time,  Arianism  was  established  among  the  Goths, 
by  the  exertions  of  their  bishop,  the  celebrated  Ul'philas,  who  invented 
the  Gothic  alphabet :  this  subsequently  aggravated  their  hostility  to  the 
Romans ;  for  the  enmity  of  rival  sects  had,  toward  the  close  of  the 
"ourth  century,  become  greater  than  that  between  Christians  and  pa- 
gans. The  officers  whom  Valens  chose  to  superintend  the  settlement 
of  the  Goths  were  the  most  profligate  extortioners  even  of  his  corrupt 
court ;  instead  of  supplying  provisions  to  the  fugitives  imtil  their  new 
lands  would  yield  a  harvest,  as  had  been  promised,  they  closed  the  mag- 
.azines,  and  charged  exorbitant  prices  for  the  worst  and  most  revolting 
kinds  of  food.  At  length  Lupicinus  attempted  to  murder  Frit'igern  and 
the  other  chiefs  of  the  Goths,  at  a  banquet  in  Marcianop'olis  [Pravodi) 
to  which  they  had  been  treacherously  invited.  The  plot  exploded  pre- 
maturely ;  the  Gotliic  le3,ders  escaped  ;  and  their  followers  took  revenge 
for  the  atrocious  breach  of  hospitality  by  massacring  the  greater  part 
of  the  Roman  legicis.  In  the  meantime,  the  Ostrogoths,  pressed  for- 
ward by  the  Huns,  had  crossed  the  Danube  and  reinforced  Frit'igern 
just  as  the  war  was  about  to  commence  :  thus  supported,  the  irritated 
sovereign  devastated  Thrace,  Macedon,  and  Thessaly,  approached  the 
walls  of  Constantinople,  and  destroyed  its  suburbs.  Valens  wrote  to 
Gratian  for  aid  ;  and  the  young  emperor,  though  harassed  by  wars  with 
the  Germanic  tribes  and  the  A'lans,  marched  to  his  assistance.  He 
was  delayed,  however,  by  illness  at  Sir'mium ;  and  before  he  could  re- 
sume his  march,  Valens  was  no  more.  The  ea.stern  emperor,  baffled 
by  the  artifices  and  enraged  by  the  boldness  of  Frit'igern,  hazarded  a 
decisive  battle  near  Adrianople,  in  which  he  was  defeated  and  slair 
{\.  n.  378).  The  Romans  had  not  suffered  so  severe  a  loss  since  the) 
were  overthrown  by  Han'nibal  at  Cannae :  two  thirds  of  the  legion.^ 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  311 

including  thiity-five  tribunes  and  commanders  of  cohorts,  fell  in  the  fatai 
lield. 

Gratian  was  incapable  of  remedying  this  disaster  without  the  aid  of 
a  colleague,  for  he  could  not  advance  against  the  Goths  without  leaving 
the  western  provinces  a  prey  to  the  Germans.  He  chose  as  his  asso- 
ciate Theodosius,  afterward  named  the  Great,  son  of  the  elder  1  hc- 
odosius,  whom  he  had  unjustly  put  to  death. 

The  accession  of  Theodosius  was  hailed  with  delight  by  all  the  east- 
em  provinces  ;  he  defeated  the  Goths  in  the  field  ;  but  what  was  of  stil] 
greater  importance,  he  won  their  affections  by  his  justice  and  modera- 
tion ;  so  that  they  voluntarily  promised  not  only  to  abstain  from  hostili- 
ties, but  to  protect  the  frontiers  of  the  Danube.  Being  himself  sin- 
cerely attached  to  the  orthodox  faith,  he  summoned  a  general  council  at 
Constantinople  to  check  the  progress  of  heresy,  and  issued  several 
edicts  to  restrain  the  teachers  of  erroneous  opinions.  While  he  was 
thus  engaged,  Max'imus,  the  governor  of  Britain,  revolted  against  Gra- 
tian, and  was  joined  by  the  whole  of  the  western  legions.  The  em- 
peror, seeing  himself  abandoned  by  his  troops,  fled  toward  Italy,  but 
was  overtaken  at  Lugdunum  [Lyons],  and  put  to  death  (a.  d.  383). 
St.  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  courageously  went  into  Gaul,  claimed 
the  body  ol  the  deceased  emperor  from  the  usurper,  obtained  it  after 
some  delay,  and  honorably  interred  the  remains  of  Gratian  in  the  sep- 
ulchre that  had  been  raised  for  the  Valentinian  family  in  the  Milanese 
cathedral. 

jMax'iimis,  to  support  his  usurpation,  had  brought  with  him  the  flowei 
of  the  British  youth ;  but  the  Roman  province,  thus  deprived  of  its  de- 
fenders, was  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the  Picts  and  Scots,  who  broke 
through  the  Roman  wall,  and  pushed  their  incursions  far  into  the  south. 
Theodosius,  harassed  by  the  attacks  of  the  barbarians  in  the  east,  at 
first  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Max'imus :  but  the  usurper,  encouraged 
by  impunity,  soon  meditated  depriving  Valentinian  11.  of  Italy,  though 
that  prince  had  shown  little  inclination  to  revenge  the  murder  of  Gra- 
tian, his  brother  and  benefactor.  Valentinian,  unable  to  defend  his  ter- 
ritories, fled  to  Thjodosius,  who  instantly  marched  against  Max'iinus. 
The  usurper  was  defeated  in  two  decisive  battles  ;  he  sought  sheker  in 
Aquileia  •  but.  he  was  arrested  by  his  own  soldiers,  brought  in  chains  to 
Theodosius,  and  executed  (a.  d.  388).  It  is  said  that  his  death  was 
hastened  by  the  imperial  ministers,  Avho  feared  that  he  might  extort  a 
pardon  from  their  master's  compassion. 

The  generous  conqueror  not  only  restored  Valentinian  to  his  ancient 
dominioiis,  but  resigned  to  him  the  provinces  that  had  belonged  to  Gra- 
tian. Having  v'isited  Rome,  and  sanc*.ioned  some  severe  measures  for 
extirpating  idolatry  in  that  city,  he  returned  to  the  east,  where  he  made 
similar  efforts  to  crush  pagan  superstitions  and  Christian  heresies.  The 
young  Valentinian  did  not  long  r:tain  his  throne  ;  he  was  murdered  by 
Arbogas'tes,  a  Frank,  whom  he  had  unwisely  admitted  to  too  great  a 
share  of  sovereign  power  (a.  d.  392).  The  Frank  did  not  dare  to  as- 
sume the  purple  himself,  but  he  conferred  the  empire  on  one  of  the  royal 
secretaries,  named  Eugenius,  whom  he  trusted  that  he  could  make  the 
mere  instrument  of  his  ambition. 

Theodosius  refused  to  enter  into  any  negotiation  with  the  u.surpei 


312  ANCIENT  HISTOltV 

but  made  preparations  for  war.  Having  levied  a  powerful  army,  lit 
forced  the  passes  of  the  Alps  (a  d.  394),  and  encountering  the  forco 
of  Eugenius  on  the  banks  of  the  Frig'idum  {Wiharh),  put  them  to  tht 
rout.  The  usurper  was  murdered  by  his  own  soldiers,  and  Arbogas'"- 
Lfts  committed  suicide.  Theodosius,  in  consequence  of  this  victory,  be- 
came master  of  the  whole  Roman  empire,  which  was  thus  once  morr 
reunited  under  a  single  head. 

Section  X. —  The   Overthrow  of  the   Western  Empire. 

FROM    A.   D.  394  TO  A.  D.  470. 

Theodosius  was  well  aware  that  the  partition  of  the  empire  origin 
ally  made  by  Valentinian  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  condition  of 
the  Roman  dominions  in  Europe  and  Asia ;  he  therefore  invited  his 
younger  son  Honorius  to  receive  the  sceptre  of  the  western  empire,  ap 
pointing  Arcadius,  the  elder,  his  successor  on  the  throne  of  Constanti- 
nople. He  did  nut  long  survive  this  arrangement ;  the  ease  and  luxury 
in  which  he  indulged  after  his  victory  proved  fatal  to  a  constitution 
already  enfeebled  by  the  fatigues  of  a  severe  campaign :  "  e  died  uni- 
versally lamented  by  his  subjects,  who  knev/  too  well  that  they  "  ne'er 
should  look  upon  his  like  again." 

Arcadius  and  Honorius  ascended  the  thrones  bequeathed  to  them  bv 
their  father,  but  both  abandoned  the  cares  of  empire  to  their  ministera 
Rufinus  and  Stil'icho.  There  are  few  greater  stains  on  the  charactei 
of  Theodosius  than  his  elevation  of  such  an  unworthy  favorite  as  Ru 
finus,  a  wretch  whom  all  parties  describe  as  stained  with  every  crime 
He  was  the  scourge  of  the  east,  and  was  universally  hated  :  aware  of 
his  unpopularity,  he  resolved  to  secure  his  power  by  uniting  Arcadius 
in  marriage  with  his  daughter ;  but  some  courtiers,  jealous  of  his  in- 
fluence, took  advantage  of  his  absence  to  persuade  the  young  emperoi 
to  share  his  throne  with  Eudox'ia,  universally  regarded  as  the  most 
beautiful  woman  of  her  age.  Though  disappointed  in  this  darling  ob- 
ject of  his  ambition,  the  wealth  and  power  of  Rufinus  enabled  him  to 
truimph  over  Arcadius  and  his  courtiers  ;  but  he  dreaded  more  justly  his 
great  rival  in  the  western  empire. 

S'il'icho,  the  minister  and  master-general  of  the  vest,  was  worthy  of 
the  eminent  station  to  which  he  had  been  raised  b"_,  Theodosius.  On 
his  death-bed  the  emperor  recommended  to  him  the  charge  of  both  em- 
pires ;  but  some  pretext  was  necessary  for  assembling  a  force  suffi- 
cient to  depose  Rufinus,  without  giving  such  alarm  as  would  put  thai 
wary  statesman  on  his  guard.  The  Gothic  war  furnished  the  desirert 
excuse  ;  vStil'icho  led  his  forces  round  the  Adriatic  ;  but  he  had  scarce- 
ly reached  Thessalonica,  when  he  received  orders  to  return,  with  a 
threat  that  his  nearer  approach  to  Constantinople  would  be  considered 
a  declaration  of  war.  Leaving  the  army  in  the  charge  of  the  Gai'nas, 
Stil'icho  returned  to  Italy ;  and  Rufinus,  believing  all  danger  past,  went 
to  review  the  western  troops.  As  he  passed  along  the  ranks,  he  was 
suddenly  surrounded  by  a  chosen  band,  and,  on  a  signal  from  Gainas, 
pinned  to  the  earth  by  a  lance,  and  mangled  with  a  thousand  wounds, 
Tf  Stil'icho  had  contrived  this  iziurder.  he  derived  no  advantage  from  it 


itOMAN  EMPIRE.  31*^ 

3aiuas,  the  eunuch  Eutropius,  and  the  empress  Eu>lox'ia,  comhiuiKl  to 
exclude  him  from  Constantinople  ;  their  puppet  Arcadius  procured  a 
iecree  from  his  obsequious  senate,  declaring  him  a  public  enemy,  and 
confiscating  all  his  property  in  the  east. 

Instead  of  hazarding  a  civil  war,  Stil'icho  exerted  himself  to  sup 
press  the  revolt  which  Gil'do,  the  brother  of  Fir'mus,  had  excited  in 
Africa.  He  intrusted  the  command  of  the  forces  raised  for  tliis  pur- 
pose to  Mas'cezel,  the  brother  and  deadly  enemy  of  Gil'do.  A^ciden( 
left  the  Romans  an  almost  bloodless  victory.  Before  giving  the  sig-.ial 
to  engage,  Mas'cezel  rode  to  the  front  of  the  lines  with  fair  offers  of 
peace  and  pardon  ;  he  encoxmtered  one  of  the  standard-bearers  of  the 
Africans,  and,  on  his  refusal  to  yield,  struck  him  on  the  arm  with  his 
sword.  The  weight  of  the  blow  threw  the  standard  and  its  bearer  pios- 
trate  This  was  regarded  by  the  rest  as  a  signal  of  submission,  which 
all  the  African  legions  hastened  to  imitate  ;  they  flung  down  their  en- 
signs, and,  with  one  accord,  renewed  their  allegiance  to  .heir  rightful 
sovereign.  Gil'do  attempted  to  fly,  but  he  was  arrested  by  the  citizens 
of  .Tab'raca  (Tabarca),  and  thrown  into  a  dungeon,  where  he  commit- 
ted suicide,  to  avoid  the  punishment  of  treason.  Mas'cezel  was  subse- 
quently murdered  by  Stil'icho,  who  feared  the  hereditary  enmity  of  the 
house  of  Nabal. 

The  Goths  were  now  become  more  formidable  than  they  had  eve? 
been.  Instead  of  being  guided  by  several  independent  chiefs,  they 
were  united  into  a  compact  body  under  the  renowned  Al'aric  ;  and  the 
withholding  of  the  subsidy  paid  them  by  Theodosius,  afforded  a  plau- 
sible pretext  for  war  (a.  d.  390).  Disdaining  to  ravage  the  exhausted 
lands  of  Thrace,  Al'aric  led  his  soldiers  into  Greece,  passed  the  straits 
of  Thermop'ylse  without  opposition,  devastated  Boeotia,  At'tica,  and  the 
Peloponnesus,  while  Athens,  Corinth,  Ar'gos,  and  Spar'ta,  yielded  to 
the  barbarous  invaders  without  opposition.  Stil'icho  hastened  to  repel 
the  Goths  from  Greece.  His  masterly  movements  drove  Al'aric  into  a 
corner  of  Elis,  whence  his  extrication  appeared  impossible  ;  but  the 
Goth,  perceiving  that  the  watchfulness  of  his  enemies  was  relaxed, 
gained  the  gulf,  of  Corinth  by  a  rapid  march,  passed  over  the  narrow 
strait  between  the  headlands  of  Rhium  and  Antir'rhium  [Dardanelles  of 
Lepanto),  and  was  master  of  Epirus  before  Stil'icho  could  renew  his 
pursuit.  The  Romans  were  preparing  to  pass  into  northern  Greece 
when  they  received  information  that  Al'aric  had  not. only  made  hiss 
peace  vith  the  Byzantine  court,  but  had  been  appointed  master-general 
of  Illyr'icum  by  the  feeble  Arcadius. 

Stil'icho  returned  to  Italy,  and  was  soon  compelled  to  defend  that 
peninsula  against  Al'aric,  who  forced  a  passage  over  the  Julian  Alps, 
and  advanced  toward  Milan.  Honorius  fled  from  his  capital,  but  was 
so  hotly  chased,  that  he  was  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  As'ta  (^Asli), 
which  the  Goths  immediately  blockaded.  Stil'icho  hastened  to  the 
relief  of  his  sovereign,  and  gained  a  complete  victory  over  Al'aric  a1 
PoUentia  [Polema) ;  but  the  Gothic  sovereign,  having  rallied  his  shat- 
tered forces,  crossed  the  Appenines,  and  made  a  sudden  rush  toward 
Rome  (a.  d.  403).  The  capital  was  saved  by  the  diligence  of  Stil'- 
icho ;  but  Al'aric's  departure  from  Italy  was  purchased  by  a  large 
pension 


314  ANCIENT  HISTORY". 

Honciius  went  to  Pome,  where  he  enjoyed  the  enipiy  h  uior  df  beirijt 
received  in  triumph ;  but  after  a  short  time  he  removed  to  Raven'ua, 
which  from  this  time  began  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  secure  seat  ol 
Italian  government.  Scarcely  had  Al'aric  departed,  when  Italy  was 
invaded  by  new  hordes  of  Vandals,  Suevi,  Burgundians,  and  Goths 
under  the  command  of  Radagaisus.  Once  more  the  peninsula  was 
saved  by  Stil'icho  :  he  allowed  the  barbarians  to  lay  siege  to  Florenct;, 
which  was  well  garrisoned  and  provisioned  ;  then  securing  all  the  pas- 
ses, he  blockaded  them  in  their  turn,  and  reduced  them  to  such  distress, 
that  they  surrendered  at  discretion  (a.  d.  406).  Radagaisus  was  put  to 
death ;  his  followers  were  sold  as  slaves ;  but  about  two  thirds  of  the 
hordes  fell  back  upon  Gaul,  and  laid  waste  that  province  from  the  Rhine 
to  the  Pyrenees.  The  provincials,  receiving  no  aid  from  the  court  of 
Raven'na,  proclaimed  Constantine,  the  governor  of  Britain,  emperor, 
who  gained  some  advantages  over  the  Germans,  and  wrested  Spain 
from  Honorius.  Stil'icho  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Al'aric  against  iiie 
usurper ;  but  before  it  could  take  effect,  the  able  minister  was  treach- 
erously murdered  by  his  unworthy  master  (a.  d.  408),  and  the  wretclied 
Olym'pus  was  appointed  premier  in  his  stead.  The  first  measure  of 
the  new  minister  was  as  impolitic  as  it  was  monstrous.  He  ordered  a 
promiscuous  massacre  of  the  families  of  the  barbarians  throughout  Ita- 
ly, instead  of  retaining  them  as  hostages  lor  the  fidelity  of  his  merce- 
nary cohorts.  The  barbarous  edict  was  too  well  obeyed ;  and  thirty 
thousand  of  the  bravest  soldiers  in  the  Roman  pay  invited  Al'aric  to 
head  them  in  avenging  the  slaughter  of  their  wives  and  children. 

Al'aric  was  not  slow  in  obeying  the  summons :  he  hastened  into 
Italy,  and,  disregarding  meaner  prizes,  marched  directly  against  Rome 
(a.  d.  408).  "  The  eternal  city"  was  closely  besieged  :  plague,  pesti- 
lence, and  famine,  raged  within  its  walls.  The  emperor  at  Raven'na 
made  no  effort  to  relieve  his  hapless  subjects ;  and  the  senate  at  length 
purchased  temporary  safety  by  paying  an  enormous  ransom.  Al'aric 
led  his  forces  into  Tuscany,  and  was  joined  on  his  march  by  forty 
thousand  Goths  and  Germans,  whom  his  victorious  career  had  enabled 
to  burst  the  bonds  of  slavery.  Honorius  refused  to  ratify  the  treaty 
that  had  been  concluded  by  the  Romans  ;  and  in  the  following  year, 
Al'aric  appeared  once  more  before  the  city.  He  took  possession  of  Os- 
tia,  where  the  magazines  were  established  for  the  corn  that  supplied 
the  capital ;  and  having  thus  deprived  the  citizens  of  all  means  of  sus- 
tenance, summoned  them  to  surrender.  They  complied  with  great  re- 
luctance :  Al'aric  raised  At'talus  to  the  empire,  but  soon  deposed  him. 
and  renewed  his  negotiations  with  the  court  of  Raven'na.  Once  more 
Honorius  refused  to  treat,  and  once  more  Al'aric  marched  to  punish  the 
Romans  for  the  crime  of  their  sovereign  (a.  d.  410).  He  marched 
against  Rome  ;  the  Gothic  slaves  in  the  city  opened  to  him  one  of  the 
gates,  and  the  city  became  the  prey  of  the  barbarians.  The  horrors 
of  the  pillage  that  ensued  were  in  some  degree  alleviated  by  the  piet) 
of  the  Goths,  who  spared  the  churches  a-d  religious  houses.  Al'aric 
himself  vva?  unwilling  that  a  city  which  had  been  so  long  the  mistress 
vi  the  world  should  be  so  totally  ruinc^d ;  and  on  the  sixth  day  after  its 
capture  evacuated  the  place,  and  took  the  road  for  southern  Italy.  He 
w^s  preparing  to  invade  Sicily,  when  he  was  seized  with  a  mortal  di>- 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  315 

ease,  which  brought  hirn  prematurely  to  his  grave.  His  remains  w^r- 
interred  in  the  bed  of  a  small  rivulet  near  Consen'tia  (Cosenza),  and 
the  captives  who  prepared  his  grave  were  murdered,  in  order  th..c  the 
Romans  might  never  learn  the  place  of  his  sepulture. 

Adol'phus  succeeded  his  brother  Al'aric,  and  concluded  a  peace  with 
the  empire,  on  condition  of  receiving  the  princess  Placid'ia  as  the 
bride.  He  led  his  forces  into  Gaul,  reunited  that  province  to  the  do- 
minions of  Honorius,  and  then  passed  into  Spain,  which  had  oeen  mva- 
ded  by  hordes  of  Suevi,  Vandals,  and  A'lans.  He  was  murdered  ;  but 
his  successor  Wal'lia  established  the  supremacy  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain  and  the  east  of  Gaul.  About  the  same  time,  the  Franks,  the 
Burgundians,  and  other  barbarous  tribes,  established  themselves  in 
Gaul ;  while  Britain  and  Armorica,  neglected  by  the  emperor,  became 
independent.  The  Britons  had  so  degenerated  under  the  empire,  that 
they  were  unable  to  resist  the  barbarous  Picts  and  Scots  ;  they  there- 
fore applied  for  aid  to  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  warlike  tribes  (a.  d.  448). 
The  Saxons  readily  obeyed  the  summons  ;  but,  after  repelling  the  Picts 
and  Scots,  they  took  possession  of  southern  Britain,  which  they  named 
Angle-land,  since  contracted  into  England. 

In  the  meantime,  the  reign  of  Arcadius  in  the  east  was  dishonored 
by  the  profligate  administration  of  the  eunuch  Eutropius  and  the  em- 
press Eudox'ia,  to  whose  cruelty  the  most  illustrious  persons,  and 
among  others  St.  Chrysostom,  were  victims.  Alter  his  death  (a.  d. 
408),  the  young  Theodosius  succeeded  to  the  purple  ;  but  the  adminis- 
iration  was  usurped  by  his  sister  Pulcheria,  who  ruled  the  east  with 
singular  energy  and  ability  for  more  than  forty  years.  During  a  great 
portion  of  this  period,  there  was  little  sympathy  between  the  courts  of 
Rome  and  Constanthiople  ;  but  the  family  intercourse  was  renewed 
when  Placid'ia,  the  widow  of  Adol'phus,  was  banished  by  her  brother, 
after  the  death  of  her  second  husba.'^.d  Constantius.  She  sought  refuge 
m  the  court  of  Theodosius,  bringing  with  her  Valentinian  and  Honoria, 
her  infant  children.  She  had  scarcely  tune  to  enjoy  the  hospitality 
with  which  she  was  received,  when  news  arrived  of  the  death  of  Ho- 
norius (a.  d.  423),  and  the  usurpation  of  the  empire  by  John,  his  prin- 
cipal secretary.  Theodosius  levied  an  army  to  support  the  claims  of 
his  relative  ;  John  was  deposed  and  slain  ;  Valentinian  HI.  w;is  pro- 
claimed emperor  o  the  west,  under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother 
Placid'ia  ;  and  thus  two  women  wielded  the  destinies  of  the  civilized 
world. 

Placid'ia,  seduced  by  the  interested  c<  unsels  of  her  minister  iE'liuy, 
recalled  Count  Boniface,  the  most  faithful  friend  of  the  imperial  fanul^, 
from  Africa  ;  but  that  governor,  deceived  by  the  same  crafty  adviser, 
refused  obedience,  and  invited  Gen'seric,  king  of  the  Vandals,  to  bi= 
aid.  That  nation  occupied  the  Spanish  province,  called  frum  thern 
Vandalusia,  a  name  which  it  still  retains,  with  but  slight  alteration. 
They  were  still  restless,  eager  to  seek  further  conquests  and  fresl. 
plunder,  so  that  nothing  could  have  been  more  grateful  to  Gen'seiic 
than  such  an  invitation.  Boniface  had  soon  reason  to  lament  the  efl'euu^ 
uf  his  precipitate  resentment.  When  it  was  too  late  he  attempted  to 
check  the  progress  of  the  Vandals,  and  returned  to  his  allegiance 
AnxilifirJes  were  sent  to  his  aid  from  the  eastern  empire  ;  but  the  ua 


316  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

fortunate  count  v\as  irretrievably  defeated.  He  returned  to  Itajy,  where 
he  engaged  in  a  civil  war  with  ^'tius,  and  was  slain  by  his  rival. 
Placid'ia  having  discovered  the  double  treachery  of  jE'tius,  proclaimed 
hiin  a  *raitor,  and  that  general  found  it  necessary  to  seek  shelter  in  Pan- 
nonia  with  the  Huns.  At'tila,  justly  called  "  the  scourge  of  God,"  was 
novv  the  ruler  of  the  formidable  Hunnish  hordes  :  he  extorted  vasl 
sums,  as  the  price  of  his  forbearance,  from  the  Byzantine  empire.  Ou 
the  death  of  Theodosius  II.  he  threatened  war  against  Marcian  his 
Huccessor,  the  nominal  husband  of  Pulcheria  ;  but  the  victories  of 
.^'tius  ever  the  Franks  and  Vandals,  when  restored  to  Placid'ia's  fa- 
vor, induced  the  fierce  barbarian  to  turn  his  arms  against  the  western 
empire  (a.  d.  451).  He  had  an  additional  pretext,  through  the  malice 
of  the  princess  Honoria,  who  secretly  offered  him  her  hand,  to  revenge 
her  exclusion  from  power  ;  and  the  barbarian  monarch,  though  he  al- 
reddy  had  several  wives,  proclaimed  himself  her  champion.  When  the 
Huns  appeared  in  Gaul,  iE'tius  entered  into  an  alliance  with  ihe  Visi- 
goths, aided  by  whom  he  gained  a  great  victory  over  At'tila,  and  drove 
him  beyond  the  frontiers.  But  in  the  ensuing  spring  (a.  d.  452)  the 
Huns  poured  like  a  torrent  into  Italy,  and  laid  waste  the  peninsula. 
The  death  of  At'tila,  who  fell  a  victim  to  intemperance,  and  the  civil 
wars  between  his  followers,  delayed  the  utter  ruin  of  the  empire  ;  but 
the  murder  of  jE'tius  by  the  ungrateful  Valentinian,  and  the  unchecked 
ravages  of  the  barbarians,  rendered  all  the  provinces  miserable  and 
wretched.  Valentinian  himself  was  murdered  by  the  patrician  Max''- 
imus,  whose  wife  he  had  debauched  (a.  d.  455),  and  the  injured  hus- 
band assumed  the  imperial  purple. 

Max'imus  had  scarcely  been  three  months  upon  the  throne  when 
the  fleet  of  the  Vandals  appeared  in  the  Tiber.  His  subjects,  attributing 
this  new  calamity  to  his  supineness,  stoned  him  to  death ;  but  ere  a 
successor  could  be  chosen,  Gen'seric  marched  his  soldiers  into  the  de- 
fenceless city,  and  pillaged  everj'thing  that  had  been  spared  by  the 
piety  or  mercy  of  Al'aric.  Many  thousands  of  the  unfortunate  citizens 
were  transported  as  slaves  into  Africa;  but  their  condition  was  in  some 
degree  alleviated  by  the  generosity  of  Deogratias,  bishop  of  Carthage, 
who  sold  the  gold  and  silver  plate  of  his  churches  to  purchase  the  re 
demption  of  his  brethren. 

By  the  influence  of  Theod'oric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  Avitus,  a  Gaul 
of  noble  family,  was  installed  emperor  ;  but  he  was  soon  depo.'^ed  by 
Count  Ricimer,  the  principal  commander  of  the  barbarian  auxiliaries^ 
intrusted  with  the  defence  of  Italy.  He  did  not  long  survive  his  fall ; 
he  died  on  his  way  to  the  Alps,  as  he  was  about  to  seek  refuge  among 
the  Visigoths.  Majorian  received  the  degraded  sceptre  from  Ricimer, 
ar.d  made  some  vigorous  efforts  to  remedy  the  disorders  of  the  state. 
His  virtues  were  not  appreciated  by  his  subjects.  He  was  dethroned 
by  a  licentious  soldier}^  (a.  d.  461),  and  died  in  a  few  days  after. 

Ricimer  chose  one  of  his  own  creatures,  Severus,  to  be  nominal  tm- 
peror,  rcaining  all  the  power  of  the  state  in  his  own  hands  ;  but  the 
superior  strength  of  the  Vandals  compelled  him  to  have  recourse  to  the 
court  of  Constantinople  for  aid,  and  to  offer  the  nomiration  of  a  sov- 
ereign for  the  west  to  Leo,  the  successor  of  Marcian.  Leo  appointed 
the  patrician  Anthemius  to   this  high  but  dangerous  station   and  sent  a 


ROMAN  EMPIRE.  317 

laige  arinament  against  the  Vandals  in  Africa.  The  imperial  force.s 
were  completely  defeated,  and  when  the  shattered  relics  of  the  arma- 
ment returned  to  Constantinople,  Ricimer  deposed  Athemius,  put  him 
to  death,  and  elevated  Olyb'rius  to  the  throne  (a  d.  472).  Both  Rici 
mer  and  Olyb'rius  died  within  a  few  months  :  ai.d  Leo,  after  some  de- 
lay, appointed  Julius  Nepos  his  colleague. 

Glycerius,  an  obscure  soldier,  trusting  to  the  aid  of  the  Burgnndians, 
attempted  to  dispute  the  empire  with  Nepos  ;  but  finding  his  strength 
inadequate  to  the  contest,  he  resigned  the  sceptre  for  the  crosier,  and 
became  bishop  of  Salon  a.  Nepos  himself  was  soon  driven  from  the 
throne  by  Ores'tes,  the  successor  of  Ricimer  in  the  command  of  the 
barbarian  mercenaries.  He  fled  into  Dalmatia,  where  he  was  assassi- 
nated by  his  old  rival  Glycerius. 

Ores'tes  gave  the  throne  to  his  son  Rom'ulus  Momil'lus,  whom  he 
dignified  with  the  title  of  Augus'tus,  or,  as  he  is  more  frequently  called, 
Augus'tulus.  Odoacer,  the  leader  of  the  German  tribes  in  the  Roman 
pay,  ptrsjuaded  his  countrymen  to  take  arms  against  the  usurper. 
Ores'tes  was  made  prisoner,  and  put  to  death.  Augus'tulus  was  sent 
into  captivity,  but  was  allowed  a  pension  for  his  support ;  and  the  con- 
queror, abolishing  the  name  and  office  of  emperor,  took  the  title  of  king 
of  Italy  (a.  d.  476).  The  Ostrogoths  finally  conquered  Italy  (a.  n. 
492),  deposed  Odoacer,  and  founded  a  new  empire. 

During  this  calamitous  period  Christianity  was  sullied  by  the  admix- 
ture of  various  superstitions,  borrowed  from  ancient  paganism.  The 
Gnostics  attempted  to  combine  the  truths  of  the  gospel  with  the  wild 
dreams  of  oriental  philosophy,  and  they  prepared  medals  with  my.stic 
devices,  which  were  worn  as  charms  or  amulets,  in  the  belief  that  they 
would  protect  men  from  danger  and  di.qeasc. 


818  ANCIENT   HISTORY. 


CHAPTER  XVITI 

INDIA. 

When  India  became  known  to  the  Greeks  by  the  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander, its  inhabitants  were  found  in  very  nearly  tlie  saivie  state  of  civil- 
ization as  the  Hindoos  of  the  present  day  ;  we  mav  therefore  fairly 
conclude  that  this  civilized  state  must  have  been  several  hundred  years 
in  existence,  else  it  could  not  have  been  so  complete  in  its  parts  and  so 
permanent  in  its  influence.  As  Alexander's  invasion  took  place  about 
the  fourth  century  before  the  Christian  era,  we  may  regard  it  as  pretty 
certain  that  the  civilization  of  India  reaches  back  to  at  least  one  thou- 
sand years  before  Christ,  but  how  much  further  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
termine with  certainty.  From  the  institution  of  caste,  it  seems  probable 
that  the  Hindoos  are  of  a  mixed  origin,  for  the  difference  between  the 
castes  is  so  very  great  that  we  are  almost  obliged  to  admit  a  corre- 
sponding difference  of  original  extraction.  "  I  could  at  all  times,  and 
in  every  part  of  India,"  says  Major  Bevan,  "  distinguish  a  Brahmin  by 
his  complexion  and  peculiar  features."  All  the  Hindoo  traditions  unite 
in  representing  the  neighborhood  of  the  Ganges  as  the  cradle  of  their 
race  ;  their  most  ancient  records  intimate  that  the  first  kingdoms  in  thi.« 
sacred  spot  were  founded  by  persons  who  came  from  the  north,  and 
the  existing  series  of  temples  and  monuments,  both  above  and  below 
groimd,  is  a  species  of  chronicle  of  the  progressive  extension  of  an  im- 
migrating and  highly-civilized  race  from  north  to  south.  This  is  the 
very  reverse  of  what  we  find  to  have  occurred  in  Egypt,  where  tho 
social  and  religious  advance  was  from  south  to  north. 

The  Brahmins  in  Iiulia,  like  the  priests  in  Egypt,  exercised  an  in- 
direct soverngnty  over  the  other  classes  of  society ;  the  kings,  in  both 
countries,  wo/e  selected  from  the  warrior  caste,  but  the  priestly  caste 
restrained  the  power  of  the  sovereign  by  religious  enactments  and  in- 
stitutions which  brought  both  public  and  private  affairs  under  their  cog- 
ni-'ance.  How  this  inflv^nce  was  oI)tained  is  merely  matter  of  conjec- 
luie.  but  it  certainly  existed  before  the  appearance  of  the  two  great  In- 
dian epics,  the  Ramayana  and  the  Maha-bharata,  both  of  which  contain 
cscveral  instances  of  the  awful  veneration  in  which  the  Brahmins  were 
held  by  the  kings  themselves.  In  the  interesting  drama,  "  The  Toy 
Cart,"  translated  by  Professor  Wilson,  we  find  a  notice  of  a  strange 
revolution  eflected  in  the  government  of  Ujayin  {Ougein)  by  Brahmini- 
cal  intrigue.  The  drama  itself  was  written  before  the  Christian  era, 
but  the  incidents  on  which  it  is  founded  are  of  much  earlier  date  ;  it  de 
scribes  how  the  Brahmins,  offended  by  their  sovereign  Palaka's  publi' 
disregard  of  them,  brought  about  a  change  in  the  government,  employ 
iug  a  hermit  and  a  cow-boy  as  their  instruments.     Aryaka,   the  cow 


IND(A  31i' 

lierd.  IS  chosen  king,  and   his  accession  is  thus  aniiounccjd  to  a   Brah 
min  whom  Palaka  had  condemned  to  death  : — 

"  And  Brahmin,  I  inform  you,  that  the  king. 
The  unjust  Palaka,  has  fallen  a  victim, 
Here  in  the  place  of  sacrifice,  to  one 
Who  has  aven?ed  his  wron2;s  and  thine ;  to  Arj'uxa, 
Who  ready  homage  pays  to  birth  and  vii'tue." 

The  conclusion  of  the  drama  still  more  forcibly  shows  the  influence  of 
the  Brahmins,  for  reverence  to  their  caste  is  invoked  as  one  of  the 
chief  blessings  of  heaven  : — 

"  Full-uddered  be  the  kine,  the  soil  be  fertile ; 
May  copious  showers  descend,  and  balmy  gales 
Breathe  health  and  happiness  on  all  mankind- 
From  pain  be  every  living  creature  free, 
And  reverence  on  the  pious  Brahmin  wait ; 
And  may  all  monarclis,  prosperous  and  just, 
Humble  their  foes  and  guard  the  world  in  peace." 

It  appears  that  there  were  two  great  dynasties  in  India  proper;  thai 
is,  north  of  the  Krishna  river,  and  excluding  the  Dec'can ;  the  Solai 
race  was  established  at  Ayad'da,  the  modern  Oude  ;  the  Lunar  race 
fixed  itself  more  to  the  west,  in  the  country  round  Delhi.  The  war  be- 
tween the  Pan'doos  and  Kooroos,  both  descended  from  the  Lunar  race, 
was  to  the  Indians  what  the  Trojan  war  was  to  the  Greeks,  by  its  in- 
fluence upon  their  poetry,  literature,  and  arts.  It  forms  the  subject  of 
the  great  Hindoo  epic,  the  "  Maha-bharata"  (great  war),  which  contains 
one  hundred  thousand  slokas,  or  distichs.  How  far  the  events  of  this 
war  are  to  be  regarded  as  historical,  would  be  an  inquiry  more  curious 
than  useful ;  but  it  seems  probable  that,  like  the  Trojan  war,  it  was 
not  less  fatal  to  the  v^ictors  than  the  vanquished,  for  a  new  dynasty 
arose  at  Magad'ha,  which  gradually  acquired  the  supremacy  of  India. 

The  kingdom  of  Magad'ha  is  identified  with  the  province  of  Behar 
and  it?  capital  was  Paliboth'ra,  which  stood  in  or  near  the  modern  city 
of  Patau.  ■  After  the  retreat  of  Alexander  from  India,  the  throne  of 
Paliboth'ra  was  occupied  by  a  celebrated  conqueror,  known  to  the 
Greeks  by  the  name  of  Sandracop'tus  or  Sandracot'tus,  who  has  been 
completely  identified  with  the  Chan'dra-Gup'ta  of  the  Hindoo  poets 
The  Greek  anr"  Hindoo  writers  concur  in  the  name,  in  tli«  private  his 
tory,  in  the  political  elevation,  and  in  the  nation  and  capital  of  an  In 
dian  king,  nearly  if  not  exactly  contemporary  with  Alexander  ;  such  an 
approximation  could  not  possibly  be  the  work  of  accident,  and  we  may 
therefore  regard  this  monarch's  reign  as  historical. 

Combining  and  comparing  the  difl'crent  accounts  given  of  Chan'dra- 
Gup^ta  it  appears  that  al)out  the  time  of  vVlexander  the  kingdom  of 
Magad'ha  was  ruled  by  a  monarch  named  Mahapad'ma  Nan'da  He 
was  a  powerful  and  ambitious  prince,  but  cruel  and  avaricious,  l)y  which 
defects,  as  well  as  by  his  inferiority  of  birth,  he  probably  provoked  the 
hostility  of  the  Brahmins.  By  one  wife  he  had  eight  sons,  who,  with 
their  father,  were  called  the  nine  Nan'das  ;  and  by  a  wife  of  lov/  ex- 
traction he  had  according  to  tradition,  a  son  called  Chan'dra-Gup'ta.  I 
i«,  however,  by  no  means  certain  that  Chan'dra-Gup'ta  was  tlie  8or?  n.f 


320 


ANCIENT  HISTORY. 


Nan'da,  but  from  uniform  testimony  he  appears  to  have  been  closely  re- 
lated to  the  royal  family  by  his  father's  side,  though  his  mother  was  ol 
a  very  inferior  caste. 

But  whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  this  prince,  it  is  very 
likely  that  he  was  made  the  instrument  of  the  rebellious  spirit  of  tho 
Brahmins,  who,  having  effected  the  destruction  of  Nan'da  and  his  sons, 
raised  Chan'dra-Gup'ta,  while  yet  a  youth,  to  the  throne.'  In  the  drama 
Mudra  Nahshasa,  which  represents  the  various  artifices  employed  by 
the  Brahmin  Chanak'ya  to  establish  the  throne  of  Chan'dra-Gup'ttv, 
Chanak'ya  declares  that  it  was  he  who  overthrew  the  Nan'das  : — 

"  'T  is  known  to  an  the  world 
I  vowed  the  death  of  Nanda,  and  I  slew  him  .... 
The  fires  of  my  wrath  alone  expire 
Like  the  fierce  conflagration,  of  a  forest, 
From  iacli  from  fuel — not  for  weariness. 
The  flames  of  my  just  anger  have  consumed 
The  branding  ornaments  of  Nanda's  stem, 
Abandoned  by  the  frightened  priests  and  people. 
They  have  enveloped  in  a  shower  of  ashes 
The  blighted  tree  of  his  ambitious  councils, 
And  tliey  have  overcast  with  sorrow-clouds 
The  smiling  heavens  of  those  moon-like  looks 
That  shed  the  light  of  love  upon  my  foes." 


It  is  thus  evident  that  the  elevation  of  Chan'dra-Gup'ta  to  the  throne 
was  owing  to  the  Brahmins  ;  they  were,  however,  aided  by  a  prince 
from  the  north  of  India,  Pawats'wara,  to  whom  they  promised  an  ac- 
cession of  territory  as  the  reward  of  his  alliance.  The  execution  of 
this  treaty  was  evaded  by  the  assassination  of  the  mountain-prince ; 
his  son,  Malayaketu,  led  a  mingled  host  against  Magad'ha  to  avenge  his 
father's  death  :  among  his  troops  we  lind  the  Gavanas,  the  Lakas,  oi 
Lacse,  and  the  Kambojas,  or  people  of  Arachosia,  the  northeastern 
province  of  Persia.  The  failure  of  Seleiicus  Nicator,  in  his  attempt 
to  extend  his  power  in  India,  and  his  relinquishment  of  territory,  may 
be  connected  with  the  discomfiture  and  retreat  of  Malayaketu,  as  nar- 
rated in  the  drama,  although  it  is  improbable  that  the  Syrian  monarch 
and  the  king  of  Magad'ha  ever  came  into  direct  collision.  The  retreat 
of  Malayaketu  was  occasioned  by  jealousies  and  quarrels  among  the 
confederates  ;  he  returned,  baffled  and  hnmbled,  to  his  own  country 
Chan'dra-Gup'ta's  power  was  now  so  firmly  established  that  Seleiicus 
Nicator  relinquished  to  him  all  the  country  beyond  the  Indus,  receiving 
filty  elt^|)hants  in  exchange  ;  he  also  formed  a  matrimonial  alliance  with 
the  Hindoo  prince,  and  sent  Megasthenes  as  an  ambassador  to  his 
court.  Clian'dra-Giip'ta  reigned  twenty-four  years,  and  left  the  kingdom 
to  his  son 

There  is  a  complete  blank  in  Indian  history  from  the  death  of  Chan'- 
ira-(iiip'la  to  the  accession  of  Vicramadil'ya,  who  is  called  the  sover 
eign  of  all  India.  He  ruled  with  such  extraordinary  success  that  hi^ 
reign  forms  an  important  era  in  history,  connnencing  a.  d.  258,  according 
to  one  ac>.oimt,  and  ten  years  later,  according  to  another.  Toward  the 
close  of  his  reign  he  was  conquered  by  Sba[iour,  the  second  Persiaii 
monarch  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty,  and  the  empire  of  India  becanir 


INDIA-  321 

subject  to  that  of  Persia.  The  Hindoo  accounts  of  Vicramadit'ya  are 
intermingled  with  the  most  extravagant  fables,  and  all  that  we  can  learn 
from  them  with  certainty  is,  that  this  prince  was  a  sedulous  upholder 
of  the  influence  of  the  Brahmins. 

From  this  period  to  the  Mohammedan  invasion,  India  appears  to  have 
oeen  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  independent  states,  in  which  the 
rajahs  were  completely  under  the  influence  of  the  Brahmins.  As  the 
royal  power  declined,  the  rules  of  caste,  on  which  the  influence  of  the 
hereditary  priesthood  depended,  were  rendered  more  rigid  and  severe 
The  caste  of  the  Brahmins  arrogated  to  itself  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  studying  and  expounding  the  Vedas,  and  as  these  are  the  source  of 
all  Hindoo  learning,  whether  religious  or  scientific,  the  priesthood  thus 
obtained  a  monopoly  of  knowledge.  Brahmins  alone  could  exercise 
the  medical  art,  for  sickness  being  considered  as  the  punishment  of 
transgression,  it  is  lemedied  only  by  penances  and  religious  ceremonies  • 
they  alone  had  the  right  to  interpret  the  laws,  to  offer  sacrifices,  and  to 
give  counsel  to  the  sovereign. 

The  Kshatrfya  or  warrior  caste,  is  generally  regarded  as  extinct ;  it 
was  naturally  viewed  with  great  jealousy  by  the  Brahmins,  and  the  in- 
stitutions imposed  upon  it  by  them  ,were  little  calculated  to  foster  a  war- 
like spirit.  Hence  Hindoostan  has  so  frequently  and  so  easily  become 
the  prey  of  foreign  conquerors,  for  the  priestly  caste  made  it  the  chief 
object  of  their  policy  to  humiliate  and  Aveaken  the  caste  of  warriors. 

The  Vaisy'a  caste  includes  the  higher  industrial  classes,  and  was 
perhaps  one  of  the  most  numerous.  The  Siidras  formed  the  lowest 
class,  and  were  slaves  to  the  rest.  In  process  of  time,  the  number  of 
mixed  castes  was  greatly  multiplied,  and  the  determination  of  their  re- 
lations to  each  other  became  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty. 

At  a  very  early  but  uncertain  period,  the  religious  institutions  of  the 
Brahmins  were  opposed  by  a  reformer  named  Bud'dha,  who  rejected 
the  Vedas,  bloody  sacrifices,  and  the  distinction  of  castes.  His  follow- 
ers, called  Buddhists,  must  have  been  both  numerous  and  powerful  at  a 
very  remote  age,  for  a  greater  number  of  the  oldest  rock-temples  are 
dedicated  to  him.  From  the  Christian  writers  of  the  second  century  it 
is  evident  that  in  their  day  the  religion  of  Bud'dha  was  very  prevalent 
in  India,  and  in  the  drama  of  the  Toy-Cart,  Bud'dha  observances  are 
described  with  great  accuracy,  and  the  members  of  the  sect  represented 
in  a  flourishing  condition,  for  they  are  not  only  tolerated,  bivt  publicly 
recognised.  One  of  the  characters  in  the  play  is  a  Bud'dha  ascetic, 
and  he  describes  his  creed  in  the  following  hymn: — 

"  Be  virtue,  friends,  your  only  store. 

And  restless  appetite  restrain, 
i3eat  meditation's  drum,  and  sore 

Your  watch  against  each  sense  maintain  ; 
The  thief  that  still  in  ambush  lies, 
To  make  devotion's  wealth  his  prize. 

'  Cast  the  five  senses  all  away, 

That  triumph  o'er  the  virfuous  will. 
The  pride  of  self-importance  slay, 
And  ignorance  remorseless  kill 
So  shall  you  safe  the  body  guard. 
And  Heaven  shall  be  your  last  reward. 
21 


322  ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

"  Why  shave  the  head  and  mow  the  chin, 

While  bustling  follies  choke  the  breast? 
Apply  the  knife  to  parts  within, 

And  heed  not  how  deformed  the  rest ; 
The  heart  of  pride  and  passion  weed. 
And  then  the  man  is  pure  indeed." 

At  some  uncertain  period,  but  probably  not  much  later  than  the  twelfth 
cenlur)'  of  the  Christian  era,  nor  earlier  than  the  fourth,  the  Buddhists 
were  expelled  from  India  by  the  Brahmins  ;  they  souglu  shelter  in  Cey- 
on,  in  the  mountains  of  the  north,  in  the  countries  beyond  the  Ganges' 
in  Tartary,  and  in  China,  where  their  religion  had  been  previously 
preached  by  active  missionaries.  By  the  persecution  of  the  Buddhists 
in  their  native  coimtry,  a  great  portion  of  the  literature  of  India  has 
been  lost,  and  in  particular,  according  to  Professor  Wilson,  all  the  an 
cient  literature  of  the  people  that  speak  the  Tamul  language.  But  in 
the  countries  surrounding  India,  Buddhism  still  prevails  ;  it  is  indeed 
the  most  widely  extended  of  any  religion,  being  professed  by  not  less 
than  two  hundred  millions  of  people.  Its  success  is  mainly  owing  to 
the  excellent  organization  of  its  hierarchy,  and  the  solemnity  of  its  cer- 
emonies. Celibacy  is  enjoined  on  its  priesthood,  and  thus  a  monastic 
corporation  is  formed,  which  in  Tibet  possesses  the  sovereign  power, 
and  in  the  other  countries  enjoys  considerable  political  influence. 

The  Buddhists  were  not  the  only  reformers  that  opposed  the  Brah- 
nuns  ;  they  were  followed  by  the  Jains,  who  cut  down  more  extensively 
the  vast  forest  of  fraud  and  superstition.  The  rise  of  Jainism  was  con- 
temporary with  the  decline  of  Buddhism  in  Hindoostan.  Both  affect  to 
be  new  doctrines  produced  by  a  fresh  incarnation  of  Vishnoo,  the  con- 
servating  principle  of  the  Hindoo  Triad. 

The  ancient  trade  of  the  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians  with  India  has 
been  already  noticed  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  work  ;  but  Indian  com- 
merce did  n(tt  excite  much  attention  in  the  western  world  until  the  first 
Ptolemy  ascended  the  throne  of  Egj-pt,  and  prepared  to  realize  the  vast 
projects  of  his  master,  Alexander  the  Great.  His  successor,  Ptolemy 
PhL'adelphus,  attempted  to  connect  the  Red  sea  with  the  Mediterranean, 
by  cutting  a  canal  from  Arsinoe  (Suez)  to  the  Pelusiac  branch  of  the 
Nile.  This  was  not  found  so  useful  as  the  king  anticipated ;  he  there- 
fort;  bnik  a  ciiy  lov/er  down  the  Red  sea,  nearly  under  the  Tropic, 
called  Bareiuc.e,  wUch  became  the  staple  of  the  trade  with  India. 
Goods  were  tiansported  from  Berenice  to  Cop'tos  on  the  Nile,  and 
thence  floated  down  the  river  to  Alexandria.  The  Egyptian  vessels 
sailed  frijm  Boveuice  either  to  the  mouths  of  the  Indus  or  to  the  Mala 
bar  coast ;  they  Mere  too  small  to  venture  directly  out  to  sea,  and  there- 
fore crept  timidly  along  the  shores.  The  Persians  had  an  insuperable 
aversion  to  maritime  affairs,  else  they  might  have  opened  the  same  trada 
by  a  shorter  and  safer  course  of  navigation  through  the  Persian  gulf. 
They  procured  Indian  commodities  overland  from  the  banks  of  the  In- 
dus, and  the  northern  provinces  were  supplied  by  the  caravans  which 
travelled  from  the  Indus  to  the  Oxus,  and  sent  their  goods  down  t.hat 
liver  int*^  the  Caspian  sea. 

After  Egypt  had  been  some  time  subject  to  the  Romans,  the  discover} 
of  the  regular  shifting  of  the  periodical  winds  or  monsoons  brought  In 


I 


INDIA.     •  323 

iia  nearer  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  Hippalus,  the  commander  of  a  shij, 
engaged  in  the  Indian  trade,  about  eighty  years  after  Egypt  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Roman  empire,  stretched  boldly  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Arabian  gulf  across  the  ocean,  and  was  wafted  by  the  western  monsoon 
to  Musius  on  the  Malabar  coast,  somewhere  between  Goa  and  Tel- 
licherry.  From  this  time  the  Indian  trade  rapidly  increased,  and  the 
merchants  of  Alexandria  supplied  Europe  with  spices,  and  aromatics. 
precious  stones,  pearls,  silk,  and  cotton  cloths. 

Taprobane  or  the  island  of  Ceylon,  was  not  known  by  ntime  to  Eu- 
ropeans before  the  age  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  Egyptians  seem 
not  to  have  visited  it  or  the  Coromandel  coast,  until  after  the  discovery  of 
the  periodicity  of  the  monsoons,  but  so  early  as  the  reign  of  the  empe- 
ror Claudius  an  ambassador  was  sent  from  the  island  to  Rome.  It  sub- 
sequently became  a  great  mart  of  trade  for  the  commodities  produced  in 
the  countries  beyond  the  Ganges,  and  probably  even  for  the  productions 
of  China. 

Little  change  was  made  in  the  commercial  routes  of  communication 
with  India  from  the  time  of  the  Romans,  until  the  discovery  of  the  pas- 
sage round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  Vasco  de  Gama.  The  ancients 
were  contented  with  traffic,  and  after  the  time  of  Alexander  made  nc 
efforts  to  establish  colonies  in  Hindoostan  ;  hence  their  accounts  of  the 
country  and  its  inhabitants  are  very  loose  and  indefinite.  But  even 
from  these  vague  accounts  we  find  that  the  social  institutions  of  the 
Hindoos  have  scarcely  been  altered  by  the  many  changes  of  realm  and 
chances  of  time  which  have  since  occurred  ;  and  hence  we  may  con« 
elude,  that  its  system  of  civilization,  so  original  and  so  stereotype  in  its 
character,  belongs  to  an  age  of  very  r;";mota  antiquity,  and  that  there  i^ 
no  improbability  in  its  having  been  connected  with  that  of  ancient 
Egj-pt. 


THE 


STUDENT'S   MANUAL 


MODERN    HISTORY, 


THE 


STUDENT'S   MAT^UAL 

OF 

MODERN    HISTORY. 


CHAPTEE,  I. 

CONSEQUENCES   OF    THE   FALL    OF   THE     WEST- 
ERN EMPIRE. 

Sf.i;tion  I. —  Tlie  Gothic  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

There  is  no  period  in  the  annals  of  the  human  race  which  presfcritc 
to  the  historical  student  a  greater  scene  of  confusion  than  the  century 
succeeding  the  overthrow  of  the  Western  Empire.  The  different 
hordes  of  barbarians,  following  no  definite  plan,  established  separate 
monarchies  in  tie  dismembered  provinces,  engaged  in  sanguinary  wars 
that  had  no  object  but  plunder,  and  were  too  ignorant  to  form  anything 
like  a  political  system.  There  is  consequently  a  want  of  unity  in  the 
narrative  of  a  time  when  nations  ceased  to  have  any  fixed  relations 
toward  each  other,  and  history  must  appear  desultory  and  digressive 
until  some  one  state,  rising  into  command,  assume  such  importance, 
that  the  fate  of  all  the  rest  may  be  connected  with  its  destinies.  It  is 
necessary,  before  entering  on  the  various  incidents  of  this  calamitous 
time,  to  take  a  geographical  survey  of  the  places  occupied  by  the  prin- 
cipal nations  who  succeeded  the  Romans  in  the  sovereignty  of  Europe. 

The  Visigoths,  after  their  establishment  in  Spain,  began  gradually 
to  adopt  the  refinement  of  their  new  subjects  ;  that  peninsula  had  ad- 
vanced rapidly  in  civilization  under  the  Roman  dominion,  and  had 
escaped  from  much  of  the  corruption  which  had  degraded  Italy ;  the 
conquerors,  more  advanced  than  any  other  of  the  barbarians,  soon 
learned  to  appreciate  the  advantages  of  social  order,  and  began  to  cul- 
tivate the  higher  arts  of  life.  In  Pannonia,  the  Ostrogoths  derived 
great  improvement  from  their  vicinity  to  Italy  on  the  one  side,  and  thu 
court  of  Constantinople  on  the  other ;  they  were  thus  gradually  trained 
to  civilization,  and  their  early  adoption  of  Christianity  secured  them  the 
benefits  of  literature,  which  was  sedulously  cultivated  by  the  clerg}'. 

Tribes  of  a  very  different  character  pressed  into  the  empire  from  ']-.':• 


328 


MODERN  HISTORV. 


German  forests — the  Burgundians,  the  Lombards,  and  the  Fraiiss,  ot 
whom  the  last  were  long  distinguished  for  their  hostility  to  all  refine- 
ments, and  their  exclusive  attention  to  the  military  virtues.  Still  more 
barbarous  were  the  Saxons  and  Angles ;  they  were  not  only  strangers 
to  the  civilization  and  religion  of  the  empire,  but  were  kept  in  iheii 
mde  state  by  the  practice  of  piracy,  for  which  their  maritime  situation 
afforded  them  great  facilities  ;  their  government,  divided  among  several 
petty  chiefs,  was  favorable  to  personal  independence,  and  furnished  a 
striking  contrast  to  the  absolute  despotism  that  had  been  established  in 
the  Roman  empire.  All  the  Germanic  tribes  were  remarkable  for  the 
respect  which  they  showed  to  the  delicacy  of  the  female  character; 
they  neither  troatfd  their  women  like  slaves,  as  most  other  barbarians 
have  done,  nor  did  they  degrade  them  into  mere  objects  of  sensual 
gratification,  like  the  Romans  and  Byzantines.  The  German  woman 
was  the  companion  and  counsellor  of  her  husband ;  she  shared  his 
labors  as  an  equal,  not  as  a  servant.  It  was  from  the  sanctity  of  the 
domestic  circle  among  the  northern  naticns  that  races  of  conquerors 
derived  the  firmness  and  courage  w4iich  ensured  them  victory. 

The  northeastern  part  of  Europe  was  occupied  by  Sclavonic  ribes, 
differing  from  the  Germans  in  language,  manners,  and  tactics ;  liice  the 
Tartars  of  more  modern  times,  they  placed  their  chief  reliance  on  then 
cavalry ;  and  they  were  more  opposed  to  civilization  than  any  of  the 
Germanic  nations.  Their  form  of  government  was  a  kind  of  aristo- 
cratic republic,  but  in  war  the  tribes  generally  united  under  a  single 
leader.  They  were  very  averse  to  fixed  residences,  and  when  they 
occupied  a  country  they  rarely  entered  the  cities,  but  remained  in  their 
camps  or  in  rude  circular  fortifications  called  rings.  The  Sclavonians 
hated  the  Germans,  and  could  rarely  be  induced  to  unite  with  them 
against  their  common  enemy,  the  Romans. 

After  the  fall  of  the  W es'ern  Empire,  the  court  of  Constantinople 
sunk  into  obscurity,  from  which  it  did  not  emerge  for  half  a  centur}'', 
when  its  supremacy  was  restored  during  the  memorable  reign  of  Jus- 
tinian. The  Isaurian  Zeno,  raised  to  the  purple  by  his  marriage  with 
the  princess  Ariadne,  was  forced  to  fly  into  the  mountains  by  a  fierce 
revolt  which  his  mother-in-law  Verina  had  instigated.  He  was  restored 
to  the  throne  chiefly  by  the  aid  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 
who  had  been  carefully  educated  as  a  hostage  at  the  court  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  turbulence  of  the  Goths,  and  the  faithlessness  of  the 
Byzantines,  soon  destroyed  the  amity  of  the  two  sovereigns  ;  a  desul- 
tory, but  sanguinary  warfare  harassed  the  Eastern  Empire,  until  Zeno 
purchased  peace  by  ceding  to  Theodoric  his  right  over  Italy,  or  rather 
stimulated  the  Goth  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  that  peninsula.  The 
march  of  Theodoric  was  the  emigration  of  an  entire  people ;  the  Goths 
were  accompanied  by  their  wives,  their  children,  and  their  aged 
parents,  a  vast  multitude  of  wagons  conveyed  their  most  precious  ef- 
fects, and  their  store  of  provisions  for  a  „oilsome  march  undertaken  in 
the  depth  of  winter.  Odoacer  boldly  prepared  to  meet  this  formidable 
invasion;  he  took  post  on  the  river  Sontius  [Isonzu)  with  a  powerful 
host;  but  he  was  unable  to  resist  the  daring  energy  of  the  Goths,  and 
his  defeat  gave  Theodoric  p'^ssession  of  the  Venetian  province  as  fai 
08   the   walls  of  Verona   (a.  d.  489).     Italy,   however    w.as  not    won 


TALL  OF  THE  WESTERN   EMPIRE  329 

ivitjiout  further  struggle"  •  Ravenna  alone  sustained  a  siege  of  more 
than  three  years  ;  but  at  length  Odoacer  capitulated  (a.  d.  493),  and 
was  soon  after  assassinated  at  a  solemn  banquet  by  his  rival. 

Theodoric  secured  his  conquest  by  distributing  one  third  of  the  lands 
of  Italy  to  his  soldiers  in  military  tenures.  This  partition  was  effected 
with  very  little  violence  to  the  ancient  possessors ;  the  Goths  were  in- 
structed to  spare  the  people,  to  reverence  the  laws,  and  to  lay  aside 
their  barbarous  customs  of  judicial  combats  and  private  revenge.  The 
Gothic  sovereignty  was  soon  extended  from  Sicily  to  the  Danube,  and 
from  Sirmium  (Sirmic/i)  to  the  Atlantic  ocean;  thus  including  the  fair- 
est portion  of  the  Western  Empire.  The  monarch  of  this  new  ki;ig- 
dom  showed  great  wisdom  and  moderation  in  his  civil  government,  but 
unfortunately  his  attachment  to  the  Arian  heresy  led  him  to  persecute 
the  Catholics.  The  legal  murder  of  the  philosopher  Boethius  and  .he 
venerable  Symmachus  were  crimes  which  admit  of  no  palliation ;  they 
hastened  Theodoric's  death,  for  remorse  brought  him  to  the  grave  ii< 
the  thirty-third  year  of  his  reign  (a.  d.  526). 

Section  II. — Reign  of  Justinian. 

A  Dacian  peasant,  named  Justin,  who  had  travelled  on  foot  to  Con 
stantinople  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Leo,  enlisted  in  the  imperii^ 
guards,  and,  during  the  succeeding  reigns,  so  distinguished  himself  by 
his  strength  and  valor,  that  he  was  gradually  raised  to  the  command  of 
the  household  troops.  On  the  death  of  the  emperor  Anastasius,  the 
eunuch  Amantius,  anxious  to  secure  the  throne  for  one  of  his  creatures, 
intrusted  Justin  with  a  large  sum  of  money  to  bribe  the  guards ;  but  he 
used  it  to  purchase  votes  for  himself,  and  was  thus  elevated  to  the  em- 
pire (a.  n.  518).  Totally  ignorant  himself,  Justin  was  not  insensible 
of  the  value  of  education ;  he  made  his  nephew  Justinian  his  associate 
in  the  empire  ;  and  as  this  prince  had  been  instructed  in  all  the  learn- 
ing of  the  times,  he  soon  obtained  the  whole  power  of  the  state. 

After  the  death  of  Justin  (a.  d.  527),  Justinian  ruled  alone ;  but  his 
first  exercise  of  authority  fixed  a  lasting  stigma  on  his  reign.  He  chose 
for  his  empress,  Theodora,  a  woman  of  mean  birth  and  infamous  char- 
acter, whose  vices  had  disgusted  even  a  capital  so  licentious  as  Ccn- 
stanthiopie.  Among  the  most  singular  and  disgraceful  fMllies  of  the 
Eastern  Empire  were  the  factions  of  the  circus,  which  arose  from  the 
colors  worn  by  the  charioteers  who  competed  for  the  prize  of  swiftness 
Green  and  blue  were  the  most  remarkable  for  their  inveterate  hostility 
though  white  and  red  were  the  most  ancient :  all,  however,  soon  ac- 
quired a  legal  existence,  and  the  Byzantines  willingly  hazarded  life  and 
fortune  to  suppoiL  their  favorite  color.  Justinian  was  a  partisan  of  the 
blues ;  his  favor  toward  them  provoked  the  hostility  of  the  opposite 
faction,  and  led  to  a  sedition  which  almost  laid  Constantinople  in  ashey 
The  disturbances  first  burst  forth  in  the'  circus ;  Justinian  ordered  the 
rioters  to  be  secured ;  both  factions  immediately  turned  against  the 
monarch,  the  soldiers  were  called  out,  but  they  were  unable  to  contend 
against  the  citizens  in  the  narrow  streets.  Assailed  from  the  tops  of 
the  houses,  the  barbarian  mercenaries  flung  firebrands  in  revenge,  and 
hus  kindled  a  dreadful  conflagration,  which  destroyed  a  vast  numbei 


330  MODERN  HISTORY 

31  public  and  private  edifices.  After  tlie  city  had  been  for  several  days 
in  the  hands  of  tne  rioters,  Justinian  contrived  to  revive  the  ancien 
animosity  between  the  greens  and  blues ;  the  latter  faction  declared  foi 
the  emperor,  a  strong  body  of  veterans  marched  to  the  Hippodrome  or 
race-course,  and  tranquillity  was  restored  by  the  slaughter  of  thirty 
thousand  of  the  insurgents.  While  the  internal  state  of  the  empire 
was  thus  disturbed  by  faction,  a  costly  and  unprofitable  war  was  waged 
against  the  Persians,  until  the  emperor  purchased  a  disgraceful  and 
precarious  truce,  which  both  he  and  his  rival  chose  to  designate  as  an 
endless  peace. 

The  usurpation  of  the  throne  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa  by  Gelimer 
who  owed  his  success  chiefly  to  *he  support  of  the  Arian  clergy,  in 
duccd  Justinian  to  undertake  a  war,  in  which  he  appeared  both  the 
generous  friend  of  an  allied  sovereign  and  the  protector  of  the  Catholic 
faith.  Belisarius,  the  best  general  of  his  age,  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  imperial  forces,  and  a  large  deet  was  assembled  for 
the  transport  of  the  army  in  the  harbor  of  Constantinople  (a.  d.  533). 
After  the  armament  had  been  blessed  by  the  patriarch  it  set  sail ;  and, 
after  a  prosperous  voyage,  Belisarius  effected  a  landing  on  the  coast  of 
Africa  without  opposition.  He  advanced  toward  Carthage,  defeating 
the  Vandals  on  his  march,  and  became  master  of  the  city  with  little 
opposition.  Gelimer  made  one  effort  more  to  save  his  kingdom;  it 
was  unsuccessful,  his  army  was  irretrievably  ruined,  and  he  was  closely 
besieged  in  the  castle  where  he  sought  refuge.  The  unfortunate  king, 
after  having  borne  the  most  dreadful  extremities  of  famine,  was  forced 
to  surrender  unconditionally ;  he  was  carried  captive  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  was  led  in  the  triumphal  procession  that  honored  the  return 
of  Belisarius.  The  dethroned  monarch  showed  no  sorrow  for  his  fall, 
but  consoled  himself  by  Solomon's  reflection  on  the  instability  of  hu- 
man greatness,  frequently  repeating.  "  Vanity  of  vanities,  saith  the 
preacher,  all  is  vanity." 

The  murder  of  Amalasontha,  queen  of  the  Goths,  by  her  ungrateful 
husband  Theodatus,  afforded  Belisarius  a  pretext  for  attacking  the  king- 
dom of  Italy.  He  sailed  from  Constantinople  to  Sicily,  and  easily  con- 
quered that  important  island  (a.  d.  535).  Theodatus,  in  great  terror, 
hasted  to  avert  danger,  by  declaring  himself  the  vassal  of  Justinian  ; 
but  hearing  in  the  meantime  that  two  Byzantine  generals  had  been  de- 
feated in  Dalmatia  by  the  Gothic  troops,  he  passed  suddenly  from  ex- 
treme despair  to  the  height  of  presumption,  and  withdrew  his  allegi- 
ance. Belisarius  soon  appeared  to  chastise  his  perfidy  ;  he  transported 
his  army  across  the  Sicilian  strait,  and  effected  a  landing  at  Rhegium 
{Reggio).  The  greater  part  of  southern  Italy,  including  the  important 
city  of  Naples,  was  speedily  subdued  by  the  imperisl  forces;  while 
Theodatus,  secure  withii  the  walls  of  Rome,  made  no  effort  to  protect 
his  subjects.  At  length  the  Goths,  disgusted  by  the  incajjacity  and 
weakness  of  their  sovereign,  removed  him  from  the  throne,  and  chose 
the  valiant  Vitiges  for  their  king.  But  Vitiges  was  forced  to  commence 
his  reign  by  abandoning  Rome,  of  which  Belisarius  took  possession 
WTthout  encountering  any  opposition  (a.  d.  537).  During  the  ensuing 
\*inter,  the  Goths  assembled  from  every  quarter  to  save,  if  possible 
their  kingdom  in  Italy :  a  powerful  army,  animated  by  dauntless  spirit 


FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  331 

was  soou  collected,  and  "Vitiges  led  his  followers  to  the  siege  of  Rome 
Belisarius  concentrated  his  forces  in  the  Eternal  city,  which  was  de- 
fended with  equal  skill  and  bravery  ;  but  famine  soon  appeared  withir 
the  walls,  and  the  citizens  became  anxious  for  a  capitulation.  A  con- 
spiracy was  formed  under  the  sanction  of  the  pope,  Sylverius,  for  be- 
traying the  city  to  the  Goths  ;  but  it  was  discovered  by  an  intercepted 
letter.  Belisarius  sent  Sylverius  into  banishment,  and  ordered  the 
bishops  to  elect  a  new  pontiff:  before  however  a  synod  could  be  assem- 
bled for  the  purpose,  the  general's  wife,  the  infamous  Antonina,  sold  the 
Holy  See  to  Vigilus  for  a  bribe  of  two  hundred  pounds  weight  of  gold. 
Reinforcements  soon  after  arrived  from  the  east,  and  the  Goths  were 
forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Rome,  having  lost  one  third  of  their  number 
before  its  walls.  Belisarius  pursued  the  retreating  enemy  to  the 
marshes  of  Ravenna,  and  would  probably  have  captured  that  city,  but 
for  the  jealousy  of  the  eunuch  Narses,  whom  Justinian  had  intrusted 
with  the  independent  command  of  a  large  division  of  the  Byzantine 
army.  Though  the  differences  between  the  two  leaders  were  finally 
adjiisted,  the  Goths  had  taken  advantage  of  the  interval  to  collect  new 
strength  ;  and  ten  thousand  Burgundians,  sent  to  invade  Italy  by  the 
command  of  Theodobert,  king  of  the  Franks,  had  stormed  and  plun 
dered  Milan.  Soon  after,  Theodobert  passed  the  Alps  in  person  at  the 
head  of  one  hundred  thousand  men.  The  Franks  stormed  Genoa,  and 
devastated  Liguria  ;  but  their  excesses  brought  pestilence  into  their 
camp,  they  perished  by  thousands  and  Theodobert  was  induced,  by  his 
increasing  distresses,  to  enter  into  terms  of  accommodation  with  the 
emperor.  Delivered  from  this  pressing  danger,  Belisarius  laid  siege 
Co  Ravenna,  which  was  forced  to  capitulate  (a.  d.  539) ;  and  thus  the 
Gothic  kingdom  of  Italy  was  destroyed. 

Belisarius  returned  to  Constantinople  in  triumph,  leading  with  hmi 
the  captive  Vitiges  ;  he  was  sent  to  conduct  the  Persian  war,  but  was 
soon  recalled  and  disgraced  by  the  ungrateful  Justinian.  While  the 
conquests  of  Belisarius  were  restoring'  the  western  provinces  to  the 
empire,  barbarous  hordes  ravaged,  almost  with  impunity,  the  northeast- 
ern frontiers.  Unable  or  unwilling  to  meet  the  Gepidse  in  the  field, 
Justinian  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Longobardi  or  Lombards  (so 
called  from  their  long  barts  or  lances),  who  had  just  thrown  off  the  yoke 
of  the  Heruli,  and  gave  them  settlements  in  Pannonia.  A  war  of  forty 
years'  duration,  between  the  Lombards  and  Gepidae,  protected  the  em- 
pire from  the  invasions  of  both  hordes ;  but  it  was  still  exposed  to  the 
incursions  of  the  Sclavonians  and  Bulgarians,  who  annually  purchased 
a  passage  tlmtiigh  the  territories  of  the  Gepidije,  and  extended  their  in- 
roads even  mto  southern  Greece.  Commotions  in  the  remote  east 
brought  Europeans,  about  this  time,  acquainted  with  new  and  more  for 
midable  racps  of  barbarians,  the  Avars  and  the  Turks,  whose  impor 
tahce  mav  justify  a  short  digression  on  their  origin. 

The  Avars,  from  an  unknown  age,  possessed  the  mountains  and 
deserts  that  border  on  the  lake  Baikal  in  northeastern  Asia.  Thence 
tliey  T.dvanr.ed  southward  under  a  monarch  named  Tiilun,  and  extended 
their  empire  lO  the  eastern  sea,  which  separates  Corea  from  Japan. 
The  r^UKjueror  took  the  title  of  Chakan  or  Chagan,  a  name  still  used  on 
dip  coins  of  the  Turkish  sultan.     But  the  prosperity  of  the  Avars  vf;\s 


332  MODERN  HISTORY. 

no;  of  long  duiation ;  ihey  were  assailed  by  ri\'al  tribes  from  the  north 
and  at  the  same  time  harassed  by  civil  wars  ;  while  thus  distressed, 
ihey  were  attacked  by  a  new  horde,  called  Thiukhiii  by  the  Chinese 
writers,  but  known  ^.o  the  Europeans  as  the  Turks.  The  Avars  were 
overthrown  by  these  new  competitors  for  empire,  and  their  power  totally 
destroyed  ;  but  their  name  was  taken  by  a  new  nation,  the  Ogors  oi 
Varchonites,  who  after  being  defeated  by  the  TurkSj  migrated  toward 
Europe  by  the  route  of  the  Volga.  They  chose  the  false  designation, 
.because  the  name  of  the  Avars  was  still  formidable,  and  the/ preserved 
it  on  account  of  the  terror  which  they  saw  it  produced. 

The  Turks  first  appear  in  history  as  the  slaves  of  the  original  Avars  ; 
ihey  inhabited  the  great  Altaian  mountains,  and  were  engaged  in  woiK- 
ing  the  mines  and  attending  the  forges  of  those  rich  -nineral  districts 
Their  skill  in  fabricating  armor  and  weapons  was  very  great,  and  they 
prided  themselves  upon  the  excellence  of  their  manufactures  so  much, 
that,  when  they  became  lords  of  eastern  Asid,,  their  Khakans  annually 
forged  a  piece  of  iron  in  the  presence  of  the  heads  of  the  nation.  Un- 
der the  guidance  of  Thu-men,  they  asserted  their  independence,  and 
made  slaves  of  their  former  masters.  So  rapid  was  their  progress, 
that  during  the  reigns  of  Thu-men  and  his  successor  Dizabul,  their 
empire  was  extended  from  the  Volga  to  the  sea  of  Japan.  They  were 
thus  brought  to  the  frontiers  of  the  Byzantine  and  Persian  dominions, 
and  engaged  in  commercial  relations  with  both,  by  their  occupation  of 
the  countries  through  which  the  silk-trade  was  carried. 
■  The  great  rival  of  Justinian  was  Chosroes  or  Nushirvan,  the  most 
celebrated  Persian  monarch  of  the  Sassanid  dynasty  ;  in  the  early  part  of 
his  reign  he  won  the  affection  of  his  subjects,  by  extirpating  the  perni- 
cious system  of  policy  and  religion  which  his  predecessor  Kobad,  seduced 
by  an  impostor  named  Mazdak,  had  patronised.  His  next  care  was  to 
give  confidence  to  the  laboring  classes  by  judicious  laws  securing  the 
rights  of  industry,  and  by  a  sedulous  attention  to  the  administraticm  of 
justice.  Having  thus  secured  the  tranquillity  and  prosperity  of  Persia, 
he  directed  his  attention  to  the  favorite  project  of  the  Sassanides,  the 
re-establishment  of  the  empire  of  Cyrus,  and  perceiving  that  the  force3 
of  Justinian  were  engaged  in  the  west,  invaded  Syria,  at  the  head  of  a 
powerful  army  (a.  d.  .'J40).  His  victorious  career  was  checked  for  a 
brief  space  by  Belisarius,  but  after  the  recall  and  disgrace  of  that  general, 
he  urged  forward  his  conquests  with  alarming  rapidity.  Justinian,  in 
his  distress,  repented  of  his  ingratitude ;  Belisarius  was  restored  to 
command,  and  by  his  judicious  exertions,  Nushirvan  was  forced  K)  re- 
turn across  the  Euphrates,  loaded,  however,  with  the  spoils  of  western 
Asia.  His  next  enterprise  was  the  conquest  of  the  Caucasian  districts 
inhabited  by  the  Lazi,  the  Colchians,  and  other  semi-barbarous  tribes 
which  the  Byzantines  struggled  to  prevent,  and  this  led  to  the  tedious 
Lazic  war,  in  which  the  strength  of  both  empires  was  uselessly  wasted 
In  consequence  of  the  Persian  war,  Justinian  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
the  Abyssinians,  whose  monarch  had  subdued  the  greater  part  of  Arabia, 
in  the  expectation  of  opening,  by  his  means,  a  navai  communicatiot 
with  China  and  India;  but  the  design  was  fn  straled  by  the  reluctance 
of  the  Ethiopian  monarch  to  engage  in  a  doubtful  contest  with  the  powei 
^f  Persia 


FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIEE.  333 

Tlie  provinces  of  Africa  and  Italy,  acquired  by  the  valor  of  Belisarius, 
were  nearly  lost  by  the  incapacity  and  tyranny  of  his  successors. 
Their  Aveakness  provoked  the  Moors  to  take  arms  ;  and,  though  these 
barbarians  were  finally  reduced,  the  African  province  was  changed 
from  a  fertile  and  populous  country  into  a  savage  and  silent  desert. 
Still  more  dangerous  was  the  revolt  of  the  Goths  under  the  gallant 
Totila  (a.  d.  541),  who  in  a  very  brief  space  recovered  the  greater  part 
of  Italy.  Finding  his  generals  successively  defeated,  Justinian  sent 
Belisarius  to  the  theatre  of  his  former  glory  ;  but  he  neglected  to  supply 
the  hero  with  suflBcient  forces ;  and  Rome  was  captured  by  Totila,  al- 
most in  sight  of  the  imperial  army.  The  city  was  recovered  soon  after, 
and  the  old  general  gained  some  advantages  over  Totila ;  but  finding 
himself  unsupported,  he  solicited  permission  to  return,  and  departed  from 
Italy  disgraced,  not  so  much  by  his  failure,  as  by  the  plunder  he  had 
permitted  Antonina  to  extort  from  those  he  was  sent  to  defend  (a.  d. 
548).  Totila,  after  the  departure  of  Belisarius,  again  made  himself 
master  of  Rome,  but  the  maritime  cities  of  Italy  resisted  his  assaults, 
and  supported  the  imperial  interests  until  the  eunuch  JSTarses  was  sent 
into  tlie  peninsula  (a.  d.  552). 

Justinian  granted  to  this  favorite  what  he  had  denied  to  Belisarius,  a 
competent  supply  of  the  munitions  of  war;  allies  were  entreated  to 
send  contingents,  and  mercenaries  were  hired  from  the  principal  bar- 
barous tribes.  Thus  supplied,  the  eunuch  eagerly  sought  to  bring  the 
Goths  to  an  engagement ;  but  Totila  showed  equal  ardor  for  the  combat, 
and  the  hostile  forces  soon  met  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome.  In  the  very 
commencement  of  the  battle  the  Gothic  cavalry,  hurried  forward  by 
their  impetuosity,  advanced  so  far  beyond  their  infantry,  tliat  they  were 
surrounded  and  cut  to  pieces  bef(jre  they  could  receive  assistance. 
Totila,  hasting  with  a  chosen  troop  to  remedy  the  disorder,  was  struck 
to  the  earth  mortally  wounded,  and  his  followers  instantly  fled  in  con- 
fusion. Rome  opened  its  gates  to  the  conquerors;  but  the  imperial 
forces,  especially  the  barbarian  mercenaries,  treated  the  city  more 
cruelly  than  the  Gothic  conquerors  had  done,  and  inflicted  on  the  citi- 
zens the  mingled  horror  of  lust,  rapine,  and  murder.  The  bravest  of 
the  Goths  retired,  after  their  defeat,  beyond  the  Po,  and  chose  Teias 
for  their  king.  War  was  of  course  renewed  ;  but  in  a  fierce  battle, 
which  lasted  two  entire  days,  Teias  was  slain,  and  the  power  of  the 
Ostrogoths  irretrievably  ruined.  Narses  had  scarcely  time  to  recover 
from  the  fatigues  of  this  campaign,  when  he  was  summoned  to  repel  an 
invasion  of  the  Franks  and  Allemans ;  he  routed  them  with  great 
slaughter;  and  then,  returning  to  Rome,  gratified  its  citizens  by  the 
semblance  of  a  triumph.  Italy  was  thus  reduced  to  a  Byzantine  prov- 
ince, governed  by  the  exarchs  of  Ravenna ;  and  Narses  himself,  the 
first  and  most  powerful  of  the  exarchs,  governed  the  whole  peninsula 
for  fifteen  years. 

In  the  meantime  Belisarius  had  been  summoned  to  defend  the  em- 
pire from  the  dangers  with  which  it  was  manaced,  by  an  invasion  of 
the  Bulgarians.  He  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  barbarians,  but 
was  prevented  from  improving  his  advantages  by  the  intrigues  of  the 
courtiers.  The  Bulgarians  were  induced  to  return  beyond  the  Danube, 
by  the  payment  of  a  large  ransom  for  their  captives ;  and  Justinian 


334  MODERN  HISTORY. 

i?-laimed  the  gratitude  of  his  subjects  for  accelerating  their  departure  by 
ibe  threat  of  placing  armed  vessels  in  the  Danube.  This  was  the  las 
•-•ampaign  of  Belisarius  ;  he  was  soon  after  disgraced  and  imprisoned, 
under  a  false  charge  of  treason :  his  innocence  was  sulsequently  proved, 
and  his  freedom  restored,  but  grief  and  resentment  hurried  him  to  the 
grave  ;  and  his  treasures  were  seized  by  the  rapacious  emperor.  Eight 
months  afterward  Justinian  sunk  into  the  tomb  scarcely  regretted  by 
his  subjects.  He  was  a  pious  and  diligent  sovereign,  but  he  wanted 
energy  to  contend  against  the  vices  of  his  court  and  the  age.  His 
talents  as  a  legislator  and  statesman  were  great ;  had  he  acted  on  his 
own  principles,  he  would  have  surpassed  Augustus,  but  he  yielded  his 
power  to  the  infamous  Theodora,  and  to  unworthy  ministers  who  abused 
\i\H  confidence,  and  oppressed  the  empire. 


Section  III. —  The  Establishment  of  the  O^jil  Law. 

Early  in  his  reign,  Justinian  directed  his  attention  to  the  state  of  the 
law  in  his  empire,  and  formed  the  useful  project  of  digesting  into  a  uni- 
form code  the  vast  mass  of  laws,  rules,  and  judicial  maxims,  which  the 
various  interests  of  the  Romans  and  Byzantines,  their  progress  in  civ- 
ilization, and  the  inconstancy  of  their  nders,  had  produced,  during  the 
course  of  thirteen  hundred  years.  He  saw  that  the  multitude  of  ordi- 
nances occasioned  confusion  and  disorder,  and  that  the  heap  of  incon 
sistent  decisions  and  regulations,  formed  a  labyrinth  in  which  justice 
went  astray,  and  iniquity  found  avenues  for  escape.  The  execution  of 
this  great  plan  was  not  worthy  of  the  design.  At  the  head  of  the  com- 
mission appointed  to  prepare  the  code  was  Tribonian,  a  lawyer  of 
great  eminence,  but  unfortunately  an  interested  flatterer  and  corrupt 
judge  ;  accustomed  to  sell  justice,  he  ahered,  perverted,  or  suppressed 
many  excellent  laws.  He  frequently  persuaded  the  emperor  to  destroy, 
by  supplementary  edicts  called  Novels,  the  principles  of  right  which 
had  been  previously  established  in  the  Code  and  the  Digest. 

Justinian  commenced  with  the  Code.  In  an  edict,  dated  the  3d  of 
February,  a.  d.  528,  addressed  to  the  senate  of  Constantinople,  he  de- 
clared his  resolution  of  collecting  into  a  single  volume,  not  merely  the 
laws  in  the  three  previous  codes  of  Gregory,  Hennogenianus,  and  The- 
odosius,  but  also  the  laws  that  had  been  published  by  imperial  authority 
since  the  formation  of  the  Theodosian  code.  A  commission  of  ten  em- 
inent lawyers,  with  Tribonian  at  its  head,  was  charged  with  the  execu- 
tion of  this  task.  They  were  permitted  to  suppress  repetitions,  to  re- 
move contradictory  or  obsolete  laws,  to  add  what  was  necessary  foi 
exactness  or  explanation,  and  :o  unite,  under  one  head,  what  was  spread 
over  a  great  variety  of  laws.  The  work  went  on  so  rapidly,  that  in 
Little  more  than  a  year  the  new  code,  containing,  in  twelve  books,  all 
the  imperial  laws  from  the  accession  of  the  Emperor  Adrian  was  ready 
i.o  appear.  Justinian  afiixed  the  imperial  seal  to  the  new  constitution 
(a.  d.  529),  and  transmitted  it,  with  a  suitable  edict,  to  Mennas,  the 
prseiorian  praefect.  Ir.  this  edict  he  congratulates  liimself  and  the  em- 
pire on  having  found  commissioners  possessing  so  much  zeal,  know! 
pdgc,  and  probity ;  he  gives  the  collection  the  force  of  law  ordaining 


FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  335 

tnat  the  new  code  alone  should  be  cited  in  courts  of  justice ;  and  he 
commands  the  praefect  to  have  this  made  known  through  the  empire. 

A  more  extensive  and  difficult  work  remained,  to  collect  the  scattered 
monuments  of  ancient  jurisprudence.  Justinian  confided  this  task  also 
to  Tribonian,  and  gave  him  the  power  of  nominating  his  fellow  com- 
missioners Tribonian  chose  one  of  the  magistrates  who  had  already 
aided  in  the  formation  of  the  Code,  four  professors  of  jurisprudence, 
and  eleven  advocates  of  high  legal  reputation.  These  seventeen  com- 
missioners were  instructed  to  search  out,  collect,  and  put  in  order,  all 
that  was  really  usefid  in  the  books  of  the  juriconsults  who  had  been 
authorized  to  make  or  interpret  laws  by  preceding  sovereigns ;  they 
were  permitted,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Code,  to  change,  add,  or  retrench, 
and  to  fix  doubtful  cases  by  precise  definitions.  The  emperor  recom- 
mended them  in  settling  any  point,  to  regard  neither  the  number  nor  the 
reputation  of  the  juriconsults  who  had  given  opinions  on  the  subject, 
but  to  be  guided  solely  by  reason  and  equity.  Their  collection  was  to 
be  arranged  in  fifty  books,  having  all  the  matter  arranged  under  their 
respective  titles,  and  was  to  be  named  the  Digest,  on  account  of  its  or- 
derly classification,  or  the  Pandects,  because  it  was  to  contain  all  the 
ancient  jurisprudence.*  But  the  commissioners  seem  to  have  executed 
their  task  with  more  zeal  and  speed  than  exactness.  The  emperor 
himself  did  not  expect  that  the  work  could  be  completed  in  less  than 
ten  years.  It  was  necessary  to  examine  carefully  more  than  two  thou- 
sand volumes ;  to  discuss,  compare,  and  reduce  into  order,  an  innume- 
rable number  of  decisions  ;  to  reform  some  of  them,  to  reverse  others, 
and  to  classify  the  whole.  But  Tribonian,  who  knew  that  in  enter- 
prises which  engage  the  vanity  of  princes,  the  delay  between  the  de- 
sign and  execution  is  bome  with  great  impatience,  hurried  on  the  work 
so  rapidly  that  it  was  completed  in  three  years. 

On  the  16th  of  December,  533,  Justinian  invested  this  collection 
with  the  authority  of  law,  by  a  constitution  of  state,  addressed  to  the 
senate  of  Constantinople,  and  all  his  subjects.  In  this  edict  he  states, 
that  the  enormous  chaos  of  ancient  decisions  have  been  reduced  to  a 
twentieth  part,  without  the  omission  of  anything  essential,  so  that  the 
order  and  brevity  of  th  s  body  of  jurisprudence,  and  the  facility  with 
which  it  could  be  learned,  took  away  every  excuse  from  negligence  or 
ignorance.  He  declares,  that  though  some  errors  may  have  crept 
into  a  work  of  such  vast  magnitude,  their  number  is  very  limited ;  and 
he  asserts,  rather  too  hastily,  that  it  contains  none  of  those  inconsistent 
decisions  which  lawyers  call  antinomies.]  Should  any  point  be  found 
deficient  and  obscure,  he  wills  that  recourse  should  be  had  to  the  impe- 
rial authority,  which  alone  has  the  power  to  supply  or  interpret  the 
laws.  To  prevent  the  recurrence  of  the  ancient  confusion,  by  diversity 
nf  sentiments,  he  forbids  all  commentary,  permitting  only  the  transLi- 
fion  of  the  laws  into  Greek,  with  the  addition  of  titles  and  paratilles — 
that  is  to  say,  summaries  of  their  contents.  He  forbids  the  use  of  ab- 
breviations in  transcribing  them,  declaring  that  the  copy  in  which  a 

•  From  Trai',  all,  and  ?t.^,^nft,u.  to  contain.  The  fifty  books  of  the  Pandects  are 
divided  into  lour  hundred  and  twenty-three  titles,  which  contain  nine  thousand  on? 
fitmdred  and  twenty-three  laws,  each  marked  with  the  name  of  its  author. 

+  From  aiiTi^  contrary  to,  and  i"j/'o{,  law. 


S3r>  MODERN  HISTORY, 

contraction  was  found  should  be  held  of  no  authority,  and  that  the  tian 
Rcriber  should  be  puiished  for  forgery.  \11  other  laws  are  declared  to 
be  abrogated,  and  are  even  forbidden  to  iie  cited  In  the  tribunals  ;  and 
the  judges  are  ordered  to  conform  in  all  things  to  the  Digest  from  the 
day  of  the  date  of  the  edict.  The  emperor  enjoins  the  three  praetorian 
prcefects  to  publish  the  Digest  in  their  several  governments,  and  con 
eludes  by  stating  that  he  was  anxious  to  have  this  meritorious  revolu- 
tion effected  during  his  third  consulate,  in  order  that  a  year,  whicb 
neaven  had  blessed  by  a  peace  with  Persia,  and  the  conquest  of  Africa, 
ehould  witness  the  completion  of  this  great  edifice  of  the  laws,  as  a 
noly  and  august  temple,  in  which  justice  should  pronounce  ner  oracles 

While  the  conmiissioners  labored  at  the  Digest,  the  emperor  charged 
Tribonian,  and  two  eminent  professors,  to  prepare  an  elementary  work 
on  jurisprudence,  in  four  books,  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  law. 
This  portion  of  Justinian's  legislation  is  far  the  most  valuable  part ;  it 
was  finished  and  published  a  little  before  the  Digest,  and  was  named 
the  Institutes. 

The  whole  system  of  ancient  jurisprudence  was  thus  simplified,  re- 
duced to  its  essentials,  and  arranged  in  the  Institutes,  the  Pandects, 
and  the  Code.  But,  after  their  publication,  Justinian  published  more 
than  two  hundred  supplementary  edicts  ;  and  when  the  great  collections 
began  to  be  used  in  the  courts,  several  errors  and  imperfections  were 
discovered  as  might  reasonably  be  expected  in  a  work  of  such  magni- 
tude, execuied  with  such  unnecessary  speed.  A  new  commission  was 
appointed  to  revise  the  Code  ;  the  result  of  its  labors  was  a  second  edi- 
tion, which  received  the  imperial  sanction,  November  16,  534,  by  an 
edict  abrogating  the  former  imperfect  Code. 

The  emperor  reserved  to  himself,  in  express  terms,  the  right  of  adding, 
at  a  subsequent  time,  but  separately,  such  constitutions  as  he  should 
judge  necessary.  These  were  called  Novels  ;  they  limit,  extend,  and 
in  some  instances  repeal  the  Code  ;  and  it  is  this  inconsistency  that  has 
ted  to  the  suspicion  of  Tribonian  and  the  prince  having  occasionally 
been  guided  by  interest  and  favor,  rather  than  by  reason  and  equity, 
rhese  Novels  are  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  in  number,  but  only 
ninety-eight  have  the  force  of  law,  having  been  collected  into  a  volume 
iu  the  last  year  of  Justinian's  reign. 

This  code  was  supplanted  in  the  east  by  the  Basilica  or  Greek  con- 
iUitutions  af  later  emperors.  In  the  west,  lUyria  was  the  only  province 
by  which  it  was  receiv^ed,  until  the  overthrow  of  the  Gothic  monarchy 
afforded  an  opportunity  for  its  introduction  into  Italy.  The  Code,  way 
however,  supers^drd  by  the  laws  of  the  Lombards,  when  their  hordes 
became  master  of  Ravenna.  After  Charlemagne  had  overthrown  the 
Lombard  monarchy,  he  searched  Italy  in  vain  for  a  copy  of  Justinian's 
legislation  ;  it  remained  concealed  until  the  twelfth  century,  when  a 
copy  of  the  Digest  was  found  on  the  capture  of  Amalfi  by  the  troops 
of  the  emperor  Lothaire  II.,  and  presented  by  him  to  the  citizens  of 
Pisa,  who  had  aided  the  imperialists  in  this  expedition.  At  a  later  pe- 
riod, a  copy  of  the  Code  was  discovered  at  Ravenna,  and  a  collection 
was  made  of  the  Novels  which  were  dispersed  throughout  Italy.  Such 
were  the  origin  and  revolutions  of  this  celebrated  body  of  legislation, 
he  source  of  the  civil  law  throughout  Europe,  and  the  great  guide  to 


FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  337 

Jie  TTi03t  civilized  nations  in  supplying  tlie  defects  of  ilieir  several  legal 
systems. 

Section  IV. — History  of  the  Silk  Trade. — Introduction  of  the  SiUcworm  inu^ 

Euroj)e. 

Silk  was  known  as  an  article  of  ccfinmerce,  and  extensively  used  Id 
;,he  western  world  long  before  the  insect  that  produces  this  precious 
substance,  and  whose  nature  was  unknown,  was  brovight  for  the  firt-J 
time  to  Constantinople.  No  one  before  the  age  of  Justinian  had  even 
contemplated  such  an  enterprise.  It  was  only  by  long  and  painfui 
journeys  through  the  dangerous  and  difficult  wilds  of  central  Asia,  that 
a  merchandise  could  be  procured,  which  the  progress  of  wealth  and 
luxury  rendered  almost  indispensable  to  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe. 
Asia,  and  Africa,  that  surrounded  the  Mediterranean.  The  Assyrians 
and  Medes,  in  the  early  ages,  had  long  a  monopoly  of  this  commerce , 
and  hence  we  find  that  garments  of  wrought  silk  are  usually  called 
Aledian  robes  by  the  ancient  writers.  In  this  traffic  they  were  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Persians,  who  attached  great  importance  to  the  trade, 
and  neglecting  nothing  that  could  keep  it  exclusively  in  their  hands. 
From  them  the  Greek  and  Syrian  merchants  of  Asia  purchased  the  silk 
which  they  transported  into  the  western  countries.  Passing  through 
such  a  number  of  hands,  it  was  of  course  scarce  and  dear.  During 
Justinian's  reign,  the  Byzantines,  or,  as  they  still  called  themselves,  the 
Romans,  were  eager  to  free  themselves  from  their  dependance  on  the 
Persians  for  the  supply  of  this  article.  They  tried  to  lower  the  price 
by  purchasing  from  other  Asiatic  nations,  and  by  making  exertions  to 
open  a  direct  communication  with  the  country  in  which  the  silk  is  pro- 
luced.  Their  ignorance  of  geography  was  a  great  impediment  to  their 
;uccess  ;  they  had  very  vague  notions  respecting  the  position  of  the  re- 
Tions  where  this  desirable  commodity  was  procured.  They  contented 
'.hemselves  with  loosely  describing  it  as  part  of  India,  or  some  very  re- 
.note  country  in  eastern  Asia. 

A  few  modern  writers  have  been  misled  by  the  inaccuracy  of  the 
Byzantine  historians  into  the  belief  that  the  country  which  supplied 
the  ancient  world  wi*.h  silk  was  the  Punjab,  and  the  districts  of  north- 
ern India  adjacent  to  Persia,  regions  where  silk  has  nevef  yet  beeu 
produced  in  sufficient  abundance  to  form  an  article  of  commerce.  On 
the  contrary,  the  circumstances  related  respecting  Serica,  the  silk- 
crowing  country,  are  manifestly  applicable  to  no  place  but  China, 
where  silk  is  still  produced  more  plentifully  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  "/orld.  Indeed  the  very  name  Seres  appears  to  have  been  derived 
from  this  commodity ;  for  Se,  or,  as  it  is  pronounced  in  the  provincial 
dialects,  Ser,  is  the  Chinese  name  for  the  silkworm.  We  also  find 
the  Sinae  identified  with  the  Seres  by  the  ancient  geographers,  and  we 
know  that  Sin,  or  Chin,  has  been  always  the  name  given  to  China  by 
the  nations  of  western  Asia.  In  the  preceding  pages  mention  han 
been  made  of  the  embassy  sent  from  the  Romans  to  the  Chinese,  in 
the  age  of  the  Antonines  ;  and  it  is  only  necessary  to  add,  in  proof  c* 
ihf)  commercial  relations  between  this  ancient  empire  and  the  weston 

.      22 


ii38  MODERN  HISTOR"S. 

>vorUl,  tliat.  a  tolerably  accurate  account  of  the  re.;()iuti()iis  in  /he  Persia i 
and  Parthian  kingdoms  may  be  found  in  Chinese  histories.* 

The  silk  was  imported  from  China  in  packages,  which  caravans  of 
merchants  brought  across  the  extreme  breadth  of  Asia,  in  a  journey  of 
two  hundred  and  forty-three  days,  to  the  seacoast  of  Syria.  The  Per- 
sians who  supplied  the  Romans,  usually  made  their  purchases  from  the 
Sogdians,  on  the  banks  of  the  Oxus,  and  their  traffic  was  Jialile  to  be 
interrupted  by  the  White  Huns  and  the  Turks,  who  successively  con- 
quered that  industrious  people.  But  the  difficulties  of  the  road  between 
the  S(^gdian  capital,  Maracanda  [Samarcand),  and  the  first  Chinese 
city  in  the  province  of  Shensi,  led  to  frequent  efforts  for  opening  a  new 
and  less  perilous  route,  which,  however,  proved  unsuccessful.  From 
the  time  they  passed  the  Jaxartes,  the  enterprising  Sogdians  had  to 
contend,  not  only  with  the  dangers  and  difficulties  of  the  intervening 
deserts,  but  also  against  the  wandering  hordes,  who  have  always  con- 
sidered the  citizen  and  traveller  as  objects  of  lawful  rapine. 

It  is  recorded  as  a  proof  of  the  vast  expense  of  the  magnificent  spec- 
tacles with  which  Julius  Caesar  sought  at  once  to  dazzle  and  conciliate 
the  populace,  that  he  decorated  the  actors  in  his  varied  pageants  with 
a  profusion  of  silk  dresses,  which  were  viewed  by  the  Italians  with 
equal  wonder  and  admiration.  In  consequence  of  the  difficulties  of 
transit,  the  vast  length  of  desert  which  the  caravans  had  to  traverse 
and,  probably,  the  limited  supply  of  silk  in  China  itself,  this  article  bore 
a  very  high  price  in  Rome,  and  was  often  sold  for  its  weight  in  gold 
Silken  dresses  were  esteemed  too  expensive  and  delicate  for  men,  and 
were  appropriated  wholly  to  ladies  of  eminent  rank  and  opulence.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  a  law  was  passed  enacting, 
that  "  no  man  should  disgrace  himself  by  wearing  a  silk  dress."  This 
might,  however,  have  been  a  religious  as  well  as  a  sumptuary  ordi- 
nance, for  it  is  a  singular  circumstance  in  the  history  of  silk,  that,  on 
account  of  its  being  the  excret'on  of  a  worm,  several  religious  bodies 
in  the  East,  but  more  especially  the  Mohammedans,  consider  it  an  un- 
clean dress.  Indeed,  it  has  been  decided  by  the  unanimous  consent 
of  all  the  Sonnite  doctors,  that  a  person  wearing  a  garment  made  en- 
tirely of  silk,  can  not  offer  up  the  daily  prayers  enjoined  by  the  Koran. 

The  protiigate  and  effeminate  Heliogabalus  was  the  first  of  the  Ro- 
man emperors  who  wore  a  garment  entirely  of  silk ;  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  example,  the  custom  of  wearing  silk  soon  became  general 
among  the  wealthy  citizens  of  Rome,  and  even  extended  to  the  provin- 
ces. It  seems  probable,  also,  that  the  price  of  the  article  had  dimin- 
ished in  consequence  of  its  beginning  to  be  imported  by  the  maritime 
route  through  Alexandria,  instead  of  by  caravans  through  the  arid  des- 
erts cf  Tartary  and  Turkestan.     Chinese  histories  inform  us,  that  an 

•  The  Armenians  call  the  Chinese  Jenk,  and  Chir.a  Jenistdn.  Their  rflations 
with  this  country  ascend  to  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  of  our  era.  About 
that  time  a  Chinese  colony  was  establislied  in  Armenia.  The  chief  of  this  colony 
was  probably  one  of  the  imperial  dynasty  cf  the  Huns  :  driven  from  his  countrj 
by  civil  wars,  he  at  first  sought  refuge  at  the  court  of  Ardeshir,  the  founder  of  the 
Sassanid  dynasty  in  Persia,  thence  he  passed  into  Persia,  where  he  was  received 
about  A.  D.  2t)0,  by  Tiridates,  the  Armenian  sovereign,  who  gave  him  the  prov- 
ince of  Jarou.  This  personage,  whose  name  was  Mamkon,  became  the  foundei 
if  the  <'amily  of  the  Memigonians,  who  are  justly  celebrated  in  Armenian  liistorv 


( 


FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  339 

ambassador  from  one  of  the  Antonines  came  to  their  remote  comitry  foi 
the  purpose  of  concluding  a  commercial  treaty,  and  this  is  rendered 
highly  probable  by  the  fact  that  oriental  commodities  became  both 
plentiful  and  cheap  under  and  after  their  dynasty.  Ammianus  Marcel- 
linus  informs  us,  that  in  his  age  (a.  d.  370)  silk  was  generally  worn 
even  by  the  lower  classes. 

After  the  restoration  of  a  native  dynasty  in  Persia  under  the  Sassan- 
ides,  and  the  establishment  of  the  eastern  empire  at  Constantinople,  a 
long  series  of  wars  ensued  between  the  Persian  sovereigns,  who  deem- 
ed themselves  legitimate  inheritors  of  the  power  of  Cyrus,  and  the 
Byzantine  emperors,  who  wished  themselves  to  ''e  considered  succes- 
sors of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  command  of  the  sea  of  Oman  gave 
the  Persians  a  decided  advantage  over  the  Egyptian  merchants,  who 
were  forced  to  import  oriental  commodities  by  the  tedious  and  danger- 
ous navigation  of  the  Red  sea.  Until  the  introduction  of  steam  naviga- 
tion, the  Red  sea,  or  Yam  Snph*  as  it  is  called  by  the  Orientals,  was 
universally  dreaded  by  voyagers.  The  strait  at  its  entrance  was  sig- 
nificantly named  by  the  Arabs  Bab-el-Mandcb,  or,  "  the  gate  of  tears  ;" 
and  it  was  a  common  proverb  with  eastern  sailors,  "  Yam  Suph  is  a 
double-locked  sea ;  there  are  six  months  in  the  year  that  you  can  not 
get  into  it,  and  six  more  that  you  can  i\ot  get  out  of  it."  But  the  Per- 
sians were  not  satisfied  with  this  natural  superiority  ;  having  it  in  their 
power  to  molest  or  cut  oft^  the  caravans,  which,  in  order  to  procure  a 
supply  for  the  Greek  empire,  travelled  by  land  to  China  through  the 
northern  provinces  of  their  kingdom,  they  laid  such  onerous  transit  du- 
ties on  foreign  merchants,  that  the  Greeks  were  forced  to  abandon  this 
branch  of  commerce,  and  purchase  their  silk  from  the  Persians  and 
Sogdians.  These,  with  the  usual  rapacity  of  monopolists,  raised  the 
price  of  silk  to  such  an  exorbitant  height,  that  the  Greek  manufacturers, 
whose  looms  depended  on  a  supply  of  this  raw  material,  were  thrown 
out  of  employment  and  nearly  ruined. 

The  Emperor  Justinian,  eager,  not  only  to  obtain  a  full  and  certain 
supply  of  a  commodity  which  was  become  of  indispensable  use,  but 
solicitous  to  deliver  the  commerce  of  his  subjects  from  the  exactions  of 
his  enemies,  endeavored,  by  n^f^ans  of  his  ally  the  Christian  monarch 
of  Abyssinia,  to  wrest  some  pordon  of  the  silk  trade  from  the  Persians 
In  this  attempt  he  failed  ;  but  when  he  least  expected  it,  lie,  by  an  un 
foreseen  event,  attained  his  great  object  of  procuring  his  subjects  an 
abundant  supply  of  silk,  independent  both  of  ships  and  caravans. 

Two  Persian  monks  having  been  employed  as  Christian  missionaries 
by  some  of  the  churches  which  had  been  established  in  India,  pursued 
their  evangelical  labors  until  they  had  penetrated  into  the  remote  coun- 
tr}'  of  the  cieres,  or  Chinese  (a.  d.  551).  There  they  observed  the  la- 
borj  of  the  silkworm,  the  mode  in  which  these  animals  were  fed  on  the 
mulberry-leaf;  the  care  bestowed  upon  them  in  the  several  periods  of 
insect  transformation,  and  the  attention  necessary  to  obtaining  perfect 
cocoons.  Without  such  knowledge,  the  mere  possession  of  the  insects 
would  have  be<>n  useless  ;  for  the  time  that  elapses  while  the  sill:- 
caterpillar  is  undergoing  its  changes  varies  according  to  the  tempera 
Ure  and  the  quantity  of  nourishment  with   which   it  is   supplied  :  the 

•  That  is,  "  the  Sea  of  Weeds." 


340  MODERN  HISTORY. 

nealth  also  of  the  insect  and  the  subsequent  perfection  of  the  silk  de 
pends  upon  the  mode  in  which  these  changes  are  made,  and  the  iiiter 
vals  between  the  succes'^ive  moultings  of  the  skin,  which  lake  place 
before  the  animal  attains  its  full  growth.  The  Chinese  calculate  tha 
the  same  number  of  insects  which  would,  if  they  had  attained  ihe  full 
size  in  twenty-three  jr  twenty-four  days,  produce  twenty-five  ounces 
of  silk,  would  produce  only  twenty  ounces  if  their  growth  occupied 
twenty-eight  days,  and  only  ten  ounces  if  forty  days.  In  order,  there- 
fore, to  accelerate  their  growth,  they  supply  the  insects  with  fresh  food 
every  half  hour  during  the  first  day  of  their  existence,  and  then  gradu- 
ally reduce  the  number  of  meals  as  the  worms  grow  older.  It  deserves 
to  be  remarked  as  an  unnoticed  fact  in  nalural  theolog)',  that  the  sub- 
stance on  which  this  valuable  caterpillar  feeds,  is  the  leaf  of  the  mul- 
oerry-tree ;  and  Providence,  as  if  to  ensure  the  continuance  of  this 
useful  species,  has  so  ordained  it,  that  no  other  insect  will  pa  take  of 
the  same  food  ;  thus  ensuring  d.  certain  supply  for  the  little  spinster. 

Having  made  themselves  acquainted  with  these  particulars,  the  monks 
repaired  to  Constantinople,  and  revealed  the  information  they  had  ac- 
quired to  the  Emperor  Justinian.  Encouraged  by  the  liberal  promises 
of  that  monarch,  they  undertook  to  bring  to  his  capital  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  those  wonderful  insects  to  whose  labors  man  is  so  much  indebt- 
ed. They  proceeded  to  China,  and  finally  accomplished  the  object  of 
their  mission  by  obtaining  a  competent  supply  of  the  eggs  of  the  silk- 
worm, which  they  concealed  in  a  hollow  cane.  Having  returned  safe 
to  Constantinople,  the  eggs  were,  under  their  direction,  hatched  by  the 
artificial  heat  of  a  dunghill,  and  the  insects  were  fed  on  the  leaves  of 
the  wild  mulberry-tree.  Such  care  was  bestowed  upon  them,  that  they 
soon  multiplied,  and  worked  in  the  same  manner  as  in  those  climate? 
wnere  they  first  became  the  objects  of  human  attention  and  care. 

Justiiuan  at  first  attempted  to  monopolize  this  source  of  profit,  but  the 
rapid  increase  of  the  worms  opened  the  trade.  A  singular  circumstance 
enables  us  to  appreciate  the  speedy  success  of  the  Greeks  in  the  maim- 
facture  of  silk.  Before  the  sixth  century  closed,  the  Turks,  descending 
from  the  Altaian  mountains,  conquered  Sogdiana.  The  conquered  peo- 
ple had  found  the  demand  for  silk  rapidly  diminishing,  which  they  at- 
tributed to  the  commercial  jealousy  of  the  Persians.  They  complained 
of  their  losses  to  their  new  master,  the  Turkish  khakan,  who  sent  am- 
bassadors to  form  a  commercial  treaty  with  the  Persian  monarch,  the 
celebrated  Nushirvan.  It  was  obviously  unwise  policy  to  strengthen 
the  power  of  the  new  state  which  had  been  formed  beyond  the  Oxus ; 
and  Nushirvan  was,  besides,  eager  to  open  a  direct  communication  with 
China,  through  the  Persian  gulf.  To  show  his  contempt  for  the  olFers 
of  the  Sogdians,  he  purchased  up  all  their  goods,  and  committed  them 
to  the  flames.  The  khakan  next  sent  ambassadors  to  Justinian  II. 
who,  after  a  toilsome  journey,  reached  Constantinople  (a.  d.  571),  jus 
twenty  years  after  the  introduction  of  the  silkworm  ;  when,  to  their 
great  astonishment,  they  found  the  Byzantines  in  the  possession  of  silk 
of  the.r  own  growth,  and  so  skilled  in  its  use,  that  their  manul'acturef. 
already  rivalled  those  of  China.  From  this  time  the  Sogdiau  carrying 
trade  declined ;  it  was  totally  annihilated  about  the  middle  of  thr  nii.th 
century,  when  a  fanatic  insurgent,  in  China,  murdered  the  for«ugn  mur 


FALL   OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIKi:.  341 

chants,  and  cut  down  the  mulberry-trees,  to  destroy  the  silk  thai  enticed 
strangers  to  the  celestial  empire. 

For  nearly  six  hundred  years,  the  Greeks  were  the  only  Europeans 
who  possessed  the  silkworm:  at  length.  Roger  I.,  king  of  Sicily,  en- 
gaged in  war  with  the  Byzantine  empire,  having  captured  some  persons 
skilled  in  the  production  and  manufacture  of  silk,  established  factories 
at  Palermo,  v/hich  rose  rapidly  into  celebrity.  Thence  the  trade  spread 
into  Italy,  Spain,  and  France  ;  but  in  most  of  these  countries  the  man- 
ufacture was  long  deemed  of  greater  importance  than  the  production  oi 
the  raw  material.  France  owes  her  present  superiority  in  the  trade  tc 
the  patriotic  exertions  of  Henry  IV.,  v,ho  made  extensive  nurseries  of 
mulberry  plants,  and  distributed  them  gratuitously  to  all  desirous  of  es- 
tablishing plantations.  James  I.  endeavored  to  introduce  the  production 
of  raw  silk,  as  a  trade,  into  England  ;  since  his  time  the  experiment  has 
been  frequently  repeated,  but  it  never  has  been  attended  w.th  complete 
success.  Similar  trials  have  also  been  made  in  Ireland,  but  the  result 
has  not  yet  answered  the  expectations  of  the  patriotic  projectors. 

Section  V. — The  Monarclnj  of  the  Franks  under  the  Mcrovingi.  n  Dynasty. 

The  history  of  the  Franks  properly  begins  with  the  establishment 
of  a  large  body  of  that  nation  in  Belgic  Gaul,  under  a  chief  named 
Merewig,*  from  whom  the  dynasty  received  the  name  Merovingian. f 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hilderik,!  a  brave  warrior,  but  the  slave 
of  his  passions.  An  insult  that  he  offered  to  the  wife  of  one  of  his  offi- 
cers occasioned  a  revolt ;  Hilderik  was  dethroned,  and  a  Count  Egidius, 
or  Giles,  proclaimed  king.  After  an  exile  of  eight  years,  Hilderik  was 
restored,  and  the  remainder  of  his  reign  appears  to  have  passed  in  tran- 
quillity, Hlodowigll  was  the  next  sovereign  :  his  harsh  German  name 
was  softened  by  the  Latins  into  Clodovecus,  or  Clovis,  the  origin  of  the 
modern  Ludovicus,  or  Louis.  At  his  accession  (a.  d.  481),  Clovis  had 
scarcely  reached  his  twentieth  year  ;  the  ardor  of  youth  combined  with 
the  circumstances  of  his  position  to  urge  him  to  foreign  conquests  ;  for 
the  fertility  of  the  Belgic  soil,  the  purity  of  its  waters,  and  its  atmo- 
sphere, continually  attracted  fresh  hordes  to  the  lower  Rhine,  who 
sought  admission  into  the  Belgic  colony  Clovis  found  it  necessary  to 
enlarge  his  frontiers,  and  invaded  the  Roman  province.  Near  Soissons 
he  encountered  Syagrius,  the  son  of  his  father's  rival,  Egidius,  and 
gained  a  decisive  victory.  Syagrius  sought  refuge  with  the  Visigoths, 
but  that  nation  had  lost  much  of  its  martial  spirit  ;  Alaric  II.,  unworthy 
of  the  name  he  bore,  sent  the  unfortunate  general  bound  to  Clovis,  by 
whom  he  was  beheaded. 

The  conqueror  was  now  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  his  age,  and 
fne  neighboring  princes  eagerly  sought  his  alliance :  he  chose  for  hia 
queen,  Hlodohilde,^  or  Clotilda,  whose  uncle  was  king  of  the  Burgun 
dians.  Clotilda  was  a  Christian  ;  she  labored  earnestly  to  convert  hel 
husband,  and  especially  urged  him  when  his  crown  and  life  were  en- 

•  Mere-wig,  eminent  warrior. 

t  The   other  Franks  were  named  Ripe-Warians  ;    that  is,  inhabitants  cf  *J)i 
aanks  of  the  Rhine, 
t  HWie-riV.,  bold  in  combat,  |]  Hlodo-wig, /a?no«»  i«arric>r\ 

^  Hlodo-hilde,  brilliant  and  noble. 


M^  MODERN  tliSTOHV 

dangered  by  an  invasion  of  the  Germanic  confederation  of  liibt.s,  callef! 
the  Allemans.  Clovis,  persuaded  that  lie  owed  the  great  victory  of 
Tolbiac  to  the  prayers  of  Clotilda,  became  a  convert,  and  received  the 
sacrament  of  baptism  from  the  bishop  of  Rheims  (a.  d.  496).  He  gave 
the  prelate,  as  a  fee,  all  the  land  he  coidd  ride  round  while  he  himself 
slept  after  dinner,  a  gift  very  characteristic  of  a  conqueror,  who  felt  tha! 
he  had  only  to  wake  and  acquire  new  dominions.  Soon  afterward  he 
imdertook  new  conquests.  Advancing  in  the  direction  of  Genabum 
{Orleans),  he  crossed  the  Loire,  spreading  everywhere  the  terror  of 
his  name.  The  Bretons,  long  subject  to  the  Romans,  consented  with- 
out reluctance  to  a  change  of  masters.  Clov.s,  having  traversed  their 
country,  entered  Aquitaine,  pillaged  the  houses,  laid  waste  the  fields 
plundered  the  temples,  and  returned  to  Paris,  '  leaving,"  as  the  cotem- 
porary  historian  says,  "  nothing  to  the  wretched  inhabitants  but  the  soil, 
which  the  Franks  could  not  take  away." 

The  kingdom  established  by  Clovis  extended  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
Pyrenees,  from  the  Alps  to  the  ocean,  but  its  security  was  very  uncer- 
tain. Wherever  the  conqueror  appeared,  he  met  nothing  but  submis- 
sion from  the  various  races  settled  in  Gaul ;  as  soon,  however,  as  he 
passed  onward,  his  nominal  subjects  closed  upon  his  rear,  retaining  no 
more  trace  of  his  march  than  the  furrowed  wave  does  of  a  vessel's  keel. 
Neither  was  the  Prankish  monarch  absolute  over  his  own  soldiers  ;  his 
army  was  composed  of  freemen,  who  disdained  to  submit  to  despotic 
rule.  They  gave  to  their  monarch  his  share  of  the  booty,  and  nothing 
more.*  When  they  disapproved  of  the  expedition  for  which  they  as- 
sembled, they  abandoned  it  without  scruple  ;  or  if  the  monarch  refused 
to  undertake  a  war  which  they  deemed  advisable,  they  forced  him  to 
comply  with  their  wishes,  not  merely  by  menaces,  but  by  actual  force.f 

On  the  death  of  Clovis  (a.  d.  511),  his  dominions  were  divided  be- 
tween his  four  sons,  Hildebert|  (Childebert),  HlodomerU  (Chlodomer) 
Hlodher§  (Clotaire),  and  Theodoric,^  who  respectively  occupied  the 
capitals  of  Paris,  Orleans,  Soissons,  and  Metz.  This  distribution  gave 
rise  to  a  new  geographical  division  ;  all  the  districts  between  the  Rhine, 
the  Meuse,  and  the  Moselle,  received  the  name  of  Oster-rike,**  since 
corrupted  into  Austrasia  and  the  country  between  the  Meuse,  the 
Loire,  and  the  ocean,  was  named  Ni-oster-rike,tt  or,  as  it  was  latinized^ 

•  Gregorj  of  Tours  furnishes  us  with  a  curious  anecdote  on  this  subject. 
'•'  j^bout  this  time  the  army  of  Clovis  pillaged  a  great  number  of  churches  ami 
houses.  His  soldiers  had  taken  away,  from  one  of  the  cathedrals,  a  vase  of  sur-^ 
prising  size  and  beauty.  The  bishop  of  the  diocese  sent  a  messenger  to  reclaim 
it.  To  this  man,  the  king  said,  '  Follow  me  to  Soissons,  where  the  plunder  will 
be  shared,  and  should  chance  give  me  the  vase,  I  will  do  what  your  prelate  re- 
quires.' When  they  reached  Soissons,  they  went  to  the  place  where  the  plunder 
was  piled,  and  the  king  said,  '  I  entreat  you,  my  brave  warriors,  to  give  me  this 
vase  in  addition  to  my  share.'  Upon  this,  a  presumptuous  soldier  exclaimed, 
'  You  shall  have  nothing  bvit  the  portion  assigned  you  by  lot.'  " 

t  The  historian  quoted  in  the  preceding  note  says,  "  After  this,  Clotaire  and 
Childebert  (sons  of  Clovis)  formed  the  design  of  marching  against  the  Burgundi- 
ETis.  Tlieir  brother,  Thcodoric,  was  unwilling  to  engage  in  the  expedition,  but 
the  Franks  who  followed  him,  said  unanimously,  '  If  you  will  not  join  your  broth- 
ers, we  will  quit  you.  and  choose  another  leader.'  " 

J  Hilde-berlh,  brilliant  ivarrior.  \\  Hlodo-mer,  cc.ebrated  chief. 

§  Hlod-her,  celebrated  and  excellent.  ^  Theod-e-rik,  brave  ariong  the  people 

••  That  is.  Eastern  kingdom.  -f  That  is.  Northeasterr.  kingdom. 


I 


PALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  343 

Neustria.     All  that  W3s  not  comprised  in  this  division,  belonged  not  ic. 
;he  Merovingian  Franks,  but  retained  its  ancient  name  of  Gaul. 

Chlodomer  and  Theodoric  engaged  in  war  Gundumer,*  king  of  the 
Burgundians.  In  a  great  battle  Ibught  near  Vienne  (a.  d.  522),  Chlod- 
omer was  slain,t  but  Theodoric  gained  a  decisive  victory,  and  added 
the  Burgundian  kingdom  to  his  own  dominions.  Clotilda  took  the 
guardianship  of  her  infant  grandchildren,  but  the  favor  she  showed  to 
the  three  sons  of  Chlodomer  provoked  the  resentment  of  Childebert, 
king  of  Paris.  He  secretly  proposed  to  his  brother  Clotaire,  that  they 
should  secure  the  persons  of  the  young  princes,  shave  their  heads,^ 
and  divide  their  dominions.  Clotaire  readily  joined  in  the  project,  and 
put  the  two  eldest  of  his  nephews  to  death ;  the  tliird,  saved  by  faithful 
servants,  cut  off  his  hair  with  his  own  hands,  and  entering  into  a  mon- 
astery, spent  a  life  of  celibacy. ||     Ten  years  after  this  event,  Thetdoric 

•  Gundu-mer,  pacific  and  great. 

t  "  The  brothers  joined  their  forces  at  Veserancia,  a  place  situated  in  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  city  of  Vienna,  and  gave  battle  to  Gundumer.  The  Burgundian 
having  taken  to  flight  with  his  army,  Chlodomer  pursued  h.'m,  and  when  he  was 
at  a  distance  from  his  friends,  the  Burgundians,  imitating  the  signals  of  the  Franks, 
exclaimed,  '  Come  this  way,  we  are  thine.'  He  believed  them,  and  spurred  hia 
horse  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy.  They  surrounded  him,  cut  off  his  head,  and 
fixing  it  on  a  pike,  displayed  it  to  their  pursuers." — Gregory  of  Tours. 

X  To  shave  the  head  was  the  form  of  dethroning  a  sovereign  at  this  period. 
Among  the  early  Franks,  the  crown  of  hair  was  as  much  a  symbol  of  royalty  as 
the  crown  of  gold. 

II  The  account  given  of  this  transaction  by  Gregory  of  Tours  is  too  interesting 
to  be  omitted.  "  Clotaire  readily  adopted  his  brother's  project,  and  came  to  Paris. 
Childebert  had  already  spread  a  report  that  he  and  his  brother  had  agreed  to  in- 
vest their  nephews  with  royalty,  and  they  sent  a  messenger  to  Clotilda,  then  re- 
siding in  the  same  city,  who  said,  '  Send  your  grandchildren,  that  they  may  be 
raised  to  the  throne.'  She,  joyous,  and  knowing  nothing  of  the  plot,  after  having 
made  the  children  eat  and  drink,  sent  them  to  their  uncles,  saying,  '  Go,  children, 
I  will  believe  that  my  son  is  not  lost,  when  I  see  you  on  the  throne.'  When  the 
ehildren  came  to  their  uncles,  they  were  taken  and  separated  from  their  servants 
and  governors.  Then  they  shut  them  up  apart,  the  children  in  one  place,  and  the 
attendantrf  in  another.  When  this  was  done,  Childebert  and  Clotaire  sent  Arca- 
dius  (onu  of  their  Jificers),  to  the  queen,  with  a  scissors  and  drawn  sword.  When 
he  came  into  her  presence,  showing  her  these,  he  said,  '  Thy  sons,  our  lords,  de- 
Hire  to  know  thy  pleasure,  gracious  queen,  respecting  the  manner  in  wiiich  they 
should  treat  the  children.  Order  either  their  hair  or  their  throats  to  be  cut.'  As- 
tounded by  these  words,  and  enraged  at  beholding  the  scissors  and  naked  sword, 
the  queen  gave  vent  to  her  wrath,  and,  scarcely  knowing  what  she  said,  so  trou- 
bled was  he-  mind,  imprudently  replied,  '  If  they  are  not  to  reign  like  their  father, 
I  would  rather  see  them  dead  than  shaven.'  Then  Arcadius  returned  promptly  to 
those  who  sent  him,  and  said,  '  You  may  persevere ;  the  queen  approves  what  you 
have  besun,  and  her  will  is,  that  you  complete  your  project.'  Immediately,  Clo- 
taire, taking  the  eldest  of  the  children  by  the  arm,  threw  him  on  the  ground,  and 
stabbing  him  under  the  shoulder,  put  him  cruelly  to  death.  His  brother,  terrified 
at  the  scene,  threw  himself  at  the  feet  of  Childebert,  and  kissing  his  knees,  ex- 
claimed,  'Help  me,  my  good  father,  let  me  not  be  murdered  like  my  poor  brother.- 
Then,  Childebert,  melting  into  tears,  said  to  Clotaire,  '  0]\\  I  entreat  you,  mj 
very  dear  brother,  have  the  kindness  to  spare  this  child's  life;  if  you  consent  tt 
spare  him,  I  will  give  you  whatever  you  may  demand.'  But  Clotaire,  overwhelm- 
ing him  with  reproaches,  said,  '  Thrust  the  child  away,  or  you  shall  die  in  his  stead, 
for  you  were  the  first  to  urge  me  to  this  deed,  though  you  now  shrink  from  its 
completion.'  Then  Childebert,  alarmed,  pushed  the  child  over  to  Clotaire,  whc 
?)tnick  his  dagger  into  tne  boy's  side,  and  slew  him  on  the  body  of  his  brother. 
Afterward  they  murdered  the  servants  and  tutors.  When  they  were  dead,  Clotaire 
mointed  his  horse,  without  showing  any  compunction    for   the   murder   of  his 


344  MODERN  HISTOEY. 

ilied,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Theodobert,*  who  look  the  titJe  tt 
king  of  Austrasia.  His  uncles  attempted  to  deprive  Theodobert  of  liis 
dominions,  but  being  daunted  by  the  mere  display  of  his  power,  they 
turned  their  arms  against  Spain,  laid  waste  Arragon,  Biscay,  and  Cati.- 
lonia,  stormed  Pampeluna,  besieged  Saragossa,  and  were  only  induced 
to  retire  by  a  present  of  the  tunic  of  St.  Vincent,  a  relic  which,  in  thut 
superstitious  age,  was  deemed  an  invaluable  treasure. 

The  fame  of  Theodobert  extended  to  Constantinople  ;  Justinian  eu 
deavored  to  win  his  friendship,  by  the  cession  of  the  nominal  claimfr 
which  the  empire  retained  over  Provence,  but  the  Austrasian  monarch 
entered  into  an  alliance  with  Totila,  the  emperor's  enemy,  crossed  the 
Alps,  and  quickly  subdued  the  greater  part  of  northern  Italy.  After  his 
return,  the  army  he  left  behind  met  with  some  reverses,  and  the  inflated 
vanity  of  Justinian  led  him  to  issue  a  medal,  on  which  he  styled  him 
self  Conqueror  of  the  Franks.  Theodobert  was  so  enraged  at  this  ar- 
rogance, that  he  prepared  to  lead  an  army  through  Hungary  into  Thrace, 
and  assail  Justinian  in  his  capital,  but  this  daring  enterprise  was  frus- 
trated by  his  sudden  death ;  he  was  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  tree  (a.  d. 
548),  Avhile  hunting  the  wild  buffalo,  a  dangerous  sport,  to  which  he 
was  passionately  addicted, 

Theodobaldf  succeeded  to  the  Austrasian  throne,  but  died  after  an  in- 
glorious reign  of  seven  years.  Childebert  soon  followed  him  to  the  tomb, 
and  thus  Clotaire  acquired  the  sole,  but  not  the  undisturbed  possession 
of  Neustria  and  Austrasia.  His  own  son,  Chramne,|  headed  a  revolt 
of  the  turbulent  Bretons,  but  he  was  defeated  and  barbarously  put  to 
death,  with  his  entire  family, ||  by  command  of  his  cruel  father.  The 
chroniclers  add,  that  Clotaire  died  the  next  year  (a.  d.  561),  at  Com- 
peigne,  on  the  anniversary  of  his  son's  death,  and  at  the  precise  hour 
of  tlie  horrid  butchery. 

Clotaire  left  four  sons — Charibert,^  Gontram,Tf  Chilperic,**  and  Sige- 
bert,tt  who  shared  his  dominions.  The  turbulent  period  that  followi,d, 
is  principally  remarkable  for  the  troubles  occasioned  by  the  crimes  of 
two  infamous  women,  Brunilda  and  Fredegonda,  the  wives  of  Sigebert 
and  Chilperic.  Fredegonda  had  won  her  way  to  the  throne  by  mur- 
dering Galswintha,  the  sister  of  her  rival ;  and  the  jealousy  between 

nephews,  and  retired  with  Childebert  to  the  suburbs.  The  queen  Clotilda,  having 
placed  the  bodies  on  a  bier,  conducted  them,  with  litanies,  sacred  songs,  and  pro- 
found grief,  to  the  church  of  St.  Peter's,  where  they  were  buried  together.  One 
was  ten  years  old,  and  the  other  six.  The  third  son,  named  Clodoald,  was  saved 
by  the  interference  of  some  brave  men,  called  barons.  Renouncing  his  earthly 
kingdom,  he  became  a  clerk,  and,  persisting  in  good  works,  finally  received  priest'' 
orders.     Tke  two  kings  shared  among  them  the  inheritance  of  Clodomer." 

*  Theode-bert,  very  brilliant  amcmg  the  peuple. 

f  Theode-bald,  vigorous  above  all.  t  Hram,  warlike. 

\\  "The  two  armies  having  come  to  an  engagement,  the  count  of  the  Bretons 
ran  away,  and  was  slain  in  flight ;  after  which  Hram  (Chramne)  began  to  fly  tow- 
ard the  ships  he  had  prepared  on  the  sea,  but,  while  he  was  endeavoring  to  save 
his  wife  and  children,  he  was  overtaken  by  his  father's  army,  made  prisoner,  and 
bound.  When  the  news  was  brought  to  Clotaire,  he  ordered  that  the  prince,  to. 
gether  with  his  wife  and  daughters,  should  be  burned.  They  shut  them  up  in  a 
poor  hut,  where  Hram.  extended  on  a  bench,  was  strangled ;  they  then  set  fire  tc 
he  house,  and  it  was  consumed  with  all  its  inmates." — Gregory  of  Tmirs. 

§  Hari-bert,  glorious  in  the  army.  V  Gont-ram,  genero^is  man. 

••  Hilpe-rik,  brave  m  combat.  ft  Sighe-'-ert,  glorinus  canqucjor. 


FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMx'IRE.  345 

iwo  ambitious  and  unprincipled  women  was  aggravated,  on  oae  sidt; 
by  the  desire  of  revenge,  and,  on  the  other,  by  the  difficulty  of  maintain- 
ing her  dignity,  when  she  was  changed  from  a  mistre-ss  into  a  wife. 
During  the  long  period  over  which  their  resentments  spread,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  distinijuish  anything  but  murders  and  assassinations,  in  the 
gloomy  annals  of  the  time.  Fredegonda  procured  the  death  of  Sigebert, 
and  afterward  of  Chilperic  and  his  two  sons,  being  chiefly  enraged 
against  Merovee,*  who  had  married  Brunilda. 

Childebert  inherited  the  kingdom  of  his  father,  Sigebert,  and  that  of 
his  uncle,  Gontram ;  aided  by  his  mother,  Brunilda,  he  maintained  a 
long  and  sanguinary  struggle  against  Fredegonda,  and  her  young  son, 
Clotaire :  but  he  died  early,  leaving  two  children  to  divide  his  distract- 
ed dominions.  Both  of  these  were  destroyed  by  Bruni.da,  whose  hatred 
they  had  provoked  by  remonstrating  against  her  crimes,  and  after  a 
dreary  scene  of  confusion,  France  Vv'as  again  united  into  a  single  mon- 
archy, under  Clotaire  II.,  son  of  Chilperic  and  Fredegonda  (a.  d.  613). 
His  first  care  was  to  punish  Brunilda,  the  ancient  enemy  of  his  mother 
and  his  house :  she  was  exhibited  for  three  days,  mounted  on  a  camel, 
to  the  derision  of  the  army,  subjected  to  the  most  cruel  tortures,  and 
finally  fastened  to  the  tail  of  a  wild  horse,  which  tore  her  wretched  car- 
cass to  pieces,  in  the  presence  of  the  soldiers. 

Clotaire  published*  a  code  of  laws,  which  enjoys  some  reputation  ; 
but  his  administration  was  deficient  in  vigor,  and  during  his  reign  sev- 
eral encroachments  were  made  on  the  royal  power,  by  the  ambitious 
nobles.  His  son,  Dagobert  I.,t  succeeded  (a.  d.  628),  and  had  the 
mortification  to  see  his  authority  weakened  by  the  growing  greatness 
of  the  mayors  of  the  palace  :  he  died,  after  a  feeble  and  dissolute  reign 
(a.  d.  638),  but  was  strangely  enough  canonized  as  a  saint.;}: 

The  successors  of  Dagobert  were  mere  phantoms  of  royalty ;  the 
entire  sovereignty  was  possessed  by  the  mayors  of  the  palace,  who 
finally  acquired  absolute  possession  of  half  the  monarchy,  as  dukes  of 
Austrasia.  Pepin  D'Heristal,  the  greatest  of  these  nominal  ministers, 
and  real  monarchs,  governed  France  in  the  name  of  several  successive 
kings-.  After  his  death  (a.  d.  714),  his  power  descended  to  his  grand- 
son, Theodobald,  a  child  only  eight  years  of  age,  who  was  thus  shigu- 
larly  appointed  guardian  t/)  a  king  that  was  not  yet  sixteen      Karl,||  the 

•  Mere--wig,  eminev.t  warrior.  f  Dago-bert,  briUiant  as  the  day 

*  The  cause  of  liis  canonization  is  singularly  illustrative  of  the  superstitionf 
of  the  age.  Audoald,  bishop  of  Poictiers,  while  on  an  embassy  in  Sicily,  was  mi- 
raculously, as  he  declared,  informed  of  the  king's  death  by  a  holy  hermit  named 
John.  This  pious  anchoret  snid,  "  While  I  was  asleep  last  night,  an  old  man 
with  a  long  beard  bade  me  get  ^p,  and  pray  for  the  soul  of  King  Dagobert,  who 
was  on  the  point  of  dfath.  I  arose,  and  looking  throush  the  window  of  my  her- 
niitage,  I  saw,  in  the  middle  of  the  sea,  a  host  of  devils  carrying  the  king's  soul 
to  bell.  The  unfortunate  sou!,  grievously  tormented,  invoked  the  aid  of  St.  Mar- 
tin, St.  Maurice,  and  St.  Denis.  At  his  cries,  the  spirits  of  these  holy  martyrs 
Jescended  from  heaven,  in  the  midst  of  thunders  and  lightnings,  delivered  the 
king's  soul,  and  bort  it  up  with  them  thrcup,h  the  air,  singing  the  canticle  of  Da- 
vid, 0  Lord,  how  happy  is  (he  man  that  thou  hast  chosen,"  Audoald  recited  thij 
relation  to  the  king's  chancellor,  on  his  retv^rn,  by  whom  it  was  entered  in  thv 
'irchives  of  the  kingdom,  and  Dagobert  enrolled  among  the  number  of  saints. — 
Gcguin. 

II  Karl,  rdb'.Lci. 


316  MODERN  HlteTOKY. 

natural  son  of  Pepin,  better  known  in  history  by  ilie  n.ujit;  of  Charlcii 
Mattel,  set  aside  this  absurd  arrangement,  and  succeeded  to  more  thaii 
his  father's  power.  His  numerous  victories  over  the  Saxcms,  Burgun- 
dians,  Frisians,  &c.,  have  rendered  liis  name  ilhistrious  :  but  he  i;? 
more  justly  celebrated  for  his  triumph  over  tlie  Saracenic  invaders  ol 
France  (a.  d.  732),  between  Tours  and  Poictiers,  by  which  he  delivered 
Christendom  from  the  imminent  danger  of  being  subjected  to  the  Mo- 
hammedan yoke.  His  son,  Pepin,  finally  compelled  Chilperic  HI.  to 
abdicate  (a.  d.  752),  and  the  crown  of  France  was  thus  transferred  to 
the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  from  the  descendants  of  Clovis. 

Section  VI. — The  Lombard  Monarchy. 

The  Lombards  were  encouraged  to  settle  on  the  frontiers  of  the 
empire  by  Justinian,  who  deemed  that  they  would  prove  a  check  on  the 
insolence  of  the  Gepidae.  While  these  barbarous  tribes  were  engaged 
in  war,  Thrace  enjoyed  comparative  tranquillity  ;  but  when  Alboin 
became  head  of  the  Lombard  tribes,  he  entered  into  alliance  with  the 
Avars  for  the  extirpation  of  the  Gepidse,  purchasing  their  aid  by  a  tithe 
of  his  cattle,  and  a  promise  of  all  the  conquered  lands.  The  emperor, 
Justin  II.,  imwisely  abandoned  the  Gepidae  to  their  fate  ;  Cunimund, 
their  monarch,  hasted  to  encounter  Alboin  before  he  could  join  the 
Avars,  but  he  fell  in  the  field  which  proved  fatal  to  the  existence  of  his 
nation,  and  his  scull  was  formed  into  a  drinking  vessel  by  his  barbarous 
enemy.  Rosamond,  the  daughter  of  the  slaughtered  king,  became  the 
prize  and  spouse  of  the  victor ;  the  bravest  of  the  surviving  Gepidae 
were  incorporated  in  the  army  of  the  Lombards.  Though  the  Avars 
had  contributed  but  slightly  to  the  success  of  the  war,  they  received  a 
large  share  of  the  spoils  ;  the  greater  part  of  ancient  Dacia  Avas  resigned 
to  them,  and  in  this  country  their  chagans  ruled  for  more  than  two  hun- 
dred years.  Alboin's  ambition  was  fixed  on  a  higher  object;  fifteen 
years  before,  a  body  of  Lombards  had  served  under  Narses  in  the  con- 
quest of  Italy,  and  they  still  preserved  a  vivid  rememl)rance  of  the 
wealth  and  fertility  of  the  peninsula,  Alboin  encouraged  them  to  hope 
that  this  fair  land  might  yet  own  their  sway,  and  to  stimulate  their 
ardor,  produced  some  of  its  finest  fruits  at  a  royal  feast.  When  his 
designs  became  known,  adventurers  flocked  to  his  standard  from  the 
neighboring  Slavonic  and  German  tribes.  Having  made  every  prepa- 
ration for  the  expedition,  the  Lombards  resigned  their  lands  to  the  Avars, 
on  the  simple  promise  of  receiving  them  back,  if  they  failed  in  the  con- 
quest of  Italy. 

As  if  the  court  of  Constantinople  had  resolved  to  aid  the  projects  of 
the  invaders,  the  brave  Narses  was  conturael'ously  removed  from  hia 
post  by  the  Empress  Sophia ;  and  Longinus,  a  person  wholly  unac- 
quainted with  Italy,  appointed  exarch  in  his  siead.  Alboin  met  no 
army  to  oppose  him  the  field  ;  few  even  of  the  cities  ventured  to  resist 
his  progress ;  Ticinum,  or,  as  it  began  now  to  be  called,  Pavia,  almosi 
alone  closed  its  gates  against  the  conqueror,  and  detained  him  three 
years  befcre  its  walls.  It  was  at  length  forced  to  yield  by  the  pressure 
of  hunger  ,  Alboin  threatened  a  general  massacre,  but  his  horse  haj)- 
penhig  to  stumble  as  he  entered  the  gates,  he  believed  that  Heaven  had 
aent  this  omen  to  warn  him  against  cruelty   and  he  assured  the  trem 


I 


B'ALL  OF  THE  WE«TERISl  EMPIRE.  347 

hliug  m  iltitude  of  pardon  and  safety.  Before  he  could  regulate  tlie 
affairs  of  the  kingdom  he  had  so  easily  won,  Alboin  fell  a  victim  Uj  the 
revenge  of  his  wife.  One  evening,  heated  with  wine,  he  sent  her  the 
skull  of  her  father  Cunimund,  fashioned,  as  has  been  stated,  into  a  gob- 
let, fdled  to  the  brim,  with  an  insulting  message,  that  she  should  rejoice 
with  her  sire.  Rosamond,  stifling  her  resentment,  simply  replied,  "  Let 
the  will  of  the  king  be  obeyed  ;"  but  she  secretly  resolved  on  vengeance 
Lnd,  by  infamous  means,  procured  tv/o  officers  of  the  household  to  mur- 
der her  husband  (a.  d.  573).  She  was  compelled  by  the  indignation 
of  the  people  to  fly  with  her  paramour  to  the  court  of  Ravenna,  where 
she  was  poisoned  by  a  potion  which  she  had  prepared  for  the  partnex 
of  her  guilt. 

Clepho,  one  of  the  noblest  of  the  Lombard  chiefs,  was  chosen  king 
after  the  murder  of  Alboin,  by  the  great  council  of  the  nation ;  but  at 
the  end  of  eighteen  months,  he  was  stabbed  by  a  domestic.  His  cruelty 
gave  the  Lombards  such  a  distate  for  royalty,  that  after  his  de.ith,  they 
changed  their  form  of  government,  and  for  ten  years  were  ruled  by  a 
federation  of  thirty-six  dukes,  each  of  whom  was  chief  of  some  in^fKjr- 
tant  city.  During  this  period,  they  made  several  eflbrts  to  acquire  pos- 
session of  some  part  of  Gaul,  but  were  invariably  beaten  by  the  Franks  ; 
in  Italy,  on  the  contrary,  they  were  generally  successful,  adding  con- 
siderably to  their  territories  at  the  expense  of  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna, 
and  the  other  provinces  dependant  on  the  Greek  empire. 

A  confederacy  between  the  imperial  exarch  and  Childebert,  king  of 
the  Franks,  so  alarmed  the  Lombards  that  they  chose  Autharis,  son  of 
Clepho,  for  their  sovereign.  He  established  a  perfectly  feudal  mon- 
archy, assigning  their  dutchies  to  the  dukes  in  perpetuity,  on  the  condi- 
tion of  their  giving  one  moiety  of  their  revenue  to  support  the  royal 
dignity  ;  they  could  not  be  deprived  of  their  possessions  except  for  high- 
treason  but  they  held  power  only  at  the  sovereign's  will.  A  similar 
form  of  government  seems  to  have  prevailed  among  the  Franks  almost 
from  the  foundation  of  their  monarchy  ;  but  feudal  law  first  received  a 
complete  form  among  the  Lombards,  and  the  rules  respecting  the  suc- 
cession, acquisition,  and  investiture  of  fiefs  among  other  nations,  were 
generally  derived  from  their  code.  The  new  monarch  gained  several 
victories  over  the  Franks,  who  had  been  bribed  to  invade  Italy  by  the 
Emperor  Maurice,  and  punished  the  hostility  of  the  Byzantine  by  sub- 
duing a  great  part  of  ancient  Samnium,  which  he  formed  into  the  dutchy 
of  Benevento.  Autharis  died  without  issue  (a.  d.  590),  after  a  brief 
but  glorious  reign,  and  the  crown  was  transferred  to  Agilulf,  duke  of 
Turin. 

Hitherto  the  Lombards  had  been  either  Arians  or  pagans ;  but  Agi- 
lulf, instigated  by  his  queen,  established  the  Catholic  faith  throughoul 
his  dominions,  and  chastised  several  dukes  who  made  this  change  a 
pretext  for  rebellion,  His  son  and  successor,  Adaluald,  completed  the 
triumph  of  the  orthodox  faith,  a  circumstance  which  tended  greatly  to 
reconcile  the  Italians  to  the  supremacy  of  the  Lombards.  The  Arian 
party  was,  however,  sufficiently  powerful  to  raise  another  to  the  throne ; 
both  the  rivals,  however,  died  without  issue,  and  the  general  assembly 
chose  Rotharis  for  their  sovereign  (a.  d.  636).  This  monarch,  though 
cainted  with  the  Arian  heresy,  won  the  affection  of  all  his  subjects  by 


348  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  wise  laws  ae  enacted  ;  he  also  wrested  som«  important  places  from 
the  exarch  of  Ravenna,  and  reduced  the  imperial  interests  in  Italy  sc 
low,  that  it  might  be  said  to  exist  only  by  the  sufferance  of  the  Lom- 
bards. On  his  death  (a.  d.  652),  a  scene  of  weakness  and  revolution 
followed,  which  was  only  terminated  by  the  accession  of  Grimvald, 
duke  of  Benevento  (a.  d.  662). 

Grimvald  was  soon  involved  in  war  with  the  Franks,  who  invaded 
Italy,  but  were  completely  defeated.  Scarcely  had  he  repelled  this 
unasion  when  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Constans,  appeareu  in  Italy  at 
the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  and  laid  siege  to  Benevento.  But  the 
imperialists,  meeting  a  fierce  resistance  from  the  garrison,  were  soon 
forced  to  retreat,  and  being  overtaken  on  their  march,  were  routed  with 
great  slaughter.  Constans  fled  to  Sicily  with  the  shattered  remnant 
of  his  forcesj  and  was  murdered  in  a  bath  by  some  of  his  own  ser- 
vants. Grimvald  did  not  long  survive  his  triumph ;  he  died  universally 
lamented  (a.  d.  672),  and  his  death  was  followed  by  a  series  of  obscure 
and  uninteresting  revolutions,  which,  however,  delii^red  Italy  with 
Mood. 

The  accession  of  Luitprand  (a.  d.  711),  once  more  restored  the 
prosperity  of  the  Lombards  ;  he  enacted  several  wise  laws,  rectified 
the  evils  which  during  the  recent  disturbances  had  crept  into  the  admin- 
istration of  justice,  and  won  the  favor  of  the  nobles  who  had  opposed 
his  elevation  by  a  judicious  display  of  courage  and  prudence.  Unfor- 
tunately, he  was  prompted  by  ambition  to  attempt  the  complete  conquest 
of  Italy ;  taking  advantage  of  the  troubles  occasioned  by  the  edicts  of 
the  emperor  Leo  for  the  destruction  of  images.  The  exarchate  was 
invaded,  and  Ravenna  taken ;  but  Luitprand's  success  provoked  the 
jealousy  of  the  pope,  who,  though  pleased  with  the  punishment  of  the 
Iconoclasts,*  was  by  no  means  gratified  with  the  accession  of  power 
of  the  Lombards.  At  the  pontiff's  instigation,  the  Venetians  aided  the 
exarch  to  recover  Ravenna ;  but  the  emperor  Leo,  instead  of  showing 
any  gratitude  to  pope  Gregory  II.  for  his  interference,  sent  emissaries 
to  arrest  him,  and  he  was  only  saved  from  prison  by  the  prompt  inter- 
ference of  Luitprand.  The  Italians,  provoked  at  Leo's  fierce  zeal 
against  images,  began  to  revolt,  and  several  cities  voluntarily  submitted 
to  the  Lombard  monarch,  who  pretended  to  an  extravagant  zeal  for  the 
Catholic  faith.  The  pope,  however,  dreaded  Luitprand,  and  sought 
a  protection  in  Charles  Martel  against  the  emperor  of  Byzantium,  who 
was  equally  hostile  to  the  Lombards  and  the  pontiif.  Italy  was  now 
distracted  by  religious  disputes  and  political  jealousies,  while  the  death 
of  Luitprand,  at  this  critical  period  (a.  d.  743),  aiHicted  the  Lombard? 
with  a  new  series  of  revolutionary  wars. 

After  some  minor  changes,  Astulphus  was  chosen  king  (a.  d.  751); 
during  his  reign,  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  touched  the  summit  o/ 
:t3  greatness ;  he  subdued  the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  and  changed  i 
into  a  new  dukedom,  and  then  led  his  forces  against  Rome,  which 
nominally  subject  to  the  emperor,  was  really  governed  by  the  pope 
Ahumed  at  the  danger  that  threatened  him.  Pope  Stephen  first  applied 
for  aid  to  the  emperor,  but  finding  that  the  Byzantine  court  cared  lilds? 

•  laai'e-breakers. 


FALL    OF  THE    WESTERN   EMPIRE.  349 

for  Ital)-,  he  appealed  to  Pepin,  the  llrst  monarch  of  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty  in  France.  Pepin  immediately  crossed  the  Alps  with  a  pow- 
erful army,  besieged  Astulphus  in  Pavia,  and  forced  him  to  purchase 
peace  by  the  cession  not  only  of  the  places  he  had  seized  in  the  Ro- 
man dukedom,  but  also  of  the  exarchate  and  the  marches  of  Ancona, 
*o  the  Holy  See.  The  Franks  had  to  return  a  second  time  to  compel 
the  fulfilment  of  these  engagements ;  Astulphus  once  more  submitted, 
but  secretly  resolved  to  renew  the  war  on  a  favorable  opportunity ;  be- 
fore his  preparations  were  completed,  however,  he  was  killed  by  a  fall 
from  his  horse,  and  the  Lombard  kingdom  distracted  by  a  disputed  suc- 
cession. 

By  the  aid  of  the  pope,  Desiderius  orevailed  in  tne  contest ;  but  sub- 
sequently being  exposed  to  the  jeak  asy  of  the  pontifical  power,  he 
.tried  to  secure  himself  by  giving  his  daughters  in  marriage  to  Charles 
and  Carloman,  the  two  sons  of  Pepin.  This  alliance  was  of  no  long 
duration  ;  Charles  divorced  his  wife  under  pretence  of  her  barrenness  ; 
and  Desiderius,  in  revenge,  endeavored  to  persuade  the  pope  to  anoint 
Carloman's  children  monarchs  of  the  Franks.  Adrian  I.,  who  then 
filled  the  pontifical  chair,  steadily  refused ;  Desiderius  invaded  his 
dominions,  and  the  pope  unable  to  make  eflTective  resistance,  placed 
himself  under  the  protection  of  Charles,  or,  as  he  is  more  generally 
called,  Charlemagne.  The  king  of  the  Franks  crossed  the  Alps,  and, 
after  a  brief  war,  put  ixn  end  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Lombards  by  the 
capture  of  Pavia  (a.  d.  774).  Desiderius  and  his  family  were  sent  into 
France,  where  they  died  in  obscurity ;  Charlemagne,  as  conqueror, 
received  the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy. 

Sf':;tion  VIL — The  Anglo-Saxons. 

When  Britain  was  deserted  by  the  Romans,  the  cuiauiy  lemamed 
exposed  to  the  savage  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots  ,  the  inhabi- 
tants, unabie  to  protect  themselves,  and  refused  aid  by  the  emperors, 
who  were  oppressed  by  other  barbarians,  deserted  their  habitations, 
abandoned  their  fields,  and  sought  shelter  in  the  hills  and  woods, 
where  they  suffered  equally  from  famine  and  the  enemy.  When  the 
retreat  of  the  barbarians  afforded  them  a  temporary  respite,  they 
^\  asted  their  energies  in  theological  controversies  arising  out  of  the 
Pelagian  heresy  ;  and  when  the  invasions  were  rd<nved,  domestic 
rancor  prevented  their  combining  for  their  common  defence.  Vorti- 
gern,  prince  of  Dumnonium,  advised  his  countrymen  to  seek  foreign 
aid ;  and  they,  forgetting  prudence  m  the  extremity  of  their  fears,  invi- 
ted the  Saxons  to  their  aid  from  Germany. 

The  Saxons  and  Anghs,  from  small  beginnings,  had  gradually 
extended  their  sway  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  to  the  coast  of  Jut- 
land ;  their  piratical  vessels  scoured  the  seas  of  western  Europe ;  and 
the  maritime  cities  of  Gaul,  Spain  and  Britain,  w  ere  frequently  plun- 
derer! by  their  corsairs,  or  forced  to  purchase  safety  by  the  payment  <-{ 
a  large  tribute.  Among  the  chiefs  of  their  warlike  triL-es,  none  enjoyed 
greater  authority  than  the  two  brothers  Hengist  and  Horsa,  who  claimed 
to  be  descended  from  Woden,  the  tutelary  god  of  the  nation.  To  these 
leaders  the  application  of  Vortigern  was  made  ;  they  readily  accepted 
his  invitation,  and,   accompanied  by  about  sixteen   hundred  ol   th^u 


350  MODERN  HISTORY. 

countrymen,  landed  in  the  isle  of  Thanet.  The  Picts  and  Scots  weit 
subdued  with  so  much  facility,  that  the  adventurers  began  to  reflect 
how  easily  they  might  conquer  a  nation  unable  to  resist  such  feeble  in- 
vaders ;  instead  of  reluming  home,  they  invited  over  fresh  hordes  of 
their  countrymen,  and  received  from  Germany  a  reinforcement  of  five 
thousand  men.  A  long  and  cruel  series  of  wars  ensued,  in  which  the 
Saxons  and  another  barbarous  tribe,  the  Angles,  continually  supported 
by  crowds  of  volunteers  from  Germany,  triumphed  over  the  Britons  in 
ilmost  every  encounter,  and  finally  drove  the  miserable  remnant  of  the 
nation  to  seek  refuge  in  the  mountains  of  Wales  and  Cornwall.  The 
struggle  lasted  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and  ended  in  the  di- 
vision of  southern  Britain  into  seven  Saxon  kingdoms,  commonly  called 
the  Heptarchy. 

The  Christian  religion  was  first  established  in  the  kingdom  of  Kent, 
the  earliest  and  long  the  most  powerful  of  the  Saxon  monarchies. 
Ethelbert,  its  sovereign,  though  a  pagan,  had  married  a  Christian  prin 
cess,  Bertha,  the  daughter  of  Caribert,  one  of  the  successors  of  Clovas, 
and  had  promised  to  allow  her  the  free  exercise  of  her  religion.  Ber- 
tha, by  the  exercise  of  her  conduct,  acquired  considerable  influence 
over  tlie  mind  both  of  her  husband  and  his  courtiers ;  her  popularity 
was  probably  one  of  the  principal  motives  that  induced  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great  to  send  missionaries  into  England.*  Augustine,  the  chief  of 
the  mission,  was  honorably  received  at  the  court  of  Ethelbert  (a.  d.  597), 
and  began  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  people  of  Kent.  The  rigid  aus- 
terity of  his  manners,  and  the  severe  penances  to  which  he  subjected 
himself,  wrought  powerfully  upon  the  minds  of  a  barbarous  people,  and 
induced  them  readily  to  believe  the  pretended  miracles  he  wrought  for 
their  conversion.  Ethelbert  and  the  great  majority  of  his  subjects 
were  soon  received  into  the  church,  and  Augustine  was  consecrated 
the  first  archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

The  petty  wars  between  the  princes  of  the  Hf.ptarchy  are  totally 
devoid  of  interest,  and  the  history  of  the  separate  kingdoms  is  little 
more  than  a  list  of  obscure  names.  An  exception  may  be  made  in  fa- 
vor of  Ofia,  king  of  Mercia,  who  zealously  labored  to  extend  the  power 
of  the  Romish  see  in  England,  and  founded  the  maoidficent  monastery 
of  St.  Albans.  So  considerable  were  his  power  and  fame,  that  the 
ernpcror  Charlemagne  sought  his  friendship  and  alliance;  Offa,  at  his 
desire,  sent  the  celebrated  Alcuin  to  the  court  of  Ctfarlemagne,  and 
this  learned  Saxon  became  the  emperor's  preceptor  ni  the  sciences. 
To  Alcuin,  France  was  indebted  for  all  the  polite  learning  it  boasted 

•  It  is  said  that  this  prelate,  while  yet  in  a  private  station,  beli'>ld  some  feaxon 
j'oulhs  exposed  for  sale  in  the  slave-market  at  Rome.  Struck  wUh  their  beauty, 
he  inquired  to  what  country  they  belonged,  and  being  told  that  thry  were  Angli, 
exclaimed  "They  would  not  be  Jlngli,  but  Jlngeli  (angels),  if  they  were  Chi-is- 
tians."  Continuing  his  questions,  he  asked  the  name  of  their  province;  he  was 
told  Ddri  (a  district  of  Northumberland).  "  Deiri !"  he  exclaimed,  "  De  ira 
(from  the  wrath  of  God),  they  are  summoned  to  his  mercy."  He  further  asked 
the  name  of  their  king,  and  hearing  that  it  was  Allla,  or  Jllla,  he  joyous  y  cried 
out,  "  Jllhhijuh  !  we  must  end'='avor  that  the  praises  c*"  God  be  sung  in  that  couii- 
trj'."  Moved  by  these  punning  allusions,  he  designed  to  visit  Britain  himself  a"; 
a  missionary,  but  being  detained  by  the  Roman  people,  he  embraced  X\\f  ea-lie'il 
oppcrtuiuty  (jf  intrusting  the  task  to  qualiliLd  legates.- 


FALL  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  351 

of  in  that  and  the  following  ages  ;  the  imiversu.'es  of  Paris,  Tours, 
Fulden,  Soissons,  and  many  others,  owe  to  him  their  origin  and  in 
crease ;  those  of  which  he  was  not  the  superior  and  founder,  being  at 
least  enlightened  by  his  doctrine  and  example,  and  enriched  by  the 
benefits  he  procured  them  from  Charlemagne. 

The  kingdom  of  Mercia  had  nearly  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  the 
heptarchy  when  Egbert  asioended  the  throne  of  Wessex  (a.  d.  799),  as 
the  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons  was  called.  He  broke  down  the 
Mercian  power,  aided  not  a  little  by  the  hatred  with  which  the  tyran- 
nical conduct  of  the  Mercians  had  inspired  the  subject  nations.  His 
policy  was  as  conspicuous  as  his  valor,  and  both  enabled  him  to  unite 
the  realm  of  England  into  an  orderly  monarchy,  possessing  trani^uillity 
within  itself,  and  secure  from  foreign  invasion.  This  great  event  oc- 
curred (a.  d.  827)  nearly  four  hundred  years  after  the  first  arriviJ  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons  iu  Britain. 


352 


MODERN  HISTOHY. 


.::hapter  ii. 

THE  raSE  AND  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE 
SARACEJ^^IC  POWER. 

.Sfctton  I. — Polilicat,  and  Social  Condition  of  (lie  East  at  the  connns;  cj 

Mohammed. 

The  reign  of  Justin  II.,  the  nephew  and  successor  of  Justinian,  at 
Constantinople,  was  remarkable  only  for  disgrace  abroad  and  misery  a' 
home.  At  his  death  (a.  d.  578),  he  bequeathed  the  empire  to  Tiberius, 
whose  virtues  amply  justified  his  choice  ;  but  the  reign  of  Tiberius 
lasted  only  four  years  ;  he  was  succeeded  by  Maurice,  who  inherited 
many  of  his  predecessors  virtues  as  well  as  his  crown.  Soon  after  his 
accession,  the  attention  of  the  emperor  was  directed  to  the  unsettled 
state  of  Persia,  which  had  been  distracted  by  sanguinary  civil  wars 
since  the  death  of  the  great  Nushirvan.  Hormuz,  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  that  monarch,  was  deposed  and  slain ;  Bahram,  a  brave  general 
but  a  feeble  statesman,  usurped  the  throne,  and  Khosrii  or  Chosroes,  the 
legitimate  heir,  sought  shelter  in  the  Byzantine  empire.  Maurice  lev- 
ied a  powerful  army  to  restore  the  royal  exile,  and  intrusted  its  com- 
mand to  Narses,  a  valiant  general,  who  was  himself  of  Persian  de- 
scent. The  expedition  was  crowned  with  success ;  Bahram,  driven 
beyond  the  Oxus,  died  by  poison,  and  Khosru,  grateful  for  his  recovered 
throne,  entered  into  close  alliance  with  the  emperor. 

Freed  from  all  danger  on  the  side  of  Persia,  Maurice  resolved  to  turn 
his  arms  against  the  Avars  ;  but  the  incapacity  oi  his  generals,  and  his 
own  avarice,  provoked  the  resentment  of  the  soldiers  ;  they  mutinied, 
and  inarched  to  Constantinople  under  the  command  of  one  of  their  centu- 
rions, named  Phocas.  Had  the  metropolis  continued  faithful,  this  sedi 
tion  might  have  been  easily  quelled  ;  but  the  licentious  populace,  dis- 
gusted by  the  parsimony  of  their  sovereign,  assaulted  him  as  he  walked 
in  a  religious  procession,  and  compelled  him  to  seek  safety  in  his  palace. 
The  unfortunate  emperor  was  compelled  to  abdicate  ;  Phocas  was  tu- 
multuously  invested  with  the  ])urple,  and  welcomed  into  Constantinople 
by  the  acclamations  of  a  thoughtless  people.  The  tyrant  commenced 
his  reign  by  dragging  Maurice  from  the  sanctuary  where  he  had  sought 
refuge,  murdering  his  five  sons  successively  before  his  eyes,  and  then 
putting  the  deposed  monarch  to  death  by  torture  (a.  d.  602).  One  of 
the  royal  nurses  attempted  to  save  the  prince  intrusted  to  her  charge,  by 
presenting  her  own  child  to  the  executioners  in  his  stead  ;  but  Maurice 
refuted  to  sanction  the  deceit,  and  as  each  blow  of  the  axe  fell  on  the 


ESTABLISHMENT  OP  THE  SARACENIC  POWER.  353 

necks  of  his  children,  he  exclaimed,  with  pious  resignation,  "  Righteous 
art  thou,  0  Lord,  and  just  are  tliy  judgments  !" 

The  usurpation  of  Phocas  was  basely  sanctioned  by  Pope  Gregory 
who  received  in  return  for  his  adulation  the  title  of  Universal  Bishop. 
But  the  pontiff's  flatteries  could  not  save  the  tyrant  from  the  resentment 
of  his  subjects,  who  soon  discovered  their  error  in  preferring  such  n 
miscreant  to  the  virtuous  Maurice.  Heraclius,  exarch  of  Africa,  invited 
by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  empire,  sailed  to  Constantinople  :  scarcely 
had  his  fleet  appeared  in  the  Hellespont,  when  the  citizens  and  imperiiil 
guards  entered  the  palace,  bound  Phocas  in  chains,  and  sent  him  a 
helpless  captive  to  his  rival  (a.  d.  610)  Heraclius  reproached  him 
with  his  manifold  vices,  to  which  the  deposed  tyrant  simply  replied, 
''  Wilt  thou  govern  better  ?"  These  were  the  last  words  of  Phocas : 
after  suffering  much  variety  of  insult  and  torture,  he  was  beheaded,  and 
his  mangled  body  thrown  into  the  sea. 

But  the  death  of  Phocas  did  not  deliver  the  empire  from  the  calami- 
ties his  crimes  had  produced  ;  Khosru  Parviz  had  no  sooner  learned  the 
sad  fate  of  his  benefactor  Maurice,  than  he  assembled  the  entire  sticngth 
of  Persia  to  avenge  his  murder.  The  unwise  system  of  persecution 
which  had  been  gradually  established  both  by  the  Byzantine  prelates 
and  emperors,  supplied  the  invader  with  allies  in  every  province :  tho 
Jews,  the  Nestorians,  and  the  Jacobites,  believed,  with  reason,  that 
they  would  find  the  worshippers  of  fire  more  tolerant  than  the  orthodox 
Christians ;  and  scarcely  had  the  Persians  crossed  the  Euphrates, 
when  insurrections  were  raised  in  their  favor  throughout  Syria.  Khosru, 
victorious  in  two  decisive  battles,  was  encouraged  to  undertake  the 
hereditary  enterprise  of  the  Sassanid  dynasty — the  restoration  of  the 
Persian  empire,  as  it  existed  in  the  age  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  Herac- 
Uus  had  scarcely  ascended  the  throne,  when  he  received  intelligence 
of  the  fall  of  Antioch ;  and  this  was  soon  followed  by  the  account  of 
the  storming  of  Jerusalem,  where  the  Jews,  encouraged  by  the  Per- 
sians, wreaked  dreadful  vengeance  on  the  heads  of  their  Christian  per 
secutors  (a.  d.  614).  The  fugitives  from  Palestine  sought  refuge  in 
Egypt,  where  they  were  hospitably  entertained  by  the  archbishop  of 
Alexandria.  But  Egypt  itself,  where  the  din  of  arms  had  not  been 
heard  since  the  reign  of  Dioclesian,  was  invaded,  conquered,  and  for  a 
time  anr.cixed  to  the  Persian  empire  (a.  d.  616).  Asia  Minor  was  sub- 
dued with  equal  facility  ;  in  a  single  campaign,  the  armies  of  the  Per- 
sians ad\  inced  from  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  to  the  shores  of  the 
Thracian  Bosphorus,  and  during  ten  years  their  hostile  camp  was  in 
sight  of  the  towers  of  Constantinople. 

While  Khosru  was  indulging  in  the  pride  that  such  brilliant  conquests 
inspired,  and  dazzling  his  subjects  by  the  display  of  his  magnificent 
plunder,  he  received  an  epistle  from  the  almost  unknown  city  of  Mecca, 
written  by  an  obscure  individual,  who  yet  claimed  the  king's  obedience, 
and  demanded  to  be  recognised  as  the  prophet  of  God.  The  grandson 
of  NusLirvan  was  indignant  at  such  a  claim  ;  he  tore  the  letter  to 
pieces,  and  flung  the  fragments  to  the  winds.  When  this  was  reported 
to  the  writer,  Mohammed,  then  beginning  for  the  first  time  to  taste  the 
av/eets  of  gratified  ambition,  and  to  find  his  prospects  enlarging  as  he 
^j^cended  the  height  of  power,  he   exclaimed,  "  It  is  thus  that  God  wil 

2'A 


354  MODERN  HISTORY. 

rend  thu  kingdom  of  Khosrii !"  a  prophecy  wliich,  like  many  otheis,  not 
a  little  accelerated  its  own  accomplishment. 

While  the  Asiatic  provinces  were  thus  a  prey  to  the  Persians,  Con- 
stantinople itself  was  so  hardly  pressed  by  the  Avars,  that  Heracliu6 
was  on  the  point  of  abandoning  the  capital,  and  seeking  refuge  with  hia 
treasures  in  Carthage.  He  was  with  difHculty  dissuaded  from  this  dis- 
honorable measure  by  me  entreaties  of  the  patriarch  ;  but  his  prospects 
appeared  to  become  darker  every  hour ;  the  Avars,  by  a  treacherou."? 
attack,  had  nearly  seized  the  capital,  and  the  ambassadors  sent  to  sup- 
plicate pardon  and  peace  from  Khosrii,  were  dismissed  with  contumely 
and  scorn  ;  the  Persian  despot  declaring  that  he  would  not  grant  peace 
until  either  Heraclius  was  brought  bound  in  chains  to  his  footstool,  oi 
had  abjured  Christianity  and  embraced  the  Magian  religion. 

For  about  twelve  years  Heraclius  had  patiently  Avitnessed  the  cala:n- 
itles  of  the  empire  without  making  any  effort  to  protect  his  subjects ; 
but  this  last  insult  roused  his  slumbering  energies,  and  he  entered  on  a 
career  as  glorious  as  his  forTier  inactivity  had  been  disgraceful.  He 
did  not  venture  with  his  raw  levies  to  attack  the  Persian  camp  at  Chal- 
cedon  ;  but  he  passed  over  to  the  coast  of  Cilicia,  and  fortified  himself 
on  the  ground  where  Alexander  had  fought  the  battle  of  Issus,  not  fai 
from  the  modern  town  of  Scanderoon,  whose  excellent  harbor  offered  a 
good  station  for  the  imperial  fleet.  A  splendid  victory  over  the  Persian 
cavalry  enabled  him  to  establish  his  winter-quarters  in  Cappadocia,  on 
he  banks  of  the  Halys  [Kizil  Irmak),  and  to  mature  his  plans  for  one 
of  the  boldest  enterprises  recorded  in  history — the  invasion  of  Persia 
through  its  northern  provinces  (a.  d.  623).  Early  in  the  ensuing  spring, 
Heraclius,  with  a  chosen  band  of  five  thousand  men,  sailed  from  Con- 
stantinople to  Trebizond,  assembled  his  forces  from  the  southern  regions, 
and,  joined  by  the  Christians  of  Armenia,  entered  the  province  of  Atro- 
patene  [Azerbijdn).  Tauris  {Tabriz),  the  ancient  and  modem  capital 
of  the  country,  was  taken  by  storm,  almost  in  sight  of  Khosru's  army, 
v/hile  the  Persian  monarch  had  neither  the  courage  to  hazard  a  battle. 
nor  the  justice  to  conclude  an  equitable  peace.  Several  equally  glorious 
campaigns  followed  ;  the  greater  part  of  Persia  was  overrun  by  the 
victorious  Byzantines ;  they  defeated  the  Asiatics  wherever  they  en- 
countered them,  and  marched  in  one  direction  as  far  as  the  Caspian,  in 
the  other  to  Ispahan,  destroying  in  their  progress  all  Khosru's  splendid 
palaces,  plundering  his  hoarded  treasures,  and  dispersing  in  every  di- 
rection the  countless  slaves  of  his  pleasure.  Khosrii  made  no  effort  to 
stop  the  mighty  work  of  ruin,  and  yet  he  rejected  the  terms  of  peace 
offered  him  by  the  humanity  of  the  conqueror.  His  subjects  soon  lost 
all  regard  for  a  monarch  whom  they  deemed  the  sole  cause  of  the  des- 
olation of  his  country :  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him ;  he  wag 
deposed  by  his  eldest  son  Shiroueh,  cast  into  a  dungeon,  and  put  to 
death  by  an  unnatural  prince,  who  pretended  that  he  was  compelled  to 
the  parricide  by  the  clamors  and  importunities  of  the  people  and  noble? 
of  the  empire. 

After  six  glorious  campaigns,  Heraclius  returned  to  Constantinople, 
bringing  with  him  the  wood  of  the  "  True  Cross,"  which  Khosrii  had 
:aken  at  Jerusalem — a  precious  relic,  which  was  deemed  a  more  splen 
lid  trophy  of  his   -'ctories  than  all  his  spoils    and   conquests.     Tht 


iL^:!TABLISHMENT  OF  THE  SARACENIC  POWER.  355 

kingdom  of  Persia,  exhausted  by  the  late  sanguinary  contest,  was  left 
to  perish  under  the  accuinuUited  evils  of  a  dreadful  famine,  the  disputt-e 
of  proud  and  luxurious  nobles,  a  succession  of  weak  sovereigns,  or  ra- 
ther pageants  of  power,  and  the  attack  of  a  new  and  terrible  enemy. 
The  flame  which  Mohammed  had  kindled  in  Arabia  already  began  tc 
spread,  and  to  threaten  an  equal  fate  to  the  degraded  and  decaying  mon- 
archies of  Byzantium  and  Persia. 

Victory  itself  was  fatal  to  Heraclius  ;  the  best  and  bravest  of  his  sol- 
diers had  perished  in  the  sanguinary  war,  his  treasury  was  empty, 
taxes  were  levied  with  difficulty  in  the  desolated  orovinces,  and  the 
emperor  himself,  as  if  exhausted  by  his  great  efforts,  &unk  into  hopeless 
lethargy.  While  Heraclius  was  enjoying  the  empty  honors  of  a  tri- 
umph, the  Saracens  appeared  on  the  confines  of  Syria :  thenceforth  the 
empire  sunk  rapidly  before  their  fanatic  valor ;  and  in  the  last  eight 
years  of  his  reign,  the  emperor  lost  to  them  all  that  he  had  rescued 
from  the  the  Persians. 

Skction  II. — State  of  Arabia  a   ilie  coming  of  Mohammed. 

The  peninsula  of  Arabia  is  in  shape  a  large  and  irregular  triangle, 
between  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Ethiopia ;  its  extreme  length  is 
about  fifteen  hundred  miles,  and  its  mean  breadth  about  seven  hundred. 
Though  it  contains  several  lofty  ranges  of  mountains,  the  greater  part 
of  the  country  consists  of  level,  sandy,  and  arid  plains,  which  can  sup- 
port but  few  inhabitants.  Water  is  difficult  to  be  obtained ;  there  is 
scarcely  any  wood  to  shelter  from  the  direct  and  intense  rays  of  a 
tropical  sun  ;  the  winds,  instead  of  being  refreshing  breezes,  frequently 
come  loaded  with  pestilential  vapors,  or  raise  eddying  billows  of  sand 
that  have  overwhelmed,  not  only  caravans,  but  entire  armies.  The  high 
lands  that  border  on  the  Indian  ocean  are  distinguished  by  a  superior 
abundance  of  wood  and  water,  and  hence  this  part  of  the  peninsula  has 
been  called  Happy  Arabia  :  but  the  groves,  even  of  this  favored  district, 
are  thinly  scattered ;  the  streams,  though  pure,  are  small,  and  the  coun- 
try could  only  be  deemed  delightful  by  persons  whose  eyes  were  unac- 
customed to  vegetation,  and  who  had  often  felt  the  want  of  a  cooling 
iihade  or  a  refreshing  drink.  The  northern  part  of  Arabia  is  occupied 
by  ranges  of  naked,  rocky  mountains,  from  whichjt  received  the  name 
of  Arabia  Petraea,  or  the  Stony ;  but  notwithstanding  its  rugged  and 
desert  aspect,  it  was  in  ancient  times  the  centre  of  a  flourishing  trade, 
being  the  great  high  road  of  trade  be  tween  Egypt  and  soutlieastera 
Asia. 

The  Arabs  are  an  original  and  unmixed  race  ;  they  boast  that  their 
country  has  never  been  subdued,  but  the  greater  part  of  it  has  little  that 
coidl  tempt  the  cupidity  of  a  conqueror.  In  the  reign  of  Trajan,  the 
Romans  made  Arabia  PetrsRa  a  province  ;  Yemen,  or  Arabia  Felix,  has 
been  frequently  subject  to  Persia,  and  about  the  time  of  Mohammed's 
appearance,  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula  was  ruled  by  the  Najashi 
of  Ethiopia.  The  Arab  is  not  very  robust,  but  he  is  active  and  well 
made,  able  to  endure  great  fatigue,  and,  both  from  habit  and  education, 
reckless  of  danger.  In  his  mental  constitution,  he  displays  quickness 
rather  than  intellig'mc(j     his  imagination  is  warm,  but  his  judgment  is 


356  MODERN  HISTORY 

not  vigoious.  Jii  all  his  pleasures,  dangers,  and  fatigues,  he  makci; 
the  horse  and  camel  of  his  deserts  associates  rather  than  servants,  and 
these  animals  appear  to  have  obtained  an  actual  superiority  in  Arabia, 
from  being  elevated  into  the  companions  of  their  masters.  The  horse 
of  Arabia  is  equally  remarkable  for  speed,  temper,  and  power  of  en- 
durance ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  best  breeds  of  tins  animal  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  have  been  derived  from  an  Arabian  stock. 
The  camel  and  dromedary  of  the  desert  are  regarded  by  the  Arab  as 
scarcely  inferior  to  his  horse.  This  patient  and  powerful  animal  sup- 
plies him  with  milk  for  his  sustenance,  transports  his  property  and 
family  from  one  quarter  of  the  desert  to  another,  and  when  occasion  re- 
quires, enables  him  to  pursue  or  fly  from  his  enemy  with  almost  in- 
credible speed. 

The  ancient  religion  of  the  Arabs  was  the  Sabean  form  of  idolatry 
which  consisted  in  the  worship  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  ;  but  long 
before  the  coming  of  Mohammed,  they  were  distracted  by  a  great  va- 
riety of  creeds  ;  some  adhered  to  the  faith  of  their  ancestors,  others 
embraced  Judaism,  and  sev^eral  tribes  became  Christians.  Unfortunately 
Christianity,  when  introduced  into  the  peninsula,  had  been  deeply  sul- 
lied by  man's  devices ;  the  different  Christian  tribes  were  imbued 
with  a  fierce  sectarian  spirit,  and  hated  each  other  more  bitterly  than 
Jews  or  pagans.  The  vivid  imaginations  of  the  Arabs  led  them  to  in- 
vestigate questions  beyond  the  powers  of  man's  understanding  ;  and  the 
consequence  was  so  abundant  a  supply  of  new  doctrines,  that  one  of 
the  early  fathers  described  Arabia  as  the  land  most  fruitful  in  heresies. 

The  principal  Arabian  cities  of  ancient  times  were  in  Yemen ;  but 
their  fame  was  destined  to  be  eclipsed  by  the  glories  of  Mecca  and 
Medina,  both  in  the  Hejaz,  the  two  great  sanctuaries  of  the  national 
religion.  Mecca  was  a  place  of  considerable  trade  from  the  earliest 
stages,  being  situated  at  the  intersection  of  two  important  routes,  that 
between  .Syria  and  Arabia  Felix,  and  that  between  Abyssinia  or  upper 
Egypt  and  southeastern  Asia.  Commerce  flourished  under  the  sanctu- 
ary of  religion.  The  temple  of  Mecca  was  regarded  as  the  national 
metropolis  of  the  Arabic  faith,  before  Judaism  and  Christianity  appeared 
in  the  peninsula  ;  its  custody  raised  the  Koreishites  to  a  rank  above 
the  other  tribes,  and  the  failure  of  the  attempt  made  to  storm  it  by  the 
Ethiopians  in  the  very  year  that  Mohammed  was  born,  may  be  con- 
sidered the  great  check  that  impeded,  or  rather  prevented,  the  further 
extension  of  Christianity  in  the  country.  Mecca  is  built  in  a  winding 
valley  at  the  foot  of  three  barren  mountains  ;  the  soil  is  a  rock,  and  the 
waters  brackish.  The  pastures  are  remote  from  the  city,  and  good 
fruits  can  not  be  procured  a^  a  nearer  place  than  the  gardens  of  Tayef, 
which  are  about  seventy  miles  distant. 

The  Arabs  believe  that  Mecca  was  founded  by  Adam,  and  the  tem- 
ple erected  by  Abraham.  Its  early  prosperity  they  ascribe  to  Ishmael, 
V .ho  fixed  his  residence  there,  because,  as  thefr  traditions  assert,  ttie 
brackish  well  Zemzem  was  that  to  which  Hagar  was  directed  by  the 
angel  It  must  have  been  a  very  ancient  city,  if,  as  commentators  sup 
pose,  it  was  the  Mesha  which  Moses  mentions  as  inhabited  by  the  po;-" 
ftinty  of  Joktan.* 

*  Genesis  x.  and  xxxi. 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  SARACENIC  POWER.  357 

Medina,  called  Yatreb  before  the  appearance  of  Mohammed,  enjoys 
more  natural  advantages  than  Mecca  ;  but  it  is  not  so  conveniently 
situated  for  traffic.  Its  citizens  appear  to  have  been  always  jealous  of 
the  supremacy  claimed  by  the  Meccans,  and  this  probably  induced 
them  to  espouse  the  cause  of  Mohammed  when  he  was  banished  by 
their  rivals. 

Literature  was  zealously  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Arabs  ;  they  were 
enthusiastically  attached  to  eloquence  and  poetry,  for  both  of  which, 
their  rich  harmonious  language  affords  peculiar  facilities.  A  meeting  of 
the  tribes  was  held  annually,  at  which  the  poets  recited  their  c(  mpo- 
sitions,  and  those  which  were  judged  the  best,  were  preserved  in  the 
public  treasury.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  were  seven  poems 
called  Moallakat,  which  were  written  on  Egyptian  silk  in  letters  of 
gold,  and  suspended  in  the  Kaaba,  or  temple  of  Mecca.  Science  was 
not  similarly  valued  ;  their  history  was  merely  genealogical  tables ; 
their  astronomy  such  a  rude  knowledge  of  the  stars  as  served  to  mark 
the  variation  of  the  seasons  ;  and  the  mechanical  arts  were  almost 
wholly  neglected.  They  used  to  say  that  God  had  given  thun  four 
peculiarities:  turbans  instead  of  diadems;  tents  instead  of  houses; 
swords  instead  of  fortresses  ;  and  poems  instead  of  written  laws. 

Section  III. —  The  Preaching  of  Mohammed. 

Mohammed,  the  great  legislator  of  the  Arabians,  and  the  founder  of 
a  religion  which  has  long  prevailed  over  the  fairest  portions  of  the 
globe,  was  born  at  Mecca.  His  father,  Abdallah,  was  an  idolater ;  but 
his  mother,  Emina,  was  a  Jewess,  who  had  been  converted  to  Christi- 
anity, and  from  her  early  instructions  he  probably  derived  the  religious 
impressions  for  which  he  was  distinguished  even  in  boyhood.  Both 
his  parents  died  while  he  was  yet  a  child,  but  their  place  was  supplied 
by  his  uncles,  Abd-al-Motalleb,  and  Abu-Taleb,  the  latter  of  whom  be- 
came a  tender  parent  to  the  orphan.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  accom- 
^panied  Abu-Taleb  on  a  mercantile  journey  into  Syria,  and  soon  after 
made  his  first  campaign  against  some  neighboring  tribes  of  predatory 
Arabs. 

From  this  time  Mohammed  appears  to  have  engaged  actively  in  trade. 
He  displayed  so  much  talent,  that  a  rich  widow,  named  Kadijah,  ap- 
pointed him  her  chief  pastor ;  and  after  some  years,  was  so  pleased 
with  his  zeal  and  industry,  that  she  gave  him  her  hand  in  marriage, 
and  made  him  master  of  her  splendid  fortune.  After  his  marriage, 
Mohammed  ranked  among  the  first  citizens  of  Mecca,  and  it  must  be 
added  that  he  was  not  corrupted  by  good  fortune.  The  earliest  use  he 
made  of  prosperity  was  to  relieve  his  kind  guardian  and  uncle  Abu- 
Taleb,  who  had  fallen  into  distress  ;  he  placed  Abu-Taleb  above  want, 
and  undertook  the  education  of  a  portion  of  his  family. 

Little  is  known  of  Mohammed's  history  during  the -next  fifteen  years 
but  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  this  interval  was  spent  in  ma- 
turing his  plans  for  the  great  revolution  he  contemplated.  Every  year 
he  retired  for  a  month  to  a  cave  in  Mount  Hira,  near  Mecca,  where  he 
spent  his  time  in  meditation  and  prayor.  His  travels  as  a  merchant 
had  made  him  acquainted  with  the  principal  forms  of  religion  that  then 


358  MODERN  HISTORY. 

prevailed  in  the  east.  In  Syria  he  met  Christians  of  various  secli) 
Jews,  JMagians,  and  Sabajans  ;  j^rabia  presented  to  him  countless  va 
rieties  of  idolatry  ;  exiles  from  the  Persian  and  Byzantine  empires  in- 
formed him  of  the  dangerous  doctrines  preached  by  the  Mani  and  Maz- 
dak.  A  singular  dream  led  him  to  believe  that  lie  was  chosen  by  the 
Deity  to  reconcile  all  these  jarring  creeds,  and  to  unite  mankind  in  the 
worship  of  the  one  true  God.  In  the  solitude  of  his  cave  he  dreamed 
that  the  angel  Gabriel  appeared  to  liim,  and  hailed  him  as  a  prophet. 
On  his  return  he  announced  his  mission  to  Kadijah,  Avho  at  once  rec- 
ognised his  claims.  Her  example  was  followed  by  Ali,  the  son  of 
Abu-Taleb,  by  Abu-Beker,  Othman,  and  a  few  friends  accustomed  tc 
regard  the  recluse  of  Hira  with  reverence. 

These  converts  were  called  Mussulmans,  that  is,  j:  ersons  resigned  to 
the  divine  will  ;  their  faith  was  confirmed  by  revelations  which  Alohani- 
med  pretended  to  receive  from  Gabriel,  and  which,  as  he  did  not  then 
know  how  to  read  and  write,  or  at  least  but  imperfectly,  he  communica- 
ted orally  to  his  disciples.  These  revelations  were  preserved  by  them  in 
a  volume,  which  they  called  the  Koran,  or  book  that  ought  to  be  read. 
The  progress  of  the  new  religion  was  slow ;  many  of  JNIohammed's 
friends  rejected  his  prophetic  claims  with  something  like  horror,  and 
three  years  elapsed  before  he  ventured  to  announce  his  mission  pub- 
licly. Having  invited  his  friends  and  relatives  to  a  splendid  banquet, 
he  declared  to  them  that  God  had  chosen  him  to  preach  the  doctrine 
of  the  divine  unity  ;  Ali,  with  the  generous  enthusiasm  of  youth,  warmly 
offered  to  support  the  prophet's  claims,  but  many  of  the  other  guests 
doubted  or  laughed  them  to  scorn. 

Undismayed  by  the  imperfect  result  of  his  first  essay,  Mohammed 
began  to  preach  to  the  people  of  Mecca  in  the  market-place.  Converts 
were  made  slowly  ;  and  the  guardians  of  the  city  opposed  doctrines 
that  threatened  to  subvert  the  influence  they  derived  from  the  worship 
of  the  Kaaba.  Several  of  the  Mussulmans,  most  remarkable  for  their 
zeal,  were  forced  by  persecution  to  abandon  their  homes,  and  seek 
refuge  in  Abyssinia ;  but  the  spirit  of  Mohammed  quailed  not ;  he  re 
fused  to  quit  Mecca,  and  when  asked  to  suspend  his  preaching  for  « 
season,  he  replied,  "  Were  my  enemies  to  place  the  sun  on  my  right 
hand,  and  the  moon  on  my  left,  they  would  not  reduce  me  to  silence." 

At  one  of  the  great  annual  fairs  held  in  Mecca,  Mohammed  preached 
his  mission  to  the  merchants  assembled  from  all  parts  of  Arabia. 
Among  his  auditors  were  some  citizens  of  Yatreb,  or,  as  it  was  after- 
ward called,  Medina,  whom  peculiar  circumstances  rendered  attentive 
to  his  claims.  The  Yatrebites  had  just  conquered  a  Jewish  tribe  ;  they 
heard  their  captives  boast  of  their  speedy  liberation  on  the  coming  of 
the  Messiah,  and  supposing  that  the  new  prophet  might  be  the  expected 
deliverer,  they  resolved  to  conciliate  his  favor.  Mohammed  profited 
by  their  delusion ;  and  this  appears  to  have  been  his  first  direct  step  in 
imposture,  though-  in  the  tangled  web  of  human  motives,  it  is  hard  to 
say  where  enthusiasm  ends  and  fraud  begins. 

Inspired  by  his  success  with  the  Yatrebites,  and  some  other  tribes  in 
the  interior  of  Arabia,  Mohammed,  who  had  hitherto  preached  patience 
and  submission  undei  persecution,  directed  his  disciples  to  defend 
Miemsolves  when  attacked,  declaring  that  all  who  died  in  defence   of 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  SARACENIC  POWER.  35tf 

•lis  person  or  his  creed,  would  assuredly  inherit  Paradise.  At  the  saiut 
time  he  averred  that  he  had  been  taken  up  into  heaven  by  Gabriel,  and 
admitted  to  a  personal  interview  with  the  Omnipotent.  The  Meccar 
chiefs,  enraged  at  his  hardihood,  took  measures  for  his  destruction,  and 
he  could  only  save  his  life  by  a  speedy  retreat  to  Yatreb.  This  event, 
called  Hejira  (the  flight),  occurred  about  the  fifty-third  year  of  the 
prophet's  age  (a.  d.  622),  and  is  the  era  used  by  all  Mahommedau 
nations. 

Mohammed  was  received  in  triumph  at  Yatreb  ;  he  changed  its  name 
to  Medinet  al  nabi  {the  city  of  the  prophet),  or  Medina  [the  city),  which 
it  still  retains.  Converts  flocked  to  Medina,  and  were  formed  into  war- 
like bands,  which  infested  all  the  roads  to  Mecca,  and  took  severe,  ven- 
geance for  the  insiflt  oflered  to  their  master.  The  plunder  was  shared 
equally  among  the  soldiers  ;  enthusiasm  generally  insured  success  ;  and 
warriors  from  all  parts  of  the  peninsula  were  attracted  by  the  hopes  of 
wealth  and  glory.  In  one  of  the  frequent  encounters  between  the 
Meccans  and  Mussulmans,  near  the  well  Bedr,  Mohammed  was  on  the 
point  of  being  defeated,  when  he  stooped  down,  took  up  a  handful  of 
dut>t  and  flung  it  toward  the  enemy,  exclaiming :  "  May  tlieir  faces  be 
confounded  !"  this  simple  action  revived  the  courage  of  his  followers  ; 
they  gained  a  decisive  victory,  wliich  he  failed  not  to  ascribe  to  a 
miraculous  interposition. 

After  this  success  Mohammed  made  a  great  change  in  the  character 
of  his  religion  ;  hitherto  he  had  preached  patience  and  toleration  ;  he 
now  began  to  inculcate  the  doctrine  of  propagating  the  true  faith  by  the 
sword,  and  of  executing  divine  vengeance  on  idolaters  and  unbelievers 
"  In  the  shade  of  the  crossing  cimeters,"  he  declared,  "  Paradise  is 
prefigured,"  and  this  sublime  orientalism  was  long  the  favorite  war-cry 
of  his  followers.  The  Jews  became  special  objects  of  his  hatred  ;  he 
seems  to  have  hoped  that  they  would  acknowledge  him  as  their  Mes- 
siah, but  they  were  too  well  acquainted  with  their  sacred  Scriptures  to 
believe  that  the  liberator  of  Israel  should  be  descended  from  the  bond- 
woman. A  severe  defeat  at  Ohod  increased  rather  than  abated  the 
pride  and  fanaticism  of  Mohammed  ;  he  ascribed  it  to  the  fault  o"  his 
companions  in  having  granted  quarter  to  their  enemies  on  a  fornter 
occasion,  and  thenceforward  the  war  assumed  a  most  murderous  and 
sanguinary  character.  The  Meccans  suffered  much  more  severely 
than  their  adversaries ;  depending  for  their  pr'osperity,  and  almost  for 
their  existence,  on  commerce,  they  saw  their  trade  almost  annihilated, 
their  caravans  plundered,  and  their  flocks  swept  away.  They  made 
cue  great  effort  to  remove  their  enemy,  and  besieged  Mohammed  in 
Medina,  but  were  soon  forced  to  retire  with  great  loss.  "  Hitherto 
they  have  sought  us,"  exclaimed  the  prophet,  "  it  is  now  our  turn  to  go 
in  search  of  them." 

After  this  defeat,  the  Meccans  seem  to  have  lost  all  courage  ;  Mo- 
hammed rapidly  became  the  most  powerful  prince  in  Arabia,  his  follow 
ors  received  his  words  as  the  inspired  oracles  of  God,  nor  were  they 
undeceived  by  the  gross  licentiousness  in  which  the  pretended  prophet 
indulged.  At  length,  he  marched  against  Mecca,  but  found  the  defiles 
which  lead  to  the  city  too  strongly  garrisoned  to  allow  of  an  attack  with 
any  prospect  of  success.     Under  these  circumstances,  he  concluded  a 


5 GO  MODERN  HISTORY. 

cruce,  nuicli  against  the  will  of  his  followers,  by  which  a  peaceful  .'id 
mission  into  the  city  was  secured  to  him  in  the  ensuing  year  Feeling' 
that  his  power  was  now  established,  Mohammed  sent  ambasbadors,  in- 
I'iting  tlic  most  powerful  kings  of  the  earth,  especially  the  empc^rors  of 
Persia  and  Constantinople,  to  become  his  disciples.  Khosru  Parviz, 
who  then  ruled  in  Iran,  was  indignant  at  receiving  a  letter,  in  which 
"  a  poor  lizard-eater,"  as  the  Arab  was  then  called  by  his  haughty 
neighbors,  dared  to  place  his  name  before  that  of  "  the  king  of  kings.*^ 
He  tore  the  paper  to  pieces,  and  dismissed  the  ambassador  with  insult ; 
when  this  was  told  to  Mohammed,  he  exclaimed,  "  Thus  God  hath  torn 
his  kingdom."  The  Byzantine  emperor,  Heraclius,  treated  the  message 
with  respect,  though  he  declined  acceding  to  the  invitation.  During 
the  year  that  preceded  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  Mohammed  subdued 
several  of  the  surrounding  tribes  that  had  hitherto  spurned  his  power  ; 
but  the  seeds  of  mortal  disease  were  sown  in  his  constitution  by  a  dose 
of  poison,  which  a  Jewess  administered  as  a  test  of  his  prophetic  pre- 
tensions. 

At  length  the  day  arrived  which  was  to  consummate  the  triumph  of 
Islamism  ;  Mohammed  made  his  public  entry  into  Mecca  with  unparal- 
leled magnificence  ;  he  did  homage  to  the  national  faith  by  worshipping 
in  the  Kaaba ;  and  such  was  the  effect  produced  by  his  presence,  that 
many  of  his  former  enemies,  and  among  others,  the  chief  guardian  of 
the  idolatrous  sanctuary,  proclaimed  themselves  his  disciples.  Soon 
alter  this  success  he  began  his  first  foreign  war.  The  ambassador  he 
sent  to  the  Byzantine  governor  of  Bosrah,  having  been  murdered  at 
Muta,  a  little  town  south  of  the  Dead  sea,  an  army  was  sent  under  the 
command  of  Zeid,  the  freedman  of  the  prophet,  to  avenge  the  insult. 
The  Mussulman  general,  and  the  two  officers  that  succeeded,  were 
slain ;  but  the  command  devolving  upon  Khaled,  the  son  of  Walid,  he 
obtained  a  decisive  victory,  and  returned  to  Medina  laden  with  booty. 
This  success  induced  Mohammed  to  break  his  truce  with  the  Meccans ; 
disregarding  their  remonstrances  and  offers  of  submission,  he  marched 
against  the  city  ;  an  entrance  was  forced  by  the  fiery  Khaled,  and  the 
prophet  with  difficulty  prevented  his  followers  from  involving  his  fellow- 
citizens  in  one  promiscuous  massacre.  The  Kaaba  became  the  prop- 
erty of  the  conqueror ;  all  traces  of  idolatry  were  removed  from  this 
national  sanctuary ;  the  only  emblem  of  former  superstition  permitted 
to  remain,  was  the  celebrated  Black  Stone,  an  aerolite  which  the  Arabs 
had  venerated  from  an  unknown  age,  the  reverence  for  which  was  too 
deeply  graven  in  their  hearts  to  be  easily  eradicated.  This  success 
led  to  the  subjugation  of  most  of  the  northern  Arabian  tribes  ;  ambassa- 
dors flocked  to  congratulate  the  prophet  from  every  side  ;  the  lieuten- 
ant Khosri,  at  the  western  side  of  the  Euphrates,  became  a  Mussul- 
man;  the  governor  of  the  provinces  that  the  Najashi  of  Abyssmia  held 
in  Arabia,  followed  the  example  ;  and  Mohammed  might  be  regarded 
jis  the  undisputed  sovereign  of  the  peninsula.  His  two  gi-eat  objects 
seemed  thus  to  be  effected  ;  Arabia  was  liberated  from  the  yoke  of 
toreign  powers,  and  the  Arabs  began  to  regard  themselves  as  one  na- 
tion. A  second  expedition  against  the  southern  provinces  of  the  By- 
zantme,  or,  as  it  was  still  called,  the  Roman  empire,  was  crowned  wilb 
-success     and  so  rapid  had  been  the  progress  :>f  Islamism,  that   wher 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  SARACENIC  POWER.  3G1 

Jie  proj/liet  performed  his  last  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  his  followers 
amounted  to  nearly  one  hundred  thousand  warriors,  independent  of 
women,,  slaves,  and  other  attendants. 

On  his  return  to  Medina,  the  poison  which  Mohammed  had  taken 
from  a  Jewess,  who  is  said  to  have  taken  this  means  of  testing  his* 
claim  to  the  title  of  Messiah,  began  to  show  its  efTects.  He  was  seized 
with  mortal  disease  ;  and,  at  his  own  request,  was  removed  to  the  house 
of  his  favorite  wife  Ayesha,  on  whose  prudence  he  depended  for  con- 
cealing any  incautious  avowal  he  might  make  under  the  pressure  of 
sickness.  On  the  8th  of  June,  632,  he  died,  declaring  with  his  last 
breath  that  he  was  about  "  to  take  his  place  with  his  fellow-citizen  on 
high,''  meaning  "the  angel  Gabriel.  He  made  no  will,  he  appointed  n{> 
successor,  owing  to  the  contrivance  of  Ayesha,  who  feared  that  Ali, 
the  cousin  and  son-in-law  of  the  prophet,  would  be  nominated  tiie  heir 
of  his  power  ;  and  that  she  would  thus  be  inferior  to  her  beautiful  step- 
daughter, Fatima,  the  wife  of  Ali. 

Section  IV. — Early  Progress  of  the  Saracens. 

The  fabric  of  Islamism  was  shaken  to  its  very  foundation  after  Mo 
hammed's  death,  by  the  disputes  that  arose  respecting  the  choice  of  a 
successor.  Ali  had  the  best  hereditary  claims,  but  his  literary  tastes, 
and  ascetic  manners,  rendered  him  unpopular  with  the  fierce  soldiery ; 
and  he  had  a  powerful  enemy  in  Ayesha,  whom  he  had  once  charged 
with  infidelity.  After  three  days  of  fierce  dispute,  the  controversy  wa? 
decided  by  Omar's  proffering  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  Abu  Bekr,  the  father 
of  Ayesha,  and  one  of  Mohammed's  most  faithful  followers. 

Abu  Bekr  assumed  the  title  of  Khaliph,  or  vicar,  which  thenceforth 
became  the  designation  of  the  Saracenic  emperors.  Having  superin- 
tended the  sepulture  of  his  illustrious  predecessor  at  Medina,  the  kha- 
liph sent  an  army  against  Mosseilama,  an  impostor,  who,  following  the 
example  of  Mohammed,  attempted  to  found  a  new  religion.  Mosseilama 
and  his  followers  were  exterminated  by  the  gallant  Khaled,  surnamed 
from  his  fiery  valor  "  the  sword  of  God,"  and  Islamism  was  thencefor- 
ward established  in  Arabia. 

Perceiving  that  it  was  necessary  to  find  employment  for  the  ener- 
getic spirits  by  which  he  was  surrounded,  Abu  Bekr  prepared  to  invade 
the  Byzantine  and  Persian  empires,  both  of  which  had  fallen  into  a 
state  of  deplorable  weakness.  Os^ma,  the  son  of  Zeid,  ravaged  Syria, 
while  the  province  of  Irak,  the  ancient  Babylonia,  was  subdued  by 
Khaled.  The  conquest  of  Syria  was  a  more  important  enterprise  ;  cir- 
culars announcing  the  undertaking,  were  sent  to  the  principal  Arabian 
tribes  ;  and  the  army  which  assembled  on  the  occasion  was  the  most 
numerous  that  had  yet  been  raised  by  the  Saracens.  The  emperoi 
Heraclius,  alarmed  at  the  approach  of  such  formidable  forces,  sent  a 
large  detachment  to  meet  the  enemy  on  the  frontiers,  which  was  defeat 
ed  with  great  slaughter.  But  the  imperialists  were  more  successful  at 
Gaza,  where  they  gained  a  victory  over  a  Moslem  division,  ccmmanded 
by  Abu  Obeidah.  The  Khaliph  invested  Amru  with  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  the  expedition,  but  intrusted  Obeidah's  division  to   Khaled 


862  MODERA'  HISTORY. 

The  latter  made  himself  master  of  the  city  of  Bosra.  and  after  gaininji 
several  other  advantages  over  the  Romans,  laid  siege  to  Damascus. 

Jerusalem  was  regarded  with  as  nmch  veneration  by  the  Mussulmanb 
as  by  the  Jews  or  Christians,  and  Abii  Bckr  felt  that  the  capture  of  pc 
holy  a  city  would  give  immense  strength  to  the  cause  of  Islam.  In 
his  celebrated  directions  to  his  generals  he  displays  great  knowledge 
of  the  country  as  well  as  much  political  wisdom  But  these  directions 
are  still  more  remarkable  for  their  almost  verbal  coincidence  with  a 
passage  in  the  Book  of  Revelations  (chap.  ix.  verse  4),  which  mosl 
commentators  have  regarded  as  a  prophetic  description  of  the  Saracens. 
A  reference  to  the  passage  will  enable  the  reader  to  see  the  strildng 
snndarity  between  the  language  of  the  apostle  and  bf  the  khaliph. 
When  the  army  was  assembled,  A!)U  Bekr  addressed  the  chief  com- 
mander in  the  following  terms :  "  Take  care,  Yezid-Abn-Abu  Sofian, 
to  treat  your  men  with  tenderness  and  lenity.  Consult  with  your  offi- 
cers on  all  pressing  occasions,  and  encourage  them  to  face  the  enemy 
with  bravery  and  resolution.  If  you  conquer,  spare  the  aged,  the  in- 
firm, the  women,  and  the  children.  Cut  down  no  palm-trees,  destroy 
not  the  fields  of  corn.  Spare  all  fruit-trees,  slay  no  cattle  but  such  as 
are  absolutely  necessary  for  food.  Always  preserve  your  engagements 
inviolate  ;  spare  the  religious  persons  who  dwell  in  monasteries,  and 
injure  not  the  places  in  which  they  worship  God.  As  for  those  mem- 
bers of  the  synagog-ue  of  Satan,  who  shave  their  crowns,  cleave  theii 
sculls,  unless  they  embrace  Islamism,  or  pay  tribute." 

But  Jerusalem  was  not  the  only  city  to  which  sanctity  was  ascribed 
in  the  Mussulman  traditions  ;  it  was  reported  that  JVIohammed,  after 
viewing  the  lovely  and  fertile  plains  in  which  Damascus  stands,  from 
one  of  the  neighboring  heights,  proclaimed  it  to  be  the  earthly  paradise 
designed  to  be  the  inheritance  of  true  believers.  The  fiery  Khaled  re- 
cited this  tradition  to  his  enthusiastic  followers  as  he  led  them  before 
the  walls,  and  thus  excited  their  ardor  for  the  siege  to  a  fury  that  bor- 
dered on  insanity. 

Heraclius  sent  an  army  of  100,000  men  to  relieve  the  capital  of  Syria, 
but  the  imperialists  were  thrice  routed  ;  and  in  the  last  of  these  battles 
more  than  half  their  number  fell  in  the  field.  This  calamity  led  to  the 
fall  of  Damascus,  one  side  of  which  was  stormed  by  Khaled,  just  as  the 
other  capitulated  to  Abu  Obeidah.  A  warm  dispute  arose  between  the 
generals  as  to  the  claims  of  the  citizens  to  the  benefit  of  the  capitida- 
tion  ;  but  mercy  finally  prevailed,  and  the  lives  of  the  Damascenes  were 
spared.  Abii  Bekr  died  on  the  very  day  that  Damascus  was  taken 
(a.  d.  634) ;  his  memory  was  justly  venerated,  not  only  because  ho 
pointed  the  Saracens  the  way  to  conquest  beyond  Arabia,  but  because 
he  gave  their  religion  its  permanent  form,  by  collecting  the  scattered 
passages  of  the  Koran,  and  arranging  them  in  the  order  which  they  hold 
to  the  present  day. 

His  character  was  remarkable  for  generosity  and  moderation  ;  he  did 
not  reserve  for  himself  any  portion  of  the  vast  wealth  acquired  by  his 
victorious  armies,  but  distributed  his  share  to  his  soldiers  and  to  the 
poor.  He  was  always  easy  of  access  ;  no  petitioner  for  mercy  or  claim- 
ant of  justice  went  unheard  from  his  presence ;  both  by  precept  aniH 
example  he  labored  to  rniintain  the  republican  simpUcity  so  remarkable 


ESTABLISHMENT   OF  THE   SAEACENIC  POWER.  363 

111  tLe  early  history  of  the  Saracens ;  and  though  tlie  partisans  of  Ali 
reo-ard  him  as  a  usurper,  they  still  reverence  his  memory  on  account  of 
his  moderation  and  his  virtue. 

Omar  was  chosen  second  khaliph  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the 
army.  Soon  after  his  accession  he  received  the  intelligence  of  the  cap- 
ture of  Damascus  ;  but  instead  of  evincing  his  gratitude,  he  yielded  to 
the  sutrgcstions  of  petty  jealousy,  and  transferred  the  command  of  the 
army  from  Khaled  to  Abu  Obeidah.  The  conquest  of  Syria  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  subjugation  of  Persia.  Yezdijird,  the  last  monarch  of  the 
Sassanid  dynasty,  sent  a  large  army  to  recover  Irak,  under  the  command 
of  Ferokshad,  a  general  of  high  reputation.  Saad-ebn-Wakass,  the 
leader  of  the  Saracens,  relying  upon  the  impetuous  courage  of  his  sol- 
diers, eagerly  sought  a  general  action;  and  Ferokshad,  after  many  vain 
efforts  to  protract  the  war,  was  forced  to  a  decisive  engagement  in  the 
plains  of  Kadseah,  or  Kadesia.  The  battle  lasted  several  days,  and 
ended  in  the  almost  total  annihilation  of  the  Persian  army,  while  the 
loss  of  the  Arabs  did  not  exceed  three  thousand  men.  The  celebrated 
standard  of  Persia,  originally  the  apron  of  the  patriotic  blacksmith 
G4vah,  but  which  had  been  enlarged,  by  successive  monarchs,  to  the 
length  of  twenty-two  feet  and  the  breadth  of  fifteen,  enriched  with  jew- 
els of  the  highest  value,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors  and  was 
broken  up  for  distribution.  Nor  was  this  the  only  rich  booty  obtained 
by  the  "  sons  of  the  desert,"  who  were  yet  ignorant  of  its  value.  "  I  will 
give  any  quantity  of  this  yellow  metal  for  a  little  white,"  was  an  ex- 
clamation made,  after  the  battle  was  over,  by  an  Arabian  soldier,  who 
desired  to  exchange  gold,  which  he  had  never  before  seen,  for  silver, 
which  he  had  learned  to  appreciate  (a.  d.  638). 

Yezdijird  assembled  a  new  army  in  the  northern  and  eastern  provin- 
ces, while  the  khaliph  reinforced  the  invaders  with  tresh  bodies  of  en- 
thtusiasts.  The  battle  which  decided  the  fate  of  Persia  was  fought  at 
Navahend.  (a.  d.  641).  Noman,  the  leader  of  the  Saracens,  attacked 
the  Persians  in  their  intrenchments ;  nothing  could  resist  the  fury  of  the 
onslaught;  the  Persian  lines  were  completely  broken;  it  was  a  carnao-e 
rather  than  a  battle.  For  ten  years  Yezdijird,  "  a  hunted  wanderer  on 
the  wild,"  protracted  a  faint  but  unyielding  resistance ;  he  was  at  length 
slain  by  a  miller  with  whom  he  had  sought  refuge  (a.  d.  651).  Thus 
ended  the  dynasty  of  Sassan,  which  ruled  Persia  for  four  hundred  and 
fifty  years,  and  the  memory  of  whic#  is  stilbcherished  by  a  nation, 
whose  ancient  glory  is  associated  with  the  fame  of  Ardeshir,  Shah-p6r, 
and  Nushirvan. 

Nor  were  the  Saracens  less  successful  in  Syria;  At)u  Obeidah's 
caution  tempered  the  fiery  zeal  of  Khaled,  and  rendered  victory  more 
secure,  though  less  vapid.  City  after  city  yielded  to  the  Moslems,  and 
the  army  which  Heraclius  sent  to  the  defence  of  his  unfortunate  sub- 
iects  was  irretrievably  ruined  in  the  battle  of  Yermi\k.  Inspired  by 
this  victory,  Abu  Obeidah  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  and  in  four  montha 
reduced  the  garrison  to  such  distress,  that  a  surrender  was  unavoidable. 
The  Khaliph  Omar  came  in  person  to  receive  the  submission  of  the 
noly  city.  His  equipage  was  a  singular  characteristic  of  the  simplicity 
that  still  prevailed  among  the  Saracens.  He  rode  upon  a  red  camel, 
with  a  sack  of  corn  and  water-bag  slung  from  the  saddle,  to  supply  his 


364  MODEEN  HISTOET. 

wants  during  tlie  journey.  A  wooden  platter  was  tlie  only  utensil  he 
brougLt  AvitU  him  ;  his  dress  was  of  camel's  hair,  coarse  and  torn  ;  a 
sino-le  slave  constituted  his  attendance  and  escort.  In  this  guise  he 
reached  the  Moslem  camp,  where  he  recited  the  public  prayers,  and 
preached  a  sermon  to  his  troops,  lie  then  signed  the  capitulation,  se- 
curing to  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem  protection  in  person,  property, 
and  religious  worship,  on  the  payment  of  a  moderate  tribute,  and  entered 
the  city  in  triumph  (a.  d.  637).  In  his  triumphal  entry  the  khaliph 
marched  at  the  bead  of  his  troops,  in  familiar  conversation  with  So- 
phronius,  the  Christian  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  whom  he  hoped  to  protect 
from  the  fanaticism  of  his  followers  by  this  exhibition  of  confidence. 
Nor  was  this  the  only  proof  of  good  faith  displayed  by  Omar ;  he  re- 
fused to  pray  in  any  of  the  Christian  churches,  lest  the  Mussulmans 
should  take  advantage  of  his  example  and  convert  it  into  a  mosque. 
He  chose  the  ground  on  w^hich  the  temple  of  Solomon  anciently  stood 
for  the  foundation  of  the  mosque  which  bears  his  name  ;  and  as  it  was 
covered  with  filth  of  every  kind,  he  set  the  example  of  clearing  the 
spot,  to  his  soldiers,  by  removing  some  of  the  rubbish  in  his  robe. 

Aleppo,  the  ancient  Beroea,  Avas  the  next  city  besieged  by  the  Sara- 
cens ;  it  was  valiantly  defended  for  four  months,  but  was  finally  taken 
by  assault,  and  its  governor,  Gukinna,  with  several  of  his  principal  offi- 
cers, embraced  the  Mohammedan  faith.  Antioch  and  Cajsarca  were 
taken  with  less  difficulty ;  the  emperor  Ileraclius  fled  from  the  province, 
and  his  son,  after  a  few  unsuccessful  efibrts,  followed  him  to  Constanti- 
nople. In  six  years  from  their  first  appearance  in  Syria,  the  Saracens 
completed  the  conquest  of  that  province,  and  of  Palestine,  and  secured 
their  acquisitions  by  occupying  the  mountain-foitresses  on  the  borders 
of  Cilicia.  *  Egypt  was  next  attacked  by  Amrii,  and  subdued  without 
much  difficulty.  Alexandria  alone  made  a  vigorous  defence  ;  but  it 
was  finally  taken  by  storm,  and  its  valuable  library  consigned  to  the 
flames,  through  the  'fanaticism  of  Omar,  who  was  ignorant  of  literature 
and  science.  In  the  midst  of  these  triumphs  the  Khaliph  Omar  was 
assassinated  by  a  slave  (a.  d.  643).  During  his  reign  of  ten  years  and 
a  half,  the  Saracens  could  boast  that  they  had  subdued  Syria,  Chaldasa, 
Persia,  and  Egypt ;  taken  thirty-six  thousand  cities,  towns,  and  castles ; 
destroyed  four  thousand  Christian  churches,  fire  and  idol  temples,  and 
built  fourteen  hundred  mosques. 

Omar's  memory  is  held  in  Hie  highest  veneration  by  the  Soonnees, 
and  is  equally  execrated  by  the  Shee^ihs.  His  severity  and  simplicity, 
which  bordered  on  barbarism,  are  strikingly  contrasted  with  the  luxury 
and  magnificence  of  his  successors,  lie  had  no  state  or  pomp,  he 
lived  in  a  mean  house  ;  his  mornings  were  spent  in  preaching  or  pray- 
ing at  th<;  mosque,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  day  he  was  to  be  found  in 
the  public  market-place,  where,  clothed  in  a  tattered  robe,  he  adminis- 
tered justice  to  all  comers,  directed  the  aftairs  of  his  increasing  empire, 
and  received  ambassadors  from  the  most  powerful  princes  of  the  east. 
To  him  the  Arabs  are  indebted  for  the  era  of  the  Hejira;  before  his  reign 
they  counted  their  years  from  such  epochs  as  wars,  famines,  plagues, 
remarkable  tempests,  or  harvests  of  unusual  plenty.  He  was  the  first 
to  establish  a  police  in  Medina  and  the  other  great  cities  of  the  empire. 
Before  his  reign,  the  Arabs,  accustomed  to  lawless  independence,  would 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  SARACENIC  POWER. 


36f) 


iilmit  of  no  restraint,  and  the  immense  conquests  of  the  Saracens  had 
caused  such  a  concourse  of  strangers  in  the  seats  of  government,  that 
cities  became  nearly  as  insecure  ;)laces  o*"  residence  as  the  open  coun- 
try. Omar  also  established  a  regular  system  of  pay  foi  soldiers  in  the 
field,  and  he  also  instituted  pensions  for  the  wounded  and  disabled  sol- 
diers ;  indeed  the  old  companions  of  Mohammed,  those  who  had  borne 
the  dangers  and  difficulties  that  beset  tht,  prophet  in  the  earlier  part  of 
his  career,  having  been  rendered  incapable  of  acqiuring  fresh  plundei 
by  wounds  and  age,  would  have  perished  miserably  but  for  the  provis- 
ion which  Omar  made  for  their  support  in  their  declining  years. 

Omar,  by  his  will,  appointed  six  commissioners  to  elect  a  new  kha- 
liph,  and  their  choice  fell  on  Othman-ebn-Affan,  whose  pliancy  of  dis- 
position appears  to  have  been  his  chief  recommendation.  The  change 
of  their  sovereign  did  not  abate  the  rage  for  conquest  among  the  Sara- 
cens. They  ceased  to  limit  their  exertions  to  land  ;  a  fleet  fitted  out  by 
Moawiyah,  the  governor  of  Syria,  subdued  the  island  of  Cyprus  (a.  d. 
647),  while  the  Syrian  and  Egyptian  armies  penetrated  into  Armenia 
and  Nubia.  The  island  of  Rhodes  was  a  still  more  important  acquisi- 
aon :  it  yielded  to  Moawiyah  almost  without  a  struggle  ;  its  celel  rated 
Colossus  was  broken  to  pieces  and  sold  to  a  Jew,  who  loaded  nine 
Hundred  camels  with  the  metal  that  it  contained.  Othman's  weakness 
soon  rendered  him  odious  to  his  warlike  subjects.  The  Egyptian  army 
revolted,  and  marched  to  besiege  him  in  Medina ;  their  discontents 
were  appeased  for  a  time  by  the  exertions  of  Ali,  but  the  insurgents 
having  reason  tp  suspect  that  the  khaliph  meditated  vengeance,  retraced 
their  steps,  and  murdered  him  in  his  palace  (a.  d.  656).  The  Koran, 
stained  with  the  blood  of  Othman,  is  said  to  be  still  preserved  at  Da- 
mascus. 

Immediately  after  the  murder  of  Othman,  Ali,  the  cousin  and  son-in- 
law  of  the  prophet,  was  proclaimed  khaliph.  His  accession  was  the 
signal  for  disorders,  which  threatened  the  speedy  ruin  of  the  Saracenic 
empire.  His  old  enemy  Ayesha,  the  widow  of  Mohammed,  excited  a 
revolt  in  Arabia,  affecting  to  avenge  the  murder  of  Othman,  though  she 
had  more  than  consented  to  his  death ,  Moawiyah  headed  a  revolt  in 
Syria ;  and  the  turbulent  army  of  Egypt  set  their  sovereign's  authority 
at  defiance.  The  first  combat  was  against  the  partisans  of  Ayesha, 
who  were  routed  with  great  slaughter,  and  she  herself  made  prisoner. 
Ali  not  only  spared  the  life  of  this  turbulent  woman,  but  assigned  her  a 
large  pension. 

Moawiyah  was  a  far  more  dangerous  enemy.  By  his  afl'ectcd  zea! 
for  religion,  he  had  won  the  friendship  of  many  of  the  coinpaiiioas  of 
the  prophet,  while  his  descent  from  the  ancieiu  chiefs  of  Mecca  pro- 
cured the  support  of  many  who  had  yielded  reluctaiillv  to  the  sway  of 
Mohammed.  The  rival  armies  met  in  the  plains  of  Safl'ein,  on  the  west' 
em  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  and  more  than  ninety  days  were  spent  in 
undecisive  skirmishes.  At  length  Moawiyah,  finding  his  ibrces  rai)i(liy 
diminishing,  adopted  the  following  singular  expedient,  on  the  reconinieu- 
:3ation  of  Amru  ;  he  ordered  a  copy  of  the  Koran  to  be  fixed  on  the  top 
of  a  pike,  and  directed  a  herald  to  proclaim,  in  the  presence  of  both 
armies,  thai  ne  was  willing  to  decide  all  diflerences  by  this  sacred  code. 
4 Ij's  soldiers  forced  him  to  consent  to  a  truce  .  two  commissioners  were 


3G6  MODERN   HISTOttV 

chosen  to  regulate  the  articles  of  peace ,  and  Ainru,  who  appeared  on 
the  pan  of  IMoawiyah,  contrived  to  have  his  friend  proclaimed  khali[)li. 
The  war  was  renewed,  but  no  decisive  battle  was  fought.  At  length 
some  enthusiasts  met  accidentally  at  Mecca  and  began  to  discuss  the 
calamities  that  threatened  the  ruin  of  Islamism..  One  of  them  remarked 
that  no  one  of  the  claimants  of  the  throne  deserved  to  reign,  since  they 
had  jointly  and  severally  inflicted  great  sufferings  on  the  faithful,  ar.d 
brought  religion  into  jeopardy.  Three  of  them  then  agreed  to  devote 
themselvbs  for  the  public  good,  and  on  the  same  day  to  assassinate  Am- 
rii,  Moawiyah,  and  Ali.  The  two  former  escaped ;  Ali  became  a  vic- 
tim (a.  d.  661),  and  Moawiyah,  without  much  resistance,  became  chief 
of  the  Saracenic  empire,  and  founded  the  Ommiade  dynasty  of  khaliphs 

There  is  a  tradition  that  Mohammed,  a  little  before  his  last  illness, 
declared,  "  The  khaliphate  will  not  last  more  than  thirty  years  after  my 
death ;"  if  this  prediction  was  not  devised  after  the  event,  it  was  singu- 
larly fulfilled  by  the  murder  of  his  nephew  and  son-in-law.  Ali's  mem- 
ory is  justly  venerated  by  the  Mussulmans  ;  he  was  inferior  in  states- 
manship to  his  predecessors,  but  he  was  certainly  the  most  amiable  of 
vhe  khaliphs.  His  mildness,  placidity,  and  yielding  disposition,  which 
tendered  him  so  beloved  in  private  life,  were  however  fatal  to  him  in  an 
age  of  distraction  and  civil  warfare.  His  family  contmued  to  be  revered 
long  after  his  death ;  but  their  popularity  excited  the  jealousy  of  suc- 
ceeding khaliphs,  and  most  of  them  perished  by  open  violence  or  secret 
assassination.  The  martyrdom  of  Hassan  and  Hossein,  the  sons  of 
Ali,  is  yearly  celebrated  by  the  Sheeahs  of  India  and  Persia  with  great 
solemnity ;  and  on  these  occasions  the  afl'ecting  incidents  of  these 
events  are  so  vividly  represented,  that  travellers  would  suppose  the 
bursts  of  grief  they  witness,  to  be  caused  by  some  recent  and  over- 
whelming calamity. 

During  these  commotions  the  career  ol  Saracenic  conquest  had  been 
suspended  ;  but  under  the  Ommiade  dynasty  the  military  spirit  of  the 
Arabs  was  restored  to  its  former  strength.  Egypt  furnished  an  excel 
lent  key  to  southern  Europe  and  western  Africa.  Thrice  the  Saracens 
were  compelled  to  abandon  their  enterprise  against  the  countries  wesi 
of  Eg}^'pt ;  but  at  length  their  perseverance  was  crowned  with  success, 
and  the  cree>3.  of  Mohammed  was-  extended  through  northern  Africa  to 
the  shores  of  the  Atlantic. 

Count  Julian,  a  Gothic  noble,  irritated  by  the  treatment  he  had  re- 
ceived from  his  sovereign,  Roderic,  invited  the  Saracens  into  Spain  (a. 
D.  710).  A  numerous  army  of  adventurers  crossed  the  straits,  and, 
\ided  by  the  resentment  of  the  persecuted  Jews,  subdued  the  entire 
peninsula,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  district  in  the  Asturian  mount- 
ains. Not  content  with  this  success,  the  Saracens  crossed  the  Pyre- 
nees, and  advanced  through  France  to  the  Loire  :  they  even  meditated 
a  plan  of  conquest,  which  would  have  subjected  all  Christendom  to  their 
yoke  ;  they  proposed  to  conquer  France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  and  then 
descending  the  Danube  to  exterminate  the  Greek  empire,  whose  capital 
they  had  already  twice  assailed.  The  valor  of  Charles  Martel,  who 
completely  defeated  the  Saracens  in  a  memorable  battle,  that  lasted 
seven  days  (a.  d.  732),  rescued  Europe  from  the  Mohammedan  yoke. 
His  grandson,  Charlemagne,  drove  the  Saracens  back  to  the  Ebro .  and 


ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  SARCEN.C  TOWER.  367 

tliough  they  subsequently  recovered  their  Spanish  provinces,  they  wore 
lorced  to  respect  ihe  Pyrenees  as  the  bulwark  of  Christendom. 

The  revolution  which  transferred  the  khaliphate  from  the  descendants 
of  Moawiyah  to  the  posterity  of  Abbas,  the  uncle  of  Mohammed,  led  to 
ihe  dismemberment  of  the  empire.  Mohammed,  the  grandson  of  Abbas, 
had  long  been  engaged  in  forming  a  party  to  support  the  rights  of  his 
hou!=*e,  and  from  his  obscure  residence  in  Syria,  sent  emissaries  into  the 
remotfcsv  parts  of  the  empire,  to  secure  partisans  for  an  approaching 
struggle.  On  the  death  of  Mohammed,  his  son,  Ibrahim,  succeeded  to 
his  inlluence  and  his  claims  ;  he  sent  Abu  Moslem  as  *he  representative 
of  his  party  into  Khorassan,  and  there  that  intrepid  warrior  for  the  first 
time  raised  the  black  standard  of  the  house  of  Abbas.  From  this  time 
the  parties  that  rent  the  Saracenic  empire  were  distinguished  by  the 
colors  chosen  as  their  cognizance  ;  black  was  the  ominous  badge  of  the 
Abbassides,  white  of  the  Ommiades,  and  green  of  the  Fatimites,  who 
claimed  to  be  descended  from  Mohammed,  through  Fatima,  the  daughter 
of  the  prophet  and  the  wife  of  Ali.  Abul  Abbas,  surnamed  Al  SafFah, 
or  the  Sanguinary,  overthrew  the  last  of  the  Ommiade  line  near  the 
river  Jab,  and  not  only  put  him  to  death,  but  massacred  all  the  princes 
of  his  family  whom  he  could  seize,  broke  open  the  sepulchres  of  all  the 
khaliphs  from  Moawiyah  downward,  burned  their  mouldering  contents 
and  scattered  the  ashes  to  the  winds. 

Ninety  members  of  the  Ommiade  family  were  living  at  Damascus 
after  their  submission,  under  what  they  believed  the  safe  protection  of 
Abdallah-Ebn-Ali,  the  uncle  of  the  khaliph.  One  day,  when  they  were 
all  assembled  at  a  feast  to  which  they  had  been  invited  by  the  governor, 
a  poet,  according  to  a  preconcerted  arrangement,  presented  himself  be- 
fore Abdallah  and  recited  some  verses  enumerating  the  crimes  of  the 
house  of  Moawiyah,  calling  for  vengeance  on  their  devoted  heads,  and 
pointing  out  the  dangers  to  which  their  existence  exposed  the  house  of 
Abbas.  "  God  has  cast  them  down,"  he  exclaimed ;  "  why  dost  not 
thou  trample  upon  them  ?" 

This  abominable  exhortation  fell  upon  willing  ears  ;  Abdallah  ga-  '^ 
die  signal  to  the  executioners  whom  he  had  already  prepared,  a;  : 
ardered  the  ninety  guests  to  be  beaten  to  death  with  clubs  in  his  pres- 
ence. When  the  last  had  fainted  under  the  hands  of  the  executioner, 
he  ordered  the  bodies  of  the  dead  and  dying  to  be  piled  together,  and 
carpets  to  be  thrown  over  the  ghastly  heap.  He  then,  with  the  rest  of 
his  guests,  ascended  this  horrible  platform,  and  ^ere  they  revelled  in  a 
gorgeous  banquet,  careless  of  the  groans  and  agony  below  ! 

Abd-er-rahman,  the  youngest  son  of  the  late  khaliph,  alone  escaped 
from  this  indiscriminate  massacre.  After  a  series  of  almost  incredible 
adventures,  he  reached  Spain,  where  the  Saracens,  fondly  attached  to 
the  memory  of  Moawiyah,  chose  him  for  their  sovereign,  and  he  thus 
became  the  founder  of  the  second  dynasty  of  the  Ommiade  khaliphs. 

This  example  of  separation  was  followed  by  the  Edrissites  of  Mauri- 
tania, and  the  Fatimites  and  Aglabites  of  eastern  Africa.  Bagdad, 
founded  by  Alinansiir,  became  the  capital  of  the  Abbasside  dynasty. 
The  khaliphs  of  this  line  were  generous  patrons  of  science,  literature, 
bind  the  arts,  especially  Harun-al-Rashid,  the  hero  of  the  Arabian 
Mights,  and  las  son  Al  Mamiin.     The  love  of  learning  spread  from  Bag- 


308  MODERN  HISTORY. 

dad  into  the  other  Saracenic  countries  ;  the  Onimiade  khaliphs  founded 
several  universities  in  Spain,  the  Fatimites  established  schools  in  Egypt, 
and  the  Mahommedan  nations  were  distinguished  for  their  attainments 
in  physical  science,  while  Europe  remained  sunk  in  barbarism.  The 
Saracenic  empire  gradually  passed  from  splendor  into  weakness  ;  the 
Turkish  mercenaries  employed  by  the  later  khaliphs  became  the  maa- 
ters  of  their  sovereign ;  and  the  dignity,  after  being  long  an  empty  tiiJc. 
was  finally  abolished  (a.  d.  1258). 


WJCSTORATION  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRK.  '^60 


CHAPTER  lil. 
RESTORATION  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE. 

Sectiox  I. — Tlie  Life  of  Charlemagne. 

When  the  last  of  the  feeble  descendants  of  Clovis  was  dethroned  by 
Pepin,  France,  by  being  brought  into  close  connexion  wi^n  the  See  of 
Rome,  became  the  most  prominent  state  in  Europe,  and  the  foundation 
was  laid  for  the  system  of  policy  which  has  since  prevailed  in  Europe, 
by  the  union  of  the  highest  ecclesiastical  authority  with  the  most  exten-  _ 
sive  civil  power.  Many  circumstances  had  previously  conspired  to 
give  the  popes,  as  the  bishops  of  Rome  were  called  from  an  unknown 
period,  great  and  commanding  authority  over  the  Christian  nations  of 
the  West.  Among  the  most  influential,  was  the  extravagant  claim  to 
the  ancient  sway  of  the  Caesars,  gravely  urged  by  the  Byzantine  empe- 
rors, when  they  had  neither  means  nor  ability  to  support  their  preten 
sions.  Wearied  by  the  pride  and  cruelty  of  the  Greeks,  the  Italians 
supported  the  papal  power  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  imperial,  and  were 
eager  to  have  the  bishop  of  Rome  recognised  as  head  of  the  Christian 
church,  to  prevent  the  title  from  being  usurped  by  the  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  recognition  of  Pepin's  elevation  to  the  throne  of 
France  was  something  more  than  a  mere  form :  it  was  a  ratification  of 
his  claims  by  the  only  authority  that  was  respected  by  the  nations  of 
western  Europe.  In  return,  Pepin  gave  military  aid  to  the  popes,  in 
their  wars  with  the  Lombards,  and  openly  proclaimed  himself  the 
champion  of  the  church.  The  French  king  intrusted  the  command  of 
the  armies  he  employed  in  Italy  to  his  youthful  son,  Karl,  better  known 
by  his  French  name,  Charlemagne.  The  prince,  thus  early  brought 
into  public  life,  displayed  more  than  ordinary  abilities,  both  as  a  general 
and  a  statesman  ;  he  acted  a  distinguished  part  in  the  subjugation  of 
Aquitaine,  and  deservedly  obtained  the  fame  of  adding  that  fine  pro'  ince 
to  the  dominions  of  the  Franks. 

Pepin  did  not  long  survive  this  acquisition  ;  pursuing  the  perniciouss 
policy  which  had  already  proved  so  destructive  to  the  preceding  dynas- 
ty, he  divided  his  dominions  between  his  sons  Charles  and  Carloman 
Their  mutual  jealousies  would  have  exploded  in  civil  war,  but  for  tht 
judicious  interference  of  their  mother  Bertha.  At  length  Carloman 
died  suddenly  ;  his  wife  and  children  fled  to  the  Lombards,  his  subjects, 
with  one  accord,  resolved  to  have  Charlemagne  for  their  sovereign,  and 
thus  the  French  monarchy  was  again  reunited  under  a  single  head. 
The  protection  granted  to  the  family  of  Carloman  was  not  the  only 
groimd  of  hostility  between  Charlemagne  and  the  Lombard  king  Desid 
f^rius  ;  Charlemagne  had  married,  and  afterward  repudiated,  that  mnn 

24 


370  MODERN  HISTORY. 

arch's  daughter ;  Desiderius  menaced  war,  but  had  not  the  means  ol 
executing  his  threats  ;  Charlemagne  was  prevented  from  crossing  the 
Alp^,  by  the  appearance  of  a  more  formidable  enemy  on  his  eastern 
frontiers. 

The  Saxons,  and  other  Germanic  tribes,  were  still  sunk  in  idolatry : 
rhey  frequently  devastated  the  frontier  provinces  of  the  Christian  Franks, 
and  showed  particular  animosity  to  the  churches  and  ministers  of  re- 
ligion. A  missionary,  St.  Libuinus,  had  vainly  endeavored  to  convert 
the  Saxons  by  denouncing  the  vengeance  of  Heaven  against  their  idol- 
atry ;  irritated  by  his  reproaches,  they  expelled  him  from  their  country 
burned  the  church  erected  at  Daventer,  and  slew  the  Christians.  The 
general  convocation  of  the  Franks,  called  from  the  time  of  meeting  the 
Champ  de  MaV,  was  at  the  time  assembled  at  Worms  under  the  presi- 
dency of  Charles ;  its  members  regarded  the  massacre  at  Daventer  as 
a  just  provocation,  and  war  was  declared  against  the  Saxons.  As  the 
assembly  of  the  Champ  de  Mai  was  at  once  a  convention  of  the  estates 
and  a  review  of  the  military  power  of  the  Franks,  an  army  was  in  im- 
mediate readiness :  Charlemagne  crossed  the  Rhine,  captured  their 
principal  fortresses,  destroyed  their  national  idol,  and  compelled  them 
to  give  hostages  for  their  future  good  conduct.  He  had  scarcely  re- 
turned home,  when  he  was  summoned  into  Italy,  to  rescue  the  pope 
from  the  wrath  of  Desiderius,  who,  enraged  at  the  pontitrs  refusal  to 
recognise  the  claims  of  the  sons  of  Carloman,  had  actually  laid  siege 
to  Rome.  Like  Hannibal  in  ancient,  and  Napoleon  in  modern  times, 
Charlemagne  forced  a  passage  over  the  Alps,  and  was  actually  de- 
scending from  the  mountains  before  the  Lombards  knew  of  his  ha^'ing 
commenced  his  march.  Desiderius,  after  vainly  attempting  to  check 
the  Franks  in  the  defiles,  abandoned  the  field,  and  shut  himself  up  in 
Pavia.  The  city  was  taken  after  a  year's  siege :  during  the  interval, 
Charlemagne  visited  Rome,  and  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm  by 
the  pope  and  the  citizens.  Soon  after  his  return  to  his  camp  Pavia 
surrendered,  Desiderius  and  his  queen  were  confined  in  separate  mon- 
asteries, and  the  iron  crown,  usually  worn  by  the  kings  of  Lombardy, 
was  placed  upon  the  head  of  the  French  monarch. 

The  Saxons  and  Lombards  made  several  vigorous  efforts  to  shake  off 
the  yoke,  but  their  insurrections  were  easily  suppressed ;  while,  how- 
ever, alarming  discontents  prevailed  in  both  nations,  Charlemagne 
was  involved  in  a  new  and  perilous  war.  A  Saracenic  prince  sought 
refuge  in  the  French  court,  and  persuaded  the  monarch  to  lead  an  army 
over  the  Pyrenees.  The  frontier  provinces  were  easily  subdued,  owing 
to  the  disputes  that  divided  the  Mohajnmedans  in  Spain.  Charlemagne 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Saracens  at  Saragossa,  but  before  he 
could  complete  his  conquest,  he  was  recalled  home  by  a  new  and  more 
dangerous  revolt  of  the  Saxons.  The  rear-guard  of  the  French,  com- 
manded by  the  gallant  Roland,  was  treacherously  assailed  on  its  return, 
by  the  Gascons,  in  the  defiles  of  Roncesvalles,  and  almost  wholly  de- 
stroyed. The  celebrated  valley  of  Roncesvalles  is  the  line  of  commu- 
nication between  France  and  Navarre  ;  the  road  through  it  is  rugged 
and  tortuous,  with  narrow  gorges  between  steep  mountains.  While  the 
Franks  were  toiling  through  these  defiles,  the  Gascons  and  Navarrese 
formed  ambuscades  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains   concealed  bv  the 


RESTORATION  OF  THE   WESTERN  EMPIRE.  371 

Jiick  foirists  with  which  they  abound.  After  the  greater  part  of  the 
army  had  passed,  the  mountaineers  suddenly  rushed  down  the  steeps, 
fell  upon  the  rear-guard,  and  the  divisions  intrusted  with  the  charge  of 
the  baggage.  The  Franks  were  surprised  but  not  di  heartened ;  they 
made  a  desperate  resistance,  and  vainly  tried  to  cut  their  way  to  the 
main  body ;  but  the  assailants  had  the  advantage  of  a  light  equipment 
and  a  favorable  position ;  the  whole  of  the  rear-guard  was  cut  oil',  and 
the  baggage  plundered  before  Charlemagne  knew  that  they  were  en- 
dangered ;  and  the  mountaineers  disappeared  so  rapidly  with  their 
booty  that  all  pursuit  was  unavailing.  Such  was  the  battle  of  Ronces- 
valles,  which  has  been  strangely  exaggerated  and  misrepresented  by 
writers  of  romance. 

But  though  the  legendary  account  of  Ronccsvalles  contains  a  very 
small  portion  of  truth,  it  is  not  devoid  of  historical  importance  because 
there  never  was  a  history  which  possessed  wider  influence  than  this  ro- 
mantic tale.  It  was  by  singing  the  song  of  Roland  that  the  Normans 
were  encouraged  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  and  the  French  inspired  to 
their  most  glorious  deeds.  We  must  therefore  give  an  abstract  of  the 
ancient  tradition. 

According  to  the  legend,  Charlemagne,  in  a  war  which  lasted  more 
than  seven  years,  had  nearly  completed  the  conquest  of  Spain.  The 
Moorish  monarch,  whom  the  romancers  are  pleased  to  designate  Mar- 
siles,  in  dread  of  total  ruin  held  a  council  of  his  principal  emirs  and 
nobles,  who  unanimously  recommended  him  to  conciliate  Charles  by 
immediate  submission.  A  Saracen  ambassador,  with  the  usual  incon- 
sistency of  romance,  is  said  to  have  been  pitched  close  to  the  Spanish 
marches,  and  he  addressed  the  monarch  in  the  following  words  :  "  God 
protect  you  !  Behold  here  are  presents  which  my  master  sends  ;  and  he 
engages  if  you  withdraw  from  Spain  to  come  and  do  you  homage  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle." 

Charlemagne  summoned  his  twelve  paladins  to  council,  to  deliberate 
on  this  ofler.  Roland  strenuously  opposed  entering  into  any  terras  with 
an  infidel,  and  declared  that  it  was  their  duty  to  rescue  Spain  from  the 
dominion  of  the  crescent,  and  place  it  under  the  banner  of  the  cross. 
Two  of  the  paladins,  however,  Ganelon  and  the  duke  Naimes,  main- 
tained that  it  was  contrary  to  the  rules  oi"  chivalry  to  refuse  grace  to  a 
conquered  enemy.  Charlemagne,  who  in  ihe  romances  is  represented 
as  a  perfect  model  of  knightly  courtesy,  yielded  to  the  arguments  of  the 
fri(mds  of  peace,  and  inquired  which  of  his  peers^would  undertake  to 
return  with  the  ambassador,  and  bear  back  a  suitable  reply  to  the  king 
Marsiles.  Ganelon  proffered  his  services,  but  Roland  contemptuously 
declared  him  unfit  for  such  a  duty,  and  offered  himself  in  his  stead. 

A  warm  debate  arose  in  the  council;  Ganelon,  irritated  by  the  scorn 
with  which  Roland  treated  his  pretensions,  and  indignant  at  some  im- 
putations on  his  fidelity  and  courage,  said  angrily  to  his  rival,  "  Take 
care  that  some  mischief  does  not  overtake  you."  Roland,  among  whose 
virtuous  qualities  moderation  can  not  be  enumerated,  replied,  "  Go  to, 
you  speak  like  a  fool !  We  want  men  of  sense  to  carry  our  messages  ; 
if  the  emperor  pleases,  I  will  go  in  your  place."  [n  great  irritation 
Ganelon  replied,  "  Charles  is  commander  here  ;  I  submit  myself  to  hie 
will."     At  these  words  Roland  bur.«*  into  an  immoderate  fit  of  lauahter 


372  MODERN  HISTORY. 

but  this  act  c/f  discourtesy  so  offended  the  rest  of  the  paladins,  thti; 
with  one  voice  they  recommended  Ganelon  as  the  most  suit  iLle  ambas- 
sador to  be  sent  to  Marsiles. 

The  Saracenic  ambassador  had  received  private  information  of  the 
angry  discussion  which  had  taken  place  in  the  imperial  council.  As 
he  returned  to  his  court,  he  took  every  opportunity  of  reminding  Gane- 
lon of  the  insult  he  had  received,  and  though  he  did  not  immediately  suc- 
ceed, he  certainly  weakened  the  paladin's  loyalty,  and  led  him  secretly 
to  deliberate  on  the  possibility  of  obtaining  revenge  by  means  of  trea- 
son. At  his  first  interview  with  Marsiles,  he  maintained  the  pride  and 
dignity  of  a  French  chevalier.  "  Charles  is  now  old,"  said  the  Moorish 
monarch,  "  he  must  be  close  upon  a  hundred  years  of  age  ;  does  he  not 
think  of  taking  some  repose  ?"  Ganelon  firmly  replied,  "  No !  no ! 
Charles  is  ever  powerful ;  so  long  as  he  has  round  him  the  twelve  peers 
of  France,  but  particularly  Oliver  and  Roland,  Charles  need  not  fear  a 
living  man."  Subsequent  conversations,  however,  enabled  the  Moorish 
monarch  to  work  upon  Ganelon's  cupidity,  and  his  jealousy  of  Roland, 
so  eff'ectually,  that  he  agreed  to  supply  him  with  such  information  as 
would  enable  him  to  cut  oflT  the  rear  of  the  Christian  army,  when  it  re- 
turned to  Roncesvalles,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty. 

Ganelon  returned  to  the  Christian  camp,  and  informed  the  emperor 
that  Marsiles  had  consented  to  become  his  vassal,  and  pay  him  tribute. 
Charles  immediately  gave  orders  that  the  army  should  return  to  France  , 
he  took  the  command  of  the  van  in  person ;  the  rear-guard  intrusted 
with  the  care  of  the  baggage  and  plunder,  followed  at  a  little  distance 
through  the  passes  of  Roncesvalles. 

In  the  meantime  Marsiles  had  collected  an  immense  army,  consisting 
not  merely  of  his  own  subjects,  but  of  numerous  auxiliaries  from  Bar- 
bary,  Morocco,  and  the  wild  tribes  in  the  interior  of  Africa.  According 
to  the  instructions  of  Ganelon,  he  sent  large  detachments  of  his  men  to 
occupy  the  Avoods  and  mountains  which  overhung  "  the  gloomy  Ronces- 
valles' strait " 

When  the  Christians  were  involved  in  the  pass,  they  were  suddenly 
attacked,  at  the  same  moment,  in  front,  flank,  and  rear.  Oliver  clam- 
bered up  a  tree  in  order  to  discover  the  number  of  the  enemy.  Per 
ceivinff  that  their  hosts  were  vastly  superior  to  the  French,  he  called 
out  to  Roland,  "  Brother  in  arms !  the  pagans  are  very  numerous,  and 
we  Christians  are  few  ;  if  you  sounded  your  horn  the  emperor  Charles 
would  bring  us  succor."  Roland  replied,  "  God  forbid  that  my  lineage 
should  be  dishonored  by  such  a  deed !  I  will  strike  with  my  good 
sword  Durandel ;  and  the  pagans  falling  beneath  my  blows,  will  discover 
that  they  have  been  led  hither  by  tlieir  evil  fate."  "  Sound  your  honi, 
co.mpanion  in  arms  !"  reiterated  Oliver  ;  "  the  enemies  hem  us  in  on 
every  side."  "  No  !"  repeated  Roland,  our  Franks  are  gallant  warriors  ; 
they  will  strike  heavy  blows,  and  cut  through  the  host  of  the  foul  pay- 
nim."  He  then  prepared  his  troops  for  action.  Archbishop  Turpin, 
perceiving  that  the  fight  would  be  desperate  and  bloody,  commanded  all 
Che  soldiers  to  kneel,  and  join  in  a  general  confession  of  faith,  aftei 
which  he  bestowed  upon  them  absolution,  and  his  episcopal  benedict 
i-ion. 

Tb.e   Christians   made  a  gallant    dt  fence ;    but  numbers  finally   tr. 


RESTORATION  OF  THE   tVESTERN  EMPIRE.  373 

umphed  over  valor.  "Down  went  many  a  noble  crest;  cloven  was 
many  a  plumed  helmet.  The  lances  were  shivered  in  the  grasp  of 
Christendom's  knights,  and  the  swords  dropped  from  their  wearied 
arms."  Tm*pin,  Oliver,  and  Roland,  still  survived,  and  faintly  main- 
tained the  fight.  At  length,  Roland  turning  to  Oliver,  exclaimed,  "  I 
will  sound  my  horn,  Charles  will  hear  us,  and  we  may  yet  hope  again 
to  see  our  beloved  France."  "  Oh !  shame  and  disgrace,"  answered 
Oliver,  "  why  did  you  not  sound  when  first  I  asked  you  ?  The  best  war- 
riors of  France  have  been  sacrificed  to  your  temerity  :  we  must  die 
with  them !"  Turpin,  however,  insisted  th^t  the  horn  should  be  blown 
as  a  signal  to  the  emperor  ;  and  Roland  blew  such  a  blast,  that  the 
blood  spurted  from  his  mouth,  and  his  wounds,  opened  afresh,  poured 
forth  torrents.  Charles,  though  thirty  leagues  distant,  heard  the  sound, 
and  said,  "  Our  men  are  engaged  at  disadvantage  ;  we  must  haste  to 
their  assistance."  "  I  do  not  believe  it,"  replied  the  raitor  Ganelon. 
and  dissuaded  the  emperor.  Roland  once  more,  with  his  dying  breath, 
runor  a  wailing  blast  from  the  horn.  Charles  knew  the  character  of  the 
sound.  *'  Evil  has  come  upon  us,"  he  exclaimed  ;  "  those  are  the  dy- 
ing notes  of  ray  nephew  Roland  !"  He  hastily  returned  to  Roncesval- 
les  ;  but  Roland,  and  all  his  companions,  lay  dead  upon  the  plain,  and 
the  emperor  could  only  honor  their  corpses  with  Christian  burial. 

Such  are  the  salient  points  in  the  old  romance,  on  which  the  song 
of  Roland  is  founded.  So  late  as  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  narrative  was  received  as  an  historical  fact ;  and  when  John,  king 
of  France,  a  little  before  the  fatal  battle  of  Poictiers,  reproached  his 
nobles  that  there  were  no  Rolands  to  be  found  in  his  army,  an  aged 
knight  replied,  "  Sire,  Rolands  would  not  be  wanting,  if  we  could  find 
H  Charlemagne." 

The  devastations  of  the  Saxons,  which  recalled  Charlemagne  from 
Spain,  exceeded  anything  which  Europe  had  witnessed  since  the  days 
of  Attila.  Witikind,  prince  of  Westphalia,  was  the  leader  of  this  dan- 
gerous revolt ;  he  had  united  his  countrymen  into  one  great  national 
confede""Jcy,  and  long  maintained  a  desperate  struggle  against  the 
whole  strength  of  the  French  monarchy.  He  was  at  length  irretrieva- 
bly routed,  and  submitting  to  the  conqueror,  became  a  Christian.  Sev- 
eral minor  revolts  in  his  extensive  dominions  troubled  the  reign  of 
Charlemagne,  but  he  quelled  them  all,  and  secured  the  tranquillity  of 
Germany,  both  by  subduing  the  Saxons,  and  destroying  the  last  rem- 
nant of  the  barbarous  Avars  who  had  settled  in  Hungary.  The  brief 
intervals  of  tranquillity  were  spent  by  this  wise  monarch  in  extending 
the  blessings  of  civilization  to  his  subjects,  by  establishing  schools, 
and  patronising  science  and  literature.  In  these  labors  he  was  assisted 
by  Alcuin,  an  English  monk,  the  most  accomplished  scholar  of  his 
age.  Such  was  the  fame  of  the  French  monarchy  at  this  time,  that 
embassies  came  to  the  court  from  the  most  distant  contemporary  sover- 
eigns. The  most  remarkable  was  that  sent  from  the  renowned  Hanin- 
er-Rashld,  khaliph  of  Bagdad ;  among  the  presents  they  brought  were 
:<ome  beautiful  pieces  of  clock-work,  which  were  regarded  as  something 
almost  miraculous  in  western  Europe,  where  the  mechanical  arts  were 
still  in  their  infancy. 

Bvit  in  the  midst  of  (he'se  gloric?,  Charlemagne  was  alarmed  by  the 


374  MODERN  HISTOiJY. 

appearance  of  a  i*iew  enemy  on  the  coasts  of  France,  whose  nmur 
sions,  though  repelled,  filled  the  monarch's  prescient  mind  wilh  sad 
bodings  of  future  danger.  These  were  the  Northmen,  or  Normans, 
pirates,  from  the  distant  shores  of  Scandinavia,  whose  thirst  of  plun- 
der was  stimulated  by  the  desire  of  revenging  the  wrongs  that  their 
idolatrous  brethren,  the  Saxons,  had  endured.  At  their  first  landing  in 
France,  they  had  scarcely  time  to  commit  any  ravages,  for  they  fled  on 
the  news  of  the  dreaded  king's  approach.  Charlemagne  saw  their  de- 
parting ships  without  exultation  ;  he  burst  into  tears,*  and  predicted 
that  these  "  sea-kings"  would  soon  prove  a  dreadful  scourge  to  southern 
Europe. 

Probably  about  the  same  time  that  Charles  was  excited  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  these  pirates,  whose  ferocity  and  courage  he  had  learned 
to  dread  during  his  expeditions  into  the  north  of  Germany,  three  ships 
of  a  similar  character  to  thof^e  described,  entered  one  of  the  harbors 
on  the  southeastern  coast  of  Britain,  about  a  century  and  a  half  aftei 
the  Anglo-vSaxons  had  established  their  dominion  over  the  southern  part 
of  the  island,  and  given  it  the'  name  of  Angle-Land,  or  England. 

Here  the  sight  of  the  strange  ships  produced  the  same  doubts  as  in 
France.  The  Saxon  graf,  or  magistrate  of  the  district,  proceeded  to 
the  shore  to  inquire  who  these  strangers  were,  and  what  they  wanted. 
The  foreigners,  who  had  just  disembarked,  attacked  him  and  his  escort 
without  provocation,  slew  them  on  the  spot,  pillaged  the  neighboring 
houses,  and  then  returned  to  their  vessels.  Some  time  elapsed  before 
it  was  discovered  that  these  pirates  were  the  Danes,  or  Normans, 
names  with  which  the  ears  of  Anglo-Saxons  were  destined  soon  to 
form  a  terrible  familiarity. 

Soon  after  the  retreat  of  the  Normans,  Charlemagne  was  induced  to 
visit  Italy,  both  to  quell  the  rebellion  of  the  duke  of  Beneventum,  .and 
to  rescue  Pope  Leo  from  his  insurgent  subjects.  He  succeeded  in  both 
enterprises,  and  the  grateful  pontiff  solemnly  crowned  his  benefactor 
Emperor  of  the  West.  A  project  was  soon  after  formed  for  re-es- 
tablishing the  ancient  Roman  empire,  by  uniting  Charlemagne  to  the 
Byzantine  empress,  Irene,  but  this  was  prevented  by  the  factions  of 
Constantinople  ;  the  degraded  Greeks  dreaded  nothing  so  much  as  the 
vigorous  administration  of  such  a  sovereign  as  the  restorer  of  the 
Western  Empire. 

Charlemagne  intended  to  divide  his  dominions  equally  between  hia 
three  sons  ;  but  two  of  them  died  while  the  arrangements  were  ir 
progress,  and  Louis,  the  weakest  in  mind  and  body,  became  sole  heir 
to  the  empire.  His  claims  were  solemnly  recognised  in  a  national 
assembly  of  the  Frank  nobility,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  ;  soon  after  which, 
the  emperor  died,  ir.  the  seventy-second  year  of  his  age,  universally 
lamented  throughout  his  extensive  dominions. 

•  The  monk  of  St.  Gall  :ells  us,  that  when  Chnrlemagne  was  asked  the  cause 
of  these  tears,  he  replied,  "  My  faithful  friends,  do  you  mquire  why  I  weep  thus 
bitterly  ?  Assuredly  it  is  not  tliat  I  dread  any  annoyance  to  myself  from  the  pi- 
racy ot  rhose  wretches;  but  I  am  deeply  affected  to  find  that  they  have  dared  to 
visit  these  coasts  even  in  my  lifetime ;  and  violent  s:rief  overwhelms  me,  v>^lien 
took  forward  to  the  avils  they  will  inflict  on  my  subjrcls." 


RESTORATION  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  375 

Seotio??  II. — Decline  and  Fall  of  ilie   Caiiovingian  Dynasaj. 

The  Western  Empire,  established  by  Charlemagne,  extended  from 
the  Ebro  in  the  west  to  the  Elbe  and  Raab  in  the  east,  and  from  the 
diitchy  of  Beneventum  and  the  Adriatic  sea  to  the  river  Eyder,  whicli 
separated  the  Germanic  tribes  from  the  Scandinavian  hordes,  or,  as 
they  began  about  this  time  to  be  called,  the  Danes  and  Normans.  It 
consequently  included  all  ancient  Gaul,  a  great  portion  of  Spain  and 
Italy,  several  islands  in  the  Mediterranean,  especi?dly  Corsica,  Sar- 
dinia, and  the  Baleares,  western  and  northern  Germany,  with  a  consid- 
erable part  of  Pannonia,  or  Hungary.  No  other  European  power 
could  compete  with  that  of  the  Franks  ;  the  monarchies  of  Norway, 
Denmark,  Sweden,  Poland,  and  Russia,  were  not  yet  founded ;  Eng- 
land was  still  divided  by  the  Heptarchy ;  the  Saracenic  empire  .n 
Spain  was  distracted  by  civil  commotions,  and  the  Christian  kingdom 
of  the  Asturias  was  barely  struggling  into  existence  ;  finally,  the  By 
zantine  empire  was  simk  into  hopeless  lethargy,  and  owed  its  continued 
existence  only  to  the  decay  of  the  spirit  of  enterprise  among  the  Arabs, 
after  the  seat  of  the  Khaliphate  was  removed  to  Bagdad.  But  the  con- 
tihuation  of  an  empire  including  so  many  nations  essentially  dillerent 
in  interests,  habits,  and  feelings,  required  a  superior  genius  in  the  sov- 
ereign. Louis  the  Debonnaire,  the  son  and  successor  of  Charlemagne, 
was  deficient  in  every  quality  that  a  ruler  should  possess  ;  foolish,, 
weak,  and  superstitious,  he  could  not  make  himself  beloved,  and  he 
failed  to  inspire  fear.  Yielding  to  the  suggestions  of  his  queen,  Her- 
mengarde,  Louis  sanctioned  the  murder  of  his  nephew  Bernard,  and 
forced  the  three  natural  sous  of  Charlemagne  to  assume  the  clerical 
tonsure,  by  which  they  were  for  ever  prevented  from  taking  a  share  in 
temporal  affairs.  These  crimes  had  scarcely  been  committed  when 
Louis  became  the  victim  of  remorse.  Unable  to  stifle  the  reproaches 
of  conscience,  he  appeared  before  the  general  assembly  of  his  sub- 
jects, and  publicly  confessed  that  he  had  been  deeply  criminal  in  con- 
senting to  the  murder  of  Bernard,  and  in  forcing  his  brothers  to  enter 
religious  orders  ;  he  humbly  besought  pardon  from  all  present,  solicited 
the  aid  of  their  prayers,  and  undertook  a  solemn  penance.  This 
strange  scene  rendered  Louis  contemptible  in  the  eyes  of  his  subjects : 
some  doubted  his  sincerity,  others  questioned  his  motives,  but  all 
believed  this  public  coufession  a  needless  sacrifice  of  the  royal 
dignity. 

Louis  chose  for  his  second  wife,  Judith,  the  daughter  of  a  Bavarian 
count.  His  three  sons  were  indignant  at  a  marriage  which  threatened 
to  produce  new  sharers  in  their  inheritance,  but  nearly  four  years 
ftlapsed  without  any  appearance  of  such  an  event.  At  length  the  em- 
press gave  biit/i  to  a  child,  ?i.fter«'ard  known  as  Charles  the  Bald,  who 
was  popularly  said  to  be  the  son  of  her  unworthy  favorite,  Bernard, 
count  of  Barcelona.  Tlie  three  former  sons  of  Louis  not  only  refused 
to  acknowledge  their  new  brother,  but  took  up  arms  to  force  their  fathel 
to  dismiss  his  ministers  and  divorce  his  wife.  After  a  desultory  wai 
Louis  prevailed  over  his  rebelliou.s  children,  but  the  fatigues  of  cam- 
paigning broke  down  his  feeble  constiiution,  and  pui  an  end  to  his  in 
glori.tus  life.     The  seeds  of  discord  were  thickly  sown  during  his  lit'o 


370  MODERN  HISTORV 

they  were  forced  info  maturity  after  his  death  by  his  unwise  distrihuiiini 
of  his  dominions  between  his  three  sons. 

Scarcely  had  Louis  been  laid  in  the  grave,  when  his  sons  Louis  the 
Germanic  and  Charles  the  Bald  took  up  arms  against  their  eldei 
brother  Lothaire,  and  engaged  him  in  a  general  battle  at  Fontenay, 
which  proved  fatal  to  the  flower  of  the  ancient  Frank  nobility  (a.  d. 
841).  After  a  desultory  war,  the  brothers  finally  agreed  on  a  partition 
of  the  empire,  by  which  Lothaire  obtained  Italy,  and  the  eastern  prov- 
inces of  France  ;  Louis  received  his  father's  Germanic  dominions ; 
and  to  Charles  were  assigned  the  provinces  of  France  west  of  the 
Saone  and  the  Rhone,  together  with  the  Spanish  marches  (a.  d.  843). 
Thus  Charles  the  Bald  may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of  the  French 
monarchy  properly  so  caJed,  for  hitherto  the  sovereigns  of  the  Frank? 
were  Germans  in  language,  customs,  country,  and  blood.  It  is  unne 
cessary  to  detail  the  petty  revolutions  in  the  family  of  Charlemagne 
it  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  the  empire  was  momentarily  reunited  unde 
Charles  the  Fat,  younger  son  of  Louis  the  Germanic  (a.  d.  884),  bu 
he  being  deposed  by  his  subjects,  its  dissolution  became  inevitable  ; 
from  its  fragments  were  formed  the  kingdoms  of  Italy,  France,  and 
Germany,  with  the  states  of  Lorraine,  Burgundy,  and  Navarre. 

These  new  states  owed  their  origin  less  to  the  disputes  that  con- 
vulsed the  Carlovingian  family  than  to  the  exorbitant  power  of  the 
nobles,  which  had  been  increasing  rapidly  from  the  death  of  Charle- 
magne. The  titles  of  duke  and  count  were  not  in  that  age  merely 
honorar}' ;  they  conferred  nearly  despotic  sway  over  the  provinces. 
The  great  feudatories  of  the  crown  were  invested,  not  merely  with  the 
administration  of  justice  and  regulation  of  police  in  their  respective 
districts,  but  had  also  the  command  of  the  army  and  the  direction  of 
the  revenue.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  union  of  such  diff*erent  and  im- 
portant departments  of  government  in  a  single  person  must  necessarily 
have  been  dangerous  to  royal  authority,  and  constantly  tempted  ambi- 
tious nobles  to  proclaim  their  independence.  Charlemagne  saw  this 
evil,  and  endeavored  to  abate  the  danger  by  dividing  the  great  dutchies 
mto  several  counties ;  but  in  the  civil  wars  among  his  posterity,  rival 
competitors,  to  secure  the  support  of  powerful  feudatories,  offered  the 
restored  dutchies  as  temptmg  bribes,  and  further  weakened  themselves 
by  alipuating  the  royal  domains  to  secure  the  favor  of  the  church 
Taking  advantage  of  this  impolicy,  the  dukes  and  counts  contrived  lu 
make  their  dignities  hereditary  ;  and  this  dangerous  innovation  was  nol 
only  sanctioned  by  Charles  the  Bald,  but  extended  to  all  fiefs  (a.  n, 
S77),  in  a  parliament  held  at  Chiersi,  toward  the  close  of  his  reign. 
The  principle  of  inheritance,  thus  introduced,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
foundation  of  the  feudal  system,  and  the  source  of  the  calamitous  wars 
between  rival  nobles  which  convulsed  all  central  and  southwestern 
Europe. 

The  Normans,  like  the  Saxons  and  Franks,  were  a  branch  of  the 
great  Teutonic  race ;  but  the  conversion  of  the  latter  to  Christianity 
was  viewed  by  their  brethren  of  the  north  as  an  act  of  treason  against 
■■-.ae  national  religion  of  Germany,  and  their  ii»Jignation  was  still  farther 
exasperated,  by  the  tales  of  wrong  and  sufl^ering  related  by  the  crowds 
o(  idolatrous  Sayons.  who  fled  to  the  isles  of  the  Baltic  from  the  Tierci 


UESTORATION  OF  THE    \T-ESTEKN  EMPIRE  377 

less  persecutions  of  Charlemagne.  The  maritime  Teutones  from  the 
earliest  ages  were  distinguished  by  their  hardihood,  their  ardent  passion 
for  adventure,  and  their  contempt  of  death.  They  navigated  the  dangerous 
seas  of  the  north  with  more  courage  and  freedom,  than  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  exhibited  in  the  Mediterranean  ;  they  did  not  despair  when  they 
lost  sight  of  land  ;  they  did  not  come  to  anchor  when  clouds  obscured  the 
stars.  On  board  every  vessel  there  was  a  cast  of  hawks  or  ravens,  and 
when  the  adventurers  were  uncertain  in  what  direction  the  land  lay,  they 
let  loose  one  of  the  birds,  knowing  that  he  would  make  with  instinctive  sa- 
gacity for  the  nearest  coast,  and  by  his  flight  they  steered  their  course. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  eighth  century  the  Normans  became  formidable 
as  pirates  to  western  Europe  :  they  particularly  infested  the  coast  of  Brit- 
ain, Ireland,  and  France.  Their  leaders  assumed  he  proud  title  of  sea- 
kings,  though  the  limits  of  each  royalty  did  not  extend  beyond  the  deck  of 
•-1  single  vessel,  and  all  superiority  was  at  an  end  when  the  expedition  was 
•^ver.  A  sea-king  had  only  to  annouace  his  intention  of  undertaking  some 
buccaneering  enterprise,  and  he  was  sure  to  find  crowds  of  adventurous 
yoith  ready  to  volunteer  their  services  as  his  associates.  Whither  the 
ad\»^nturous  sea-king  would  steer,  provided  that  there  appeared  a 
reasonable  chance  of  plunder,  was  a  matter  of  perfect  indifference  to 
him  and  his  associates.  They  effected  a  landing  when  least  expected  ; 
no  mercy  was  shown  to  age  or  sex,  the  fate  of  tiiose  who  submitted  or 
resisted  was  alike,  but  the  special  objects  of  their  vengeance  were  the 
clergy  and  the  churches,  because  they  regarded  themselves  as  the 
avengers  of  the  insults  offered  to  Odin,  and  of  the  persecutions  with 
which  Christian  sovereigns  afflicted  their  worshippers  in  their  domin- 
ions. Sir  Walter  Scott  has  drawn  the  character  of  an  ancient  sea-king 
with  so  much  poetic  force  and  historic  truth,  that  the  extract  will  su- 
persede the  necessity  of  further  description. 

"  Count  Witikind  caiue  of  e.  regal  strain, 
And  roved  with  his  Norsemen  the  land  and  the  maiu; 
Wo  to  the  realnis  which  he  coasted !  for  there 
Was  sliedding  of  blood  and  rending  of  hair, 
Rape  of  maiden  anc"  slaughter  of  priest, 
Gathering  of  ravens  and  wolves  to  the  feast ! 
When  he  hoisted  his  standard  black, 
Before  him  was  battle,  behind  him  wrack  : 
And  he  burned  the  churches,  that  heathen  Dane, 
To  light  his  band  to  their  barks  again. 

On  Erin's  shores  was  his  outrage  known. 

The  winds  of  France  had  his  banners  blown  ; 

Little  was  there  to  plunder,  yet  still 

His  pirates  had  forayed  on  Scottish  hill ; 

But  upon  merry  England's  coast. 

More  frequent  he  sailed,  for  he  won  the  most. 

So  far  and  wide  his  ravage  they  knew. 

If  a  sail  but  gleamed  white  'gainst  the  welkin  blue 

Trumpet  and  bugles  to  arms  did  call, 

Burghers  hastened  to  man  the  wall ; 

Peasants  fled  inland  his  fury  to  scape. 

Beacons  were  lishted  on  headland  and  cape ; 

Bells  were  tolled  out,  and  aye  as  they  rung 

Fearful  and  faintly  the  gray  brothers  sung, 

'  Save  us,  St.  Mary,  from  flood  and  from  fire, 

From  famine  and  pest,  and  Count  Witikind's  ire 


^78  MODERN  HISTORr. 

Thierry  has  collected  the  principal  characteristics  c>f  a  sea-king  fi().t< 
the  Icelandic  sagas.  "  He  could  govern  a  vessel  as  the  good  ridei 
manages  his  horse,  running  over  the  oars  while  tney  were  in  motion, 
tie  would  throw  three  javelins  to  the  mast-head  and  catch  them  alter- 
nately in  his  hand  without  once  missing.  Equal  under  such  a  chief, 
supporting  lightly  their  voluntary  submission,  and  the  weight  of  their 
coat-of-mail,  which  they  promised  themselves  would  soon  be  exchanged 
for  an  equal  weight  of  gold,  the  pirates  held  their  course  gayly,  as  theil 
old  songs  express  it,  along  the  track  of  the  swans.  Often  were  their 
fragile  barks  wrecked  and  dispersed  by  the  north  sea-storm,  often  did 
the  rallying  sign  remain  unanswered,  but  this  neither  increased  the 
cares  nor  diminished  the  confidence  of  the  survivors,  who  laughed  at 
the  wind  and  waves  from  which  they  had  escaped  unhurt.  Thejr  sono 
in  the  midst  of  the  tempest  wa  $ : — 

"  The  force  of  the  storm   lelps  the  arms  of  our  rowers, 
The  hurricane  is  carry  ng  us  the  way  which  we  should  go." 

Nearly  all  the  information  which  we  possess  respecting  these  for- 
midable pirates  is  derived  from  the  sagas,  or  songs  of  the  Skalds  ;  these 
singular  compositions  are  unlike  any  other  form  of  literature,  they  are 
records  of  adventure  in  verse  or  measured  prose,  in  which  no  notice  is 
taken  of  historical  events,  and  no  regard  paid  to  chronology. 

The  Skalds,  or  bards,  were  more  honored  by  the  Scandinavians  than 
their  priests  ;  indeed  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  had  any  regular  sacer- 
dotal caste,  or  order.  Some  of  their  heroes  prided  themselves  on  de- 
fying the  gods  themselves  ;  thus  Gauthakor,  when  asked  his  religion, 
by  Olaf  the  saint,  who  was  anxious  to  introduce  Christianity  among  his 
countrymen,  replied :  "  My  brothers  in  arms  and  I  are  neither  Chris- 
tians nor  pagans.  We  have  no  faith  but  in  our  arms,  and  our  strength 
to  vanquish  our  enemies,  and  those  we  have  ever  found  sufficient."  So 
far  was  the  character  of  a  pirate  or  Vikingar  from  being  disgraceful, 
that  it  was  eagerly  sought  by  men  of  the  highest  rank,  and  was.  only 
accorded  to  those  who  had  given  distinguished  proofs  both  of  theii 
bravery  in  battle  and  their  skill  in  navigation.  An  ancient  law  enacted, 
that  a  man  in  order  to  acquire  glory  for  bravery,  should  attack  a  single 
enemy,  defend  himself  against  two,  and  not  yield  to  three,  but  that  he 
might  without  disgrace  fly  from  four. 

Every  king,  whether  of  sea  or  land,  had  a  chosen  band  of  champions, 
called  Kempe  ;  warriors  pledged  to  the  personal  service  of  their  chief, 
and  whose  only  hope  of  advancement  arose  from  the  performance  of 
some  exploit,  which  common  fame,  and  the  songs  of  the  Skalds,  might 
spread  over  the  north. 

Each  sea-king  laid  down  the  rules  for  the  government  of  his  own 
champions,  and  fame  was  assigned  to  him  whose  regulations  were  the 
most  strict  and  rigorous.  Thus  we  are  told,  that  Half,  and  Hiorolf,  the 
pons  of  a  Norwegian  king,  both  devoted  themselves  to  maritime  adven- 
ture, or,  in  plain  terms,  to  piracy. 

Hiorolf  collected  a  great  number  for  ships,  which  he  manned  with 
rolunteers  of  every  kind  both  of  serfs  and  freemen  ;  he  was  defeated  m 
all  his  expeditions.  On  the  other  hand  his  brother  Half  had  only  one 
ship,  but  his  crew  were  all  picked  men.      They  were  at  first  bvit  twentv 


RESTORATION  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  379 

three  in  number,  all  descended  from  kings  ;  tlie  troop  was  subsequently 
increased  to  sixty. 

To  obtain  admission  into  the  company,  it  was  necessary  that  the 
champion  should  lift  up  a  large  stone  Avhich  lay  in  the  front  of  Haifa 
residence,  and  which  could  not  be  moved  by  ihe  force  of  twelve  or- 
dinary men.  These  champions  w^ere  forbidden  to  take  women  and 
children,  to  seek  a  refuge  during  a  tempest,  or  to  dress  their  wounds 
before  the  battle  was  ended.  Eighteen  years  Half's  band  carried  ter- 
ror 10  all  the  shores  of  western  Europe.  Finally,  when  the  sea-king 
was  returning  to  enjoy  the  wealth  he  had  acquired,  his  vessel,  over- 
laden with  plunder,  appeared  on  the  point  of  sinking  within  sight  of  the 
Norwegian  shore.  The  brave  crew  immediately  drew  lots  to  deter- 
mine wdio  should  throw  themselves  into  the  sea,  for  the  purpose  of 
saving  their  chief  and  the  cargo  ;  those  on  whom  the  lot  fell,  instantly 
jumped  overboard  and  swam  to  shore,  while  the  vessel  relieved  of  the 
w^eight  reached  the  harbor  in  safety. 

Sometimes  these  warriors,  like  the  Malays  in  Java,  were  seized  with 
a  kind  of  phrensy,  either  arising  from  an  excited  imagination,  or  from  the 
use  of  stimulating  liquors.  In  this  state  they  were  called  "  berserker,^' 
a  word  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  sagas.  While  under  the  influence 
of  this  madness,  the  champions  committed  the  wildest  extravagances  ; 
they  danced  about,  foamed  at  the  mouth,  struck  indiscriminately  at 
friends  and  foes,  destroyed  their  own  property,  and  like  the  mad  Orlando 
waged  war  against  inanimate  nature,  tearing  up  rocks  and  trees. 
Sivald,  king  of  Sweden,  had  five  sons,  all  of  whom  became  berserker ; 
when  the  lit  was  on  them  they  used  to  swallow  burning  coals  and  throw 
,  themselves  into  the  fire.  They  and  their  father  were  slain  by  Halfdan, 
whom  Sivald  had  previously  dethroned,  the  nation  having  become  im- 
patient of  the  extravagances  of  the  frantic  princes.  Halfdan  had  a 
contest  with  another  berserker,  named  Hartben,  who  came  to  attack 
him  accompanied  by  twelve  champions.  Hartben  w^as  a  formidable 
pirate,  but  when  the  fit  was  on  him  it  was  as  much  as  his  twelve  com- 
panion.s  could  do  to  prevent  him  devastating  everything  around  him. 
Halfdan  challenged  the  pirate  and  his  entire  crew.  Such  an  insult  so 
inflamed  Hartben,  that  he  Avas  immediately  seized  with  a  fit'of  phrensy 
during  which  he  killed  six  of  his  companions  ;  he  rushed  against  the 
king  with  the  remaining  six,  but  the  pirates  were  slain,  by  the  irresist- 
ible blows  of  the  mace  of  Halfdan. 

The  sons  of  Arngrim,  king  of  Helegoland,  the  most  celebrated  pirates 
of  their  age,  are  described  as  suffering  severely  from  the  berserk  mad- 
ness ;  when  under  its  influence  they  slaughtered  their  crews  and  de- 
r;troyed  their  shipping:  sometimes  they  landed  on  desert  places  and 
vented  their  fury  on  the  stocks  and  stones.  After  the  fit  was  over  they 
ay  quite  senseless  from  sheer  exhaustion. 

A  sea-king  rarely  condescended  to  the  blandishments  of  courtship. 
If  he  heard  of  any  noble  or  royal  damsel  celebrated  for  beauty,  he  a< 
once  demanded  her  from  her  father,  and  if  refused,  equipped  a  vessel 
lo  take  her  away  by  force.  He  generally  brought  away,  if  success- 
•iil,  her  dowry  at  the  same  time,  and  thus  could  boast  of  a  double 
victory. 

A  Swedi.sh  pirate  named  Gunnar,  having  heard  the  Skalds  celebrat*.- 


380  MODERN  HISTOR?. 

tlie  charms  of  xMoalda,  a  Norwegian  princess,  B:nt  to  her  father  Reg 
aald  a  peremptory  demand  for  the  fair  lady's  hand.  Regnald  rejected 
Buch  a  suitor  with  scorn  but  aware  of  the  consequences  of  a  refusal, 
he  made  instant  preparations  for  defence.  Before  marching  againsl 
the  pirates,  he  had  a  cavern  hollowed  out  in  the  mountains,  within 
which  he  concealed  the  princess  and  his  choicest  treasures,  leaving  hei 
H  proper  supply  of  provisions.  Scarcely  were  his  arrangements  com- 
pleted than  the  fierce  Gunnar  appeared  off  the  coast ;  Regnald  met  the 
pirates  on  the  shore,  a  desperate  battle  ensued,  and  the  king  was  slain. 
After  his  victory  Gunnar  sought  out  the  place  where  Moalda  was  con- 
cealed, and  carried  away  the  princess  with  her  treasures  to  Sweden. 
A  second  and  a  third  conquest  of  this  kind  often  followed  the  first,  for 
polygamy  was  sufficiently  common  among  these  adventurers.  The 
ladies  themseh^es  could  not  view  with  indifference  heroes  who  risked 
their  lives  to  obtain  their  hands,  and  whose  exploits,' immortalized  by 
the  Skalds,  were  sung  in  all  the  islands  and  in  all  families. 

France  suffered  most  severely  from  their  hostilities  ;  their  light  barks 
ascended  the  Seine,  the  Loire,  the  Garonne,  and  the  Rhone,  carrying 
fire  and  sword  into  the  very  centre  of  the  kingdom.  Most  of  the  prin- 
cipal cities  were  laid  waste  ;  Paris  itself  was  thrice  taken  andpniaged  ; 
and  the  French,  at  length  losing  all  courage,  refused  to  meet  the  north- 
ern M'arriors  in  the  field,  but  purchased  their  retreat  with  large  bribes. 
This  remedy  was  necessarily  as  inefficacious  as  it  was  disgraceful,  for 
it  stimulated  the  bar^^^rians  to  fresh  incursions  in  the  assured  hope  of 
gain.  Nor  were  the  Normans  regardless  of  permanent  conquests  ; 
Ruric,  a  leader  of  their  adventurous  bands,  founded  the  Russian  mon- 
archy toward  the  close  of  the  ninth  century ;  Iceland  was  colonized, 
and  the  greater  part  of  Ireland  subdued,  at  a  still  earlier  period ;  and 
the  northern  and  western  islands  of  Scotland  were  successively  occu- 
pied as  convenient  stations  for  their  piratical  navies.  Finally,  they  ob- 
tained fixed  establishments  in  France  ;  the  province  of  Neustria,  now 
called  Normandy,  was  ceded  to  Rolf  or  Rollo,  the  chief  of  a  large  horde 
of  these  northern  pirates,  by  Charles  the  Simple  (a.  d.  912)  ;  the  prov- 
ince gained  great  advantages  by  the  exchange,  for  Rollo  becoming  a 
Christian,  was  baptized  by  the  name  of  Robert,  and  applied  himself 
with  equeal  diligence  and  success  ti^  improve  the  condition  of  his  new 
subjects. 

Charles  also  ceded  to  Rollo  all  the  pretensions  of  the  crown  to  that 
part  of  Brittany  which  no  longer  recognised  the  sovereignty  of  the  kings 
oi'  France,  and  Rollo  came  to  the  borders  of  his  new  province  to  per- 
form liege  homage  and  confirm  the  articles  of  peace.  The  Norman 
Bwore  allegiance  to  Charles,  who  in  return  presented  his  daughter  to 
the  adventurer,  and  gave  him  the  investiture  of  Neustria.  The  French 
prelates,  who  assumed  the  regulation  of  the  ceremonials  employed  on 
all  solemn  occasions,  had  introduced  the  degrading  prostrations  of  the 
Orientals  into  the  forms  of  European  homage ;  they  now  informed 
Rollo  that  after  receiving  a  gift  of  so  much  value,  he  should  on  hi.s 
bended  knees  kiss  the  feet  of  the  king.  "  Never,"  replied  the  haughty 
barbarian,  "  will  I  bend  my  knees  before  another  mortal — never  will  I 
kiss  the  foot  of  man."  As  the  prelates,  however,  were  urgent,  he  or 
dercd  one  of  his  soldiers  to  perform  the  ceremony  in  his  stead      The 


RESTORAriON  OF  THE  WESTERN  EMPIRE.  '■^^^ 

•Jijldier  advancing,  rudely  seized  the  foot  of  Charles,  and  by  a  s  idden 
jerk  threw  the 'monarch  on  the  ground.  The  Normans  who  witnessed 
aie  transaction,  applauded  their  comrade's  insolence,  while  the  French 
nobles  deemed  it  prudent  to  conceal  their  indignation.  The  ceremony 
was  continued  as  if  nothing  had  happened  ;  the  several  Norman  lord;^ 
took  the  usual  oaths  of  allegiance,  after  which  the  king  returned  to  Laon. 
He  had  chosen  this  city  for  his  capital,  because  Paris  was  included  in 
the  fief  of  one  of  the  great  vassals  of  the  crown. 

The  establishment  of  the  Normans  in  Neustria  put  an  end  to  the  sys- 
tem of  piracy  and  plunder  which  for  more  than  a  century  had  devasta- 
ted western  Europe  ;  the  repetition  of  pillage  had  so  wasted  Germany, 
Gaul,  and  Britain,  that  the  plunder  to  be  acquired  no  longer  repaid  the 
hazards  of  an  expedition,  and  as  war  was  no  longer  profital^le,  RoUo 
resolved  to  cultivate  the  artp  of  peace.  To  prevent  the  future  iucur- 
bions  of  his  countrymen,  he  fortified  the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  restored 
the  walls  of  the  cities,  and  kept  his  subjects  in  constant  military  train- 
ing. Under  Rollo  the  feudal  system,  which  had  been  slowly  funning, 
received  its  full  development ;  immediately  after  his  baptism,  he  divi. 
ded  the  lands  of  Neustria  among  his  principal  followers,  to  '^ach  of 
whom  he  gave  the  title  of  count,  and  these  counts  subdivided  the  land 
among  their  soldiers.  The  Normans  displayed  the  same  ardor  .n  cul- 
tivating their  new  estates  which  thev  had  formerly  shown  in  devasta- 
ting them  ;  the  peasants  resumed  Jie  cultivation  of  their  fields  ;  the 
priests  restored  their  ruined  churches  ;  the  citizens  resumed  their 
trading  occupations  ;  strangers  v/ere  invited  from  every  country  to  cul- 
tivate the  waste  lands  :  and. the  most  rigorous  laws  were  enacted  for 
the  protection  of  person  and  property.  Robberies  were  so  efficiently 
checked,  that  Rollo,  as  a  bravado,  hung  up  a  golden  bracelet  in  a  forest 
near  the  Seine,  which  remained  untouched  for  three  years. 

While  the  Normans  devastated  the  coasts,  central  Europe  was  devas- 
tated by  the  Hungarians,  or,  as  they  called  themselves,  the  Magyars, 
who  extended  their  ravages  into  Greece  and  Italy.  Germany  sullered 
most  from  their  hostilities,  and  was  the  longest  exposed  to  their  fury. 
These  incursions,  to  which  must  be  added  occasional  euterin-isea  ol  the 
Sclavonians  and  S^'-acens,  destroyed  the  political  institutions  that 
Charlemagne  had  formed,  and  threw  Christendom  back  into  tlie  barbar- 
ism from  which  it  had  just  begun  to  emerge.  England,  under  the  gov- 
ernment of  Alfred,  for  a  brief  space  preserved  the"~^elements  of  civiliza- 
tior  •  he  expelled  the  Normans  from  tlie  island  (a.  d.  887),  rtjsiored 
the  ancient  seminaries  of  learning,  and  founded  new  schools.  Ihil  his 
glorious  reign  was  followed  by  fresh  calamities;  the  Danish-Nc -mans 
reappeared  m  England,  and  spread  trouble  and  desulaliou  ihroughout 
the  country. 

From  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald,  the  royal  authority  ra|>idly  de- 
clined in  France,  while  the  power  oi'  the  feudal  lords  constantly  in- 
creased. The  dukes  and  counts,  usurping  regal  rights,  raised,  on  tlie 
slightest,  or  without  any  provocation,  tiie  standard  ol'  revolt  :  the  kings, 
to  gain  some,  and  secure  the  allegiance  of  others,  abandoned  to  tliein 
successively  the  most  '-dluable  royal  domains  and  privileges,  until  the 
Carlovingian  monarchs  so  far  from  being  able  to  counterbalance  the 
power  ot  the  nooiJity,  were  unable  lo  support  the  expenses  of  tiieir  dv-x 


382  MODERN  HISTORY. 

courts  A  cliange  of  dynasty  was  thus  rendered  inevitable,  and  tfic 
throne  was  certain  to  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  most  powerful  or  most  daring 
of  the  nominal  vassals.  This  event,  which  had  been  long  foreseen, 
look  place  on  the  death  of  Louis  the  Sluggard,  the  last  of  the  Carlovin- 
gian  dynasty,  who  died  without  issue  at  the  early  age  of  twenty 
(a.  d,  987).  Hugh  Capet  possessed  already  the  centre  of  the  king- 
dom ;  he  was  count  of  Paris,  duke  of  France  and  Neustria,  while  his 
brother  Henry  held  the  dutchy  of  Burgundy.  It  was  not  difficult  for  so 
powerful  a  noble  to  form  a  party,  by  whose  favor  he  was  invested  with 
the  title,  after  having  long  enjoyed  the  power  of  royalty  (a.  d.  987). 
Charles  of  Lorrame,  the  late  king's  uncle,  took  up  arms  in  defence  of 
his  hereditary  rights  ;  but  he  was  betrayed  to  his  rival  by  the  bishop 
of  Laon,  and  ended  his  days  in  prison.  Hugh  became  the  founder  of 
the  Capetian  dynasty  in  France,  a  branch  of  which  still  retains  posses- 
sion of  that  crown.  But  for  many  years  after  the  accession  of  Hugh 
Capet,  France  was  an  aristocratic  republic  rather  than  a  monarchy,  for 
the  royal  authority  was  merely  nominal.  The  domains  of  the  count  of 
Paris  were  indeed  annexed  to  the  crown,  and  thus  the  Capeuans  had 
greater  territorial  possessions,  and  consequently  greater  influence,  than 
the  Carlovingians.  But  the  peers  of  France,  as  the  great  feudatories 
were  called,  still  preserved  their  independence  :  and  their  tacit  assent 
to  Hugh's  usurpation  was  anything  rather  than  a  recognition  of  his  au- 
thority. In  the  south  of  France,  Languedoc,  no  notice  was  taken  of 
Hugh's  elevation  ;  and  the  inhabitants  for  many  years  dated  their  public 
acts  by  the  nominal  reigns  of  the  children  of  Charles  of  Lorraine. 

Sectiox  III. —  The  Foundation  of  Lhe  Germanic  Empire. 

From  the  first  foundation  of  the  Germanic  empire  by  the  treaty  of 
Verdun,  the  royal  authority  was  extremely  limited,  and  Louis,  its  mon- 
arch, was  obliged  to  swear  in  a  national  assembly,  held  at  Marone 
(a.  d.  Sol),  that  "  he  would  maintain  the  states  in  all  their  rights  and 
privileges."  His  youngest  son,  Charles  the  Fat,  was  deposed  by  his 
subjects  ;  and  Arnold,  the  natural  son  of  Prince  Carloman,  was  elected 
to  the  vacant  tlirone.  The  custom  of  electing  emperors  was  thus  es- 
tablished in  Germa'^y,  and  it  continued  almost  to  our  own  times.  Ar- 
nold was  succeeded  bv  his  son  Louis ;  the  states  chose  Conrad,  ^uke 
of  Franconia,  as  his  successor,  to  the  exclusion  of  Charles  the  Simple, 
king  of  France,  the  legitimate  heir  male  of  the  Carlovingians.  On  the 
death  of  Conrad,  the  states  elected  Henry,  surnamed  the  Fowler,  as 
his  successor  (a.  d.  919),  the  first  of  the  Saxon  dynasty  of  kings  and 
emperors. 

llenrjM.,  by  his  civil  and  military  institutions,  raised  Germany  to 
the  highest  rank  among  ..he  states  of  Europe.  Profiting  by  the  intes- 
tine commotions  of  France,  he  conquered  the  province  of  Lorraine 
which  he  divided  into  two  dutchies,  that  of  Upper  Lorraine,  or  the 
Moselle,  and  that  of  Lower  Lorraine,  or  Brabant.  The  former  retained 
the  name  of  Lorraine  ;  it  w.s  lona  governed  by  the  family  of  Gerard, 
duke  of  Alsace,  whose  descendants  obtained  the  Germanic  empire  ir. 
the  eighteenth  century.  Brabant  was  assigned  to  Godfrey,  count  of 
Louvnin.  whose  iescendants  retamed  it,  with  the  title  of  duke,  until,  or 


RESTORATION  OF  THE  WESTER^    EMPIRE.  383 

he  failure  of  male  heirs,  it  passed  by  marriage  into  the  hands  of  the 
dukes  of  Burgundy,  who  thus  found  means  to  render  themselves  masters 
of  a  great  portion  of  the  Netherlands.  Henry  successfully  repelled  the 
im'^asions  of  the  Sclavonians  and  Hungarians  ;  by  the  defeat  of  the 
latter  he  freed  the  Germans  from  the  disgraceful  tribute  with  which 
they  had  been  compelled  to  purchase  the  forbearance  of  these  barbari- 
ans, and  the  memory  of  his  victory  was  annually  commemorated  by  a 
grateful  people  for  several  succeeding  centuries. 

The  great  merits  of  Henry  secured  the  election  of  his  son  Otho  to 
the  Germanic  throne.  His  reign  Avas  disturbed  by  frequent  revolts  of 
the  powerful  feudatories  ;  their  faction  and  insubordination  effectually 
prevented  him  from  giving  his  subjects  a  code  of  laws,  the  great  object 
of  his  ambition  ;  he  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  turbulent  spirit  of  the 
times,  and  leave  some  more  fortunate  sovereign  to  gather  the  laurels  of 
a  legislator.  One' incident  will  serve  to  mark  the  character  of  the  age 
better  than  any  labored  dissertation.  During  one  of  the  national  as- 
semblies or  diets,  it  was  debated  "  whether  children  could  inherit  the 
property  of  their  fathers  during  the  lifetime  of  iheir  grandfathers.'' 
After  a  long  discussion,  in  which  the  point  became  more  obscure  than 
«ver,  it  was  gravely  resolved  to  leave  the  matter  to  the  decision  of  a 
duel.  An  equal  number  of  combatants,  chosen  on  both  sides,  entered 
the  lists  ;  the  champions  of  the  children  prevailed,  and  thenceforward 
the  law  of  inheritance  was  considered  to  be  fixed. 

Italy  had  been  raised  into  a  kingdom  after  the  partition  of  the  Carlo- 
vingian  dynasty,  and  several  of  its  princes  had  taken  tlie  imperial  title  ; 
but  the  government  of  these  feeble  rulers  exposed  the  peninsula  to 
dreadful  calamities  ;  it  was  harassed  by  the  private  wars  of  the  nobles, 
and  devastated  by  invasions  of  the  Hungarians  and  Saracens.  Ade- 
laide, the  widow  of  Lothaire,  king  of  Italy,  menaced  with  the  loss  of 
her  dominions  by  Berenger,  or  Berengarius  the  Younger,  supplicated 
the  aid  of  Otho,  and  her  request  was  strenuously  supported  by  Pope 
John  XII.  (a.  d.  951).  Otho  passed  into  Italy,  conquered  several  of 
the  strongest  cities,  and  gave  his  hand  in  marriage  to  the  queen  whom 
he  had  come  to  protect.  -Berenger  was  permitted  to  retain  the  crown 
of  I".aly  on  condition  of  doing  homage  to  Otho  ;  but  the  tyranny  and 
faithlessness  of  this  prince  excited  such  commotions,  that  the  German 
sovereign  was  once  more  summoned  to  cross  the  Alps  by  the  united 
entreaties  of  the  Italian  princes  and  prelates.  Otlip  entered  Italy  at  the 
head  of  an  army  which  his  rival  could  not  resist  ;  he  marched  directly 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  received  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm  (a.  d 
962).  The  pope  revived  in  his  favor  the  imperial  title,  which  had  been 
thitty-eight  years  in  abeyance,  proclaimed  him  Augustus,  crowned  him 
emperor  of  the  Romans,  and  acknowledged  him  Supreme  Head  of  the 
Church.  But  the  pontiff's  gratitude  was  not  of  long  duration  ;  enraged 
by  the  emperor's  remonstrances  against  his  vicious  courses,  he  took 
advantage  of  Otho's  absence  in  pursiut  of  Berenger  to  enter  into  alliance 
with  Adelbert,  the  son  of  his  ancient  enemy,  to  form  a  secret  league  for 
the  expulsion  of  the  Germans  from  Italy. 

Otho  heard  the  intelligence  of  John's  treachery  with  great  indigna- 
tion ;  he  returned  to  Rome,  held  a  council,  in  which  the  pope  was 
iccused  of  the   most   scandalous   immoralitios.  nud   on   his    refui-al    tc 


384  MODERN  HISTORY. 

appear,  he  was  condemned  as  contumacious,  deposed,  and  a  new  poi.- 
tiff,  Leo  VIII.,  elected  in  his  stead.  All  Italy,  as  far  as  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  the  Lombards  extended,  t,hus  fell  under  the  sway  of  tlip 
Germans  ;  there  were  only  some  maritime  places  in  Lower  Italy  which, 
with  Apulia  and  Calabria,  still  remained  subject  to  the  Greeks.  Otho 
transmitted  this  kingdom,  with  the  imperial  dignity,  to  his  successors 
on  the  German  throne  ;  but  from  his  reign  to  that  of  Maximilian  I.,  no 
prince  took  the  title  of  emperor  until  he  had  been  consecrated  by 
the  pope.  Maximilian  designated  himself  "  Emperor  Elect"  (a.  d. 
1508),  and  his  example  was  followed  by  his  successors  dow/i  to  oui 
times. 

Otho  I.  died  after  a  prosperous  reign  (a.  d.  975),  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Otho  II.  His  reign  was  occupied  in  sanguinary  wars, 
which  harassed  Germany  and  Italy.  Otho  having  married  the  Greek 
princess  Theophania, claimed  the  provinces  of  Apulia  and  Calabria  as 
her  dowry.  After  a  tedious  struggle,  the  emperor  was  mortally  wound- 
ed by  a  poisoned  javelin  in  a  battle  with  the  Greeks  (a.  d.  983).  His 
death  is  said  to  have  been  accelerated  by  indignation  at  the  joy  which 
Theophania  showed  for  the  victory  of  her  countrymen,  though  it  was 
obtained  over  her  own  husband. 

Otho  HI.,  when  elected  successor  to  his  father,  was  only  twelve 
years  of  asfe  ;  ambitious  rivals  prepared  to  dispute  his  title,  but  the 
affection  of  the  Germans  for  his  family  enabled  him  to  triumph  over  all 
opposition.  His  authority  was  more  fiercely  questioned  in  Italy,  where 
Crescentius.  an  ambitious  noble,  became  such  a  favorite  with  the  Roman 
Dopulace,  that  he  deposed  Pope  Gregory,  and  gave  the  pontifical  digni- 
y  to  John  XVI.  Otho  hastened  to  Italy,  captured  Rome,  and  put  both 
Crescentius  and  John  to  death.  These  severities  did  not  quell  the  tur- 
bulence of  the  Italians  ;  fresh  insurrections  soon  compelled  the  empe- 
ror to  return  to  the  peninsula,  where  he  was  poisoned  by  the  widow  of 
Crescentius,  whom  he  had  seduced  under  a  promise  of  marriage  (a.  d. 
1002).     He  died  without  issue. 

After  some  competition,  the  electors  chose  Henry,  duke  of  Bavaria, 
descended  from  the  Othos  in  the  female  line,  emperor  of  the  West. 
His  reign  was  disturbed  by  repeated  insurrections,  both  in  Germany 
and  Italy  ;  he  succeeded  in  quelling  them,  but  was  so  wearied  by  these 
repeated  troubles,  that  he  seriously  designed  to  abdicate  and  retire  into 
a  monastery.  The  clergy  took  advantage  of  his  piety  and  liberality  to 
extort  from  him  several  rich  donations,  which  proved,  in  an  after  age, 
the  cause  of  much  evil.  His  death  (a.  d.  1024)  put  an  end  to  the  Sax- 
on d}Tiasty. 

Conrad  II.,  duke  of  Franconia,  being  chosen  by  the  electors,  united 
the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  or,  as  it  was  called,  Aries,  to  the  empire. 
But  this  was  an  acquisition  of  little  real  value ;  the  great  vassals  of  the 
kingdom,  the  counts  and  bishops,  preserved  the  authority  they  had 
usurped  in  their  respective  districts,  leaving  the  emperors  a  merely 
nominal  sovereignty.  It  is  even  probable  that  the  high  authority  pos- 
sessed by  the  Burgundian  lords,  induced  the  German  nobles  to  arrogate 
to  themselves  the  same  prerogatives.  The  power  of  the  clergy  was  in- 
creasing even  more  rapidly  than  that  of  the  nobles,  for  they  extorted 
freHh  privileges  and  grants  from  everj^  successive  sovereign  ;  Conrad. 


RESTORATION  OF  THE   WESTERN  EMPIRE.  385 

ft-lio  was  naturally  of  a  generous  disposition,*  impoverished  tht  stdte  by 
imitating  the  unwise  liberality  of  his  predecessors.  Italy,  during  this 
reign  and  that  of  Conrad's  son  and  successor,  Henry  III.,  continued  to 
be  distracted  by  rival  factions  ;  but  Henry  was  an  energeiic  supporter 
Lif  the  imperial  authority ;  he  deposed  three  rival  popes,  who  claimed 
succession  to  St.  Peter  at  the  same  time,  and  gave  the  pontifical  chai: 
to  a  German  prelate,  Clement  II.  He  even  exacted  an  oath  from  the 
Romans,  diat  they  would  never  elect  a  pope  without  having  previously 
received  the  imperial  sanction.  The  imperial  pov  er,  wielded  by  an 
energetic  monarch  like  Henry,  was  still  formidable,  bui,  its  resources 
were  exhausted  ;  and  when  a  feebler  sovereign  attempted  to  exercise 
the  Lway  over  the  church  which  his  father  had  held,  he  fotmd  the  papacy 
stronger  than  the  empire. 

The  great  struggle  between  the  papal  and  imperial  power  began  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  whose  long  minority,  for  he  succeeded  his 
lather  when  only  five  years  old,  necessarily  weakened  tae  influence  of 
the  sovereign.  On  the  other  hand,  the  circumstances  ot  Europe,  at  this 
crisis,  were  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  policy  of  the  popes.  The  Saxon 
line,  restored  in  England  by  Edward  the  Confessoi,  haa  lost  its  nation- 
ality :  Edward  conferred  the  chief  ecclesiastical  dignities  of  his  king- 
dom on  foreigners,  or  persons  remarkable  for  their  foreign  attachments  : 
and  thus  those  who  wielded  the  power  of  the  church  in  me  island,  were 
more  like  missionaries,  laboring  for  the  benefit  of  a  uistant  see,  than 
clergymen,  attentive  only  to  their  flocks.  In  Spain,  the  new  provinces 
wrested  from  the  Moors,  when  the  unity  of  their  empire  was  destroyed 
by  the  subversion  of  the  Ommiade  khaliphs,  became  closely  attached 
to  the  Roman  see.  The  spread  of  Christianity  in  bjorway,  Poland, 
Russia,  and  the  other  northern  states,  gave  additional  vigor  to  the  papal 
power ;  lor  the  Northerns,  with  all  the  zeal  of  new  converts,  became 
eager  to  prove  their  sincerity  by  some  enterprise  in  support  of  the  pon- 
tiff, whom  they  regarded  as  the  great  director  of  their  faith. 

But  the  most  potent  allies  obtained  by  the  church  were  the  Normans 
of  England  and  Italy.  William,  the  natural  son  of  Robert,  duke  of 
Normandy,  had  been  nominated  heir  of  the  English  throne  by  Edward 
he  Confessor,  who  had  no  right  to  make  any  such  appointment.  Har- 
old, the  son  of  Godwin,  earl  of  Kent,  was  the  favorite  of  the  English 
people,  and  't  was  generally  known  that  he  would  be  elected  to  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  the  confessor.  Unfortunately  Harold's  brother 
was  detained  as  a  hostage  in  Normandy,  and  in  spite  of  the  warnings 
of  King  Edward,  he  crossed  the  sea  in  order  to  obtain  his  deliverance. 
The  vessel  in  which  the  Saxon  chief  crossed  the  channel  was  wrecked 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Somme,  and,  according  to  the  barbarous  custom 
of  the  age,  the  court  of  Ponthieu  seized  upon  the  shipwrecked  strangers, 
and  threw  them  into  prison,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  large  ransom. 
Harold  and  his  companions  appealed  to  Duke  William,  who  procured 
their  liberation,  and  invited  them  to  his  court.  A  grand  council  of  the 
Norman  prelates  and  nobles  was  then  convoked,  in  whose  presence 

•  Many  remarkable  anecdotes  are  related  of  Conrad's  sjenerosily  ;  onedescvej 
to  be  recorded.  A  gentleman  bavin?  lost  his  leg  in  the  imperial  service,  Conrad 
ordered  tha",  his  boot  should  be  filled  with  gold  coins,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  hir 
cire. 

25 


386 


MODERN  HISTOKY. 


William  required  Ilurokl  to  swear  that  he  would  support  with  aJl  liis 
might  William's  succession  to  the  crown  of  England,  so  soon  as  a  va- 
cancy should  be  created  by  the  death  of  Edward.  Harold'?  life  was  in 
the  duke's  power,  and  he  consented  to  take  the  oath,  secretly  resolving 
to  violate  its  obligations.  But  an  artifice  was  employed,  which,  in  that 
superstitious  age,  was  supposed  to  give  the  oath  such  sanctity  as  to  ren- 
der its  violation  an  inexpiable  crime.  By  the  duke's  orders,  a  cliea 
was  secretly  conveyed  into  the  place  of  meeting,  filled  with  the  bonee 
and  relics  of  the  saints  most  honored  in  the  surrounding  country,  and 
covered  with  a  cloth  of  gold.  A  missal  was  laid  upon  the  cloth,  and 
at  William's  summons  Harold  cam.e  forward  and  took  the  required  oath^ 
the  whole  assembly  joining  in  the  imprecation,  "  So  help  you  God,  at 
his  holy  doom."  AVhen  the  ceremony  was  concluded,  the  cloth  of  gold 
was  removed,  and  Harold  shuddered  with  superstitious  horror  when  he 
found  that  his  oath  had  been  taken  on  the  relics  of  saints  c.nd  martyrs. 

On  Edward's  death,  Harold,  notwithstanding  his  oath,  allowed  him- 
self to  be  elected  king  by  the  English  nobles  and  people  ;  but  the  papal 
clergy  refused  to  recognise  his  title,  the  pope  issued  a  bull  excommuni- 
cating Harold  and  his  adherents,  ^vhich  he  sent  to  Duke  William, 
accompanied  by  a  consecrated  banner,  and  a  ring,  said  to  have  con- 
tained one  of  St.  Peter's  hairs,  set  under  a  valuable  diamond.  Thus 
supported  by  the  superstitious  feelings  of  the  period,  William  found 
no  difficulty  in  levying  a  numerous  army,  with  which  he  passed  ovei 
into  England.  The  fate  of  the  kingdom  was  decided  by  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  in  which  Harold  and  his  bravest  soldiers  fell.  William  found 
little  difficulty  in  completing  the  conquest  of  England,  into  which  he 
introduced  the  inheritance  of  fiefs,  and  the  severities  of  the  feudal  law. 
He  deprived  the  native  English  nobles  of  their  estates,  which  he  shared 
umong  his  own  needy  and  rapacious  followers,  and  he  treated  his  new 
subjects  with  more  than  the  cruelty  that  barbarous  conquerors  usually 
display  toward  the  vanquished. 

About  the  same  time,  some  Norman  adventurers  laid  the  foundation 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  in  southern  Europe.  The  prov- 
inces that  compose  it  were  shared  among  the  Lombard  feudatories 
of  the  empire,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Saracens,  who  harassed  each  other 
with  mutual  wars.  About  a  hundred  Normans  landing  on  the  coast 
(a.  d.  1016),  offered  their  services  to  the  Lombard  princes,  and  dis- 
plajea  so  much  valor,  that  they  obtained  from  the  duke  of  Naples  a 
grant  of  territory,  where  they  built  the  city  of  A  versa.  Encouraged  by 
their  success,  Tancred,  with  another  body  of  Norman  adventurers,  un- 
dertook the  conquest  of  Apulia,  which  was  completed  by  his  son,  Rober* 
Guiscard.  This  warrior  subdued  Calabria  also,  and  took  the  title  of 
duke  of  both  provinces.  To  secure  his  possessions,  he  entered  into 
alliance  with  the  pope,  securing  to  the  pontiff  homage,  and  an  annual 
tribute,  on  condition  of  receiving  in"estiture.  Nicholas  H.,  who  theii 
fdled  the  chair  of  St.  Peter,  willingly  ratified  a  treaty  by  which  the 
papacy  gained  important  advantages,  at  the  price  of  un  jm^)ty  title  ;  he 
BlinrJated  Guiscard  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Sicily  also,  an  enter- 
prise in  which  that  adventurer  comple'ely  succeeded.  Thus,  at  the 
moment  that  the  papacy  was  about  to  struggle  for  power  with  the  em 
pire   the  former  had  been  strengthened   by  the  accession  of  powerful 


ilESTORATION    OP  THE    WESTERN   EMPIRE.  387 

allies  and  vassals,  while  the  latter  had  given  away  the  greater  part  of 
its  strength  by  the  alienation  of  its  domains,  to  gratify  the  church,  or  to 
win  the  favor  of  feudatories  wliose  influence  was  already  formidable. 

SectjON  IV. — State  of  the  East  from  the  Estahlishmeni  to  the  Overthrow  of 

the  Khaliphate. 

The  history  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  ni  the  ninth,  tenth,  and  elev- 
enth centuries,  is  little  better  than  a  tissue  of  usurpation,  fanaticism,  and 
perfidy.  "  Externally  surrounded  by  foes,  superior  in  numbers,  in  dis- 
cipline, and  in  valor,  it  seemed  as  if  i.s  safety  was  guarantied  by  cow- 
ardice, and  its  security  confirmed  by  defeat.  Internally  were  at  work 
all  the  causes  that  usually  effect  the  destruction  of  states  :  dishonor  and 
profligacy  triumphant  in  the  palace  ;  ferocious  bigotry,  based  at  once  on 
enthusiasm  and  hypocrisy,  ruling  the  church  ;  civil  dissensions,  equally 
senseless  and  bloody,  distracting  the  state ;  complete  demoralization 
pervading  every  rank,  from  the  court  to  the  cottage ;  so  that  its  exist- 
ence seemed  owing  to  the  antagonising  effect  of  the  causes  that  singly 
produce  the  ruin  of  empires."  In  the  tenth  century  these  causes  seemed 
to  have  reached  their  consummation  ;  emperor  after  emperor  perished 
by  poison,  or  the  dagger  of  the  assassin ;  parricide  and  fratricide  were 
crimes  of  such  ordinary  occurrence,  that  they  ceased  to  excite  feelings 
of  horror  or  disgust.  Theological  disputes,  about  questions  that  pass 
the  limits  of  human  knowledge,  and  a  jealous  rivalry  between  the  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  and  the  pope  of  Rome,  produced  a  division  be- 
tween the  eastern  and  western  churches,  which  the  disputes  respecting 
the  Bulgarians  aggravated  into  a  formal  schism.  These  barbarians 
were  converted  to  Christianity  by  Greek  and  Latin  missionaries  ;  the 
patriarch  and  the  pope  contended  for  the  patnmage  of  the  new  ecclesi- 
astical establishments  ;  the  Greeks  prevailed  in  the  contest,  and  forth- 
with banished  their  Latin  adversaries,  while  the  court  of  Rome  took  re- 
venge by  describing  the  Greeks  as  worse  than  the  worst  of  the  heathen. 
A.  brie "  display  of  vigor  by  Niceohorus,  Phocus,  and  John  Zimisces, 
arrested  the  progress  of  the  Saracens,  who  were  forming  permanent 
establishments  within  sight  of  Constantinople.  But  Zimisces  was  poi- 
soned at  the  very  moment  when  his  piety,  courage,  and  moderation,  had 
averted  impending  ruin,  and  promised  to  restore  some  portion  of  the 
empire's  former  str.ngth  and  former  glory.  His  feeble  successors 
swayed  the  sceptre  with  unsteady  hands,  at  a  time  when  the  empire 
was  attacked  by  the  fiercest  enemies  it  had  yet  encountered,  the  Nor- 
mans in  Sicily,  and  the  Seljukian  Turks  in  Asia  Minor. 

The  names  Turk  and  Tartar  arc  loosely  given  to  the  inhabitants  of 
those  regions  which  ancient  authors  included  under  the  designation  oi 
Scythia.  Their  uncivilized  tribes  possessed  the  countries  north  of  the 
Caucasus  and  east  of  the  Caspian,  from  the  river  Oxus  to  the  wall  of 
China :  hordes  issuing  from  these  wide  plains  had  tVequently  devastated 
the  empire  of  Persia,  and  more  than  once  placed  a  new  race  of  sover 
eigns  on  the  throne.  It  was  not,  however,  until  the  eighth  century  that 
they  were  tliemselves  invaded  in  turn ;  the  Saracens,  in  the  first  burst 
of  their  enthusiasm,  passed  the  Oxus,  subdued  Kharasm  and  Transox- 
jana,  and  imposed  the  religion  and  law  of  Mohammed  on  a  race  of 


388  MODERN  HISTORY. 

warriors  more  fiery  and  zealous  than  themselves.  Soon  a.ter  the  os 
lablishment  of  the  khaUphate  at  Bagdad,  the  Saracenic  empire  began  to 
be  dismembered,  as  we  have  already  stated,  and  the  khaliphs,  alarmed 
by  the  revolt  of  their  armies,  and  surrounded  only  by  subjects  devoted 
to  the  arts  of  peace,  began  to  intrust  the  guard  of  their  persons  and 
their  capital  tc  foreign  mercenaries.  Al  Moutassem  was  the  first  who 
levied  a  Turkish  army  to  protect  his  states  (a.  d.  833)  ;  and  even  during 
his  reign,  much  inconvenience  was  felt  from  the  pride  and  insolence  of 
soldiers  unconnected  with  the  soil  they  were  employed  to  defend.  The 
evil  went  on  daily  increasing,  until  the  emirs,  or  Turkish  commanders, 
usurped  all  the  real  authority  of  the  slate,  leaving  to  the  khaliphs  the 
outward  show  and  gewgaws  of  sovereignty,  with  empty  titles,  whose 
pomp  was  increased  as  the  authority  they  pretended  to  represent  was 
diminished.  The  revolution  was  completed  in  the  reign  of  Al  Khadi 
(a.  d.  936) ;  hoping  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  revolution,  he  created 
a  new  minister,  called  the  Emir-al-Omra,*  to  whom  far  greater  powers 
were  given  than  had  been  intrusted  to  the  ancient  viziers.  This,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  aggravated  the  evil  it  was  designed  to  pre- 
vent. The  family  of  the  Bowides,  so  called  from  their  ancestor  Buyah, 
usurped  this  high  office  and  the  sovereignty  of  Bagdad  ;  the  khaliph 
v/as  deprived  of  all  temporal  authority,  and  was  regarded  simply  as  the 
chief  [man,  or  pontifli'  of  the  Mohammedan  faith. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  khaliphate,  when  a  new  horde  from  the  in- 
terior of  Turkestan  appeared  to  change  the  entire  face  of  Asia.  This 
horde,  deriving  its  name  from  Seljuk,  one  of  its  most  renowned  chiefs, 
was  invited  to  cross  the  Oxus  by  the  Ghaznevidf  sultans,J  who  had 
already  established  a  powerful  kingdom  in  the  east  of  Persia,  and  sub- 
dued the  north  of  Hindostan.  Tne  Seljukians  finding  the  pasturages 
of  Khorassan  far  superior  to  those  of  their  native  country,  invited  new 
colonies  to  the  fertile  land  ;  they  soon  became  so  powerful  that  Togrul 
Beg  proclaimed  himself  a  sultan,  and  seized  several  of  the  best  provin- 
ces bcilonging  to  the  khaliphate.  Finally,  having  taken  Bagdad,  he  be- 
came master  of  the  khaliph's  person  (a.  d.  1055)  and  succeeded  to  the 
power  which  had  formerly  been  possessed  by  the  Bowides.  Togrul 
transmitted  his  authority  to  his  nephew  and  heir,  the  formidable  Alp 
Arslan.^  This  prince  renewed  the  war  against  the  Greek  empire,  ob- 
tained a  signal  victory  over  its  forces  in  Armenia,  and  took  the  emperor, 

•  "  Lord  of  the  lords,"  or  "  Commander  oC  the  commanders." 

t  The  Ghaznevid  dynasty  was  I'ouiided  by  Sebektagen,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
originally  a  slave  (a.  d.  977).  But  his  fame  is  eclipsed  by  that  of  his  son  Mah- 
miid,  whose  conquests  in  northern  India  rival  those  of  a  hero  of  romance.  His 
desire  of  .onriuest  was  rendered  more  terril)le  If  those  he  attacked  by  his  cruel 
b'u  >lry,  for  in  every  country  that  he  subdued,  the  liorrors  of  war  were  increased 
i)y  those  of  religious  persecution.  At  his  death,  the  empire  of  Ghizni  included 
d  great  |)art  of  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  northern  India,  to  the  provinces  of  Ben- 
gal and  llie  Deccan.  But  the  rise  of  tliis  great  dynasty  was  not  more  rapid  than 
its  downfall,  which  we  may  date  from  the  death  of  that  monarch,  to  whom  it  owes; 
^11  its  lustre  in  ti\e  page  of  history  (a.  d.  J028).  Little  more  than  a  century  after 
Mohammed's  death,  the  last  of  llie  (ihaznevids  was  deposed  by  Mohammed  Gouri, 
the  founder  of  a  new  dynasty,  equally  transitory  as  tliat  which  it  displaced. 

1  The  title  of  sultan,  whjcli  in  the  Chaldaic  and  Arabic  language?  sianifies  r 
sovcn  t_'n,  was  lirst  assumed  by  the  Ghaznevid  princes. 

ft   His  name  siirnities  the  Con(|!a'ring  Lion. 


EESTORATION  OF  THE  WjSSTERN  EMPIRE.  3Sy 

Romanus  Diogenes,  prisoner  (a.  d.  1070).  The  distractions  produced 
oy  this  event  in  the  Byzantine  dominions,  enabled  the  Turks  not  oidy 
to  expel  the  Greeks  from  Syria,  but  also  to  seize  some  of  the  finest 
provinces  in  Asia  Minor. 

Under  Malek  Shah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Alp  Arslan,  the  Sel- 
jukian  monarchy  touched  the  summit  of  its  greatness.  This  wise 
prince  extended  his  dominions  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  wall  of 
China.  Guided  by  the  wise  counsels  of  tlie  vizier,  Nezam-al-Mulk, 
die  sultan  ruled  this  mighty  empire  with  great  justice  and  moderation, 
Asia  enjoyed  tranquillity,  to  which  it  had  been  long  unaccustomed,  and 
learning  and  civilization  began  to  revive. 

In  the  midst  of  this  prosperity,  a  circumstance  occurred,  which,  though 
little  noticed  at  the  time,  became  the  source  of  imparalleled  misfortunes 
to  the  east.  This  was  the  seizure  of  the  mountain-castle  of  Alamut, 
and  the  foundation  of  the  order  of  the  Assassins,  by  Hassan  Sabah. 
This  formidable  enthusiast  had  become  a  convert  to  the  Ismaelian  doc- 
trines, in  which  the  creed  of  Islam  was  mingled  with  the  darker  and 
more  gloomy  superstitions  of  Asiatic  paganism.  His  foUov/ers,  per- 
suaded that  obedience  to  the  commands  of  their  chief  would  ensure 
their  eternal  felicity,  never  hesitated  to  encounter  any  danger  in  order 
to  remove  his  enemies.  Emissaries  from  the  formidable  Sheikh  al  Je- 
Dal*  went  in  disguise  to  palaces  and  private  houses,  watching  the  favor- 
able opportunity  of  striking  the  blow,  to  those  who  had  provoked  the 
Hostility  of  their  grand  master.  So  dreadful  was  this  scourge  that  ori- 
ental historians,  during  a  long  period  of  their  annals,  terminate  their 
account  of  each  year  with  a  list  of  the  men  of  note  who  had  fallen 
victims  during  its  course  to  the  daggers  of  the  assassins.  After  the 
death  of  Malek  Shah  (a.  d.  1092),  disputes  arose  between  his  sons, 
which  led  to.  sanguinary  civil  wars,  and  the  dismemberment  of  the  em- 
pire. Three  powerful  sultanies  were  formed  from  its  fragments,  namely, 
Iran,  Kerman,  and  Rum,  or  Iconium.  That  of  Iran  was  the  most  pow- 
erful, for  it  possessed  the  rich  provinces  of  Upper  Asia,  but  its  great- 
ness soon  declined.  The  emirs,  or  governors  of  cities  and  provinces, 
.hrew  oft  ^.heir  allegiance,  and  under  the  modest  title  of  Atta-begs,t  ex- 
ercised sovereign  authority.  The  Seljukians  of  Rum,  known  to  the 
crusaders  as  the  Sultans  of  Nice,  or  Iconium,|  were  first  raised  into 
notice  by  Soleiman.  Their  history  is  important  only  from  its  connex- 
ion with  that  of  the  crusades.  These  divisions  were  ^he  cause  of  the 
success  which  attended  the  early  wars  of  the  Christians  in  Palestine, 
and  of  the  qualified  independence  of  the  late  khaliphs^  who  shook  off 
the  Seljukian  yoke,  and  established  themselves  in  the  sovereignty  of 
Irak  Arabi,  or  the  province  of  Bagdad. 

•  "  Lord  of  the  Mountain ;"   from  the  equivocal  sense    of  the   Arabic    worf 
Sheikh,  the  name  is  commonly  translated  "  Old  Man  of  the  Mountain." 
t  Mta-beg  is  a  Turkish  word,  and  signifies  "  father  or  guardian  of  tlie  prince." 
i  Cogni,  or  Iconium,  is  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  -which  these  sultans  made  their  cap- 
ita.1,  after  Nice  had  been  taken  by  the  crusaders. 


390  MODKIIN   HJSTOav 


CHAPTER  IV. 
GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER, 

Section  I. — The  Origin  of  Ike  Papacy. 

Therij  is  nothing  more  remarkable  in  the  clerical  organization  of 
Christianity  at  its  first  institution,  than  its  adaptation  to  all  times  and  all 
circumstances.  Without  entering  into  any  controverted  question,  we 
may  generally  state,  that  in  the  infant  church  provision  was  made  for 
self-government  on  the  one  hand,  and  general  superintendence  on  the 
other ;  and  that,  before  the  gospel  was  preached  beyond  the  bounds  of 
Judaea,  the  two  great  principles  of  the  independence  of  national  church- 
es, and  the  authority  of  a  council  to  ensure  the  unity  of  the  faith,  wer« 
fully  recognised.  Infidels  have  endeavored  to  trace  the  form  of  churc^^ 
government  to  Constantine,  though  the  slightest  glance  at  the  history  of 
the  preceding  age  suffices  to  prove  that  the  ecclesiastical  constitution 
was,  long  before  that  emperor's  accession,  perfected  in  all  its  parts. 
The  management  belonged  to  the  local  priesthood,  the  government  to 
the  bishops,  the  superintendence  of  all  to  the  council.  This  is  the 
general  outline  of  the  apostolic  model,  and  we  may  see  in  it  one  mark, 
at  least,  of  a  more  than  human  origin,  its  capability  of  unlimited  expan- 
sion. 

The  best  institutions  are  open  to  abuse,  and  the  Christian  clergy 
were  exposed  to  two  different  lines  of  temptation,  both,  however,  tend- 
ing to  the  same  j)oint,  acquisition  of  power.  The  emperors  of  Con- 
stantinople endeavored  to  make  the  .clergy  their  instruments  in  estab- 
lishing a  perfect  despotism,  while  the  people  looked  upon  their  spiritual 
guides  as  their  natural  protectors  against  the  oppressions  of  their  tem- 
poral rulers.  Under  these  circumstances,  episcopacy  formed  a  new 
power  in  the  empire,  a  power  continually  extending,  because  it  wab 
soon  obvious  that  a  common  faith  was  the  only  bond  which  would  hold 
together  nations  differing  in  language,  institutions,  and  blood.  But  thia 
poliiical  use  of  Christianity  naturally  suggested  a  gross  and  dangerous 
perversion  of  its  first  principles  ;  when  unity  of  faith  appeared  to  be 
of  such  great  value,  it  was  natural  that  toleration  should  be  refused  to 
any  great  difference  of  opinion,  and  consequently,  persecuting  edicts 
were  issued  agamst  paganism  and  heresy.  This  false  step  led  to  a 
still  more  dangerous  confusion  between  spiritual  and  temporal  power  ; 
when  ecclesiastical  censures  produced  civil  consequences,  the  priesi 
was  identified  with  the  magistrate,  and  every  hour  it  became  more  diffi- 
cult to  separate  their  functions.     In  the  decline  of  the  empire  also,  the 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  391 

Jempoial  power  was  deservedly  hated  and  despised;  a  profligate  court, 
a  venal  magistracy,  and  a  cowardly  soldiery,  constituted  the  ordinary 
materials  of  the  imperial  government ;  and,  compared  with  these,  the 
sacerdotal  body,  in  the  worst  stage  of  its  degradation,  had  powerful 
claims  to  respect,  if  not  to  esteem. 

It  is  of  importance  to  remember  that  the  corruption  of  the  episcopal 
power  \vas  produced  by  the  general  corruption  of  the  empire,  and  con- 
sequently, instead  of  furnishing  an  argument  ag'iinst  episcopacy  as  an 
institution,  it  may  rather  be  urged  as  a  proof  of  its  excellence.  The 
church  had  fallen,  indeed,  from  its  origmal  purity,  but  the  state  was  a 
mass  of  unmixed  evils  ;  ecclesiastical  power  was  frequently  abused,  but 
the  temporal  authorities  scarcely  went  right  by  accident ;  wh  itever  prin- 
ciples of  justice  and  rectitude  remained  in  the  world,  owed  their  conser- 
vation to  the  Christian  clergy  ;  and  tc  the  examples  of  ecclesiastical 
traffic  there  might  easily  be  opposed  a  jonger  and  more  honorable  list 
of  instances,  in  which  bishops  supported  the  dignity  of  their  order;  by 
protecting  the  interests  of  morality  against  the  craft  of  courtiers  and  the 
vices  of  sovereigns. 

While  the  discipline  of  the  church  was  injured  by  the  clergy  having 
temporal  power  forced  upon  them — in  the  first  instance  at  least — with- 
out their  solicitation,  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  were  corrupted  by  a 
practice  arising  from  the  best  feelings  of  our  nature.  The  saints  and 
martyrs  who  had  faced  danger,  torture,  and  death,  to  promulgate  Chris- 
tianity, were  remembered  with  just  gratitude,  when  that  religion  became 
triumphant.  Their  bones  were  removed  from  unhonored  graves  to 
tombs  more  worthy  of  their  virtues,  and  a  generation  enjoying  the  ad- 
vantages that  their  toils  and  their  blood  had  purchased,  testified  its 
thankfulness  by  rich  offerings  at  their  shrines.  Thus  the  avaricious 
and  the  designing  were  tempted  to  multiply  the  number  of  relics,  and  to 
exaggerate  their  importance,  until  the  feeling  of  thankful  reverence  was 
gradually  changed  into  one  of  religious  adoration.  These  steps  in  the 
progress  of  error  were  easy,  they  were  likewise  profitable  ;  crafty  men 
propagated  stories  of  miracles  wrought  at  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs,  pray- 
ers were  soon  addressed  to  persons  supposed  to  be  possessed  of  such 
supernatural  powers,  the  invocation  of  saints  and  the  worship  of  relics 
naturally  led  to  the  introduction  of  images  and  pictures,  and  to  the  revi- 
val of  many  pagan  ceremonies,  which  had,  perhaps,  never  fallen  into 
complete  oblivion. 

But  an  ec  clesiaoucal  establishment  must  not  bear  the  entire  blame  of 
the  introduction  of  image-worship  into  the  Christian  church.  The  de- 
sire of  possessing  representations  of  those  whom  we  venerate  is  natural 
to  the  human  mind  ;  and  in  an  age  of  ignorance,  the  symbols  of  a  creed 
were  found  useful  aids  in  teaching  the  multitude  the  historical  facts  of 
Christianity.  It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  the  ignorance  and 
credulity  of  the  laity  had  a  far  greater  share  in  leading  to  a  corrupt  use 
of  images,  than  the  craft  of  the  clergy  :  the  perversion  was  la  many,  per- 
haps in  most  inatances,  forced  upon  the  priesthood  by  the  flock,  and  i 
was  stiJ  further  supported  by  the  monastic  bodies,  which  have  in  every 
age  been  the  most  prominent  among  the  originators  and  supporters  of 
every  superstition. 

The  mor.astics  were   the  first  who   introduced  what  is  called   the 


395i  jIODErn  history 

/oluiilar^  principle,  into  the  Christian  church  ;  tney  were  aiso  the 
first  to  allow  self-oiihiined  instructers  to  interfere  with  the  duties  of 
the  proper  pastors.  Fanaticism  and  superstition  were  the  necessarv 
results  of  these  disturbing  forces,  and  by  none  was  the  progress  of  evi! 
more  seriously  jamented  than  by  the  parochial  clergy  and  the  regulai 
bishops. 

The  charge  of  idolatry  was  justly  urged  against  the  Christian  churcii 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  both  by  the  Jews  and  the  Mo- 
hammedans. The  latter  were  far  the  more  formidable,  for  to  the  argu- 
ments of  truth  they  added  the  weight  of  victory.  There  was  scarcely 
an  eastern  city  which  was  not  fortified  by  the  possession  of  some  mirac- 
ulous image,  supposed  to  be  the  palladium  of  its  safety  ;  but  in  spite  of 
this  protection  they  had  fallen,  one  after  the  other,  into  the  hands  of  the 
Mussulmans.  Ashamed  of  the  reproaches  they  encountered,  and  con- 
vinced practically  of  the  insufficiency  of  these  objects  of  their  devotion, 
many  of  the  eastern  bishops  began  to  oppose  the  wonaip  of  images 
but  their  exertions  were  rendered  unavailing,  by  the  influence  and 
obstinacy  of  the  monks,  until  Leo  the  Isaurian  ascended  the  throne  of 
Constantinople. 

A  fierce  struggle  ensued  :  the  Iconoclasts,  as  the  opposers  of  images 
were  called,  made  a  vigorous  eflbrt  to  restore  the  purity  of  the  Christian 
Worship,  and  at  the  synod  of  Constantinople  (a.  d.  754)  three  hundred 
and  thirty-eight  bishops  pronounced  and  subscribed  a  unanimous  de- 
cree, that  "  all  visible  symbols  of  Christ,  except  in  the  eur  harist,  were 
either  blasphemous  or  heretical  ;  that  image-worship  was  a  corruption 
of  Christianity,  and  a  revival  of  paganism  ;  that  all  such  monuments 
of  idolatry  should  be  broken  or  erased  ;  and  that  those  who  should  re- 
fuse to  give  up  the  objects  of  their  private  superstition,  should  be 
deemed  guilty  of  disobedience  to  the  authority  of  the  church  and  of  the 
emperor." 

The  enemies  of  the  Iconoclasts  have  spared  no  terms  of  reproach  in 
denouncing  'he  proceedings  of  this  synod,  but  an  impartial  view  of  the 
authentic  relics  of  its  proceedings,  which  have  been  preserved,  proves 
that  its  members  displayed  more  of  reason  and  piety  than  could  have 
been  expected  in  their  age.  They  seem,  indeed,  to  have  felt  that  they 
were  fighting  the  battle  of  episcopacy  against  monachism,  and  that  the 
safety  of  their  order  was  compromised  by  the  assumptions  of  volunteer 
iiistructers  ;  but  they  made  no  direct  attack  upon  monastic  institutions, 
and  only  assailed  the  abuses  which  they  encouraged. 

Six  successive  emperors  supported  the  cause  of  reason  and  religion 
against  idolatry  in  the  eastern  church,  but  the  worshippers  of  images 
finally  triumphed.  Still,  down  to  a  very  late  period,  there  were  prrlatea 
ai  the  East  who  resisted  the  corruption,  and  the  Armenians  especially 
refused  to  admit  images  into  their  churches  even  in  the  twelfth  century. 
But  the  contest  was  decided  much  sooner  in  western  Europe,  by  the 
promptitude  Avith  which  Pope  Gregory  II.  appealed  to  arms  against  his 
eovereign  and  the  Iconoclasts.  The  ambitious  pontifT  found  sufhcien* 
support  in  the  national  enmity  between  the  Greeks  and  Latins  ;  he  had 
the  art  to  persuade  the  Italians  that  tnere  was  some  connexion  between 
the  new  superstition  and  their  hereditary  glory  ;  and  that,  while  they 
luppor'ed  the  worship  of  images,  they  were  imposing  a  necessarv  re 


GBOWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL   POWER.  39S 

straint  on  Byzantine  tyranny.  The  Lombards  embraced  the  clij^ioua 
pretext  to  expel  the  Greeks  from  Italy ;  but  the  pope,  finding  that  the 
conquerors  were  anxious  to  impose  a  yoke  upon  him  more  grievous  than 
that  which  had  just  been  shaken  off,  invoked  the  assistance  of  the 
Franks.  Supported  by  the  arms  of  Pepin  and  Charlemagne,  tlie  popea 
maintained  the  independence  of  the  Roman  territories,  and  were  ttius 
raised  to  the  rank  of  temporal  princes.  Grateful  for  the  aid  they  re- 
ceived, the  pontiffs,  as  has  been  already  mentioned,  decided  that  it  was 
lawful  for  the  Franks  to  depose  an  imbecile  sovereign,  and  substitute 
in  his  place  one  who  had  proved  an  able  protector  of  the  state,  and  a 
generous  benefactor  to  the  church  ;  and  in  consequence  of  this  sentence, 
Pepin  was  solemnly  crowned  at  Paris. 

The  proper  history  of  the  papacy  begins  at  this  union  of  temporal  and 
spiritual  jurisdiction.  Three  transactions  combined  to  give  it  form  :  the 
revolt  against  Leo,  the  establishment  of  tne  Roman  principality,  and  the 
coronation  of  Pepin.  In  the  first  of  these,  the  popes  were  hurried  for- 
ward by  circumstances  to  lengths  which  they  had  not  anticij)ated  ;  nei- 
ther the  second  nor  third  Gregory  wished  to  destroy  completely  the 
power  of  the  Byzantine  emperor,  and  they  continued  to  acknowledge 
the  successors  of  Constantine  as  their  rulers,  until  the  Lombards  sub- 
verted the  exarchate  of  Ravenna.  But  in  spite  of  their  moderation,  real 
or  affected,  they  had  established  to  some  extent  the  dangerous  prece- 
dent, that  the  heresy  of  a  sovereign  justifies  a  withdrawal  of  allegiance 
in  his  subjects,  though  they  themselves  never  asserted  such  a  principle, 
and  indeed  seem  never  to  have  contemplated  it. 

The  independence  of  the  Roman  principality,  and  the  establishmrmt 
of  the  pope  as  a  temporal  sovereign,  necessarily  resulted  from  the  dread 
which  the  Latins,  but  especially  the  Romans,  had  of  the  Lombards.  It 
was  impossible  to  revert  to  the  sovereigns  of  Constantinople  ;  indepen- 
dent of  the  unpopularity  produced  by  their  Iconoclast  propensities,  they 
wanted  the  power  of  retaining  the  Italian  provinces,  even  if  the  govern- 
ment had  been  offered  them  ;  there  was  no  choice  between  the  asser- 
tion of  independence  and  submission  to  the  Lombards ;  there  were  no 
materials  for  constructing  a  national  government  outside  the  precincts 
of  the  church,  and  the  popes  consequently  became  princes  by  the  pres- 
sure of  a  necessity  which  was  confessed  by  the  unanimous  consent  of 
their  subjects. 

In  sanctioning  the  usurpation  of  Pepin,  Pope  Zachary  pronounced  his 
opinion  more  as  a  statesman  than  a  prelate.  There  was  an  obvious  ex- 
pediency for  dethroning  the  weak  Chilperic,  and  giving  the  title  of  king 
to  him  who  really  exercised  the  functions  of  royalty.  There  was  noth- 
ing authoritative  in  the  sentence — it  did  not  command  the  Franks  to 
dethrone  one  king  and  elect  another — it  merely  declared  that  considera- 
ions  of  public  safety  justified  a  people  in  changing  its  rulers  :  it  did 
nothing  new,  but  it  ratified  what  had  been  done  already.  But  the  new 
dynasty  eagerly  sought  in  the  proceeding  for  a  confirmation  of  their  de- 
fective title  ;  it  was  Pepin  and  his  friends,  rather  than  the  pontiff,  who 
pen^erted  the  opinion  of  a  fedsuist  into  the  sentence  of  a  judge  and  the 
oracle  of  a  prophet. 

Thus  popery,  like  most  human  institutions,  was  founded  on  opinions 
ui  which  truth  and  falsehood  were  strangely  mixed  :  and  it  is  fortunately 


594  MODERN  HISTORY, 

easy  to  separate  the  parts.  In  rejecting  the  Byzantine  yoke,  the  popes 
asserted  a  rioht  to  resist,  but  not  to  depose,  sovereigns  ;  in  becoming 
temporal  princes,  they  declared  that  there  could  be  a  union  between 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdictions,  but  not  that  they  were  necessarily 
connected,  and  still  less  that  tney  were  inherited  of  right  by  the  succes 
sors  of  St.  Peter  :  finally,  in  the  most  equivocal  case,  the  sanction  of 
Pepin's  election,  the  pope  put  forward  the  expediency  of  having  an  in- 
lelligeiit  umpire  to  decide  in  cases  of  a  dispute,  not  that  he  was  neces- 
sarily that  umpire  ;  and  still  less  that  he  had  authority  to  act  as  su- 
preme judge  in  a  court  pf  appeal.  It  is  sufficiently  obvious,  however, 
that  the  truths  are  easily  capable  of  being  perverted  into  the  falsehoods, 
and  that  there  were  strong  temptations  to  the  change.  Ere  a  genera- 
tion had  passed  away,  the  truths  sank  into  oblivion,  and  the  ftilsehoodr 
were  everywhere  proclaimed  as  the  true  fnimdations  of  the  papaJ 
system. 

Section  II. —  The  early  Dcvclojjinent  of  the  Political  System  of  the  Papacy. 

The  Iconoclast  controversy,  and  the  mutual  obligations  of  the  popes 
and  the  Carlovingian  family,  form  the  important  links  between  ancient 
and  modern  history,  as  well  as  between  civil  and  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
Pepin  recognised  the  pope's  arbitration  as  an  authoritative  act,  though, 
as  we  have  seen,  it  was  merely  an  opinion  founded  on  expediency,  and 
furthermore  might  have  been  justified  on  constitutional  grounds,  for  the 
monarchy  of  the  Franks  was  originally  elective,  and  the  principle  of 
hereditary  right  was  an  innovation  gradually  introduced  by  the  succes- 
sors of  Clovis.  But  Pepin  naturally  felt  that  he  would  weaken  the  title 
of  his  sons  to  the  succession,  if 'he  rested  his  claims  on  popular  election  ; 
and  he  was  therefore  anxious  to  invest  his  dynasty  with  the  mysterious 
sanction  of  religion.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Roman  pontiffs  foresaw 
the  importance  of  the  measures  they  adopted,  but  prudence  and  prophe- 
cy united  could  scarcely  have  suggested  better  means  for  extendinir  the 
papal  power.  They  revived  the  Jewish  ceremonial  of  anointing  kings  •, 
and  Pepin,  as  well  as  his  successors,  regarded  this  ceremony  as  an  as- 
sertion of  a  divine  right  to  the  crown  ;  while  the  popes  represented  it, 
not  as  a  simple  recognition,  but  almost  an  appointment  of  the  sovereign. 
Both  the  kings  and  the  pontiil's  shared  in  a  profitable  fraud,  which  gave 
security  to  the  one,  and  power  to  the  other  ;  the  Frank  nobles  murmured, 
without  being  able  to  discover  the  exact  nature  of  the  principles  which 
destroyed  for  the  future  their  ancient  rights  of  election,  though  thes(i 
principles  w  ;re  very  intelligibly  expressed  by  a  new  effort  of  Pope  Ste 
phen  to  gratify  the  new  dynasty.  Pressed  by  his  enemies  in  Italy, 
Stephen  III.  sought  Pepin's  court  to  obtain  aid,  and  gratified  the  mon- 
arch by  solemnly  crowning  both  his  sons.  In  Pepin's  case  the  coro- 
nation had  followed  the  election  ;  and  thus  the  popular  rights  were  abol 
ished  almost  at  the  moment  that  they  were  most  strongly  asserted 
Royalty  and  popery  gained,  but  not  in  equal  proportions  :  for  though 
the  principles  of  divine  right  and  inheritance  by  descent  were  estab- 
lished for  kings,  the  higher  power  of  pronouncing  on  these  rights  xvd^ 
eserv«c"  for  the  pontiffs. 
The  (^arlovingians,  grateful  for  the  security  thus  giver;   .o  their  t;  le 


GROWTH  OF  TKE  PAPAL  POWER.  395 

enlarged  the  papal  dominions  by  territories  wrested  from  the  Lombard 
kino-dom — the  Greek  exarchate.  To  secure  these  acquisitions,  the 
pontiffs  had  recourse  to  a  more  daring  fraud  than  any  they  had  yet  per- 
petrated :  a  forged  deed  was  produced,  purporting  to  be  a  donation  f'om 
the  first  Christian  emperor,  Constantine,  to  the  successors  of  St.  Peter, 
of  the  sovereignty  over  Rome,  Italy,  and  the  western  provinces.  Thus 
tne  gift  of  the  French  monarch  was  made  to  appear  the  restitution  of 
ancient  possessions,  and  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes,  while  yet 
in  its  infancy,  was  invested  with  the  sanction  of  remote  antiquity.  It 
is  useless  to  expose  the  falsehood  of  this  audacious  forger)'-,  which  is 
now  eondemned  by  even  the  most  bigoted  writers  of  the  Romish 
church  ;  but  in  its  day  it  was  universally  received  as  valid,  and  was 
long  regarded  as  the  legal  instrument  by  which  the  papal  power  was 
established. 

Adrian  I.  was  the  pontiff  who  first  combined  the  elements  of  th?  {pa- 
pacy into  a  system.  He  was  startled  at  the  very  outset  by  a  difficulty 
which  seemed  to  threaten  the  foundation  of  his  power.  The  Greek 
emperess,  Irene,  who  administered  the  government  during  the  leign  of 
her  son,  Constantine  the  Porphyrogennete,  re-established  the  worship 
of  images,  and  persecuted  the  Iconoclasts.  Adrian,  however,  was  nat- 
urally reluctant  to  return  imder  the  Byzantine  yoke,  and  were  he  even 
so  inclined,  he  would  probably  have  been  prevented  by  the  Romans ; 
the  popes  had  tasted  the  pleasures  of  sovereignty,  and  the  people  of 
freedom  ;  neither,  therefore,  would  sacrifice  such  advantages  to  the 
Greeks.  A  closer  union  was  made  with  the  Franks,  though  Charlea 
and  his  bishops  had  stigmatized  the  worship  of  images,  and  declared 
they  should  be  regarded  only  as  objects  of  reverence.  But  the  pope 
foresaw  that  the  use  of  images  Avould  soon  lead  to  their  adoration,  and 
he  courted  Charlemagne  as  a  friend  and  protector. 

Leo  III.,  who  succeeded  Adrian,  sent  to  Charlemagne  the  standard 
of  Rome,  requesting  him  to  send  delegates  to  receive  the  allegiance  of 
the  Romans.  From  the  latter  circumstance,  it  has  been  rather  hastily 
inferred  that  the  popes  acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  Charles ; 
but,  in  truth,  the  relations  between  the  pontiffs  and  the  Frank  mon- 
archs  were  purposely  left  indefinite  ;  any  attempt  to  state  them  would 
nave  shown  that  the  claims  of  both  were  irreconcilable,  but  their  mu- 
tual interests  required  that  they  should  combine,  and  each  avoided  ey  • 
planations  that  might  provoke  a  contest. 

Leo  soon  experienced  the  benefits  of  his  moderation ;  driven  from 
Rome  by  the  relatives  of  the  late  pope,  he  sought  refuge  among  the 
Franks ;  and  Charlemagne  not  only  sent  him  back  with  a  powerful  es- 
cort to  his  capital,  but  went  thither  in  person  to  do  him  justice.  Leo 
was  permitted  to  purge  himself  by  oath  of  the  crimes  laid  to  his  chaige, 
and,  in  gratitude  for  his  acquittal,  he  solemnly  crowned  Charles,  Em 
peror  of  the  West.  The  ceremony  was  performed  on  the  festival  of 
Christmas,  in  the  last  year  of  the  eighth  century ;  and  the  pontiff  who 
had  so  recently  stood  before  his  sovereign  as  a  criminal  making  his  de 
fence,  now  appeared  as  his  superior,  conferring  on  him  the  highest 
earthly  title  by  the  authority  of  Ileaven. 

There  was  obvious  danger  to  papal  ambition  in  the  estabhshment  of 
an  empire  ;  the  successors  of  the  Ceesars  must  of  necessity  have  been 


596  MODERN  HISTORY. 

formidable  rivals  lo  tlic  successors  of  St.  Peter  ;  but  vaeie  were  tnan5 
important  advantages  to  be  gained,  which  did  not  escape  the  notice  of 
the  crafty  pontifls.  The  secure  enjoyment  of  their  temporal  dominions 
as  the  most  honorable  species  of  fief  or  benefice,  was  obviously  an  im- 
mediate result,  but  there  was  a  remote  one  of  much  greater  importance, 
the  change  of  the  precedence,  universally  cc'aceded  to  the  Romish  see, 
into  an  acknowledgment  of  its  supremacy. 

It  is  not  easy  to  discover  at  what  time  the  papacy  directly  fixed  ita 
attention  upon  destroying  the  independerxe  of  national  churches,  but 
assuredly  the  period  was  not  very  remote  from  that  which  we  have 
been  considering.  The  contests  between  the  bishops  of  Rome  and 
Constantinople,  like  those  of  more  modern  times  between  the  archbish- 
ops of  York  and  Canterbury,  were  struggles  for  dignity  r-?ther  than 
power.  The  primacy  which  Boniface  III.  assumed,  by  taking  the  title 
of  universal  bishop,  was  nothing  more  than  presidency :  th^s  was  a 
good  foundation  for  a  future  claim  to  supremacy,  but  there  is  no  proof 
that  any  such  claim  was  contemplated  by  Boniface,  and  every  proljabil- 
ity  is  against  the  supposition. 

But  when  the  independence  of  nations  was  compromised  by  the 
establishment  of  an  empire,  it  was  very  natural  that  the  independence 
of  national  churches  should  also  be  endangered.  In  the  age  of  Charle- 
magne, law,  order,  and  intelligence,  had  no  sure  support  but  religion  : 
the  popular  opinion  identified  with  ecclesiastical  influence  all  that  so- 
ciety enjoyed  or  hoped  for ;  it  was  the  bond  that  held  the  discordant 
parts  of  the  empire  together,  and  the  emperor  joined  with  the  pope  in 
giving  it  strength  and  unity. 

The  death  of  Charlemagne  relieved  the  pontiffs  from  the  pressure  of 
■•mperial  power ;  his  successor,  Louis  the  Debonnaire,  had  not  strength 
of  mind  sufficient  to  support  the  weight  of  empire,  while  the  popes 
stood  ready  to  grasp  the  reins  of  power  as  they  slipped  from  his  hands  ; 
ihey  began  to  exercise  their  pontifical  functions  immediately  after  their 
election,  without  waiting  for  the  confirmation  of  their  power,  and  Louis 
smbarrassed  by  nearer  dangers,  was  unable  to  punish  the  usurpation. 
Louis  divided  his  empire  among  his  sons  ;  a  fatal  error,  for  in  their  con- 
tests for  supremacy  the  sovereign  authority  was  sacrificed  to  the  feudal 
lords,  and  to  the  spiritual  power. 

L  must,  however,  be  confessed,  that  the  usurpations  of  the  church, 
during  the  sanguinary  wars  between  the  successors  of  Charlemagne, 
were  almost  rendered  necessary  by  the  circumstances  of  the  time.  The 
competitors  for  empire  were  weak  and  cruel,  the  profligacy  of  the  feu 
dal  lords  was  only  equalled  by  their  ignorance,  and  the  church  alone 
preserved  the  semblance  of  justice.  The  clergy  of  all  ranks  profited 
by  the  popular  opinion  in  their  favor ;  usurpation  followed  usurpation 
without  provoking  opposition :  Charles  the  Bald  acknowledged  the 
right  of  the  bishops  to  depose  him,  and  the  bishops  of  his  council 
bound  themselves  by  a  canon  to  remain  united.  "  for  the  correction  of 
kings,  the  nobility,  and  the  people.''  This  gross  assumption  was  ap- 
plauded by  the  laity,  at  once  ignorant,  wicked,  and  devout :  it  was  fel' 
oy  all  parties  that  supreme  power  sh'^uld  exist  somewhere  ;  kings,  no 
bles,  and  commons,  equally  felt  the  want,  and,  in  a  greater  or  less  de 
gree,  the  consciousness  that  it  could  not  safely  be  intrusted  to  them 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  397 

selves.  Nicliolas  I.,  more  bold  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  constitii-. 
Led  himself  the  judge  of  bishops  and  kings  :  he  deposed  the  archbishop 
of  Ravenna  for  asserting  his  independence,  and  would  not  permit  him 
to  be  restored  until  he  acknowledged  himself  a  vassal  of  the  holy  see  : 
he  even  cited  the  king  of  Lorraine  to  appear  before  his  tribunal  (a.  d 
860).  Lothaire,  king  of  Lorraine,  had  divorced  his  first  wife,  Theut- 
berga,  on  a  charge  of  adultery,  and.  by  the  advice  of  his  council,  cho- 
sen a  beautiful  young  lady,  called  Valdrade,  for  his  second  queen.  The 
pope  annulled  the  second  marriage,  and  compelled  Lothaire  to  take 
back  his  first  wife  ;  he  persevered  in  enforcing  his  edict,  even  after 
Theutberga  herself  had  submitted  to  the  pretensions  of  her  rival. 

Adrian  IL  was  chosen  successor  to  Nicholas  ;  the  imperial  ambassa- 
dors were  excluded  from  the  election,  and  their  remonstrances  treated 
with  neglect.  He  interfered  on  the  side  of  justice,  to  secure  the  inher- 
itance of  Lorraine  for  the  emperor  Louis  IL,  but  the  ^  ontifT  was  foiled 
by  the  firmness  of  Charles  the  Bald,  and  his  claims  to  decide  between 
the  competitors  refuted  by  Hincmar,  archbishop  of  Rheims.  Adrian  re- 
solved to  conciliate  the  prince  whom  he  could  not  subdue,  and  won 
Charles  to  submission  by  promising  him  the  succession  to  the  empire. 
This  project  was  executed  by  Adrian's  successor,  John  VIII.;  finding 
that  the  king  of  France  was  determined  to  have  the  title  of  emperor  on 
any  terms,  he  made  him  stipulate  to  acknowledge  the  independence  of 
Rome  and  its  territory,  and  to  confess  that  he  only  held  the  empire  by 
the  gift  of  the  pope. 

In  an  assembly  held  at  Pavia  (a.  d.  878),  Charles  was  recognised  by 
the  Italian  prelates  and  njbles  in  the  following  memorable  words 
"  Since  the  Divine  favor,  through  the  merits  of  the  holy  apostles  and  of 
their  vicar  Pope  John,  has  raised  you  to  the  empire,  according  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  we  elect  you  unanimously  for  our  protec- 
tor and  lord."  The  pontiff  by  no  means  suffered  Charles  to  forget  thai 
the  empire  was  his  gift :  when  the  Saracens  invaded  Italy,  he  wrote  to 
Charles,  reproaching  him  for  his  delay  in  affording  succor,  and  desiring 
him,  "  to  remember  the  hand  that  had  given  him  the  empire,  lest,  if 
driven  to  despair,  we  should  change  our  opinion." 

But  while  the  popes  weie  thus  triumphant  over  the  emperors,  they 
wjre  severely  harassed  by  the  turbulent  feudal  lords,  who  had  taken  ^d- 
vantage  of  the  weakness  of  their  sovereign,  to  establish  a  virtual  inue- 
pendence.  They  interfered  in  the  pontifical  elections,  and  generally 
controlled  them;  they  insulted,  imprisoned,  and  murdered  the  pontiffs; 
while  the  claims  of  the  apostolic  see  to  complete  supremacy  were  tacitly 
acknowledged  throughout  Europe,  it  was  itself  held  in  disgraceful  ser- 
vitude by  petty  tyrants.  Two  infamous  prostitutes,  by  their  inlluence 
with  the  profligate  nobles,  procured  the  throne  of  St.  Peter  for  iheii 
paramours,  and  their  illegitimate  children  ;  and  the  disorders  of  the 
chi'rch  finally  attained  such  a  height  that  the  imperial  power  was  one* 
more  raised  above  the  papal,  and  Pope  John  XII.  deposed  by  tlie  em- 
peror Otho.  ■ 

The  vices  of  this  dark  period  are  not  justly  attributable  to  popery , 
iliey  wore  the  result  of  feudalism,  and  so  far  as  the  papal  sysiem  was 
able  to  exert  any  influence,  it  was  employed  in  counleraciing  these 
evils.     The  great  error  of  the  pontiffs  was,  that  they  did  not  arrange  a 


398  MODERN  HISTORY. 

iudicioiis  plan  for  elections  ;  they  left  their  pow«;r  thus  exposed  to  the 
disturbances  of  a  disputed  svccessiou  which  had  already  proved  fatal  to 
the  imperial  power  :  had  the  arrangements  been  such  as  to  prevent  any 
lay  interference,  ecclesiastical  influence  would  have  gone  on  increasing 
without  interruption.  But  the  vice  and  violence  of  the  Roman  nobles 
rendered  popery,  as  a  system,  for  a  time  inoperative,  and  prevented  a 
Nicholas  from  anticipating  a  Hildebrand 

Section  III. —  The  Struggle  fcr  Supremacy  hetween  the  Popes  and  Einperors 

.  Otho,  deservedly  called  the  Great,  was  the  third  emperor  of  Ger- 
vnany,  elected  by  the  suffrage  of  the  German  princes.  His  high  char- 
acter pointed  him  out  to  Pope  John  XI 1.  as  a  proper  protector  for  the 
church  and  the  repubUc,  against  the  fierce  nobles  of  Lombardy,  but 
especially  against  Berengarius,  who  claimed  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 
Otho  crossed  the  Alps,  tranquillized  Italy,  and  was  rew^'^-ded  with  the 
iron  crown  of  Lombardy,  and  the  revived  title  of  Emperor  of  the 
West.  But  both  the  pope  and  the  Romans  were  jealous  of  their  bene- 
factor, and  even  during  the  ceremony  of  his  coronation,  Otho  had  to 
take  precautions  against  the  daggers  of  assassins.  .lohn  soon  found 
that  the  German  emperor  was  not  content  with  an  empty  title  ;  enraged 
at  the  progress  of  the  imperial  authority,  he  entered  into  a  secret  com- 
pact with  Adelbert,  the  son  of  his  ancient  enemy,  to  expel  foreigners 
from  Italy,  and,  at  the  same  time,  he  invited  the  Hungarians  to  invade 
Germany. 

Otho  promptly  returned  to  Italy,  and  having  entered  Rome,  he  com 
pelled  the  nobles  and  people  to  renew  their  oath  of  allegiance.  He  then 
summoned  a  council  for  the  trial  of  Pope  John,  whose  immoralities 
were  flagr?nt  and  notorious.  The  charges  against  the  pontiff  contained 
a  dreadful  catalogue  of  crimes,  but  we  can  not  vouch  for  the  integrity 
of  the  witnesses,  or  the  impartiality  of  the  court.  There  is,  however, 
no  doubt  that  John  was  a  licentious  profligate,  whose  vices  not  only  dis- 
graced his  station,  but  were  shocking  to  humanity.  The  pope  refusing 
to  appear  before  the  tribunal,  was  condemned  as  contumacious,  after 
having  been  twice  summoned  in  vain.  Leo  VIII.  was  elected  to  the 
papacy,  in  the  room  of  John,  and  he  not  only  took  an  oath  of  obedience 
and  fidelity  to  the  emperor,  but  issued  a  bull,  ordaining  that  Otho  and 
his  successors  should  have  a  right  of  appointing  the  popes,  and  investing 
bishops  and  arcHbishops ;  and  that  none  should  daie  to  consecrate  a 
bishop  without  tne  permission  of  the  emperor. 

This  fatal  lilow  to  the  papacy  was  unpopular  with  the  bishops ;  they 
complained  that  Leo  had  subverted,  at  one  blow,  the  structure  which 
his  predecessors  had  toiled  to  raise  during  two  centuries.  When  John, 
after  the  emperor's  departure,  returned  to  Rome,  he  easily  procured  the 
deposition  of  Leo,  and  the  acknowledgment  of  his  own  claims.  The 
restored  pope  began  to  exercise  great  cruelties  against  his  opponents ; 
but  in  the  midst  of  his  career,  he  was  assassinated  by  a  young  noble- 
man, whom  he  had  rivalled  m  the  affections  of  his  mistress.  Such 
horror  had  this  pontiff's  crimes  inspired,  that  many  of  the  Romans  be- 
lieved that  Satari  in  proper  person  liad  struck  the  fatal  blow  which  sen( 
bira  to  ius  dread  account,  "  with  all  his  imperfections  on  his  head." 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAI  A.L  POWER.  399 

The  adherents  of  John  still  refused  to  acknowledge  L(  o,  and  without 
consulting  the  emperor,  they  chose  Benedict  to  succeed  tte  murdered 
pontiff.  But  the  return  of  Otho  threw  them  into  confusion  :  Benedict 
hastily  tendered  his  submission  to  Leo,  by  whom  he  was  banished ; 
and  the  Roman  nobility  and  clergy  promised  the  emperor  that  they 
would  never  confer  the  papal  dignity  on  any  but  a  native  of  Germany. 
On  the  death  of  Leo,  the  electors,  obedient  to  their  promise,  chose 
John  XilL  by  the  emperor's  permission.  The  pope  was  too  grateful 
to  his  sovereign,  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  the  imperial  power  on 
the  city  and  the  church  :  the  turbulent  Romans  revolted  and  threw 
John  into  prison,  but  Otho  soon  came  to  suppress  these  disturbances. 
He  restored  John,  and  severely  punished  the  authors  of  the  revolt. 
Thus  the  political  system  of  popery  seemed  utterly  ruined,  the  pontiff 
ruled  the  Roman  states  as  a  lieutenant  instead  of  a  prince,  and,  far  from 
being  regarded  as  the  supreme  umpire  of  m.onarchs,  he  was  reduced  to 
the  condition  of  a  subject. 

We  have  seen  that  the  papacy  owea  its  first  success  to  the  national 
hatred  between  the  Latins  and  the  Byzantines  ;  strength  for  a  new 
struggle  to  retrieve  its  fortunes  was  derived  from  the  animosity  with 
which  the  Germans  were  regarded  by  the  Italians.  The  death  of  Otho 
(a.  d.  973),  was  the  signal  for  new  convulsions  in  Italy ;  the  feudal 
lords  aimed  at  independence,  the  cities  tried  to  establish  freedom  ; 
Pope  John  tried  to  uphold  the  imperial  cause,  but  he  was  arrested  by 
Cincius,  the  head  of  the  popular  party,  and  strangled  in  prison. 

Cincius  and  his  faction  chose  Boniface  YII.  for  their  spiritual  head  ; 
the' aristocratic  party,  headed  by  the  comits  of  Tuscany,  elected  Ben- 
edict VII. ;  the  former  was  soon  driven  from  the  capital;  he  sought 
shelter  at  Constantinople,  where  he  strenuously  urged  the  Greek  em- 
perors to  invade  Italy.  These  princes  took  his  advice,  and,  uniting 
themselves  with  the  Saracens,  subdued  Apulia  and  Calabria.  Otho  II. 
vanquished  these  enemies  ;  but  when  he  returned  to  Germany,  Boni- 
face came  back  to  Italy,  made  himself  master  of  Rome,  and  threw  his 
rival  into  prison,  where  he  was  starved  to  death.  Four  months  after- 
ward the  murderer  died  suddenly,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  XV. 

So  low  had  the  papacy  now  sunk,  that  the  whole  of  John's  reign 
was  occupied  by  a  struggle  for  the  government  of  the  city  of  Rome. 
Crescentius,  an  ambitious  noble,  eager  to  establish  his  own  despotism 
under  the  name  of  freedom,  persuaded  the  citizens  to  reject  the  au- 
thority both  of  the  pope  and  the  emperor.  Otho  II.  crushed  the  revolt, 
and  so  firmly  established  the  imperial  authority,  that  he  was  enabled  to 
nominate  one  of  his  creatures  successor  to  John ;  and  the  cardinals  re- 
ceived as  their  head  Bruno,  a  Saxon  stranger,  who  took  the  title  of 
Gregory  V.* 

Ciescentids  had  Lttle  .rouble  in  exciting  a  new  insurrection  ;  but  the 
Italians  were  too  feeble  to  contend  with  the  entire  strength  of  the  em- 
pire ;  they  were  defeated  with  ruinous  loss ;  their  leader  was  cfjptured 
and  beheaded.  On  the  death  of  Gregory,  Otho  nominated  Gerbert  to 
the  papal  dignity,  and  he  was  installed  under  the  title  of  Sylvester  II. 
A-lthough  he  did  not  foresee   the  consequences,  Sylvester  may  be  re 

*  Every  pope  changes  his  name  on  his  accession,  in  imitation  of  St.  Petei,  whon 
ovir  Lord  called  Cephas,  or  Peter,  instead  of  Simon. 


♦00  MODERN  HISTORY. 

garded  as  the  first  who  made  any  progress  in  restoring  the  power  of 
popery.  His  personal  virtues  removed  the  scandal  which  had  long 
weakened  the  influence  of  his  see,  his  patronage  of  learning  restored 
to  the  church  its  superiority  in  intelligence,  and,  through  his  intimacy 
with  the  emperor,  he  obtained  a  renewal  of  the  temporal  grants  which 
Charlemagne  and  Pepin  had  made  to  his  predecessors.  The  popes 
now  began  to  support  the  imperial  cause  against  the  turbulent  nobles 
of  Italy  ;  in  return  they  were  aided  by  the  emperors  in  their  struggles 
with  the  Roman  princes  and  citizens  ;  but  by  this  alliance  the  pontiffs 
were  the  principal  gainers,  for  the  emperor's  attention  was  distracted 
by  various  objects  while  the  popes  were  always  on  the  spot  to  secure 
the  fruit  of  every  victory.  So  rapidly  had  their  power  been  retrieved, 
that  when  Benedict  VIII.  crowned  the  emperor  Henry,  to  whom  ho 
owed  the  preservation  of  his  dignity,  he  demanded  of  his  benefactor, 
before  he  entered  the  church :  "  Will  you  observe  your  fidelity  to  me 
and  my  successors  in  everything  ?"  and  the  emperor  had  the  weakness 
to  answer  in  the  aflirmative. 

But  the  factions  of  the  Roman  nobles  and  citizens  prevented  the  papal 
power  from  being  consolidated  ;  three  rival  popes,  each  remarkable  for 
his  scandalous  life,  shared  the  revenues  of  the  church  between  them 
(a.  d.  1045)  ;  they  were  finally  persuaded  to  resign  by  John  Gratian,  a 
priest  of  piety  and  learning,  and  he  was  elected  to  the  vacant  throne 
by  the  title  of  Gregory  VI.  The  emperor  Henry  procured  the  deposi- 
tion of  Gregory,  and  the  election  of  Clement  II. 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  deposed  popes  was  Benedict  IX. ;  he 
was  the  son  of  a  Tusculan  count,  and  was  raised  to  the  chair  of  St. 
Peter  at  the  early  age  of  ten  years.  His  vices  induced  the  Romans  t( 
raise  rivals  against  him ;  but,  supported  by  the  aristocratic  faction,  h< 
would  probably  have  held  his  place,  had  he  not  been  bribed  to  resign 
in  favor  of  Gregory.  The  agent  in  this  transaction  was  Hildebrand, 
the  son  of  humble  parents,  who  had  raised  himself  by  the  force  of  his 
abilities  and  his  reputation  for  piety  to  high  rank  in  the  church,  and 
commanding  influence  in  the  state.  Gregory  was  undoubtedly  a  better 
ruler  than  his  innnediate  predecessors  ;  he  expelled  the  robbers  and 
freebooters  who  infested  the  roads  around  Rome  ;  he  opened  a  secure 
passage  for  the  pilgrims  who  wished  to  visit  the  shrine  of  St.  Peter, 
and  he  vigorously  exerted  himself  to  reform  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice. It  was  imprudent  in  the  emperor  Henry  to  depose  such  a  man  at 
the  instigation  oi  the  enemies  of  order;  Clement  II.  felt  great  aversion 
to  the  proceeding,  and  very  reluctantly  consented  to  his  own  elevation. 

Gregory  and  Hildebrand,  to  the  great  regret  of  the  Italian  people, 
and  especially  the  citizens  of  Rome,  were  driven  into  exile ;  they  re- 
tired to  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Chigni,  where  Gregory  died  of 
vexation,  leaving  Hildebrand  the  heir  of  his  wealth  and  his  resentment. 
Clement  was  poisoned  by  an  emissary  of  Benedict  nine  months  after 
his  consecration  ;  and  his  successor,  Damasus  II.,  shared  the  same 
fate.  When  the  news  reached  Hildebrand,  he  immediately  departed 
from  the  imperial  court,  hoping  to  have  some  influence  in  the  nomina- 
tion of  the  next  pope,  but  on  the  road  he  learned  that  the  Diet  of 
Worms,  directed  by  the  emperor,  had  elected  Bruno,  bishop  of  Toul 
under  the  title  of  Leo  IX. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWEtt.  401 

We  have  now  reached  an  important  crisis  in  the  struggle  between 
the  papal  and  the  imperial  power ;  the  latter  had  tou(;hed  the  highesi 
(>oh\t  of  its  greatness,  and  was  destined  to  fall  by  the  dauntless  energies 
of  one  man,  Hildebrand,  the  humble  monk  of  Soano  by  birth,  the  con 
i"oller  of  the  destiny  of  nations  by  talent  and  position. 

Section  IV. — Revival  of  the  Papal  Power 

FROM    A.   D.   1048  TO  A.    D.   1070. 

We  have  seen  that  papal  usurpation  began  by  an  attack  on  the  power 
of  the  Greek  empire,  and  prevailed  over  the  Byzantine  court,  because 
it  was  supported  by  the  public  opinion  of  western  Europe.  To  secure 
its  acquisitions,  the  papacy  entered  into  alliance  with  the  Carlovingian 
d^Tiasty  on  terms  favorable  to  both  ;  but  in  the  struggle  that  folk  wed 
the  partition  of  Charlemagne's  empire,  it  was  shorn  of  its  strength,  for 
the  growth  of  its  greatness  was  too  rapid  to  be  permanent.  When  the 
nobles  of  Italy  had  attained  the  rank  of  petty  princes,  the  territorial 
possessions  of  the  church,  naturally  excited  their  cupidity,  and  when 
the  German  emperors  had  extended  their  sway  beyond  the  Alps,  they 
felt  that  a  controlling  influence  in  the  papal  elections  was  necessary  to 
the  permanence  of  their  power.  Had  both  combined,  the  papacy  would 
have  been  annihilated,  the  pope  would  have  betn  a  mere  vassal  of  the 
emperor,  and  his  temporal  dominions  would  have  been  rent  in  sunder  by 
rival  princes.  But  even  when  the  papacy  was  enslaved,  either  to 
aristocratic  factions,  or  to  despotic  autocrats,  it  was  secretly  collecting 
•.naterials  for  its  liberation  and  future  triumph.  It  was  generating  an 
opinion  which  gave  the  papacy,  as  an  institution,  greater  strength  and 
surer  permanence  than  it  possessed  in  the  days  of  its  former  prosperity. 

It  was  under  the  pressure  of  the  feudal  system  that  the  organization 
of  popery  was  completed  and  defined  ;  opposed  both  to  princes  and 
emperors,  it  was  thrown  for  support  entirely  on  the  people.  By  its  nu- 
merous gradations  of  rank,  the  church  of  the  middle  ages  linked  itself 
with  every  class  of  the  community  :  its  bishops  were  the  companions 
,")f  princes  ;  its  priests  claimed  reverence  in  the  baronial  hall ;  its  preach- 
ing friars  and  monks  brought  consolation  to  the  cottage  of  the  suilering 
peasant.  Great  as  were  the  vices  of  individuals,  the  organization  of  the 
clerical  bod}  continued  to  be  respectable,  and  this  was  an  immense  ad- 
vantage when  c  -ery  other  portion  of  civilized  society  was  a  mass  of 
confusion.  When  the  distinction  of  caste  was  rigidly  established  in 
all  the  political  forms  of  social  life,  the  church  scarcely  knew  any 
aristocracy  but  that  of  talent ;  once  received  into  holy  orders,  the  serf 
lost  all  traces  of  his  bondage  ;  he  was  not  merely  raised  to  an  equality 
with  the  former  lord,  but  he  could  aspire  to  dignities  whi(  h  threw  those 
of  temporal  princes  into  the  shade.  The  clerical  was  *hus  identified 
with  the  popular  cause,  and  the  bulk  of  the  laity  not  only  received  the 
claims  of  the  priesthood,  but  gave  them  additional  extension.  \ 

Hildebrand  was  the  first  who  perceived  the  tendency  and  the  strength 
of  this  current,  and  he  probably  was  sincere  in  his  belief  that  the 
church  supplied  the  only  means  by  which  the  regeneration  of  Europe 
could  be  effected.  Feudalism,  the  worst  of  foes  to  social  order,  stood 
opposed    to    the    sovereignly  of  the    moisarch    and   the   liberty  of  tViv 

26 


102  MODERN  HISTORY 

subject ;  the  env)erors  were  too  v/eak,  the  people  too  ignorf.nt,  to  slTUg 
gle  against  it ;  and  the  wise  arrangements  of  Providence,  by  which 
good  has  been  so  frequently  wrought  out  of  evil,  made  the  revival  of 
popery  the  instrument  by  which  Europe  was  rescued  from  barbarism. 
Hildebrand's.  personal  character  is  really  a  matter  of  no  importance  ; 
his  measures  in  the  present  age  would  justly  subject  him  to  the  charge 
of  extravagant  ambition  and  blundering  tyranny ;  but  in  the  eleventh 
ctmtury,  everyone  of  these  measures  was  necessary  to  counteract  some 
evil  principle,  and  milder  or  more  justifiable  means  would  not  have  beeu 
odcquate  to  the  occasion.  We  must  not  pass  sentence  on  an  institution 
without  examining  the  opinion  on  which  it  is  founded ;  and  before  we 
judge  of  the  opinion,  we  must  estimate  the  circumstances  by  which  it 
was  engendered.  The  disorganized  state  of  Europe  produced  a  strong 
opinion  that  some  power  for  appeal  and  protection  should  be  constitu- 
ted ;  a  power  with  intelligence  to  guide  its  decisions,  and  sanctity  to  en- 
force respect  for  them  :  the  revived  papacy  seemed  an  institution  suited 
to  these  conditions,  and  under  the  circumstances  it  was  capable  of  being 
rendered  the  great  instrument  for  reforming  civil  society. 

Hildebrand's  own  writings  prove  that  his  design  was  to  render  the 
papacy  such  an  institution  as  we  have  described ;  it  was  indeed  a 
beautiful  theory  to  base  power  upon  intelligence,  and  concentrate  both 
in  the  church.  But  Hildebrand  did  not  make  a  discovery  which  too 
often  has  eluded  reformers  and  legislators,  that  his  plan  was  suited  only 
to  peculiar  circumstances,  that  it  was  only  applicable  to  a  period  when 
state  power  was  corrupt  and  popular  intelligence  restricted,  and  that  to 
give  it  permanence  was  to  extend  its  duration  beyond  the  period  of  it« 
utility,  and  consequently  prepare  the  way  for  its  becoming  just  as  mis- 
chievous as  the  evils  it  had  been  devised  to  counteract. 

This  general  view  of  the  state  of  society  will  enable  us  to  form  a 
better  judgment  of  the  struggle  in  which  Hildebrand  engaged  than 
could  be  done  if  we  confined  ourselves  to  a  simple  narrative  ;  we  shall 
now  proceed  to  relate  the  course  adopted  by  the  enterprising  monk  to 
exalt  the  spiritual  power. 

Leo  IX.,  on  whom  the  emperor,  as  we  have  said,  conferred  the 
papacy,  was  a  prelate  of  virtuous  principles  and  strict  integrity,  but  he 
was  a  man  infirm  of  purpose,  and  weak  in  understanding.  Hildebrand 
was  well  aware  of  the  advantages  that  might  be  derived  from  the  pope's 
character,  and  in  his  first  interview  he  gained  such  an  ascendency  over 
Leo's  mind,  that  henceforth  the  pope  was  a  passive  instrument  in  the 
hands  of  his  adviser.  The  pontiff  naturally  dreaded  that  the  circum- 
stance of  his  having  been  nominated  by  the  emperor,  and  elected  by  a 
German  diet,  would  render  him  unpopular  in  Italy ;  but  Hildebrand 
smoothed  the  way,  and  by  his  personal  influence  secured  Leo  a  favor 
able  reception  at  Rome.  This  service  was  rewarded  by  an  accumula- 
tion of  dignities  ;  Hildebrand  soon  united  in  his  person  the  titles  and 
offices  of  cardinal,  sub-deacon,  abbot  of  St.  Paul,  and  keeper  of  the 
altar  and  treasury  of  St.  Peter.  The  clergy  and  people  of  Rome  ap- 
plauded these  proceedings,  because  the  favorite  had  induced  Leo  to 
gratify  the  national  vanity,  by  submitting  to  the  form  of  a  new  election 
immediately  after  his  arrival  in  the  city. 

Leo  made  unremitting  exertions  to  reform  the  clergy  and  the  monas 


GROWTH  OF  THE    PAPAL  POWER.  403 

lie  uiders  ;  but,  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign  he  marched  against  the  Nor 
mans,  who  were  ravaging  the  south  of  Italy,  and  was  unfortunately  taken 
prisoner.  Though  the  conquerors  showed  every  respect  to  their  cap- 
tive, the  misfortime  weighed  heavily  on  his  proud  spirit;  and  his  grief 
was  aggravated  by  the  reproaches  of  some  of  his  clergy,  who  con- 
demned him  for  desecrating  his  holy  office  by  appearing  in  arms.  He 
died  of  a  broken  heart  soon  after  his  liberation,  and  the  deposed  Bene- 
dict IX.  seized  the  opportunity  of  reascending  the  papal  throne. 

Hildebrand  was  opposed  to  the  imperial  influence,  but  he  hated 
more  intensely  the  nearer  and  more  dangerous  power  of  the  Italian  no- 
bles, and  therefore  he  became  an  active  and  energetic  opponent  of  their 
creature,  Benedict.  The  monastic  orders  supported  one  whom  they 
justly  regarded  as  the  pride  and  ornament  of  tueir  body,  and  by  their 
means  Hildebrand  gained  such  a  commanding  influence  over  the  Roman 
people,  that  he  could  truly  represent  himseif  to  the  emperor  as  their 
delegate  in  choosing  a  new  pope.  Henry  nominated  a  German  bishop 
to  the  dignity,  who  took  the  name  of  Victor  II.,  and  the  cardinal-monk 
hoped  to  exercise  the  same  authority  in  the  new  reign  that  he  had  pos- 
sessed under  Leo  IX.  The  pope,  however,  soon  became  weary  of 
having  "  a  viceroy  over  him  ;"  he  sent  his  ambitious  minister  into 
France  with  the  title  of  legate,  under  the  honorable  pretext  of  correct- 
ing the  abuses  that  had  crept  into  the  Gallican  church.  Hildebrand 
performed  his  task  with  more  rigor  than  it  would  have  been  prudeiK 
for  a  less  popular  minister  to  display ;  he  excommunicated  several  in>' 
moral  priests  and  bishops,  and  even  sentenced  some  monks  to  death 
for  a  breach  of  their  monastic  vows.  After  a  year's  absence  he  returned 
to  Rome  more  powerful  than  ever,  and  Victor  was  content  to  receive 
tiim  as  his  chief  adviser  and  director. 

In  the  meantime  the  emperor  Henry  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  of  the  same  name,  who  was  yet  an  infant.  Hildebrand  was  too 
sagacious  not  to  discover  the  advantage  with  which  the  papal  power 
would  struggle  against  the  imperial  during  a  minority,  and  he  secretly 
prepared  for  the  contest.  The  death  of  Victor,  speedily  followed  by 
that  of  his  successor,  Stephen  IX.,  delayed,  but  did  not  alter,  the  car- 
dinal-monk's Intentions,  for  circumstances  compelled  him  to  appear  as 
an  advocate  of  the  imperial  authority. 

On  the  death  of  Stephen,  the  aristocratic  faction,  presuming  'on  the 
minority  of  the  emperor,  rushed  at  night,  with  a  body  of  armed  men, 
intc  the  Vatican  church,  where  they  declared  John,  bishop  of  Velitri, 
one  of  heir  body,  pope,  with  the  title  of  Benedict  X.  Hildebrand 
received  this  intelligence  as  he  returned  from  Germany  ;  it  was  brought 
to  him  by  the  terrified  cardinals  and  bishops  who  had  fled  from  Rome ; 
he  assembled  the  fugitives  at  Siemia,  and  prevailed  upon  them  to  elect 
the  bishop  of  Florence,  who  took  the  name  Nicholas  II.  The  empe- 
ror's sanction  was  easily  procured  for  the  latter  election,  and  the  impe- 
rial court  was  persuaded  that  it  was  supporting  its  own  interests  when 
it  placed  Nicholas  upon  the  papal  throne. 

Circumstances  soon  occurred  to  prove  that  the  Geniians  had  been 
deluded ;  Nicholas  assembled  a  council  at  Rome,  in  which  it  was  de- 
ciecd  that  the  cardinals  alone  should  in  future  have  a  voice  in  the 
'-lection  of  the  pope  ;  but  to  avoid  any  open  breach  with  the  emperor, 


i04  MODERN  HISTORY. 

d  clause  was  added,  reserving  to  him  all  due  honor  and  respect.  A 
less  equivocal  proceeding  soon  followed  ;  the  Normans,  who  had  set' 
tied  in  the  south  of  Italy,  had  become  more  amenable  to  the  church 
than  they  had  been  in  the  days  of  Leo.  The  lust  of  conquest  waa 
abated,  and  they  were  now  anxious  to  obtain  some  security  for  their 
')Ossessions  ;  they  therefore  tendered  their  alliance  and  feudal  allegi- 
ance to  the  pope,  on  condition  of  his  confirming  their  titles.  By  the 
advice  of  Hildebrand,  Nicholas  gave  to  Richard  Guiscard  the  princi- 
pality of  Capua,  and  granted  Robert  Guiscard  the  title  of  duke,  with 
the  investiture  of  all  the  lands  he  had  conquered,  or  should  conquer,  iu 
Sicily,  Apulia,  and  Calabria. 

The  pope  readily  granted  that  to  which  he  had  no  right,  a  proceed- 
ing  that  might  have  cost  him  dear,  if  the  old  emperor  had  survived : 
the  Normans,  in  return,  lent  their  aid  to  punish  the  enemies  of  Nicho- 
las in  the  Roman  territory.  The  lands  of  the  turbulent  aristocracy 
were  ravaged  with  unsparing  cruelty,  and  it  is  to  the  desolation  thus 
produced,  that  the  depopulation  of  the  country  round  Rome,  even  at 
the  present  day,  must  be  attributed. 

While  Hildebrand  was  maturing  his  plans  for  re-establishing  the 
papacy,  many  circumstances  occur-ed,  which  proved  the  expediency 
of  establishing  a  central  controlling  power  in  the  church.  The  eccle- 
siastics of  Milan  had  been,  for  nearly  two  hundred  years,  independent 
of  the  holy  see,  and  their  church  had  become  the  scandal  of  Italy. 
Benefices  were  openly  sold,  immoralities  flagrantly  practised,  until  at 
length  a  respectable  portion  of  the  laity  requested  the  interference  of 
the  pope.  Peter  Damian  was  sent  as  a  legate  to  Milan,  but  the  popu- 
lace, incited  by  the  priests,  raised  a  formidable  insurrection,  and  threat- 
ened to  murder  him  for  menacing  their  independence.  Peter,  undis- 
mayed, ascended  a  pulpit  in  one  of  their  principal  churches,  and  made 
such  an  effective  discourse,  that  the  rioters  not  only  submitted,  but  en- 
couraged him  to  pursue  his  task  of  investigation.  The  inquiry  proved, 
that  nearly  every  priest  in  Milan  had  purchased  his  preferment,  and 
lived  with  a  concubine.  The  archlnshop,  after  an  obstinate  resistance, 
was  bnmght  to  confess,  that  he  had  transgressed  the  canons  ;  but  he 
was  pardoned  by  the  legate,  on  condition  of  swearing,  with  his  clergy, 
to  observe  the  ecclesiastical  rules  for  the  future.  Scarcely,  however, 
had  the  legate  departed,  when  the  clergy  assailed  the  archbishop  for 
betraying  the  rights  of  their  church,  and  compelled  him  to  retract  the 
conduions  to  which  he  had  so  recently  sworn.  The  troubles  in  Milan 
burst  out  afresh,  and  the  profligacy  of  the  clergy  seemed  to  have  been 
increased  by  the  temporary  interrui)tion. 

Ere  Nicholas  could  make  any  eflbrt  to  terminate  these  disorders,  he 
was  seized  by  a  mortal  disease  ;  his  death  made  a  great  change  in  the 
political  aspect  of  Italy,  for  tlie  church  party,  encouraged  by  Hilde- 
brand, set  both  the  emperor  and  the  aristocracy  at  defiance.  The  car- 
dinals and  bishops,  without  waiting  for  the  imperial  sanction,  conferred 
the  papacy  on  Anselmo,  bishop  of  Lucca,  who  took  the  title  of  Alex- 
ander 11. ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  counts  of  Tuscany,  hoping  to  recover 
ihe  lands  that  had  been  wresKnl  from  thesn  by  the  Narmans,  declared 
ibat  jhey  would  support  the  emperor's  right  of  nomination.  The  Ro- 
Tiaii  nobles  liad  Inthnrto  owed  their  partial  success  (o  their  having  sup 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  405 

j^)rted  a  national  prelate  ;  they  soon  found  that  their  strength  was 
gone,  when  they  gave  their  aid  to  a  foreign  competitor.  Supported  by 
a  German  and  Lombard  army,  Cadislaus,  who  had  been  chosen  by  the 
emperor,  appeared  before  the  gates  of  Rome,  but  the  citizens  refused 
him  admission.  At  first  the  imperialists  gained  some  advantages,  but 
the  arrival  of  Duke  Godfrey,  witn  an  auxiliary  force  of  Normans, 
changed  the  fortunes  of  the  war,  and  Cadislaus  was  compelled  to  make 
a  hasty  retreat.  He  sought  refuge  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  where 
ne  was  closely  besieged.  Soon  afterward,  the  young  emperor,  having 
been  removed  by  a  stratagem  fi'om  the  protection  oi  his  mother,  was 
placed  under  the  control  of  the  archbishops  of  Bremen  and  Cologne  ; 
at  their  instigation  he  recognised  Alexander  as  the  legitimate  pope,  and 
Cadislaus,  finding  himself  abandoned  by  his  principal  protector,  fled  in 
disguise  from  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo  to  his  native  diocese,  where  he 
died  in  obscurity. 

During  the  brief  reign  of  Alexander,  liildebrand  was  the  real  gov- 
ernor of  the  church.  As  soon  as  the  war  with  Cadislaus  was  ended, 
he  directed  his  attention  to  the  affairs  of  Milan,  excommunicating  the 
perjured  archbishop,  and  ordering  that  all  the  priests  who  were  mar- 
ried, or  who  lived  in  concubinage,  should  be  ejected  from  their  cures. 
Supported  by  the  populace  and  a  large  body  of  the  nobles,  the  papal 
legate  not  only  enforced  this  decree,  but  obtained  from  the  clergy  and 
people  a  solemn  oath,  that,  for  the  future,  they  would  hold  no  election 
of  a  bishop  valid,  unless  it  was  confirmed  by  /ue  pope. 

The  excommunicated  archbishop  resigned  his  see,  and  sent  the  in- 
signia of  his  office,  the  pastoral  rod  and  ring,  to  the  emperor.  God- 
frey, a  deacon  of  Milan,  was  appointed  to  supply  the  vacancy  by  the 
imperial  council ;  but  the  citizens  of  Milan  refused  to  receive  him, 
and  chose  for  their  archbishop,  Atto,  a  nominee  of  the  pope.  A  fierce 
war  raged  between  the  rival  prelates,  and  Alexander,  indignant  at  the 
support  that  Godfrey  received  from  the  emperor,  summoned  that  prince 
to  appear  before  his  tribunal,  on  a  charge  of  simony,  and  granting  in- 
vestitures without  the  approbation  of  the  see  of  Rome. 

Neither  the  ambition  nor  the  cares  of  Pope  Alexander,  or  rather  his 
insigator  Hildebrand,  were  confined  to  the  Italian  peninsula.  By 
means  of  the  popularity  which  the  pretensions  of  the  mendicant  friars 
had  given  their  order  throughout  Europe,  he  established  an  interest  for 
himself  in  every  part  of  Christendom.  Faithful  agents  kept  a  strict 
watch  over  the  proceedings  of  the  emperor  Henry,  legates  were  sent 
to  Denmark  and  Norway,  the  allegiance  of  the  king  of  Bohemia  was 
secured  by  permission  to  wear  the  mitre,  and  the  virtual  independence 
cf  the  Anglo-Saxon  church  was  destroyed  by  the  Norman  conquest,  to 
the  success  of  which  the  interference  of  the  pope  and  of  Hildebrand 
materially  contributed. 

The  pretexts  of  the  pontiffs  'ire  characttsristics  of  the  superstitions  of 
ihs  age.  Harold,  the  last  Saxon  monarch  of  England,  had,  during 
an  accidental  visit  to  Ncj mandy,  been  forced  to  swear  that  he  would 
faA'or  the  succession  of  William,  whose  claims  were  founded  on  a  real 
or  pretended  promise  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  This  compulsory  oath, 
It  seems,  would  not  have  been  considered  binding,  had  not  Harold  un- 
H'ittingly  sworn  it  on  a  chest  of  relics,  collected  from  all  the  surround- 


406  MODERN  HISTORY 

ing  cliurches  When,  therefore,  on  the  death  of  Edward,  he  accepted 
the  cro\vn,  proffered  to  him  by  the  free  voice  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  he 
was  regarded,  not  as  a  patriot  resolved  to  maintain  his  country's  inde- 
pendence,  but  as  a  perjured  wretch  who  had  trampled  on  the  most  sol- 
emn obligations.  Hildebrand  eagerly  seized  this  opportunity  of  estab- 
lishing the  papal  supremacy  over  a  national  church,  whose  claims  to 
independence  had  long  given  offence  at  Rome.  At  his  instigation,  the 
claims  of  the  Norman  duke  to  the  English  crown  were  solemnly  recog- 
nised by  the  papal  council :  a  bull  containing  this  decision  was  sent  to 
William,  together  with  a  consecrated  standard,  and  a  ring,  said  to  con- 
tain a  hair  from  the  head  of  St.  Peter,  enclosed  in  a  diamond  of  consid- 
erable A'alue.  But  we  learn  from  a  letter,  subsequently  addressed  by 
Hildebrand  to  the  conqueror,  that  there  were  some  in  the  conclave  who 
opposed  this  iniquitous  interference  Avith  the  rights  of  nations,  and  se- 
verely reproached  the  cardinal-monk  for  advocating  the  cause  of  a  ty 
rannical  usurper. 

But  Hildebrand  did  not  extend  to  the  Norm?.. is  in  Italy  the  same  fa- 
vor that  he  showed  to  their  brethren  in  England.  Aided  by  the  force? 
of  the  countess  Matilda,  a  devoted  adherent  of  the  church,  and  heiress 
to  a  considerable  territory,  he  forced  them  to  resign  the  districts  they 
had  wrested  from  the  holy  see.  Anxious  to  retain  this  sovereignty, 
Hildebrand  violently  opposed  a  marriage  between  the  countess  and  God- 
frey Gobbo,  a  son  whom  her  step-father  had  by  a  former  wife,  before  his 
marriage  with  her  mother.  Such  a"  union,  indeed,  was  warranted  by 
the  strict  letter  of  the  canonical  degrees,  but  still  it  was,  in  some  degree, 
revolting  to  the  feelings.  Gobbo  was  excommunicated,  but  Hildebrand 
secretly  hinted  that  he  might  be  reconciled  to  the  church,  on  making 
proper  submissions. 

But  all  these  political  struggles  were  cast  into  the  shade,  by  the 
daring  citation  of  the  emperor  Henry :  every  one  regarded  it  as  a  dec- 
laration of  war  between  the  spiritual  and  temporal  authorities,  and  it 
must  have  been  obvious  to  all,  that  the  death  of  Alexander  H.  only  de- 
layed the  contest.  More  had  been  done  during  the  reign  of  this  pope 
to  extend  the  authority  of  the  papacy,  than  in  any  former  pontificate  , 
but  this  must  not  be  attributed  either  to  the  faults  or  to  the  merits  of 
Alexander,  who  was  a  mere  instrument  in  the  hands  of  his  ambitious 
minister.  The  monks,  to  raise  Hildebrand's  fame,  published  tales  of 
the  numerous  miracles  he  wrought,  which  were  greedily  received  by 
the  superstitious  populace,  and  tended  greatly  to  extend  his  influence  . 
we  have  taken  no  notice  of  these  legends  ;  a  greater  miracle  than  an)' 
Aey  record,  is,  that  rational  beings  should  be  found  sufficiently  credu- 
lous to  believe  and  repeat  such  monstrous  absurdities. 

Section  V. — Ponlificale  of  Gregory  VII. 

FROM    A.    D.    1073    TO    A.    D.    1086. 

There  were  few  statesmen  in  any  part  of  Christendom,  who  did  not 
dread  the  accession  of  Hildebrand  to  the  papacy,  but  there  were  none 
prepared  to  orovoke  his  resentment  by  interfering  to  prevent  his  elec- 
tion. The  irregular  and  precipitate  manner  in  which  he  was  chosen, 
seems  ro  prove  that  some  opposition  was  dreaded  by  his  partisans  :  aud 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  TOWER.  407 

llil'lebrand  himself  found  it  necessary  to  disarm  hostility,  by  an  affec- 
tation of  submission  to  the  emperor.  He  wrote  to  Henry,  that  he  had 
been  chosen  against  his  Avill,that  he  had  no  wish  for  the  office,  and  that 
he  would  not  be  consecrated  without  the  imperial  sanction.  Deceived 
1  y  this  hypocrisy,  Henry  ratified  the  irreaular  election,  and  Hildetrand 
was  enthroned  with  the  title  of  Gregory  VII. 

No  sooner  was  he  secured  on  the  throne,  than  he  began  to  put  in  ex- 
ecution his  favorite  plan  for  securing  the  independence  of  the  church, 
by  preventing  lay  interference  in  the  collation  of  benefices.  Before  he 
had  been  a  month  elected,  he  sent  a  legate  into  Spain,  to  reform  the  ec- 
clesiastical abuses  of  that  kingdom  ;  but  principally  to  claim  for  the  apos- 
tolic see  all  the  conquests  that  had  recently  been  made  from  the  Moors, 
under  the  pretence  that  the  Spanish  peninsula,  before  the  Saracenic 
invasion,  had  been  tributary  to  the  successors  of  St.  Peter.  Henry  was 
so  much  daunted  by  this  and  similar  displays  of  vigor,  that  he  sent  a 
submissive  letter  to  the  pontiff,  acknowledging  his  former  errors  m  his 
dispute  with  Alexander,  which  he  attributed  to  his  youth  and  the  influ- 
ence of  evil  counsellors,  desiring  him  to  arrange  the  troubles  in  tlie 
church  of  Milan  at  his  discretion,  and  promising  to  assist  him  in  every- 
thing with  the  imperial  authority. 

The  two  great  objects  of  the  pope  were,  to  enforce  the  celibacy  of 
the  clerg)%  and  the  papal  right  to  the  investiture  of  bishops.  The  for- 
mer of  these  projects  was  a  matter  of  discipline,  defended  on  plausible 
grounds  of  expediency.  Its  advocates  pleaded  that  a  clergyman  unen- 
cumbered with  the  cares  of  a  family  could  devote  his  whole  attention  to 
the  flock  intrusted  to  his  charge  ;  and  that  a  bishop  without  children 
would  be  free  to  exercise  his  patronage  without  being  warped  by  domes- 
tic aff"ection.  On  the  other  hand,  men  were  thus  forced  to  sacrifice  the 
noblest  and  best  of  human  feelings  ;  they  were  denaturalized,  cut  ofl" 
from  the  influences  of  social  life  :  the  church  became  the  country  and 
the  home  of  every  person  who  embraced  the  ecclesiastical  profession. 
After  ordination,  the  priest  and  the  bishop  were  no  longer  Germans, 
Spaniards,  or  Englishmen  ;  they  were  Romans — ministers  and  peers  of 
a  mighty  empire,  that  claimed  the  dominion  of  the  whole  globe..  Like 
the  envoy  or  minister  of  any  foreign  government,  a  member  of  the 
Romish  hierarchy  observes  the  laws  of  the  state  in  which  his  master 
may  have  placed  him,  and  respects  for  a  time  the  authority  of  the  local 
magistrate  :  but  his  order  is  his  country,  the  pontiflT  is  his  natural  sover- 
eign, and  their  welfare  and  their  honor  are  the  appropriate  objects  of  hia 
puLIic  care.  The  constant  sight  of  such  a  sacrifice  of  the  natural  feel- 
ings of  mankind,  was  obviously  calculated  to  win  the  respect  of  the  laity, 
and  gain  credence  for  the  superior  sanctity  thaf  was  supposed  to  invest 
the  character  of  a  priest. 

The  pope's  determination  tc  destroy  the  practice  of  lay  investitures, 
was  defended  on  more  plausible  grounds.  The  administration  of  eccle- 
siastical patronage  by  the  emperor  and  other  temporal  princes,  was  lia- 
ble to  great  abuses,  and  had  actually  led  to  many :  tl^ey  supplied  vacan- 
cies with  the  ignorant,  the  depraved,  and  the  violent ;  they  sought  for 
the  qualifications  of  a  soldier  or  a  politician,  when  they  had  to  elect  a 
oishop.  In  a  dark  age,  \^  hen  monarchs  and  nobles  were  rarely  able  to 
write  their  own  names  ;  when  the  knowledge  of  the  alphabet,  even  in 


408  MODERN  HISTORV 

xristuoratic  families,  was  so  rare,  as  to  bo  tlocmed  a  spell  atrainsl  witcii 
craft ;  and  when  the  fierce  qualities  of  a  warrior  were  valued  more  highly 
than  the  Christian  virtues,  it  seemed  almost  necessary  to  render  ap- 
poirtments  in  the  church  independent  of  the  state.  But  to  this  obvious 
expediency  Gregory  VII.  added  a  blasphemous  claim  of  right,  aa 
Christ's  vicar  on  earth,  and  inheritor  of  his  visible  throne.  While, 
however,  we  condemn  such  impious  assumptions,  we  should  not  re- 
fuse to  Hildebrand  the  credit  of  higher  and  purer  motiv'cs  than  those 
of  personal  aggrandizement,  mingling  in  his  schemes  for  extending  hia 
own  power  and  that  of  his  successors.  It  is  undeniable  that  the  cor- 
porate authority  he  procured  for  the  church  became,  in  many  Euro- 
pean countries,  a  source  of  much  benefit  during  the  middle  ages_ 
overawing  the  violent,  protecting  the  forlorn,  mitigating  the  prevailing 
feiocitv  of  manners,  and  supplying  in  various  ways  the  defects  of  civil 
institutions. 

Gregory  having  assembled  a  general  council  at  Rome,  ordained,  by 
consent  of  the  bishops  present,  that  if  any  one  should  accept  investiture 
from  a  layman,  both  the  giver  and  the  receiver  should  be  excommuni- 
cated ;  that  the  prelates  and  nobles  who  advised  the  emperor  to  claim 
the  collation  of  benefices  should  be  excommunicated ;  and  that  ail  mar- 
ried priests  should  dismiss  their  wives,  or  be  deposed.  These  decrees 
were  communicated  to  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  by  Gregory  himself, 
in  letters  that  m.ust  ever  remain  i  monument  of  his  consummate  abilities. 
His  monstrous  claims  for  the  universal  supremacy  of  the  church  and  of 
the  Romish  see,  are  proposed  in  a  tone  cf  humility  and  candor,  well 
calculated  to  win  the  unthinking  and  unwary ;  his  dictations  assume  the 
form  of  affectionate  suggestions,  and  his  remonstrances  resemble  those 
of  a  tender  and  affectionate  father. 

But  the  pope  did  not  confine  his  exertions  to  mere  words  ;  he  obliged 
the  Normans  to  quit  their  conquests  in  Campania,  proposed  a  crusade 
against  the  Saracens,  who  were  menacing  Constantinople,  and  offered 
:.  province  in  Italy  to  Sweno,  king  of  Denmark,  under  the  pretence  that 
the  inhabitants  were  heretics.  The  emperor  Henry  was  not  deceived 
by  Gregory's  professions  ;  he  hated  the  pontiff  in  his  heart,  and  had 
good  reason  to  believe  that  the  enmity  was  reciprocal.  It  was  there- 
fore with  mingled  jealousy  and  indignation  that  he  saw  a  new  power 
established  which  more  than  rivalled  his  own,  and  he  entered  into  a  se- 
cret alliance  with  the  Normans  against  their  common  enemy.  In  the 
meantime,  a  .'inspiracy  was  formed  against  the  pope  in  Rome  itself  by 
some  of  the  aristocracy,  whose  privileges  he  had  invaded.  Cincius,  the 
prefect  of  the  city,  arrested  the  pontiff  while  he  was  celebrating  mass 
jn  Christmas  day,  and  threw  him  into  prison ;  but  the  populace  soon 
rescued  their  favorite,  Cincius  would  have  been  torn  to  pieces  but  for 
Gregory's  interference,  and  aK  who  had  shared  in  this  act  of  violence 
vi'ere  banished  from  the  city.  Soon  afterward,  Gregory  cited  the  empe- 
ror to  appear  before  the  council  at  Rome,  to  answer  to  the  charge  of 
protecting  excommunicated  bishops,  and  granting  investitures  withou 
the  sanction  of  the  holy  see.  Henry,  enraged  by  the  insult,  and  re- 
lieved from  his  anxieties  in  Germany  by  a  recent  victory  over  the  Sax 
ons,  resolved  to  temporize  no  longer.  He  assembled  a  synod  at  Worms, 
iff  the  princ(>s  and  prelates  devoted  to  his  cause,  and  procured  sentence 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  409 

)i  deposition   against  Gregory,  on  a  charge  of  simony,  murder,  and 
atheism. 

Gregory  was  far  from  being  disheartened  by  the  emperor's  violence 
he  assembled  a  council  at  Rome,  solemnly  excommunicated  Henry,  ab- 
solved his  subjects  in  Germany  and  Italy  from  their  oath  of  allegiance, 
deposed  several  prelates  in  Germany,  France,  and  Lombardy,  and  pub- 
lished a  series  of  papal  constitutions,  in  which  the  claims  of  the  Roman 
jXDntills  to  supremacy  over  all  the  sovereigns  of  the  earth  were  asserted 
in  the  plainest  terms. 

The  most  important  of  these  resolutions,  which  form  the  basis  of  the 
political  system  of  popery,  were — 

That  the  Roman  pontiff  alone  can  be  called  universal. 

That  he  alone  has  a  right  to  depose  bishops. 

That  his  legates  have  a  right  to  preside  over  all  bishops  assembled  iu 
a  general  council. 

That  the  pope  can  depose  absent  prelates. 

That  he  alone  has  a  right  to  use  imperial  ornaments. 

That  princes  are  bound  to  kiss  his  feet,  and  his  only. 

That  he  has  a  right  to  depose  emperors. 

That  no  synod  or  council  summoned  without  his  commission  can  be 
called  general. 

That  no  book  can  be  called  canonical  without  his  authority. 

That  his  sentence  can  be  annulled  by  none,  but  that  he  may  annul 
the  decrees  of  all. 

That  the  Roman  church  has  been.  Is,  and  will  continue,  infallible. 

That  whoever  dissents  from  the  Romish  church  ceases  to  be  a  catholic 
Christian. 

And,  that  subjects  may  be  absolved  from  their  allegiance  to  wicked 
princes. 

Some  cautious  prelates  advised  Gregory  not  to  be  too  hasty  in  ex 
communicating  his  sovereign ;  to  their  remonstrances  he  made  the  fol 
lowing  memorable  reply  :  "  When  Christ  trusted  his  flock  to  St.  Peter, 
saying,  '  Feed  my  sheep,'  did  he  except  kings  ?  Or  when  he  gave  him 
the  power  to  bind  and  loose,  did  he  withdraw  any  one  from  his  visita- 
tion 1  He,  therefore,  who  says  that  he  can  not  be  bound  by  the  bonds 
of  the  church,  must  confess  that  he  can  not  be  absolved  by  it ;  and 
he  who  denies  that  doctrine,  separates  himself  from  Christ  and  his 
church." 

Both  pc^/ties  now  prepared  for  war,  but  all  the  advantages  were  on 
the  side  of  Gregory  At  the  very  commencement  of  the  struggle,  Gobbo, 
the  most  vigorous  supporter  of  the  emperor,  died,  and  his  widow,  the 
countess  Matilda,  placeu  all  her  resources  at  the  disposal  of  the  pontiff. 
So  completely,  indeed,  did  this  princess  devote  herself  to  support  the 
interests  of  Gregory,  that  their  mutual  attachment  was  suspected  of 
having  transgressed  the  limits  of  innocence.  The  duke  of  Dalmatia, 
gratified  by  the  title  of  king,  and  the  Norman  monarch  of  Sicily,  prof- 
fered aid  to  the  pontiff;  even  the  Mohammedan  emperor  of  Morocco 
courted  his  favor,  and-  presented  him  with  the  liberty  of  the  Christian 
slaves  in  his  dominions. 

Henry,  on  the  contrary,  knew  not  where  to  look  for  support ;  in  ev- 
ery quarter  of  his  dominions  monks  and  friars  preached  against  theu 


tlO  MODERN  HISTORY 

sovereign,  and  the  prelates  by  whom  he  had  been  supported  •  the  Siixoii 
nobles  eagerly  embraced  a  religious  pretext  to  renew  their  insurrection , 
the  dukes  of  Suabia  and  Carinthia  demanded  a  change  of  dynasty  ^ 
even  the  prelates  who  had  been  most  zealous  in  urging  Henry  forward, 
terrified  by  threats  of  excommunication,  abandoned  his  cause.  A  diel 
was  assembled  at  Tribur,  attended  by  two  papal  legates,  in  which  it  was 
resolved  tha*  Henry  should  be  deposed,  unless  within  a  limited  peri(jd 
he  presented  himself  before  the  pope  and  obtained  absolution. 

The  prelates  and  nobles  of  Lombardy  alone  maintained  their  courage, 
and  boldly  retorted  the  excommunications  of  Gregory.  Animated  by 
the  hope  of  obtaining  their  efficient  aid,  Henry  resolved  to  cross  the 
Alps  instead  of  waiting  for  Gregory's  arrival  in  Germany.  The  hard- 
ships which  the  unfortunate  monarch  underwent  during  this  journey,  in 
the  depth  of  a  severe  winter — the  dangers  to  which  he  was  exposed 
from  the  active  malice  of  his  enemies — the  sight  of  the  sufferings  of  his 
queen  and  child,  who  could  only  travel  by  being  enclosed  in  the  hides 
of  oxen,  and  thus  dragged  through  the  Alpine  passes — would  have  bro- 
ken a  sterner  spirit  than  Henry's.  He  entered  Lombardy  completely 
disheartened,  and,  though  joined  by  considerable  forces,  he  thought  only 
of  conciliating  his  powerful  enemy  by  submission.  Having  obtained  a 
conference  with  the  countess  Matilda,  Henry  prevailed  upon  her  to  in- 
tercede for  him  with  the  pope  ;  and  her  intercession,  supported  by  the 
principal  nobles  of  Italy,  induced  Gregory  to  grant  an  interview  to  his 
sovereign. 

On  the  21st  of  January,  1077,  Henry  proceeded  to  Canosa,  where  tin 
pope  resided,  and  was  forced  to  submit  to  the  greatest  indignities  thai 
were  ever  heaped  upon  imperial  majesty.  At  the  first  barrier,  he  was 
compelled  to  dismiss  his  attendants ;  when  he  reached  the  second,  he 
was  obliged  to  lay  aside  his  imperial  robes,  and  assume  the  habit  of  a 
penitent.  For  three  entire  days  he  was  forced  to  stand  barefooted  and 
fasting,  from  morning  till  night,  in  the  outer  court  of  the  castle,  during 
one  of  the  severest  winters  that  had  ever  been  known  in  northern 
Italy,  imploring  pardon  of  his  transgressions  from  God  and  the  pope. 
He  was  at  length  admitted  into  the  presence  of  the  haughty  pontiff,  and, 
after  all  his  submissions,  obtained,  not  the  removal,  but  the  suspension 
of  the  excommunication. 

Such  harsh  treatment  sank  deep  into  Henry's  mind ;  and  his  hostility 
to  Gregory  was  exasperated  by  the  pontifl'  accepting  a  'grant  of  the 
countess  Matilda's  possessions  for  the  use  of  the  church,  which  would 
legally  revert  to  the  empire  after  her  decease.  The  reproaches  of  the 
Lombards  also  induced  him  to  repent  of  his  degradation,  and  he  renewed 
the  war  by  a  dishonorable  and  ineffectual  attempt  to  arrest  Gregory  and 
Matilda.  In  the  meantime  the  discontented  nobles  of  Germany  had  as 
Bembled  a  diet  at  Fercheim,  deposed  their  sovereign,  and  elected  Ilo 
dolph,  duke  of  Suabia,  to  the  empire.  This  proceeding  greatly  embar- 
rassed  the  pope  ;  he  dared  not  declare  against  Henry,  who  was  power- 
ful in  Italy,  and  if  he  abandoned  Rodolph,  he  would  ruin  his  own  party 
In  Germany.  He  resolved  to  preserve  a  neutrality  in  the  contest,  and  in 
ihe  meantime  he  diiected  his  attention  to  the  internal  state  of  the  church, 
srhich  had  for  some  time  been  distracted  by  the  controversy  respecting 
the  eucharist. 


GROWTH  or  THE  TAPAL  POWER. 


411 


It  is  not  easy  to  determine  by  whom  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 

9  as  first  broached  :  Selden  very  justly  says,  "  This  opinion  is  only  rhet- 
oric turned  into  logic,"  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how  the  spiritual  presence 
ul  our  Savior  in  the  holy  communion  might,  in  a  dark  and  ignorant  age, 
be  represented  as  an  actual  change  of  the  consecrated  elements  into  hia 
material  substance.  We  are  not  concerned  with  the  theological  errors 
of  this  doctrine  ;  our  subject  only  requires  us  to  notice  the  political  pur- 
poses to  which  it  was  applied.  No  article  of  faith  was  better  calcu- 
lated to  exalt  the  power  of  the  priesthood  ;  it  represented  them  as  daily 
working  a  miracle  equally  stupendous  and  mysterious  ;  true,  its  nature 
was  incomprehensible,  but  this  circumstance,  instead  of  exciting  a  sus- 
picion of  its  absurdity,  only  increased  the  reverence  with  which  it  was 
regarded.  We  must  not  then  be  surprised  at  the  zeal  that  the  Romish 
priesthood  has  ever  manifested  in  defending  an  opinion  which  has  so 
materially  strengthened  its  influence.  The  confessor  to  the  queen  of 
Spain  is  said  to  have  rebuked  the  opposition  of  a  nobleman,  by  saying, 
"  You  should  respect  the  man  who  every  day  has  your  God  in  his  hands 
and  your  queen  at  his  feet."  In  this  brief  sentence,  the  purpose  of  the 
doctrine  is  distinctly  stated  ;  it  conferred  political  power,  and  was  there- 
fore to  be  defended  at  all  hazards.  But  common  sense  frequently  re- 
voited  at  a  doctrine  contracted  by  sight,  feeling,  and  taste  ;  in  the  elev- 
enth century  it  was  ably  exposed  by  Berengarius,  a  priest  of  Tours,  who 
assailed  it  at  once  with  ridicule  and  with  argument.  But  in  his  eightieth 
year,  Berengarius  was  prevailed  upon  by  Gregory  to  renounce  his  for- 
mer opinions,  and  transubstantiation  was  generally  received  as  an  article 
of  faith. 

A  victory  obtained  by  Rodolph  induced  Gregory  to  depart  from  his 
cautious  policy  ;  he  excommunicated  Henry,  and  sent  a  crown  of  gold 

10  his  rival.  The  indignant  emperor  summoned  a  council  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Tyrol,  pronounced  Gregory's  deposition,  and  proclaimed 
Gilbert,  archbishop  of  Ravenna,  pope,  by  the  name  of  Clement  III. 
Gregory  immediately  made  peace  with  the  Normans,  and,  supported 
by  them  and  the  Countess  Matilda,  he  bade  his  enemies  defiance.  But 
in  the  meantime,  Rodolph  was  defeated  and  slain,  the  discontented 
Germans  were  forced  to  submit  to  the  imperial  authority  and  Henry, 
at  ■  the  head  of  a  victorious  army,  crossed  the  Alps  The  Norman 
dukes,  engaged  in  war  with  the  Greek  emperors,  neglected  their  ally, 
and  the  forces  of  the  countess  Matilda  were  unable  to  cope  with  the 
imperialists.  Twice  wa?  Henry  driven  from  before  the  walls  of  Rome  ; 
but  the  third  time  he  gained  an  entrance,  by  a  lavish  distribution  of 
bribes,  and  procured  the  solemn  installation  of  Clement.  The  emper- 
or's departure  left  his  partisans  exposed  to  the  vengeance  of  Gregory  j 
the  pontiff  returned  at  the  head  of  a  Norman  army,  and  gave  the  city 
to  be  pillaged  by  his  barbarous  auxiliaries.  Having  reduced  Rome  al" 
Tiost  to  a  mass  of  ruins,  Gregory  retired  to  Salernu,  where  he  was 
seized  with  a  mortal  disease.  He  died  unconquered,  repeating  will 
his  latest  breath  the  excommunications  which  he  had  hurled  against 
Henry,  the  antipope,  and  their  adherents.  He  viewed  his  own  conduct 
in  the  struggle  with  complacency,  and  frequently  boasted  of  the  good- 
ness of  his  cause.  "  I  have  loved  righteousness  and  hated  iniquity," 
he  exclaimed,  "  and  it  is  therefore  I  die  an  exile." 


4li5  MODERN  HISTORV. 

Grcgorv'  may  be  regarded  as  the  great  founder  of  the  political  systein 
af  popery ;  and  therefore,  while  he  is  extolled  by  some  historians  as  a 
saint,  others  have  described  him  as  a  disgrace  to  humanity.  But  the 
ctiaracter  of  this  remarkable  man  was  formed  by  his  age,  and  developed 
by  the  circumstances  thai  surrounded  him.  He  was  the  representative 
both  of  popery  and  democracy,  principles  apparently  inconsistent,  but 
which  in  ancient  and  modern  times  have  frequently  been  found  in  close 
alliance.  With  the  sanctity  of  the  church  he  shielded  the  people  ;  with 
the  strength  of  the  people  he  gave  stability  to  the  church.  In  the 
course  of  his  long  career  as  the  secret  and  as  the  acknowledged  ruler 
of  the  papacy,  he  displayed  unquestionable  abilities  of  the  highest  or- 
der ;  his  pretensions  to  ascetic  piety  gained  him  the  enthusiastic  ad- 
miration of  the  multitude  ;  the  soldiers  regarded  him  as  abiave  warrior 
and  successful  general ;  the  higher  ranks  of  the  clergy  yielded  in  the 
council  tu  his  fervid  eloquence  and  political  skill.  His  very  faults  be- 
came elements  of  his  success :  he  was  severe,  vindictive,  and  inexor- 
able :  he  knew  not  what  it  was  to  forgive ;  none  of  his  enemies  could 
elude  the  patient  search  and  the  incessant  vigilance  with  which  he 
pursued  those  against  whom  he  treasured  wrath.  It  was  his  custom 
to  witness  tlie  execution  of  those  whose  death  he  decreed ;  and  it  was 
awful  to  contemplate  the  serenity  of  his  countenance  and  the  placidity 
of  his  manners  while  he  presided  over  tortures  and  massacres.  It  can 
not,  therefore,  be  a  matter  of  wonder  that  the  power  of  such  a  man 
Bhould  have  swept  over  Christendom  like  a  torrent,  and  hurried  eveiy- 
»hing  into  the  vortex  of  his  new  and  gigantic  institutions 

Section  VI. —  The  War  of  Investitures. 

FROM  A.   D.   1086  TO  A.   D.   1152. 

Henry  gained  only  a  brief  respite  by  the  death  of  his  formidable 
and  inveterate  antagonist.  Victor  III,  was  elected  by  the  cardinals, 
and  during  his  brief  reign  he  gained  several  advantages  over  the  impe- 
rial party.  He  was  succeeded  by  Urban  II.,  the  friend  and  pupil  of 
Gregory,  who  commenced  his  pontificate  by  sending  an  encyclical  le:- 
ter  to  the  Christian  churches,  declaring  his  resolution  to  adhere  to  the 
political  system  of  his  deceased  master.  Supported  by  the  Normans, 
Urban  entered  Rome,  and  assembled  a  council  of  one  hundred  and  fif- 
teen bishops,  in  which  the  emperor,  the  antipope,  and  their  adherents, 
were  solemnly  excommunicated.  At  the  same  time  he  negotiated  a 
marriage  between  Guelph,  son  of  the  duke  of  Bavaria,  a  distinguished 
pupporter  of  the  papal  cause  in  Germany,  and  the  countess  IN'atilda 
From  this  union,  the  present  dukes  of  Brunswick  and  Lunenburgh,  and 
the  reigning  family  of  England,  trace  their  descent.  Henry  marched 
into  Italy,  and  though  vigorously  opposed  by  Guelph,  gained  several 
important  advantages  ;  but  the  papal  intrigues  raised  enemies  against 
him  in  the  bosom  of  his  family  ;  his  eldes"  son  Conrad  rebelled,  and 
was  crowned  king  of  Italy  by  Urban.  This  revolt  compelled  Henr>-  t(D 
abandon  his  recent  acquisitions,  and  retire  toward  the  Alps. 

A  council  was  summoned  to  meet  at  Placentia,  and  so  large  a  num- 
ber of  bishops  assembled,  that  no  church  could  contain  them,  and  they 
wore  forced  to  deliberate  in  the  open  air.     Most  of  Gregory'?  decreen 


GROWTH  OF  THE   PAPAL  POWER.  413 

were  re-enacted  ;  but,  in  addition  to  the  affair  of  investitures,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  council  was  directed  to  the  rapid  progress  of  the  Moham- 
•nedans  in  the  east,  and  the  dangers  that  threatened  the  empire  of  Con- 
stantmofde  (a.  d.  1095).  The  tales  of  the  persecutions  to  which  the 
Christian  pilgrims  were  exposed  by  tlie  ferocious  Turks,  who  had  be- 
come masters  of  the  Holy  Land,  had  excited  general  indignation 
throughout  Europe.  Peter  the  Hermit,  b,  wild  fanatic,  preached  every- 
where the  necessity  of  rescuing  the  faithful  from  the  infidel  Saracens, 
as  he  ignorantly  called  the  Turks,  and  such  a  flame  was  kindled  by  liis 
exertions,  that  a  decree  was  issued  by  the  council  of  Clermont,  author- 
izing the  first  crusade  ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  king  of  Franct.,  ir 
whose  dominions  the  council  m'et,  was  excommunicated,  and  could  only 
obtain  absolution  by  humiliating  submisbions. 

The  general  insanity  diftused  through  Europe  by  the  preaching  of 
(he  first  crusade,  the  multitudes  that  abandoned  their  homes  to  follow 
Walter  the  Pennyless  or  Godescald  the  Fanatic,  the  massacres  of  the 
Jews,  the  sufferings  and  exploits  of  the  disciplined  adventurers  that 
marched  under  the  banners  of  Godfrey,  will  form  the  subject  of  the 
next  section ;  it  is  enough  here  to  say  that  the  general  fanaticism 
proved  of  essential  service  to  the  papal  cause,  and  that  the  partisans  of 
Henry  suffered  severely  from  the  fury  of  the  crusaders  in  their  passage 
through  Italy. 

Paschal  II.  was  the  successor  of  Urban,  and,  like  him,  steadfastly 
pursued  the  policy  of  Gregory  ;  he  easily  triumphed  over  the  antipope^ 
who  died  of  a  broken  heart,  and  he  urged  a  second  general  crusade, 
which  the  reverses  of  the  Christians  in  the  Holy  Land  rendered  neces- 
sary. To  consolidate  the  papal  structure,  he  assembled  a  council  at 
Rome,  and  procured  the  enactment  of  a  new  oath,  to  be  taken  by  all 
ranks  of  the  clergy.  By  this  oath  they  abjured  all  heresy,  they  prom- 
ised implicit  obedience  to  the  pope  and  his  successors,  to  afllrm  what 
the  holy  and  universal  church  confirms,  and  to  condemn  what  she  con- 
demns (a.  d.  1104).  Soon  after,  the  old  emperor,  Henry,  was  treach- 
erously arrested  by  his  own  son  Henry  V.,  and  deprived  of  his  imps- 
rial  dignity :  he  subsequently  escaped,  but  before  hostilities  made  any 
progress,  ho  died  of  a  broken  heart.  The  bishop  of  Liege  honorably 
interred  the  body  of  his  unfortunate  sovereign,  but  papal  enmity  pur- 
sued K  ^nry  beyond  the  grave  ;  the  benevolent  prelate  was  excommu- 
nicate 1,  and  could  only  obtain  absolution  by  disinterring  the  corpse. 

Though  Henry  V.  owed  his  throne  to  papal  influence,  he  would  nol 
yield  the  imperial  right  to  granting  investitures,  and  his  example  waa 
followed  by  the  kings  of  England  and  France.  The  form  in  which 
fflonarchs  gave  investiture  by  bestowing  a  pastoral  ring  and  stafl',  was 
regarded  by  the  popes  as  an  interference  with  their  spiritual  jurisdic- 
tion, and  when  the  form  was  altered,  they  gave  no  further  trouble  to 
the  English  and  French  monarchs,  but,  in  their  disputes  with  the  em 
perors,  they  not  only  forbade  ecclesiastics  to  receive  investiture  from 
aymen,  but  even  to  take  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  them. 

The  fifth  Henry  proved  a  more  formidable  enemy  to  the  papacy  than 
Ills  father  ,  he  led  an  army  into  Italy,  made  Paschal  prisoner,  compelled 
nira  to  perform  the  ceremony  of  his  coronation,  and  to  issue  a  bull  se- 
curing the  right  of  investiture  to  the  emperor  and  his  successors.     But 


il^  MODERN   HISTORY. 

the  remonstrances  of  the  cardinals  induced  the  pope  to  annul  the  treaty, 
and  he  permitted  Henry  to  be  excommunicated  by  several  provinciai 
councils.  The  pontili',  however,  did  not  ratify  the  sentence  until  the 
Jcath  of  the  countess  Matilda,  and  the  disputes  about  her  inheritance 
created  fresh  animosities  between  the  empire  and  the  holy  see. 

The  death  of  Paschal  prevented  an  immediate  war.  His  successois 
Gelasius  II.  and  Calixtus  II.,  however,  supported  his  policy,  and,  aftti 
a  long  struggle,  the  emperor  was  forced  to  resign  his  claim  to  episcu; 
pal  investitures,  but  he  was  permitted  to  retain  the  investiture  of  the 
temporal  rights  belonging  to  the  sees. 

During  the  pontificate  of  Honorius  II.,  tlie  successor  of  Calixtn>Sj 
the  church  of  Ireland,  for  the  first  time,  was  brought  under  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  pope  by  the  exertions  of  St.  Malachi,  a  monk  of  great  u  llu- 
ence  and  reputation.  The  greater  part  of  the  reign  of  Honorius  was 
epent  in  a  contest  with  the  Normans  in  southern  Italy,  wl.>.m  he  forced 
to  continue  in  their  allegiance. 

Innocent  II.  and  Anacletus,  elected  by  rival  factions,  were  both  en- 
throned the  same  day,  and  the  paj)acy  was  consequently  rent  by  a 
schism.  Anacletus  was  the  grandson  of  a  converted  Jew  ;  he  posses- 
sed great  wealth,  was  a  favorite  with  the  Roman  populace,  and  had  an 
undoubted  majority  of  the  cardinals  in  his  favor,  yet  he  is  stigmatized 
as  an  antipope.  This  was  principally  owing  to  the  exertions  of  the 
celebrated  St.  Bernard,  who  warmly  espoused  the  cause  of  Innocent, 
and  procured  him  the  support  of  the  king  of  France  and  the  German 
emperor.  On  the  death  of  Anacletus,  his  party  elected  another  anti- 
pope,  but  he  soon  made  his  submission  to  Innocent,  and  the  schism  was 
appeased. 

A  general  council  was  soon  afterward  assembled  at  Rome  (a.  d. 
1139),  at  which  no  less  than  a  thousand  bishops  were  present;  several 
ordinances  were  made  for  completing  the  ecclesiastical  organization  of 
the  church.  The  opinions  of  Arnold  of  Brescia  were  condemned  at 
this  council ;  they  were  derived  from  the  celebrated  Abelard,  whobe 
controversy  with  St.  Bernard  began  to  excite  universal  attention. 

Abelard  was  generally  regarded  as  the  most  accomplished  scholar 
-ind  the  best  logician  in  Europe  ;  crowds  of  disciples  flocked  to  hear 
his  lectures,  and  though  he  did  not  break  through  the  trammels  of  scho- 
lastic philosophy,  he  gave  an  impulse  to  the  spirit  of  inquiry  which,  in 
a  future  age,  produced  beneficial  effects.  St.  Bernard,  whose  opinions 
were  invested  by  the  bishops  with  a  kind  of  apostolic  authority,  accused 
Abelard  of  teaching  heretical  opinions  respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  trini- 
\y.  Abelard  denied  the  imputation,  and  the  dispute  turned  on  metaphys- 
ical subtleties,  to  which  neither  parly  affixed  a  definite  meaning.  Abel- 
ard's  oj)inions  were  condemned  by  a  council  at  Sens,  but  he  wa;- 
permitted  to  retire  into  the  monastery  of  Clugny,  where  he  died  in  peace. 

This  obscure  controversy  was  the  first  symptom  of  the  struggle  be- 
tween scholastic  divinity  and  philosophy.  Abelard  was  subdued,  buf 
he  bequeathed  his  cause  to  a  succession  of  faithful  disciples,  who  grad- 
ually emancipated  knowledge  from  the  confinement  of  the  cloister,  and 
liberated  the  human  mind  from  the  thraldom  of  popery.  Abelard's  opin- 
ons  were  purely  theological  ;  his  disciple,  Arnold  of  Brescia,  abandon- 
lua  his  muster's  mysticism,  directed  his  uttention  to  the  reform  of  tho 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PaPAL  POWER.  415 

;;hurch  and  of  the  government.  He  declared  that  the  political  power 
and  wealth  of  the  clergy  were  inconsistent  with  the  sanctity  of  their 
profession,  and  he  began  to  preach  these  doctrines  in  Italy  and  Ger- 
many ;  so  great  was  his  influence,  that  he  was  invited  to  Rome,  in  order 
to  revive  the  republic.  Innocent  11.,  Celestine  II.,  Lucius  II.,  and 
Eugenius  III.,  had  to  struggle  with  "  the  politicians,"  as  the  followers 
of  Arnold  were  called,  for  the  maintenance  of  their  domestic  power ; 
and  during  this  period  the  aggressions  of  popery  on  the  rights  of  kings 
and  nations  were  suspended.  Rome  set  the  example  of  resistance  to 
the  pontiff's ;  Italy,  for  a  brief  space,  furnished  the  boldest  opponents  to 
the  papal  usurpations  ;  but  when  Europe  began  to  profit  by  the  example, 
ihe  Italians  discovered  that  the  overthrow  of  the  papacy  would  diminish 
the  profits  which  they  derived  from  the  payments  made  by  superstition 
and  ignorance  to  the  Roman  exchequer ;  and  they  lent  their  aid  to  the 
support  of  the  lucrative  delusion  they  had  been  the  first  to  expose,  and 
even  yielded  their  liberties  to  the  pontiffs,  on  condition  of  sharing  in 
their  unhallowed  gains. 

The  claims  of  the  popes  to  spiritual  and  temporal  power,  the  means 
they  employed  to  effect  their  object,  their  struggle  against  royal  power 
on  the  one  side,  and  national  independence  on  the  other,  form  the  most 
important  part  of  European  history  during  several  centuries.  A  calm 
and  careful  examination  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  papal  system  is 
therefore  necessary  to  a  right  understanding  of  the  social  condition  of 
Europe  in  the  ages  preceding  the  Reformation.  To  render  this  portion 
of  history  satisfactory  to  the  student,  it  is  necessary  to  trace  back  the 
early  history  of  Christianity,  and  point  out  some  of  the  corruptions  by 
which  its  purity  was  early  disfigured. 

Section  VII. —  The  Crusades. 

The  wars  undertaken  by  the  crusaders  for  the  conquest  of  Palestine, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  popes,  form  an  essential  part  of  the  history  of 
the  great  struggle  between  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers.  To  un- 
derstand aright  the  influence  they  exercised,  it  will  be  necessary  to  cast 
a  retrospective  glance  at  their  origin,  and  at  the  state  of  society  in  the 
eastern  and  western  world,  when  first  this  great  movement  began. 

Pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  localities  that  had  been  hallowed 
by  our  blessed  Savior's  presence,  were  common  in  the  earliest  ages  of 
the  church.  They  began  to  multiply  very  rapidly  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  century,  in  consequence  of  an  opinion  very  generally  dif- 
^ised,  that  the  end  of  the  world  was  at  hand  ;  many  persons  sold  their 
estates,  and  migrated  to  the  Holy  Land,  to  wait  there  the  coming  of  the 
Lord.  While  the  Saracens  remained  masters  of  Palestine,  they  encour- 
aged and  protected  visiters  whose  arrival  brought  them  considerable 
profit,  but  when  the  Seljiikian  Turks  wrested  the  country  from  the  kha- 
liphs  of  Egypt,  the  pilgrims  were  subjected  to  every  extortion  and  out- 
rage that  fanaticism  and  ignorance  could  dictate.  Their  sad  recital  of 
the  cal^ities  they  were  forced  to  endure  excited  universal  indignation, 
and  Gregory  VII.  was  ihe  first  to  propose  a  general  arming  throughout 
Christendom,  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  Turks  beyond  the  Euplirates. 
The  time  was  nol   propitious  for  such  an  undertaking;  the  wais  of  the 


416 


MODEllX  HISTORY. 


empire  engaged  the  attention  and  employed  the  arms  of  the  chief  mill 
tary  leaders.  But  when  the  Normans  had  completed  the  conquest  of 
England  and  the  two  Sicilies,  when  the  imperial  power  had  sunk  before 
the  popes  in  Italy  and  the  feudal  princes  in  Germany,  vast  hordes  of 
military  adventurers  who  remained  without  employment,  ready  to  em- 
brace any  cause  that  promised  to  gratify  their  love  of  glory  and  plunder 
At  this  moment  an  enthusiastic  monk,  usually  called  Peter  the  Hermit, 
indignant  at  the  oppression  of  the  Christians,  which  he  had  witnessed 
in  Palestine,  began  to  preach  the  duty  of  expelling  the  infidels  from  the 
patrimony  of  Christ,  and  by  his  energetic  labors,  widely  diffused  his 
own  fanaticism. 

Peter's  zeal  was  vigorously  seconded  by  Pope  TJrl)an  II. ;  the  pontill 
went  personally  to  France,  and  held  a  council  at  Clermont  (a.  d.  1095), 
w^here  the  war  Avas  sanctioned  with  great  enthusiasm,  and  multitudes 
assumed  the  badge  of  the  cross,  as  the  symbol  of  their  enlistment.  The 
first  hordes  of  crusaders  were  ignorant  fanatics,  guided  by  men  of  no 
note  or  experience.  They  marched  without  order  or  discipline,  pil- 
laging, burning,  and  plundering  the  countries  that  they  traversed.  So 
great  was  the  delusion  that  whole  families  joined  in  these  wild  expedi- 
tions ;  farmers  were  seen  driving  carts  containing  their  wives  and  chil- 
dren in  the  line  of  march,  while  boys  bearing  minric  implements  of  war, 
sported  round,  mistaking  every  stranger  for  a  Turk,  and  every  new  town 
for  Jerusalem.  Most  of  these  wretches  perished  by  fatigue,  famine, 
disease,  or  the  swords  of  the  people  they  had  outraged,  but  not  before 
their  excesses  had  indelibly  stigmatized  the  cause  in  which  they  were 
engaged.  The  Jews  along  the  Rhine  suffered  most  severely  from  these 
fanatics,  who  were  persuaded  that  the  sacrifice  of  this  unfortunate  race 
would  be  the  best  propitiation  for  the  success  of  their  expedition.  Myr- 
iads of  the  hapless  Jews  were  massacred  with  every  torture  and  indig- 
nity that  malice  could  suggest ;  whole  families  committed  suicide  by 
mutual  agreement;  a  few  submitted  to  be  baptized,  and  purchased  safety 
by  apostacy.  The  archbishop  of  Mayence  exerted  all  the  means  in  his 
power  to  protect  the  wretched  victims,  but  had  the  mortification  to  wit- 
ness the  murder  of  those  who  sought  refuge  in  his  own  palace. 

At  length  a  regular  army  was  organized,  under  the  command  of  God- 
frey of  Bouillon,  duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
generals  of  the  age.  No  sovereign  joined  his  standard,  but  the  leading 
nobility  of  Christendom  were  enrolled  among  his  followers,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned,  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  eldest,  son  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  Hugh,  brother  of  the  king  of  France  Bohem 
ond,  prince  of  Tarentum,  and  Raymond,  count  of  Toulouse.  When  the 
divisions  of  this  formidable  army  arrived  near  Constantinople,  Alexis, 
who  then  ruled  the  Byzantine  empire,  was  naturally  terrified  by  the 
appearance  of  hosts  too  powerful  to  be  received  as  auxiliaries,  and  too 
formidable  to  be  rejected  as  enemies.  The  crafty  Greek  had  recourse 
to  treachery  and  dissimulation  ;  after  a  disgusting  train  of  fraudulent 
negotiations,  the  Latin  warriors  passed  into  Asia,  leaving  behind  them 
worse  enemies  in  the  Christians  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  whom  it  was 
part  of  their  object  to  protect,  than  the  Turks  they  had  come  to  assail 
Their  early  career  in  Asia  was  glorious,  but  purchased  at  an  enormous 
expenditure  of  life.     Nicea    the  capital   of  the  sultany  of  Hum  was 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  417 

rakeu  ;  a  great  victory  over  the  sultan  Soleiman  opened  a  passage  into 
Syria ;  Antioch  was  captured  alter  a  seige  of  unparalleled  dilUculty. 
and  finally,  Jerusalem,  which  had  been  recently  wrested  iVoin  the  Turks 
by  the  Egyptians,  fell  before  the  arms  of  the  crusaders,  and  became  the' 
capital  of  a  new  kingdom  (a.  d.  1099). 

Jerusalem  was  obstinately  defended  by  the  Mussulmans  ;  they  hurled 
beams  and  stones  on  the  heads  of  those  who  tried  to  scale  the  walls, 
H.nd  flung  burning  oil  and  sulphur  on  the  moveable  towers  and  bj  idgos 
employed  by  the  assailants.  The  crusaders  displayed  equal  energy, 
but  on  the  second  day  of  assault,  just  as  they  were  sinking  under  the 
united  effects  of  weariness  and  a  burning  sun,  Godfrey  declared  that  he 
saw  a  celestial  messenger  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  cheering  the  Chris- 
tians to  the  combat.  The  enthusiasm  awakened  by  sucu  a  declaration 
bore  down  every  obstacle  ;  the  crusaders  made  good  their  lodgement 
on  the  wall,  and  the  Mohammedans  fled  into  the  city.  Amid  the  nios* 
rapturous  shouts  of  triumph  the  banner  of  the  cross  was  planted  on  the 
towers  of  Jerusalem,  and  as  it  unfurled  itself  in  the  wind,  many  of  the 
bravest  wairiors  wept  for  joy.  But  the  triumph  was  sullied  by  an  indie- 
criminate  and  unsparing  massacre  ;  a  helpless  crowd  sought  shelter  ii. 
the  mosque  of  Omar,  but  the  gates  were  speedily  forced  and  the  fugi 
Lives  butchered  ;  the  knights  boasted  that  they  rode  in  Saracen  blood 
up  to  the  knees  of  their  horses.  The  massacre  lasted  all  day,  bui 
when  the  shades  of  evening  began  to  close  around,  the  crusaders  sud 
denly  recollected  that  they  were  in  the  midst  of  those  places  which  had 
been  hallowed  by  the  presence  and  suff"erings  of  their  Savior.  As  if 
by  some  common  and  supernatural  impulse,  the  savage  warriors  were 
suddenly  changed  into  devout  pilgrims  ;  each  hasted  to  remove  from  his 
person  the  stains  of  slaughter ;  they  laid  aside  'their  weapons,  and  in 
the  guise  of  penitents,  with  bare  heads  and  feet,  streaming  eyes  and 
folded  hands,  they  ascended  the  hill  of  Calvary  and  entered  the  church 
jf  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  services  of  religion  were  performed  by 
the  clergy  of  Jerusalem,  who  hailed  their  deliverers  with  enthusiastit 
gratitude. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  chosen  sovereign  of  Palestine  ;  he  refused 
the  title  of  king,  declaring  that  Christ  was  the  true  monarch  of  the  Holy 
Land,  and  declined  to  wear  a  crown  of  gold,  where  his  Savior  had 
borne  a  crown  of  thorns.  Baldwin,  his  brother  and  successor,  was  lesa 
scrupulous ;  he  assumed  the  royal  ensigns  and  title,  and  transmitted  the 
vlirone  to  his  cousin,  Baldwin  du  Bourg,  wdiose  posterity  continued  to 
leign  in  Palestine  until  the  kingdom  was  overthrown  by  Saladin  {\.  d. 
.187).  Several  minor  states  were  established  by  the  crusaders,  of 
■•''hich  the  most  reTiarkable  were  the  county  of  Edessa,  the  principality 
:)i  Antioch,  the  county  of  Tripoli,  and,  at  a  later  period,  the  kingdom  of 
(Jyprus.  None  of  these  states  had  long  duration  ;  the  Christians  of  tht 
east,  continually  assailed  by  powerful  enemies,  could  not  be  persuaded 
to  unite  cordially  for  mutual  defence ;  victories  were  scarcely  less 
calamitous  to  them  than  defeats,  on  account  of  the- difficulty  of  obtaining 
reinforcements  from  Europe  ;  and  though  the  crusading  enthusiasm  en- 
dured for  two  centuries,  its  heat  gradually  abated,  and  nothing  would 
have  kept  it  alive  but  the  privileges  and  grants  made  by  the  popes,  and 
*he  principal  European  potentates,  to  those  who  joined  in  such  expedi 

27 


418  MODERN  HISTORY. 

.'icns.  Six  principal  crusades  followed  the  first  great  movement  ;  they 
were  all  cither  imsuccessful  or  productive  of  advantages  as  fleeting  as 
they  were  trivial 

Forty-eight  years  after  Jerusalem  had  been  taken  by  the  Christiana 
the  emperor,  Conrad  III.,  and  Louis  VII.,  king  of  France,  undertook  a 
second  crusade  to  support  the  sinking  fortunes  of  their  brethren  in  Pal- 
estine (a.  d.  i117).  The  Atta-beg  Zenghi,  who  had,  by  his  superioi 
prowess,  obtained  the  chief  command  over  the  Turkish  tribes  in  Irak, 
attacked  the  Christian  territories  beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  made  him- 
self master  of  Edessa,  justly  regarded  as  the  bulwark  of  the  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem.  Conrad  proceeded  to  Constantinople,  without  waiting 
for  his  ally.  He  had  to  encounter  the  treacherous  hostility  of  the  By- 
zantine emperor,  which  proved  fatal  to  an  army  containing  the  flower 
of  German  chivalry,  including  a  troop  of  noble  ladies  who  served  in 
the  attitude  and  armor  of  men.  Manuel,  who  then  held  the  throne  of 
Constantinople,  gave  the  sultan  secret  intelligence  of  the  German  line 
of  march,  and  furnished  Conrad  with  treacherous  guides.  After  a 
glorious  but  unsuccessful  battle  on  the  banks  of  the  Maeander,  Conrad 
was  forced  to  retreat ;  he  met  the  French  advancing  from  the  Bospho- 
rus,  and  the  contrast  of  his  own  condition  with  the  pomp  of  Louis,  led 
him  to  desert  the  cause.  The  French,  undismayed  and  unwarned,  pur- 
sued their  march  with  inconsiderate  speed ;  their  rear-guard  was  sur- 
prised by  the  Turkish  troops,  while  the  van  was  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, and  the  greater  part  put  to  the  sword.  Louis  brought  the  shat- 
tered remnant  of  his  forces  by  sea  to  Antioch  ;  the  Christians  of  Pales- 
tine joined  him  in  an  unsuccessful  siege  of  Damascus,  after  which  the 
monarch  returned  to  Europe,  dishonored  by  a  faithless  wife,  and  de- 
serted by  ungrateful  allies.  This  disgraceful  termination  of  an  expedi- 
tion from  which  so  much  had  been  expected,  diffused  feelings  of  mel- 
ancholy and  surprise  throughout  Europe.  St.  Bernard,  abbot  of  Clair- 
vaux,  through  whose  influence  the  crusade  was  undertaken,  had  to  en- 
counter the  storm  of  public  indignation  ;  he  was  stigmatized  as  a  lying 
prophet,  who,  by  pretended  inspiration  and  false  miracles,  had  lured 
myriads  to  a  miserable  doom.  But  Bernard  was  not  daunted  by  these 
reproach?s  ;  he  replied  to  those  accusations  by  pointing  out  the  true 
causes  of  the  failure,  the  follies  and  vices  of  the  crusaders  themselves ; 
he  asserted  that  a  new  expedition,  undertaken  in  a  spirit  of  piety, 
would  be  crowned, with  success;  and  he  urged  the  states  of  Christen 
dom  to  combine  in  one  great  effort  for  sc:;uring  the  kingdom  of  Jerusa 
lem.  His  efforts  to  revive  the  crusading  spirit  were,  however,  una- 
vailing, and  death  surprised  him  in  the  midst  of  his  exertions. 

Noureddin,*  the  son  of  Zenghi,  destroyed  the  dynasty  of  the  Fati- 
uiite  khaliphs  in  Egypt.  His  favorite,  Saladin,t  usurped  the  govem- 
raer.t  of  l^gypt,  and,  though  a  Kurd  by  descent,  became  the  favorite 
hero  both  of  the  Turks  and  Arabs.  On  the  death  of  his  ancient  master 
Saladin  invaded  the  Christian  territories,  and,  after  a  brief  siege,  made 
himself  master  of  .Jerusalem  (a.  d.  1187).  The  loss  of  the  holy  city 
Riled  all  Europe  with  sorrow  ;  the  emperor,  Frederic  I.,  the  lion-hearte<] 

"  Nur-ed-din  signifies  "the  light  of  religion." 
t  Salah-ed-din  signifies  "  the  safetv  of  religion." 


UROWTII  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER,  419 

tlicliard  of  England,  Philip  Augustus  of  France,  and  s(!veral  iniuoi 
princes,  assumed  the  cross,  while  the  maritime  states  of  Italy,  by  send' 
ing  immediate  reinforcements  to  the  garrisons  on  the  coasts  of  he 
Mediterranean,  arrested  the  progress  of  Saladin.  Frederic  advanced 
through  the"  Byzantine  territories,  harassed  at  every  step  by  Greek 
fraud  and  treachery.  Having  wintered  at  Adrianople,  he  crossed  the 
Hellespont,  defeated  the  Turks  in  several  engagements,  and  stormed 
the  city  of  Iconium.  But  in  the  midst  of  his  glorious  career  he  was 
drowned  in  the  river  Cydnus  (a.  d.  1190).  The  army  persevered,  and 
joined  the  eastern  Christians  in  the  famous  siege  of  Acre. 

While  Acre  was  closely  pressed  by  the  Christians,  the  oesiegers 
were,  in  their  turn,  so  strictly  blockaded  by  Saladin,  that  they  suffered 
more  than  the  garrison.  The  kings  of  England  and  France,  however, 
followed  by  the  flower  of  their  dominions,  apj  eared  together  as  com- 
panions in  arms,  and  reached  Palestine  by  sea.  The  siege  of  Acre 
was  so  vigorously  prosecuted  after  the  arrival  of  the  English  that  the 
town  was  soon  forced  to  surrender,  and  the  Christians  began  to  indulge 
the  hope  of  recovering  Jerusalem.  Their  expectations  were  frustrated 
by  the  jealousy  which  arose  between  the  French  and  the  English ; 
Philip,  unable  to  brook  the  superiority  which  Richard  acquired  by  his 
military  prowess,  and  perhaps,  in  some  degree,  by  his  wealth,  returned 
home,  leaving  a  part  of  his  army  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of 
Burgundy,  for  the  defence  of  the  Holy  Land.  But  the  animosity  be- 
tween the  French  and  English  parties  was  increased  rather  than  abated 
by  the  departure  of  Philip ;  the  envy  of  hi.s  companions  rendered  the 
valorous  exertions  of  Richard  unavailing  ;  he  entered  into  a  treaty  with 
Saladin,  obtaining  for  the  Christians  free  access  to  Jerusalem  and  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  and  then  hasted  home  to  defend  his  dominions  from 
the  attacks  of  his  ancient  rival  (a.  d.  1192).  On  his  return,  the 
English  monarch  was  seized  and  imprisoned  by  the  duke  of  Austria, 
whom  he  had  grievously  insulted  in  Palestine  ;  he  was  subsequently  re- 
signed to  the  custody  of  the  emperor  of  Germany,  from  whom  he  had 
to  purchase  his  liberation  by  the  payment  of  a  large  ransom.  The  il- 
lustrious Saladin  did  not  long  survive  th«  departure  of  the  royal  crusa- 
der ;  he  died  at  Damascus,  and  the  disputes  that  arose  respecting  his 
inheritance,  prevented  the  Mohammedans  from  completing  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Palestine. 

The  fourth  crusade  was  undertaken  at  the  instigation  of  Lmoceut  KL 
(a.  d.  1202),  aided  by  a  fanatic  preacher,  Foulke  of  Neuilly.  The  fer- 
vor of  enthus:'asm  was  now  abated  ;  no  great  sovereign  joined  in  the 
enterprise,  but  several  of  the  most  potent  feudatories  offered  their  ser- 
vices, and  Boniface,  marquis  of  Mont.*'errat,  was  chosen  commander-in- 
.ihief.  The  crusaders  obtained  transports  from  the  Venetians,  by  con- 
quering Zara,  in  Dalmalia,  for  the  repulilic  of  Venice,  in  spite  of  the 
threats  and  remonstrances  of  the  pope,  who  was  justly  indignant  at 
seeing  their  first  efforts  directed  against  a  Christian  city.  But  this  de- 
parture from  their  original  design  was  followed  by  a  still  more  remark- 
able deviation ;  instead  of  proceeding  to  Palestine,  they  sailed  against 
Constantinople,  to  dethrone  the  usurper,  Alexius  Angelus.  The  cru- 
saders succeeded  in  restoring  the  lawful  emperor,  Isaac,  to  his  empire  , 
but  the  reward  they  claimed  for  their  services  was  extravagant,  and 


420  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Isaac's  efTorts  to  comply  with  the  stipulations  provoked  such  rest  ni 
ment,  that  he  was  deposed  by  his  subjects,  and  put  to  death,  togethe- 
with  his  son.  The  crusaders  instantly  proclaimed  war  against  the 
usurper,  IMourzoufle,  laid  siege  to  Constantinople,  took  the  city  by 
storm,  pillaged  it  with  remorseless  cruelty,  and  founded  a  new  Latin 
empire  on  the  rains  of  the  Byzantine  (a.  d.  1204).  Baldwin,  count  of 
Flanders,  was  chosen  sovereign  of  the  new  state,  which,  under  five 
Latin  emperors,  lasted  little  more  than  half  a  century.  Constantinople 
was  recovered  by  the  Greeks  (a.  d.  1261),  and  the  hopes  of  uniting  the 
eastern  and  western  churches,  which  the  possession  of  the  Byzantine 
capital  had  inspired,  were  blighted  for  ever. 

The  fifth  crusade  was  conducted  by  the  king  of  Hungary.  Two 
hundred  thousand  Franks  landed  at  the  eastern  mouth  of  the  Nile, 
persuaded  that  the  conquest  of  Egypt  was  a  necessary  preliminary  to 
the  recovery  and  safe  possession  of  Palestine  (a.  d.  1218).  After 
having  obtained  some  important  successes,  their  cause  was  ruined  by 
the  arrogance  and  presumption  of  the  jmpal  legate,  who  assumed  the 
direction  of  the  army.  They  purchased  some  trivial  concessions,  by 
evacuating  all  their  conquests ;  and  the  pope,  who  at  first  proposed 
to  come  in  person  to  their  assistance,  was  too  busily  engaged  in 
checking  the  progress  of  heresy,  to  venture  on  an  expedition  to  Pales- 
tine. 

Frederic  IL,  emperor  of  Germany,  led  a  formidable  army  to  Pal- 
estine, after  having  been  excommunicated  by  Pope  Gregory  IX.  for 
delaying  his  expedition,  a  sentence  which  was  renewed  because  he 
ventured  to  sail  without  waiting  for  the  papal  orders  (a.  d.  1228). 
This  war  exhibited  the  strange  anomaly  of  a  champion  of  the  cross 
exposed  to  the  bitterest  hostility  of  the  church.  Frederic  was  every- 
where victorious,  but  the  papal  legates  and  the  priests  harassed  him 
by  constant  opposition ;  a  crusade  was  preached  against  him  in  Italy, 
and  efforts  were  made  to  weaken  his  authority  in  his  own  hereditary 
dominions.  On  receiving  this  intelligence,  Frederic  concluded  an 
equitable  treaty  with  the  sultan  Melek  Kamel,  crowned  himself  at 
Jerusalem,  for  no  ecclesiastic  would  perform  the  ceremony,  and  re- 
turned to  Europe,  after  having  effected  more  for  the  Christians  of  Pal- 
estine than  any  of  their  former  protectors.  Gregory  again  hurled 
anathemas  against  a  prince  who  had  made  a  treaty  with  the  infidels ; 
but  Frederic's  vigorous  exertions  soon  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs , 
he  reduced  those  who  had  rebelled  during  his  absence,  dispersed  the 
papal  and  Lombard  troops,  and  won  absolution  by  his  victories. 

Tranquillity,  which  endured  fifteen  years,  raised  the  Latins  ol 
Palestine  to  a  prosperous  condition  ;  but  a  new  and  more  formidable 
enemy,  issuing  from  the  deserts  of  Tartary,  subverted  the  kingdom 
which  had  been  founded  at  such  an  expense  of  blood  and  treasure. 
The  Khorasmian  Turks,  driven  from  their  native  deserts  by  the  Mon- 
gols, threw  themselves  upon  Palestine,  stormed  Jerusalem,  subverted 
the  Latin  principalities  and  the  small  Turkish  states  in  Syria.  Jeru- 
nal'3m,  and  the  greater  part  of  Palestine,  was  subsecpiently  annexed  tc 
the  suliany  of  Egypt. 

Jiouis  IX.,  of  France,  commonly  called  St.  Louis,  led  the  ninth 
Tiisade.     Egypt  was  tht^  scene  of  his  operations  ;  after  obtaining  somt 


GaOWTH  OF  THE  TAPAL  POWER  421 

Linporlaut  triumphs,  he  was  defeated,  made  prisoner,  and  iorced  to 
purchase  his  freedom  by  the  payment  of  a  large  ransom  (a.  d.  1250), 
The  pope's  inveterate  hostility  to  Frederic  was  one  of  the  chief  causes 
ihat  led  to  the  ruin  of  this  crusade.  At  the  moment  that  Louis  sailed, 
Innocent  was  preaching  a  crusade  against  the  emperor  in  Europe,  and 
the  Dominicans  were  stimulating  their  hearers  to  rebellion  and  assassi- 
nation. The  lamentable  loss  of  the  French  army,  the  captivity  of  the 
"  most  Christian  king,"  and  the  utter  ruin  of  the  Latin  kingdom  in  Pal- 
estine, failed  to  shake  the  obstinacy  of  the  pontiff.  It  seemed  even 
that  the  death  of  Frederic  redoubled  his  fury,  as  if  his  prey  had  escaped 
from  his  hands.  "  Let  the  heavens  rejoi{;e,  and  let  the  earth  be  glad," 
was  hid  address  to  the  clergy  of  Sicily,  "  for  the  lightning  and  the 
tempest,  wherewith  God  Almighty  has  so  long  menaced  your  heads, 
have  been  changed,  by  the  death  of  this  man,  into  refreshing  zephyrs 
and  fertilizing  dews." 

Untaught  by  calamity,  he  prepared  for  a  second  crusade  ;  on  his 
voyage  to  the  place  of  rendezvous,  he  was  induced  to  steer  to  Tunis, 
in  the  wild  hope  of  baptizing  its  king  (a.  d.  1270).  Instead  of  a 
proselyte,  Louis  found  a  tedious  siege,  and  a  mortal  disease.  On  his 
death,  the  remnant  of  his  army  was  led  back  to  Europe  without  making 
any  further  effort.  The  fate  of  Palestine  was  for  a  time  delayed  by  the 
valor  of  Edward  I.,  of  England,  who  extorted  a  three  years'  truce 
from  the  Mohammedans.  At  length,  some  excesses  of  the  Latins  pro- 
voked the  resentment  of  the  Mameluke  sultan,  Khalil ;  he  resolved  to 
expel  them  completely  from  Palestine,  and  laid  siege  to  their  last 
stronghold,  Acre  (a.  d.  1291).  The  city  was  taken  after  a  tedious 
Biege,  and  after  its  fall  the  title  of  King  of  Jerusalem,  still  preserved 
by  the  Christian  princes,  became  an  empty  name. 

Section  VIII. — The  Crusade  against  the  Albigenses. 

It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the  growth  of  heresy  was  be- 
ginning to  alarm  the  advocates  of  papal  supremacy  in  the  reign  of 
Alexander  III.,  and  that  a  general  council  had  pronounced  a  solemn 
decree  against  the  Albigenses.  But  the  feudal  lords  of  France  and 
Italy  were  slow  in  adopting  an  edict  which  would  have  deprived  them 
of  their  best  vassals,  and  the  new  opinions,  or  rather  the  original  doc- 
irines  of  Christianity,  were  secretly  preached  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  Europe.  It  may  be  conceded  to  the  defenders  of  the  papal 
system  that  there  were  some  among  the  preachers  of  a  reformation 
who  had  given  too  great  a  scope  lo  their  imaginations,  and  revived 
many  of  the  dangerous  errors  of  the  Manicha^ans  and  Paulicians. 
There  seems  no  just  cause  for  doubting  that  a  ftiw  enthusiasts  ascribed 
the  Old  Testament  to  the  principle  of  Evil ;  because,  as  they  asserted, 
"  God  is  there  described  as  a  homicide,  destroying  the  world  by  water 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah  by  lire,  and  the  Egyptians  by  the  overflow  of 
the  Red  sea."  But  these  were  the  sentiments  of  a  very  small  minori- 
ty ;  the  bulk  of  the  Albigensian  reformers  protested  simply  against  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  the  sacraments  of  confirmation,  confos 
bion,  and  marriage,  the  invocation  of  saints,  the  worship  of  images 
ind  the  tempo -al  povvei  of  the  prelates.     Their  moral  character  was 


*22  MODERN  HISTOllV 

confessed  by  €^e^r  enemies,  but  while  they  acknowledged  its  external 
purity,  they  invented  the  blackest  calumnies  respecting  their  secrei 
practices,  without  ever  bringing  forward  a  shadow  of  proof,  and  conse 
quently  without  incurring  the  hazard  of  refutation.  The  progress  ol 
reform  was  silent ;  for  the  eflbrts  of  the  paterins,  or  Albigensian  teach 
ers,  were  directed  rather  to  forming  a  moral  and  pure  society  within 
Jie  church,  than  to  the  establishment  of  a  new  sect.  They  seemed 
anxious  to  hold  the  same  relation  to  the  Romish  establishment  that 
John  Wesley  designed  the  Methodists  to  keep  toward  the  churcfi  of 
England.  Their  labors  generated  an  independence  of  spirit  and  free- 
dom of  judgment  Avhich  would  probably  have  led  to  an  open  revolt,  had 
not  Innocent  III.  discerned  the  danger  to  which  the  papal  syxiem  was 
exposed,  and  resolved  to  crush  freedom  of  thought  before  irs  exercise 
would  subvert  his  despotism. 

Innocent's  first  step  was  to  enlist  cupidity  and  self-inteiest  on  his 
side  ;  he  abandoned  to  the  barons  the  confiscated  properties  ul  heretics, 
and  ordered  that  the  enemies  of  the  church  should  be  for  e^er  banished 
from  the  lands  of  which  they  were  deprived.  He  then  sent  commis- 
sioners into  the  south  of  France,  to  examine  and  punish  those  suspected 
of  entertaining  heretical  opinions,  and  thus  laid  the  first  foundation  of 
the  Inquisition.  The  arrogance  and  violence  of  these  papal  emissaries 
disgusted  every  class  of  society ;  finding  that  their  persecutions  were 
unpopular,  they  resolved  to  support  their  power  by  force  of  arms,  and 
they  were  not  long  in  discovering  the  materials  of  an  army. 

Raymond  VI.,  count  of  Toulouse,  was  engaged  in  war  with  some 
of  the  neighboring  barons,  and  Peter  de  Castelnau,  the  papal  legate, 
ofTered  to  act  as  mediator.  He  went  to  the  barons,  and  obtained  from 
them  a  promise  that,  if  Raymond  would  consent  to  their  demands,  they 
would  employ  all  the  forces  they  had  assembled  to  extirpate  heresy 
Castelnau  drew  up  a  treaty  on  these  conditions,  and  offered  it  to  Ray- 
mond for  his  signature.  The  count  was  naturally  reluctant  to  purchase 
the  slaughter  of  his  best  subjects,  by  the  sacrifice  of  his  dominions, 
and  the  admission  of  a  hostile  army  into  his  states.  He  peremptorily 
refused  his  consent,  upon  which  Castelnau  excommunicated  Raymond, 
placed  his  dominions  under  an  interdict,  and  wrote  to  the  pope  for  a 
ccmfirmation  of  the  sentence. 

Innocent  III.  confirmed  the  legate's  sentence,  and  began  to  preach 
a  crusade  ;  but  his  violence  transcended  all  bounds,  v/hen  he  learned 
ihat  Castelnau  had  been  slain  by  a  gentleman  of  Toulouse  whom  he 
had  personally  insulted  (a.  d.  1208).  Though  Raymond  appears  to 
have  had  no  share  in  this  murder,  it  was  against  him  that  the  papal 
vengeance  was  principally  directed  :  he  was  excommunicated,  his  sub- 
jects absolved  from  their  oath  of  allegiance,  and  the  French  king  was 
invited  to  despoil  him  of  his  estates. 

Philip  Augustus  was  too  busily  engaged  in  wars  with  the  king  of 
England  and  the  emperor  of  Germany  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  extir- 
pation of  heresy;  but  he  permitted  a  crusade  against  the  Albigense^  to 
be  preached  throughout  his  dominions,  and  the  monks  of  Citeaux  be- 
came the  chief  missionaries  of  this  unholy  war ;  they  promised  the 
pardon  of  all  sins  committed  from  the  day  of  birth  to  death,  to  those 
who  fell  in  the  war  unlimited  indulgence,  the  protection  of  the  rlmrcn 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAl,  POWER.  ■iU'i 

md  a  large  share  of  spoil  to  all  who  survived.  Whilo  the  monks  were 
enlisting  ferocious  bands  of  wretches,  who  believed  that  they  rnighi 
expiate  their  former  crimes  by  the  perpetration  of  fresh  atrocities,  lu 
nocent  was  preparing  a  new  mission  to  Languedoc,  whose  savage  bru- 
ralities  exceeded  even  those  of  the  crusaders.  A  new  monastic  ordej 
\vas  instituted,  at  the  head  of  which  was  pla(;ed  a  Spaniard  named  St. 
Dominic,  whose  special  object  was  to  extirpate  heresy,  by  preaching 
against  the  doctrines  of  those  who  dissented  from  the  church,  and  pun- 
ishing with  death  those  who  could  not  be  convinced  by  argument. 
This  institution,  too  well  known  by  the  dreaded  name  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion, appears  to  have  been  originally  planned  by  the  bishop  of  Tou- 
louse, who  introduced  it  into  his  diocese  about  seven  years  before  it 
was  formally  sanctioned  by  Pope  Innocent  at  the  council  of  Lateran. 

Raymond  VI.,  and  his  nephew  Raymond  Roger,  viscount  of  Albi, 
alarmed  at  the  approaching  danger,  presented  themselves  before  the 
papal  legate,  Arnold,  abbot  of  Citeaux,  to  avert  the  coming  storm  by 
explanations  and  submissions.  They  protested  that  they  had  never 
sanctioned  heresy,  and  that  they  had  no  share  in  the  murder  of  Castel- 
nau.  The  severity  with  which  they  were  treated  by  the  legate,  con- 
vinced the  young  viscount  that  nothing  was  to  be  hoped  from  negotia- 
tion, and  he  returned  to  his  states,  resolved  to  defend  himself  to  the 
last  extremity  :  the  count  of  Toulouse  showed  less  fortitude  ;  he  prom- 
ised to  submit  to  any  conditions  which  the  pope  would  impose. 

Raymond's  ambassadors  were  received  by  the  pope  with  apparent 
indulgence ;  but  the  terms  on  which  absolution  were  offered  to  the 
count  could  scarcely  have  been  more  severe.  He  was  required  to  make 
common  cause  with  the  crusaders,  to  aid  them  in  the  extirpation  of 
heretics — that  is,  his  own  subjects — and  to  give  up  seven  of  his  best 
castles  as  a  pledge  of  his  intentions.  Innocent  declared  that,  if  Ray- 
mond performed  these  conditions,  he  would  not  only  be  absolved,  but 
taken  into  special  favor ;  yet,  at  the  very  same  moment,  the  pope  was 
inflexibly  resolved  on  the  counf's  destruction. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  1209,  all  the  fanatics  who  had  taken  arms 
at  the  preaching  of  the  monks  of  Citeaux,  began  to  assemble  on  the 
borders  of  Languedoc  ;  the  land  was  spread  in  beauty  before  them — 
ere  long  it  was  to  be  a  howling  wilderness.  Raymond  VI.  sank  into 
abject  cowardice ;  he  yielded  up  his  castles,  he  promised  implicit  sub- 
mission to  the  legate,  he  even  allowed  himself  to  be  publicly  beaten 
with  rods  before  the  altar,  as  a  penance  for  his  errors.  As  a  reward 
for  his  humiliation,  he  was  permitted  to  serve  in  the  ranks  of  the  cru- 
saders, and  to  act  as  their  guide  in  the  war  against  his  nephew. 

Raymond  Roger  showed  a  bolder  spirit ;  finding  the  papal  legato 
implacable,  he  summoned  his  barons  together,  and  having  stated  all  his 
exertions  to  preserv^e  peace,  made  a  stirring  appeal  to  their  generosity 
and  their  patriotism.  All  resolved  on  an  obstinate  defence  ;  even  those 
who  adhered  to  the  church  of  Rome  justly  dreaded  the  excesses  of  a 
fanatical  horde  eager  to  shed  blood,  and  gratify  a  ruffian  thirst  for  plun- 
der. The  crusaders  advanced :  some  castles  and  fortified  towns  were 
abandoned  to  them ;  others  not  subject  to  the  imputation  of  heresy 
were  allowed  to  ransom  themselves  ;  Villemur  was  burned,  and  Chas 
seueuil,  after  a  \igorous  defence,  capitulated.     The  garrison  was  per 


424  MODERN  HISTORY. 

mitted  to  retire,  but  all  the  inlial)itants  suspected  ot  neresy,  male  and 
female,  were  committed  to  the  flames  amid  the  ferocious  shouts  of  the 
conquerors,  and  their  property  abandoned  to  the  soldiery. 

Bo7iers  was  the  next  object  of  attack  ;  the  citizens  resolved  to  make 
4  vigorous  resistance,  but  they  were  routed  in  a  sally  by  the  advanced 
^uard  of  the  crusaders,  and  so  vigorously  pursued,  that  the  conquerors 
and  conquered  entered  the  gates  together.  The  leaders,  before  taking 
advantage  of  their  unexpected  success,  asked  the  abbot  of  Citeaux 
!iow  they  should  distinguish  Catholics  from  heretics  ;  the  legate's  mem- 
orable answer  was,  "  Kill  all :  God  will  distinguish  those  who  belono 
to  himsilf."  His  words  were  too  well  obeyed;  every  inhabitant  of 
Beziers  was  ruthlessly  massacred,  and  when  the  town  was  thus  one 
immense  slaughter-house,  it  was  nred,  that  its  ruins  and  ashes  might 
become  the  monument  of  papal  vengeance. 

Carcasonne  was  now  the  last  stronghold  of  Rajnnond  Roger,  and 
it  was  gallantly  defended  by  the  young  viscovmt.  Simon  de  Montfort, 
the  leader  of  the  crusaders,  found  himself  foiled  by  a  mere  youth,  and 
was  detained  for  eight  days  before  he  could  master  the  suburbs  and 
invest  the  town. 

Peter  II.,  king  of  Aragon,  whom  the  viscount  of  Albi  and  Beziers 
recognised  as  his  suzerain,  took  advantage  of  this  delay  to  interfere  in 
behalf  of  the  young  lord,  who  was  his  nephew  as  well  as  his  vassal.  The 
egate,  unwilling  to  offend  so  powerful  a  sovereign,  accepted  his  me- 
diation, but  when  asked  what  terms  would  be  granted  to  the  besieged, 
he  required  that  two  thirds  of  Carcasonne  should  be  given  up  to  plun- 
der. Raymond  Roger  spurned  such  conditions  ;  Peter  applauded  his 
courage,  and  personally  addressed  the  garrison.  "  You  know  the  fate 
that  waits  you  ;  make  a  bold  defence,  for  that  is  the  best  means  of 
finally  obtaining  favorable  terms."  The  prudence  of  this  advice  was 
proved  by  the  legate's  consenting  to  a  capitulation  ;  but  when  the  vis- 
count, trusting  to  the  faith  of  the  treaty,  presented  himself  in  the  camp 
of  the  crusaders,  he  was  treacherously  arrested,  and  thrown  with  his 
attendants  into  prison.  Warned  by  the  fate  of  their  leader,  the  citizens 
of  Carcasonne  evacuated  the  town  during  the  night,  but  some  of  the 
fugitives  were  overtaken  by  the  cavalry  of  the  crusaders ;  the  legate 
selected  a  supply  of  victims  from  his  prisoners  ;  four  hundred  of  them 
were  burned  alive,  and  about  fifty  were  hanged. 

It  seemed  that  the  object  of  the  crusade  was  obtained  ;  the  count  of 
Toulouse  had  submitted  to  every  condition,  however  humiliating;  the 
viscount  of  Narbonne  abandoned  every  notion  of  resistance ;  and  the 
gallant  lord  of  Beziers  was  a  prisoner.  The  crusaders  too  began  to 
grow  weary  of  the  war  ;  the  French  lords  were  ashamed  of  the  cruel- 
ties they  had  sanctioned,  and  the  faith  they  had  violated  ;  the  knights 
and  common  soldiers,  having  completed  the  term  of  their  service,  werfc 
anxious  to  revisit  their  homes.  But  the  legate,  Arnold,  was  still  un- 
satisfied ;  he  summoned  a  council  of  the  crusaders,  and  tried  to  induco 
them  to  remain,  in  order  that  they  might  protect  their  conquests  of 
Beziers  and  Carcasonne,  the  investiture  of  which  he  conferred  on 
Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester.  But  the  greater  ^lart  of  the 
French  nobles  refused  to  remain  longer,  and  Montfort  had  to  defend  hi.s 
new  ac  )uisiiions  with  the  vassals   from  his  own  estates.     The  eallan' 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  42& 

Kayiuond  Roger  M-as  detained  a  close  prisoner  in  his  own  baronial  hall 
fit  Carcasonne,  where  he  soon  died,  the  victim  of  a  dysentery,  produced 
by  ffrief,  or,  as  was  generally  suspected,  by  poison. 

The  armies  of  the  crusaders  withdrew  ;  they  left  a  desert,  and  called 
it  peace  ;  but  the  sufferings  of  the  Albigenses  were  not  exhausted ;  the 
monks  of  the  Inquisition,  attended  by  trains  of  executioners,  went  at 
their  will  through  the  land,  torturing  and  butchering  all  who  were  sus- 
pected of  heresy.  Nor  were  the  monks  of  Citeaux  idle  ;  they  had 
found  honor  and  profit  in  preaching  a  crusade,  and  they  were  not  dis- 
posed to  Telinquish  the  lucrative  employment.  Thus  a  new  crusade 
was  preached  when  there  was  no  enemy  to  combat,  and  ne  v  hordr.s 
of  fanatics  were  poured  into  Languedoc.  They  forced  their  chiefs  to 
renew  the  war,  that  the  exertions  of  those  who  profited  by  preaching 
extennination  should  not  be  lost,  and  that  the  bigotry  of  those  who 
hoped  to  purchase  their  salvation  by  murder  should  not  remain  un- 
gratified. 

Strengthened  by  these  reinforcements,  Simon  de  Monlfort  threw  off 
r.he  mask  of  moderation,  and  declared  war  against  the  unfortunate  count 
of  Toulouse.  Raymond  was  once  more  excommunicated,  and  his  do- 
minions placed  under  an  interdict.  But  the  earl  of  Leicester  soon 
found  that  he  had  been  premature  in  his  hostilities  ;  the  king  of  Aragon 
refused  to  receive  his  homage  for  the  viscounties  of  Beziers  and  Car- 
casonne, declaring  that  he  would  support  the  claims  of  the  legitimate 
heir,  Raymond  Trercanel,  the  only  son  of  the  unfortunate  Raymond 
Roger,  a  child  abouv  two  years  old,  who  was  safe  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  the  Count  de  Foix.  A  dangerous  insurrection  was  raised  in  the 
states  so  recently  assigned  *o  Montfort ;  and  out  of  the  two  hundred 
towns  and  castles  that  had  been  granted  to  liim,  eight  alone  remained 
hi  hio  possession. 

The  count  of  Toulouse  was  too  much  afraid  of  ecclesiastical  ven- 
geance to  defend  himself  by  arms  ;  he  sought  the  protection  of  the  king 
of  France,  and  he  went  in  person  to  Rome  to  implore  absolution.  In- 
nocent promised  him  pardon  on  condition  of  his  clearing  himself  from 
the  charge  of  heresy  and  of  participation  in  the  murder  of  Castelnau ; 
but  when  ne  presented  himself  before  the  council,  he  found  that  his 
judges  had  been  gained  over  by  his  inexorable  enemy,  the  abbot  of 
Citeaux,  and  instead  of  being  permitted  to  enter  on  his  defence,  he  was 
overwhelmed  by  a  series  of  new  and  unexpected  charges.  His  re- 
monstrances were  neglected,  his  tears  afforded  theme  for  mockery  and 
insult,  and  the  sentence  of  excommunication  was  formally  ratified. 

In  the  meantime  the  crusaders,  under  Simon  de  Montfort,  pursued 
their  career  of  extermination  ;  those  whom  the  sword  spared  fell  by  the 
hands  of  the  executioner ;  and  the  ministers  of  a  God  of  peace  weie 
found  more  cruel  and  vindictive  than  a  licentious  soldiery.  Even  the 
king  of  Aragon  became  alarmed,  and  sought  to  secure  the  friendship 
of  the  papal  favorite,  by  affiancing  his  infant  son  to  a  daughter  of  De 
Monlfort.  The  monarch  probably  expected  that  by  this  concession,  ho 
would  obtain  more  favorable  terras  for  Raymond,  and  he  accompanied 
the  ccunt  to  Aries,  where  a  provincial  council  was  assembled.  The 
.orms  of  peace  fixed  by  the  legato  were  so  extravagant,  not  to  sav  ab- 
surd, that   even  Raymond  rejected  them,  and   secretly  withdrew  fiom 


426  MODERN  HISTORY. 

.  t 

th.e  city  in  company  with  the  iving  of  Aragon.  Onco  more  the  counl 
was  excommunicated,  pronounced  an  enemy  of  the  churcli  and  an  apos- 
tate from  the  faith,  and  declared  to  have  forfeited  his  title  and  estates. 

The  war  was  now  resumed  with  fresh  vigor  ;  after  a  long  siege,  Dt- 
Montfort  took  the  strong  castle  of  Lavaur  by  assault,  hanged  its  brave 
governor,  the  lore  of  Montreal,  and  massacred  the  entire  garrison. 
"  The  .ady  of  the  castle,"  says  the  Romish  historian,  "  who  was  an 
execrable  heretic,  was  by  the  earl's  orders  thrown  into  a  well,  and 
stones  heaped  over  her :  afterward,  the  pilgrims  collected  the  number- 
less heretics  that  were  in  the  fortress,  and  burned  them  alive  with  great 
joy." 

The  same  cruelties  were  perpetrated  at  every  other  place  through 
Avhich  the  crusaders  passed  ;  and  the  friends  of  the  victims  took  re- 
venge, by  intercepting  convoys,  and  murdering  stragglers.  It  was  not 
until  he  had  received  a  large  reinforcement  of  pilgrims  from  Germany, 
that  the  earl  of  Leicester  ventured  to  lay  siege  to  Toulouse.  Raymond, 
in  this  extremity,  displayed  a  vigor  and  courage,  which,  if  he  J^ad  man 
ifested  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  war,  would  probably  have  saved  his 
country  from  ruin.  He  made  so  vigorous  a  defence,  that  the  crusaders 
were  forced  to  raise  the  siege,  and  retire  with  some  precipitation. 

The  friendship  between  the  monks  of  Citeaux  and  the  crusaders  soon 
began  to  be  interrupted  by  the  ambition  of  the  former.  Under  pre- 
tence of  reforming  the  ecclesiastical  condition  of  Languedoc,  they  ex- 
pelled the  principal  prelates,  and  seized  for  themselves  the  richest  sees 
and  benefices.  The  legate,  Arnold,  took  for  his  share  the  archbishop 
of  Narbonne,  after  which  he  aoaadoned  Montfort,  and  went  to  lead  a 
new  crusade  against  the  Moors  in  Spain.  Innocent  III.  himself  paused 
for  a  moment  in  his  career  of  vengeance,  and,  at  the  instance  of  the 
king  of  Aragon,  promised  Raymond  the  benefit  of  a  fair  trial.  But  it 
is  easier  to  rouse  than  to  allay  the  spirit  of  fanaticism ;  disobeyed 
by  his  legates,  and  reproached  by  the  crusaders,  the  pope  was  com- 
pelled to  retrace  his  steps,  and  abandon  Raymond  to  the  fury  of  his 
enemies. 

The  king  of  Arragon  came  to  the  aid  of  his  unfortunate  relative,  and 
encountered  the  formidable  army  of  the  crusaders  at  Muret ;  but  he  war, 
slain  in  the  beginning  of  the  battle ;  the  Spanish  chivalry,  disheartened 
by  his  fall,  took  to  flight ;  and  the  infantry  of  Toulouse,  thus  forsaken^ 
could  offer  no  effective  resistance.  Trampled  down  by  the  pilgrim- 
knights,  the  citizens  of  Toulouse  who  followed  their  sovereign  to  the 
field,  were  either  cut  to  pieces,  or  drowned  in  the  waters  of  the 
Garonne. 

Philip  Augustus  had  triumphed  over  his  enemies,  the  king  of  Eng 
land  and  the  emperor  of  Germany,  just  when  the  victory  of  Mural 
seems  to  have  confirnied  the  power  of  De  Montfort.  But  the  ambitious 
adventurer  derived  little  profit  from  his  success,  for  the  court  of  Romo 
began  to  dread  the  power  of  its  creature  (a.  d.  1215).  His  influence 
with  the  papal  legates  and  the  prelates  who  had  directed  the  crusade 
was,  however,  still  very  great,  and  he  procijed  from  the  council  of 
Montpellier  the  investiture  of  Toulouse  and  all  the  conquests  made  by 
'the  Christian  pilgrims."  Philip  Augustus  was  by  no  means  disposed 
to  acquiesce  in  this  arrangement ;  he  sent  his  son  Louis  with  a  numex- 


OROIVTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  427 

ous  army  into  the  south  of  France,  under  pretence  of  joining  in  the 
crusade,  but  really  to  watch  the  proceedings  of  De  Montfort.  Louis 
Bubsequently  returned  to  accept  the  proffered  crown  of  England,  and 
the  quarrel  in  which  this  proceeding  involved  him  with  the  pope  di- 
verted his  attention  from  Languedoc. 

Arnold  of  Citeaux,  having  returned  from  his  Spanish  crusade,  took 
possession  of  his  archbishopric  of  Narbonne,  where  he  began  to  exer- 
cise the  rights  of  a  sovereign  prince.  Simon  de  Montfort,  who  had 
taken  the  title  of  duke  of  Narbonne  in  addition  to  that  of  count  of  Tou- 
louse, denied  that  his  old  companion  in  arms  had  a  right  to  temporal 
jurisdiction  ;  lie  entered  the  city  by  force,  and  erected  his  ducal  stand- 
ard. Arnold  fulminated  an  excommunication  against  De  Montfort,  and 
placed  the  city  under  an  interdict  while  he  remained  in  it ;  he  found, 
however,  to  his  great  surprise  and  vexation,  that  these  weapons  were 
contemned  by  the  formidable  champion  of  the  church.  But  a  more 
\igorous  enemy  appeared  in  the  person  of  Raymond  VII.,  son  of  the 
count  of  Toulouse,  who,  in  conjunction  with  his  father,  made  a  vigorous 
effort  to  recover  the  ancient  inheritance  of  his  race.  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort, contrary  to  his  own  better  judgment,  was  induced  by  Foulke, 
bishop  of  Toulouse,  to  treat  the  citizens  with  treacherous  cruelty  for 
showing  some  symptoms  of  affection  to  their  ancient  lord  ;  the  conse- 
quence was,  that  they  took  advantage  of  his  absence  to  invite  Raymond 
to  resume  his  power  ;  and  on  the  13th  of  September,  1217,  the  count 
was  publicly  received  into  his  ancient  capital  amid  universal  acclama- 
tions. 

Simon,  by  the  aid  of  the  papal  legate  and  the  clergy,  was  able  to 
collect  a  large  army,  but  the  bravest  of  the  crusaders  had  either  fallen 
in  the  preceding  wars,  or  returned  disgusted  to  their  homes.  Every 
one  now  knew  that  heresy  was  extinguished  in  Languedoc,  and  that 
the  war  was  maintained  only  to  gratify  private  revenge  and  individual 
ambition.  De  Montfort  laid  siege  to  Toulouse,  but  he  was  slain  in  a 
sally  of  the  inhabitants,  and  his  son  Almeric,  after  a  vain  effort  to  re- 
venge his  death,  retired  to  Carcasonne. 

The  Albigensian  war  was  not  ended  by  che  death  of  its  great  leader. 
Almeric  de  Montfort  sold  his  claims  over  Languedoc  to  Louis  VIII. 
king  of  France  ;  and  though  this  prince  died  in  the  attempt  to  gain  pos- 
session of  Toulouse,  the  war  was  so  vigorously  supported  by  the  queen- 
regent,  Blanche,  that  Raymond  VII,  submitted  to  his  enemies,  and  his 
dominions  were  united  to  the  crown  of  France  (a.  d.  1229).  The  In- 
quisition was  immediately  established  in  these  unhappy  countries, 
which  have  never  since  recovered  completely  from  the  calamities  in 
flicted  upon  them  by  the  ministers  of  papal  vengeance. 

Section  IX. — Consequences  of  the  CrusaaeS' 

Though  the  popes  did  not  succeed  in  establishing  their  supremacy 
over  the  eastern  churches,  yet  they  derived  very  important  advantage!9 
from  the  wars  of  the  crusaders.  Not  the  least  of  these  was  the  gen- 
eral recognition  of  their  right  to  interfere  in  the  internal  management 
of  states  ;  they  compelled  emperors  and  kings  to  assume  the  cross  ; 
thov  levied  taxes  at  their  discretion  on  the  clergy  throughout  Christen- 


428  MODERN  HISTOKY 

doni  for  the  support  of  these  wars  ;  they  took  under  their  iminediiUe 
protection  the  persons  and  properties  of  those  who  enUsted,  and  grant- 
ed privileges  to  the  adventurous  warriors,  which  it  would  have  been 
deemed  impiety  to  contravene.  Those  who  joined  in  these  wars,  fre- 
quently bequeathed  their  estates  to  the  church,  in  the  not  improbable 
c'lse  of  their  death  without  heirs  •  those  whom  cowardice  or  policy  de- 
tained at  home,  atoned  for  their  absence  by  founding  ecclesiastical  en- 
dowments. 

While  the  papal  power  increased,  that  of  monarchs  declined  ;  in 
Germany,  the  HohenstaufTen  gradually  lost  all  influence  ;  in  England, 
the  barons  extorted  a  charter  from  John,  and  the  Hungarians  chiefs 
placed  similar  restrictions  on  their  sovereign.  Peculiar  circumstances 
t;d  to  a  contrary  result  in  France  ;  many  of  the  great  feudatories  hav- 
ing fallen  in  a  distant  land,  the  monarchs  were  enabled  to  extend 
their  prerogatives,  while  their  domains  were  increased  'w  seizing 
the  properties  of  those  who  died  without  feudal  heirs,  or  of  those  who 
were  suspected  of  heretical  opinions.  The  Christian  kings  of  Spain 
and  northern  Europe  derived  also  some  profit  from  the  fanaticism  of 
the  age,  being  aided  by  troops  of  warlike  adventurers,  in  extending 
their  dominions  at  the  expense  of  their  Mohammedan  and  pagan  neigh 
bors. 

Chivalry,  though  older  than  the  cnisades,  derived  its  chief  influence 
and  strength  from  these  wars.  The  use  of  surnames,  coats  of  arms, 
and  distinctive  banners,  became  necessary  in  armies  composed  of  men 
differing  in  language,  habits,  and  feelings,  collected  at  hazard  from  every 
Christian  kingdom.  Tournaments  were  the  natural  result  of  pride  and 
courage,  in  warriors  naturally  jealous  of  each  other's  fame,  while  the 
institution  of  the  military  orders  invested  knighthood  with  a  mysteriou? 
religious  sanction.  Tiie  first  of  these  was  the  order  of  the  Hospital- 
lers, or  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  known  subsequently  as  the 
Knights  of  Malta.  They  were  formed  into  a  confraternity  by  Pope 
Pascal  (a.  d.  1114),  but  their  order  was  greatly  enlarged  by  Pope  Ca- 
lixtus.  They  bore  an  octagonal  white  cross  on  their  black  robes,  and 
were  bound  to  wage  war  on  infidels,  and  attend  to  sick  pilgrims.  After 
the  loss  of  the  Holy  Land,  they  removed  successively  to  Cyprus, 
Rhodes,  and  Malta.  Their  order  neld  Malta  until  a.  d.  1798,  when 
they  were  deprived  of  their  last  possession  by  Napoleon. 

The  Kniglits  Templars,  distinguished  by  the  red  cross,  were  institu- 
ted soon  after  the  Hospitallers.  Tneir  original  duty  was  to  keep  the 
roads  free  for  the  pilgrims  that  visited  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  but  as  their 
numbers  increased,  they  became  the  great  bulwark  of  the  Christian 
kingdom  of  Palestine,  and  ih^.  possessors  of  rich  endowments  in  ever) 
part  of  western  Europe.*  At  length  their  wealth  excited  the  cupidity 
of  monarchs;  they  were  overwhelmed  by  a  mass  of  forged  accusations; 
!.nany  of  the  noblest  knights  were  put  to  death  by  torture,  and  the  orde-* 
wholly  abolished  at  the  council  of  Vienne  (a.  d.  1312). 

The  Teutonic  order  was  originally  a  confraternity  of  German  knights., 
formed  during  the  seige  of  Acre,  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  wounded 
it  was  formally  instituted  by  Pope  Celestin  HI.  (a.  d.   1192),  and  a 

•  Tlie  Temple  in  London  belonged  to  the  Red-cross  iinights;  the  Hospitallers 
possessed  a  splendid  preceptory  m  Clcrkenwell,  part  of  which  is  still  standing. 


GROWTH  OF  THE   PAPAL  POWER.  429 

;;odc  of  regulations  prescribed  for  its  direction.  Their  ensign  was  i 
black  cross,  on  a  white  robe.  They  subdued  the  kingdom  of  Prussia 
(a.  d.  1230),  of  which  they  held  possession  until  the  progress  of  the 
Reformation  gave  that  countrv  to  a  protestant  prince  (a.  d.  1525).  Tho 
last  great  order  was  that  of  St.  Lazarus,  instituted  originally  for  super- 
intending the  treatment  of  leprosy,  a  loathsome  disease  which  the  cru- 
saders introduced  into  Europe.  It  soon  became  military,  like  the  pre- 
ceding, but  never  rose  to  similar  eminence. 

The  Italian  maritime  states  supplied  the  crusaders  with  transports, 
and  conveyed  to  them  provision  and  the  munitions  of  war.  This  traf- 
fic led  to  a  rapid  increase  in  the  commerce  and  navigation  of  the  Med- 
iterranean ;  a  taste  for  spices  and  other  articles  of  oriental  luxury  was 
pradually  diffused  throughout  Europe,  and  trading  depots  were  formed 
by  Venice,  Genoa,  and  other  Italian  powers,  on  the  shores  of  the  Le- 
vant, and  the  coasts  of  the  Greek  empire.  Several  F.  ench  towns  imi- 
tated this  example,  and  in  the  remote  north  an  association  was  formed 
for  the  protection  and  extension  of  commerce  between  the  ."ties  of  Lu- 
beck  and  Hamburgh  (a.  d.  1241),  which  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
Hanseatic  league.  The  progress  of  industry,  the  encouragement  which 
sovereigns  found  it  their  interest  to  grant  to  trade,  and  their  anxiety  to 
check  the  arrogance  and  rapacity  of  their  feudal  vassals,  led  to  a  great 
change  lU  most  European  countries,  the  establishment  of  municipal  in- 
stitutions. 

The  royal  authority  gained  considerably  by  the  extension  of  munici- 
pal freedom.  The  cities  and  towns  saw  that  the  sovereign  was  the 
person  most  interested  in  protecting  their  growing  freedom,  and  they 
therefore  gladly  gave  him  their  support  in  his  struggles  with  the  aris 
tocracy  and  the  clergy.  The  emancipation  of  the  serfs  was  a  conse- 
quence of  municipal  freedom.  The  free  cities  granted  protection  to  all 
who  sought  shelter  ••vithin  their  walls,  and  the  nobles  saw  that  they 
must  either  ameliorate  the  condition  of  their  vassals,  or  witness  the  de- 
population of  their  estates.  Liberty  thus  gradually  recovered  its  right 
civilization  consequently  began  to  extend  its  blessings  over  society. 

The  imperial  house  of  Hohenstauffen  fell  from  its  pride  of  place  on 
the  death  of  the  emperor  Frederic  II.,  the  great  opponent  of  the  pa- 
pacy (a.  d.  1250).  His  son  Conrad  fell  a  victim  to  disease,  after  a 
brief  but  troubled  reign ;  and  the  anarchy  which  succeeded  in  Ger- 
many, is  justly  named  the  calamitous  period  of  the  great  interregnum. 
William  of  Holland,  and  an  English  prince,  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall, 
were  sucessively  elected  emperors,  and  enjoyed  little  more  than  the 
title.  At  length,  Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburgh,  was  chosen  (a.  d. 
1273)  and  showed  himself  worthy  of  the  crown  by  his  energy  in  sup- 
pressing the  predatory  wars  that  were  waged  by  his  vassals.  In  the 
meantime,  the  popes,  in  defiance  of  the  rights  of  the  Hohenstaulfen 
aad  bestowed  the  kingdom  of  Naples  on  Charles,  duke  of  Anjou 
brother  to  the  king  of  France. 

The  cruelties  of  Charles  led  the  Italians  to  invite  young  Conradin  tc 
assert  the  hereditary  claims  of  his  family.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  this 
brave  prince  entered  Italy,  where  he  was  enthusiastically  received. 
But  the  Italians  were  not  able  to  compete  with  the  French  in  the  field, 
when  Conradin  encountered  Charles,  his  followers  broke  at  the  first  on- 


*30  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Bet,  anJ  he  remained  a  prisoner.  The  duke  of  Anjou  subjected  tlit 
young  prince  to  the  mockery  of  a  trial,  and  commanded  him  to  be  exe- 
cuted. 

Thus  fell  the  last  prince  of  the  house  of  Suabia,  which  had  long 
been  the  most  formidable  obstacle  to  papal  usurpation.  Tlie  triumph 
of  tlie  papacy  appeared  complete  :  Italy  was  severed  from  the  German 
empire  ;  but  the  peninsula  recovered  its  independence  only  to  be  torn 
in  sunder  by  factions ;  the  church  did  not  succeed  to  the  empire,  and 
tlie  pontiffs  found  that  the  spirit  of  freedom,  which  they  had  themselves 
nurtured,  was  a  more  formidable  foe  than  the  sovereigns  of  Germany. 

Section  X. — Formation  and  Constitutional  History  of  the  Sj/anish  Monarchy. 

For  several  hundred  years  after  the  great  Saracen  ii:\'asion  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  Spain  was  broken  up  into  a  number 
of  small  but  independent  states,  divided  in  their  interests,  and  often  in 
deadly  hostility  with  one  another.  By  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, the  number  of  states  into  which  the  country  had  been  divided  was 
reduced  to  four;  Castile,  Aragon,  Navarre,  and  the  Moorish  kingdom 
of  Granada.  The  last,  comprised  within  nearly  the  same  limits  as  the 
modern  province  of  that  name,  was  all  that  remained  to  the  Moslems 
of  their  once  vast  possessions  in  the  peninsula.  Its  concentrated  pop- 
ulation gave  it  a  degree  of  strength  altogether  dispioportioned  to  the 
extent  of  its  territory  ;  and  the  profuse  magnificence  of  its  court,  which 
rivalled  that  of  the  ancient  khaliphs,  was  supported  by  the  labors  of  a 
sober  industrious  people,  under  whom  agriculture  and  several  of  the 
mechanic  arts  had  reached  a  degree  of  perfection  probably  unequalled 
in  any  other  part  of  Europe  during  the  middle  ages. 

The  little  kingdom  of  Navarre,  embosomed  within  the  Pyrenees,  had 
often  attracted  the  ?-arice  of  neighboring  and  more  powerful  states. 
But  since  their  selfish  schemes  operated  as  a  mutual  check  uj)on  each 
other,  Navarre  still  continued  to  maintain  her  independence  when  all 
the  smaller  states  had  been  absorbed  in  the  gradually  increasing  do- 
minion of  Castile  and  Aragon.  This  latter  kingdom  comprehended  the 
province  of  that  name  together  with  Caialonia  and  Valencia.  Under 
its  auspicious  climate  and  free  political  institutions,  its  inhabitants  dis- 
played an  uncommon  share  of  intellectual  and  moral  energy.  Its  long 
line  of  coast  opened  the  way  to  an  extensive  and  flourishing  commerce  ; 
and  its  enterprising  navy  indemnified  the  nation  for  the  scantiness  of 
its  territory  at  home  by  the  important  foreign  conquests  of  Sardinia, 
Sicily,  Naples,  and  the  Balearic  Isles. 

The  remaining  provinces  of  the  peninsula  fell  to  the  crown  of  Castile, 
which,  thus  extending  its  sway  over  an  unbroken  line  of  country  from 
(he  bay  of  Biscay  to  the  Mediterranean,  seemed,  by  the  magnitude  of 
its  territory,  to  be  entitled  to  some  supremacy  over  the  other  states  of 
the  peninsula  ;  especially  as  it  was  there  that  the  old  Gothic  monarchy 
may  be  said  first  to  ha.e  revived  after  the  great  Saracen  invasion 
This  claim,  indeed,  appears  to  have  been  recognised  at  an  early  period 
of  her  history. 

The  Saraoen^,  reposing  under  the  sunny  skies  of  Andalusia,  so  con- 
genial with  their  own,  seemed  willing  to  relinquish  the  sterile  regions 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER  431 

of  the  north  to  an  enemy  whom  they  despised.  But  Avhen  the  Span- 
iards, quitting  the  shelter  of  their  mountains,  descended  into  the  open 
plains  of  Leon  and  Castile,  they  found  themselves  exposed  to  the  pred- 
atory incursions  of  the  Arab  cavalry.  It  was  not  until  they  had  reach- 
ed some  natural  boundary,  as  the  river  Dourc,  that  they  were  enabled, 
by  constructing  a  line  of  fortifications  behind  this  natural  fence,  to  se- 
cure their  conquests.  Their  own  dissensions  were  another  cause  of 
their  tardy  progress.  More  Christian  blood  was  wasted  in  these  na- 
tional feuds  than  in  all  their  encounters  with  the  infidel.  The  soldiers 
of  Fernan  Gon(;ales,  a  chieftain  of  the  tenth  century,  complained  that 
their  master  made  them  lead  the  lives  of  very  devils,  keeping  them  in 
the  harness  day  and  night,  in  wars  not  against  the  Saracens,  but  one 
another. 

These  circumstances  so  far  checked  the  energies  of  the  Christians, 
that  a  century  and  a  half  elapsed  after  the  invasion  before  they  had 
penetrated  to  the  Douro  (a.  d.  850),  and  nearly  thrice  that  period  before 
f.hey  had  advanced  the  line  of  conquest  to  the  Tagus  (a.  d.  1147),  not- 
withstanding this  portion  of  the  country  had  been  comparatively  desert- 
ed by  the  Mohammedans.  But  it  was  easy  to  foresee  that  a  people 
living  as  they  did  under  circumstances  favorable  to  the  development  of 
both  physical  and  moral  energy,  must  ultimately  prevail  over  a  natior. 
oppressed  by  despotism,  and  the  effeminate  indulgence  to  which  it  was 
naturally  disposed  by  a  sensual  religion  and  a  voluptuous  climate.  Ir 
truth,  the  early  Spaniard  was  urged  by  every  motive  which  can  give 
energy  to  human  purpose.  His  cause  became  the  cause  of  Heaven 
The  church  published  her  bulls  of  crusade,  offering  liberal  indulgence.-? 
to  those  who  served,  and  paradise  to  those  who  fell  in  the  battle  against 
the  infidel.  Indeed,  volunteers  from  the  remotest  parts  of  Christian 
Europe  eagerly  thronged  to  serve  under  his  banner,  and  the  cause  of 
religion  was  debated  with  the  same  ardor  in  Spain  as  on  the  plains  of 
Palestine. 

To  the  extraordinary  position  in  which  the  nation  was  placed  may 
be  referred  the  liberal  forms  of  its  political  institutions,  as  well  as  a 
more  early  development  of  them  than  took  place  in  other  countries  of 
Europe.  From  the  exposure  of  the  Castilian  towns  to  the  predatory 
incursions  of  the  Arabs,  it  became  necessary,  not  only  that  they  should 
be  strongly  fortified,  but  that  c'ery  citizen  should  be  trained  to  bear 
arms  in  their  defence.  An  immense  increase  of  consequence  was  given 
to  the  burgesses,  who  thus  constituted  the  most  effective  part  of  the 
national  militia.  To  this  circumstance,  as  well  as  to  the  policy  of  in- 
viting the  settlement  of  frontier  places  by  the  grant  of  extraordinary 
privileges  to  the  inhabitants,  is  to  be  imputed  the  early  date,  as  well 
the  liberal  character  of  the  charters  of  community  in  Castile  and  Leon. 
These,  although  varying  a  good  deal  in  their  details,  generally  conce- 
ded to  the  citizens  the  right  of  electing  their  own  magistrates  for  the 
regulation  of  municipal  affairs.  In  order  to  secure  the  barriers  of  jus- 
tice more  efleciually  against  the  violence  of  power,  so  often  superior  to 
law  in  an  imperfect  state  of  society,  it  was  provided  in  many  of  the 
charters  that  no  nobles  should  be  permitted  to  acquire  real  property 
within  the  limits  of  the  municipality  ;  that  no  fortress  or  pah  ce  should 
h/e  erected  by  them  there  ;  that  such  as  might  reside   within  the  terri 


432  MODERN   HISTORY. 

lory  of  a  chartered  city  or  borough  should  be  subject  to  its  jurisdiction  , 
and  that  any  violence  ofTered  by  the  feudal  lords  to  its  inhabitants  might 
be  resisted  with  impunity.  Thus,  while  the  inhal)itants  of  the  great 
towns  in  other  parts  of  Europe  were  languishing  in  feudal  servitude,  the 
Castilian  corporation,  living  under  the  protection  of  their  own  laws  and 
magistrates  in  time  of  peace,  and  commanded  by  their  own  officers  in 
time  of  war,  were  in  full  enjoyment  of  all  the  essential  rights  and  priv- 
ileges of  freemen. 

The  earliest  instance  on  record  of  popular  representation  in  Castile, 
occurred  at  Burgos  in  1169  ;  nearly  a  century  antecedent  to  the  first 
convocation  of  the  English  house  of  commons,  in  the  celebrated  Lei- 
cester parliament.  Each  city  had  but  one  vote  whatever  might  be  the 
number  of  its  representatives.  The  nomination  of  the  deputies  was 
originally  vested  in  the  householders  at  large,  but  was  afterward  con 
fined  to  the  municipalities  ;  a  most  mischievous  alteration  which  sub- 
jected their  election  eventually  to  the  corrupt  influence  of  the  crown 
They  assembled  in  the  same  chamber  with  the  higher  orders  of  the 
nobility  and  clergy  ;  but  on  questions  of  importance  retired  to  deliber- 
ate by  themselves.  After  the  transaction  of  other  business,  their  own 
petitions  were  presented  to  the  sovereign ;  and  his  assent  gave  them 
the  validity  of  laws.  The  Castilian  commons,  by  neglecting  to 
make  their  money  grants  dependant  on  corresponding  concessions  from 
the  crown,  relinquished  that  powerful  check  on  its  operations  so  bene- 
ficially exerted  in  the  British  parliament,  but  in  vain  contended  for  even 
there  until  a  period  much  later  than  that  now  under  consideration. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  right  of  the  nobility  and  clergy  to  attend 
the  Cortes,  their  sanction  was  not  deemed  essential  to  the  validity  of 
legislative  acts ;  for  their  presence  was  not  even  required  in  many  as- 
semblies of  the  nation  which  occurred  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries.  The  extraordinary  power  thus  committed  to  the  commons 
was,  on  the  whole,  unfavorable  to  their  liberties.  It  deprived  them  of 
the  sympathy  and  co-operation  of  the  great  orders  of  the  state,  whose 
authority  alone  could  have  enabled  them  to  withstand  the  enactments 
of  arl)itrary  power,  and  who  in  fact  did  eventually  desert  them  in  their 
utmost  need. 

But  notwithstanding  these  defects,  the  popular  branch  of  the  Castilian 
Cortes,  very  soon  after  its  admission  into  that  body,  assumed  functions 
and  exercised  a  degree  of  power  superior  to  that  enjoyed  by  the  com- 
mons in  other  European  legislatures.  It  was  soon  recognised  as  a 
principle  of  the  constitution,  that  no  tax  should  be  imposed  without  the 
consent  of  the  representatives  of  the  people.  The  commons  showed 
a  wise  solicitude  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  collecting  the  public  revenue. 
They  watched  carefully  over  its  appropriation  to  its  destined  uses.  A 
vigilant  eye  was  kept  on  the  conduct  of  public  officers,  as  well  as  on 
the  right  administration  of  justice,  and  commissions  were  appointed  by 
the  Cortes  to  inquire  into  any  suspected  abuses  of  judicial  authority. 
They  entered  into  negotiations  for  alliances  with  foreign  powers,  ind 
by  determining  the  amount  of  supplies  for  the  maintenance  of  troops  in 
time  of  war,  preserved  a  salutary  check  over  military  operations.  The 
nomination  of  regencies  was  subject  to  their  approbation,  and  they  de- 
fined the  nature  of  the  authority  to  be  intrusted  to  them      Their  con 


CiliOWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  433 

sent  was  esteemed  iiiJIspensable  to  the  validity  of  a  title  to  the  crown ; 
and  this  prerogative,  oi  at  least  the  shadow  of  it,  long  continued  to  sur 
Vive  the  wreck  of  theii  auoient  liberties.  Finally  they  more  than  once 
Pet  uside  the  testamentary  provisions  of  the  sovereign  in  regard  to  the 
succession. 

It  would  be  improper  to  pass  by  without  notice  an  anomalous  insti- 
lutiou  (/eculiar  to  Castile,  wiueh  sought  to  secure  the  public  tranquillity 
by  means  which  were  themselves  scarcely  compatible  with  civil  subor- 
dination. This  was  the  celebrated  Hcr/nandad,  or  "  Holy  Brotherhood," 
which  was  designed  as  a  subsuuite  for  a  regularly-organized  police. 
It  consisteu  of  a  confederation  oi  the  principal  cities,  bound  together  by 
solemn  leaj^ue  and  covenant  foi  the  defence  of  their  liberty  in  seasons 
of  civil  anarchy.  Its  affairs  were  conducted  by  deputies^  who  assem- 
bled at  stated  intervals  for  the  purjiose,  transacting  their  business  under 
a  common  seal,  enacting  laws  which  they  vsere  careful  to  transmit  to 
the  nobles  and  the  sovereign,  and  enforcing  their  measures  by  an  armed 
body  of  dependants.  This  wild  kind  of  justice,  so  characteristic  of  an 
unsettled  state  of  society,  repeatedly  received  the  legislative  sanction  ; 
and  however  formidable  such  a  popular  engine  may  have  appeared  to 
the  eye  of  a  monarch,  he  was  often  led  to  countenance  it  by  a  sense  of 
his  own  impotence,  as-  well  as  of  the  overweening  power  of  the  nobles, 
against  whom  it  was  p/incipally  directed.  Hence  these  associations, 
though  the  epithet  may  seem  somewhat  overstrained,  have  received  the 
appellation  of  "  Cortes  Extraordinary." 

With  these  immunities  the  cities  of  Castile  attained  a  degree  ot  opu- 
lence and  splendor  unrivalled,  unless  in  Italy,  during  the  middle  ages. 
At  a  very  early  period  indeed  their  contact  with  the  Arabs  had  familiar- 
ized them  with  a  better  system  of  agriculture  and  a  dexterity  in  the 
mechanic  arts  unknown  in  otiier  parts  of  Christendom.  Augmentation 
cf  wealth  brought  with  it  the  usual  appetite  for  expensive  pleasures 
but  the  surplus  of  riches  was  frequently  expended  in  usel'ui  public 
works. 

The  nobles,  though  possesst7d  of  immense  estates  and  great  political 
pr  \'ileges,  did  not  consume  their  fortunes  or  their  energies  in  a  life  of 
effeminate  luxury.  From  their  .earliest  boyhood  they  were  accustomed 
to  servb  in  the  ranks  against  the  infidel,  and  their  whole  subsequent 
lives  were  occupied  either  with  war,  or  those  martial  exercises  whicn 
reflect  the  image  of  it.  Looiving  back  with  pride  to  the  ancient  Gothic 
descent,  and  to  those  times  when  they  had  stood  forward  as  the  peers, 
the  electors  of  their  sovereign,  they  would  ill  brook  the  slightest  indig 
nity  at  his  hand.  Accordingly  we  find  them  perpetually  convulsing  the 
kingdom  with  their  schemes  of  selfish  aggrandizement.  The  petitions 
of  the  commons  are  filled  with  remonstrances  on  their  various  oppres- 
sions, and  the  evils  resulting  from  their  long  desolating  feuds. 

The  over-weening  self-confidence  of  the  nobles,  however,  proved 
•heir  ruin.  They  disdained  a  co-operation  with  the  lower-  orders  in 
defence  of  their  privileges,  when  both  were  assailed  by  the  Austrian 
dynasty,  and  relied  too  unhesitatingly  on  their  power  as  a  body,  to  feel 
jealous  of  their  exclusion  from  the  national  legislature,  where  alone 
ll'.ey  could  make  an  effectual  stand  against  the  usurpations  of  the  crown 

The  long  minorities  with  which  Castile  was  afflicted,  perhaps  more 

2S 


i34  MODERN    HISTORY. 

than  any  country  in  Europe,  frequently  threw  the  govenimeiic  into  tht 
hands  of  the  principal  nobility,  who  perverted  to  their  awn  emolument 
the  high  powers  intrusted  to  them.  They  usurped  the  possessions  i>f 
the  crown,  and  iuA'aded  sorrie  of  its  most  valuable  privileges ;  so  that 
the  sovereign's  sul  sequent  life  was  frequently  spent  in  fruitless  attempts 
to  recover  the  losses  of  his  minority.  He  sometimes,  indeed,  in  thf^ 
impotence  of  other  resources,  resorted,  to  such  unhappy  expedients  as 
treachery  and  assassination. 

Skction  XI. — Survey  of  the  Constilulion  of  Aragon. 

Aragon  was  first  raised  to  political  importance  by  its  union  witli 
Catalonia,  including  the  rich  country  of  Barcelona,  and  the  subsequent 
conquest  of  the  kingdom  of  Valencia.  The  ancient  country  of  Barce- 
lona had  reached  a  higher  degree  of  civilization  than  Aragon,  and  wa? 
distinguished  by  institutions  even  more  liberal  than  those  we  have  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding  section  as  belonging  to  Castile.  It  was  in  the 
maritime  cities,  scaUered  along  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  that 
the  seeds  of  liberty,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  were  implanted 
and  brought  to  maturity.  During  the  middle  ages,  when  the  people  of 
Europe  generally  maintained  a  toilsome  and  unfrequent  intercourse 
with  each  other,  those  situated  on  the  margin  of  this  great  inland  sea 
found  an  easy  mode  of  communication  across  the  great  highway  of  its 
waters.  Among  these  maritime  republics,  those  of  Catalonia  were 
eminently  conspicuous.  By  the  incorporation  of  this  country,  there- 
fore, with  the  kingdom  of  Aragon,  the  strength  of  the  latter  was  greatly 
augmented.  The  Aragonese  princes,  well  aware  of  this,  liberally  fos- 
tered the  institutions  to  which  the  country  owed  its  prosperity,  and  skil- 
fully availed  themselves  of  its  resources  for  the  aggrandizement  of  their 
dominions.  The  Catalan  navy  disputed  the  empire  of  the  Mediterranean 
with  the  fleets  of  Pisa,  and  still  more  with  those  of  Genoa.  With  its 
aid  the  Aragonese  monarchs  achieved  successfully  the  conquest  of  Sici- 
ly, Sardinia,  and  the  Balearic  isles,  which  they  annexed  to  their  empire. 
It  penetrated  into  the  farthest  regions  of  the  Levant,  and  a  Catalan  ar- 
mament conquered  Athens,  giving  to  their  sovereign  the  classical  title 
if  duke  of  that  city. 

But  though  the  dominions  of  the  kings  of  Aragon  were  thus  extended 
abroad,  there  were  no  sovereigns  in  Europe  whose  authority  was  so 
limited  at  home.  The  national  historians  refer  the  origin  of  their  gov- 
ernment to  a  written  constitution  of  about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, fragments  of  which  are  still  preserved  in  certain  ancient  documents 
and  chronicles.  On  the  occurrence  of  a  vacancy  in  the  throne  at  this 
epoch,  a  monarch  was  elected  by  the  twelve  principal  nobles,  who  pre- 
scribed a  code  of  laws,  to  the  observance  of  which  he  was  compelled 
to  s.vear  before  assuming  the  sceptre.  The  import  of  tliese  laws  was 
to  circumscribe  within  very  narrow  limits  the  authority  of  the  sovereign- 
'y,  distributing  the  principal  functions  to  ajusficia  or  justice  ;  and  these 
peers  were  ?uthorized,  if  the  compact  should  be  violated  by  the  mon- 
arch, to  withdraw  their  allegiance,  and  in  the  bold  language  of  the  or- 
dinance "  to  substitute  any  other  ruler  in  his  stead,  even  a  pagan  if  they 
listed."     The  orreat  barons  of  Aragon  were  few  in  number,  thev  claimed 


QIIOWTH  OF  THF.  PAPAL  POWER. 


435 


icsceiit  from  the  twelve  electoral  peers  we  have  described,  and  they 
very  reluctantly  admitted  to  equality  those  whom  the  favor  of  the  sov- 
ereign raised  to  the  peerage.  No  baron  could  be  divested  of  his  fief 
unless  by  public  sentence  of  the  justice  and  the  cortes.  The  nobles 
nlled  of  right  the  highest  offices  in  the  state  ;  they  appointed  judges  in 
iheir  domains  for  the  cognizance  of  certain  civil  causes,  and  they  exer- 
cised an  unlimited  criminal  jurisdiction  over  certain  classes  of  their  vas- 
sals. They  were  excused  from  taxation,  except  in  specified  cases  ; 
were  exempted  from  all  corporal  and  capital  punishments  ;  nor  could 
they  be  imprisoned,  though  their  estates  might  be  sequestrated,  for  debt. 
But  the  laws  conceded  to  them  privileges  of  a  still  more  dangerous 
character.  They  were  entitled  to  defy  and  publicly  renounce  their  al- 
legiance to  their  sovereign,  with  the  whimsical  privilege  in  addition,  of 
commending  their  families  and  estates  to  his  protection,  wliich  he  was 
oblioed  to  protect  until  they  were  again  reconciled.  The  mischievous 
rifhl  of  private  war  was  repeatedly  recognised  by  statute.  It  was  claimed 
and  exercised  in  its  full  extent,  and  occasionally  with  circumstances  of 
peculiar  atrocity. 

The  commons  of  Aragon  enjoyed  higher  consideration,  and  stil 
larger  civil  privileges,  than  those  of  Castile.  For  this  they  were  perhaps 
somewhat  indebted  to  the  example  of  their  Catalan  neighbcrs,  the  influ- 
ence of  whose  democratic  institutions  naturally  extended  to  other  parts 
of  the  Aragonese  monarchy.  The  charters  of  certain  cities  accorded  to 
their  inhabitants  privileges  of  nobility,  particularly  those  of  immunity 
from  taxation  ;  while  the  magistrates  of  others  were  permitted  to  take 
their  seats  in  the  order  of  the  lesser  nobles.  By  a  statute  passed  in  1307, 
It  was  ordained  that  the  cortes  should  assemble  triennially.  The  great  of- 
ficers of  the  crown,  whatever  might  be  tlieir  personal  rank,  were  jealously 
excluded  from  their  dehberations.  It  was  in  the  power  of  any  member 
to  defeat  the  passage  of  a  bill,  by  opposing  to  it  his  veto  or  dissent  for- 
mally registered  to  that  efl'ect.  He  might  even  interpose  his  negative 
on  the  proceedings  of  the  house,  and  thus  put  a  stop  lo  the  prosecution 
of  all  further  business  during  the  session.  During  the  interval  of  the 
sessions  of  the  legislature,  a  committee  of  two  from  each  department 
was  appointed  to  preside  over  public  aflairs,  particularly  in  regard  to 
the  revenue  and  the  security  of  justice ;  with  authority  to  convoke  a 
cortes  oxlraordinary,  whenever  the  exigency  might  demand  it. 

The  cortes  exercised  th."  highest  functions,  whether  of  a  deliberative, 
legislative,  or  judicial  nature.  It  had  a  right  to  be  consulted  on  all  mat- 
ters of  importance  ;  especially  on  those  of  peace  or  war.  No  law  was 
valid,  no  tax  could  be  imposed  without  its  consent ;  and  it  carefully  pro- 
vided lor  the  application  of  the  revenue  to  its  destined  uses.  It  deter- 
mined the  succession  to  the  crown ;  removed  obnoxious  ministers  ;  re 
lornied  the  household  and  domestic  expenditure  of  the  monarch  ;  and 
exercised  the  power  in  the  most  unreserved  manner  of  withholding  sup- 
plies, as  well  as  of  resisting  what  it  regarded  as  an  encroachment  on 
the  liberties  of  the  nation. 

The  governments  of  Valencia  and  Cat ilonia  were  administered  inde- 
pendent of  each  other  long  after  they  had  been  consolidated  into  one 
iiionarchy,  but  they  bore  a  very  near  resemblance  to  the  constitution  of 
Aragon.     The  city  of  Barcelona,  which  originally  gave  its  name;  to  thr 


t36  MODERN  HISTORY. 

joimtv  of  wliicli  It  was  the  capital,  was  tlistinguished  from  a  very  early 
period  by  ample  municipal  privileges.  Under  the  Aragoncse  monarchs, 
Barcelona  had  so  well  profited  by  the  liberal  administrations  of  ite 
rulers  as  to  have  reached  a  deerree  of  prosperity  rivalling  that  of  any  of 
the  Italian  republics.  The  wealth  which  flowed  in  upon  Barcelona, 
and  the  result  of  the  activity  and  enterprise  which  the  merchants  of  the 
place  exhibited,  was  evinced  by  tlie  numerous  public  works  in  which  it 
sot  an  example  to  all  Europe.  Strangers  who  visited  Spain  in  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  expatiate  on  the  magnificence  of 
this  city,  its  commodious  private  edifices,  the  cleanliness  of  its  streets 
and  public  squares,  and  on  the  amenity  of  its  gardens  and  cultivated 
environs. 

But  the  peculiar  glory  of  Barcelona  was  the  freedom  of  its  municipal 
institutions.  The  government  consisted  of  a  senate  or  council  of  one 
hundred,  and  a  body  of  corrcgidores  or  counsellors,  varying  at  times  from 
four  to  six  in  number ;  the  former  intrusted  with  the  legislative,  the  lat- 
ter with  the  executive  functions  of  administration.  A  large  proportion 
of  these  bodies  was  selected  from  the  merchants,  tradesmen,  and  me- 
chanics of  the  city.  They  were  invested,  not  merely  with  municipal 
authority,  but  with  many  of  the  rights  of  sovereignty.  They  entfered 
into  commercial  treaties  with  foreign  powers  ;  superintended  the  de- 
fence of  the  city  in  time  of  war ;  provided  for  the  security  of  trade  ; 
granted  letters  of  reprisal  against  any  nation  who  might  violate  it ;  and 
raised  and  appropriated  public  money  for  the  construction  of  useful 
works,  or  the  encouragement  of  such  commercial  adventures  as  were 
too  hazardous  or  expensive  for  individual  enterprise. 

Under  the  influence  of  these  democratic  institutions,  the  burghers  oi 
Barcelona,  and,  indeed,  of  Catalonia  in  general,  which  enjoyed  more  or 
less  of  a  similar  freedom,  assumed  a  haughty  independence  of  character, 
beyond  what  existed  among  the  same  class  in  other  parts  of  Spain  ;  and 
this,  combined  with  the  martial  daring  fostered  by  a  life  of  maritime 
adventure  and  warfare,  made  them  impatient,  not  merely  of  oppression, 
but  of  contradiction  on  the  part  of  their  sovereigns,  who  have  experi- 
enced more  frequent  and  more  sturdy  resistance  from  this  part  of  their 
dominions  than  from  any  other.  Navogiers,  the  Venetian  ambassador 
to  Spain  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  although  a  republican  himself 
was  so  struck  with  what  he  deemed  the  insubordination  of  the  Barcelo- 
uians,  that  he  asserts,  "  The  inhabitants  have  so  many  privileges  that 
the  king  scarcely  retains  any  authority  over  them ;  their  liberty,"  he 
adds,  "  should  rather  go  by  the  name  of  licentiousness." 

Such,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  Spanish  history,  were  the  free  const!- 
cutions  of  Castile  and  Aragon  ;  but  when  these  two  kingdoms  werc- 
uiiiteil  into  one  great  monarchy,  it  became  the  settled  policy  of  the  sov- 
ereigns to  destroy  all  the  institutions  by  which  the  liberties  of  the  people 
were  secured.  As  the  power  of  the  Mohammedans  grew  weaker,  the 
kings  of  Castile  had  less  reason  to  grant  municipal  privileges  on  condi- 
tion of  defending  the  frontiers  ;  and  their  nobles,  continually  engaged  in 
mu'ual  dissensions,  were  unable  to  check  the  inroads  of  the  crown  on 
•.heir  aristocratic  privileges.  The  nobles  of  Aragon,  indeed,  were  al- 
ways reidy  to  con.bine  in  a  common  cause,  and  it  was  aptly  said  by 
one  of  the  monarchs,  ir.  reference  to  these  two  aristocracies,  that  "  i' 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAl'AI    POWER.  437 

/f-as  equally  difficult  to  divide  the  nobles  of  Aragon,  and  to  unite  those 
of  Castile."  But  union  availed  little  to  the  Aragonese  nobles,  when 
the  seat  of  government  was  placed  beyond  the  sphere  of  their  influence, 
and  when  Castilian  armies  were  ready  to  crush  the  first  appearance  of 
msurrection.  It  is  also  to  be  remarked,  though  rather  in  anticipation 
of  what  we  shall  have  to  discuss  hereafter,  that  the  conquest  gf  Amer 
ica  not  merely  gave  the  kings  of  Spain  vast  supplies  of  gold,  without 
their  being  compelled  to  have  recourse  to  their  parliaments  or  cortes, 
but  it  also  enabled  them  to  create  many  lucrative  monopolies,  for  which 
the  Spanish  nobles  bartered  the  privileges  of  their  order  and  the  rights 
of  the  people.  There  is  a  closer  connexion  between  freedom  of  trade 
and  freedom  of  institutions  than  is  genei  illy  imagined  :  every  protected 
interest  exists  at  the  expense  of  all  the  other  classes  of  the  community, 
and  being  itself  based  on  injustice,  must  connive  at  injustice  in  others. 
Prospective  loss,  however  great,  is  constantly  hazarded  b)''  the  ignorant 
and  unthinking  for  immediate  gain,  however  small,  and  it  ^\da  this  self- 
ish folly  which  mainly  enabled  the  Austrian  line  of  Spanish  monarchs 
to  overthrow  the  ancient  constitution  of  their  country,  and  to  render 
Spain  a  memorable  and  sad  example  of  the  great  truth,  that  a  land  of 
monopoly  soon  becomes  a  land  of  slavery,  and  e  entually  a  land  of 
misery. 

Skction  XII. — State  of  Western  Europe  at  the  commencement  of  the  Four- 
teenth Century. 

RoDOLPH  of  Hapsburgh  had  no  sooner  obtained  possession  of  the 
empire,  than  he  resolved  to  strengthen  the  sovereign  authority,  by  an- 
nexing some  of  the  great  fiefs  to  the  crown.  The  usurpation  of  the  dutchy 
of  Austria  by  Ottokar,  king  of  Bohemia,  afforded  him  a  pretext  for  inter- 
fering in  the  disposal  of  that  province  ;  he  defeated  Ottokar,  and  deprived 
him  not  only  of  Austria,  but  also  of  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Carniola, 
which  were  formed  into  a  new  principality,  and  the  investiture  given  to 
Albert,  the  emperor's  son  (a.  d.  1282),  who  founded  the  imperial  house 
of  Austria. 

But  while  the  emperor's  authority  was  extended  in  Germany,  it  was 
almost  unknown  ir  Italy,  where  the  republican  cities  generally  withdrew 
even  nominal  allegiance  from  their  former  masters.  Of  these  commer- 
cial states  Venice  was  the  most  important.  This  city  had  been  origi- 
nally founded  by  sonie  refugees  who  sought  shelter  in  the  islands  and 
lagoons  of  the  Adriatic,  from  the  ferocity  of  the  Huns  (a.  d.  452)  ;  but  it 
first  rose  into. importance  under  the  doge  Pierre  Urseolo  II.  (a.  d.  992), 
who  obtained  freedom  of  commerce  for  his  fellow-citizens  from  the  By- 
zantine >emperor  and  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  and  subjected  the  maritime 
cities  of  Isiria  and  Dalmatia.  In  the  wars  between  the  empire  and  the 
papacy,  they  had  generally  supported  the  latter  ;  Pope  Alexander  III., 
as  a  reward  for  their  services,  conferred  on  them  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Adriatic,  and  hence  arose  the  singular  ceremony  of  celebrating  annu- 
ally a  mystic  marriage  between  that  sea  and  the  Venetian  doge.  The 
crusades  tended  greatly  to  extend  the  power  of  the  republic,  especially 
the  fourth,  in  which,  as  we  have  already  stated,  the  Greek  empire  was 
dismembered.  On  this  occasion,  the  Venetians  received  from  their 
■iillies  several  maritime  cities  in  Dalmatia,  Albania,  Epirus,  and  Greece, 


438  MODERN   HISTORY. 

:he  islands  of  Crete,  Corfu,  Ceplialoiiia,  and  se\eial  others  ii   the  loni.ii 
duster. 

But  the  increasing  wealth  of  Venice  led  to  a  fatal  cliange  ii.  its  po- 
litical constitution.  The  government  was  originally  democratic,  the 
power  of  the  doge  being  limited  by  a  council,  who  wore  freely  chose:' 
by  the  citizens.  Several  tumults  at  these  elections  furnished  the  doge, 
Peter  Grandenigo,  with  an  excuse  for  proposing  a  law  abrogating  an- 
nual elections,  and  rendering  the  dignity  of  councillor  hereditary  in  the 
families  of  those  who  were  at  the  period  members  of  the  legislative  as- 
sembly (a.  d.  1298).  This  establishment  of  a  close  aristocracy  led  to 
several  revolts,  of  which  that  headed  by  Tiopolo  was  the  most  remark- 
able (a.  d.  1310).  After  a  fieioe  battle  within  the  city,  the  insurgents 
were  routed  ;  ten  inquisitors  were  chosen  to  investigate  the  conspiracy, 
and  this  commission  was  soon  rendered  permanent  under  the  name  of 
the  Council  of  Ten.  the  most  formidable  tribunal  ever  founded  to  support 
aristocratic  tyranny. 

Genoa,  like  Venice,  owed  its  prosperity  to  its  extensive  commerce, 
which  flourished  in  spite  of  the  several  political  con^mlsions  that  agi- 
tated the  republic  The  Genoese  embraced  the  cause  of  the  Greek 
emperors,  and  helped  them  to  regain  Constantinople.  Their  services 
were  rewarded  by  the  cession  of  Caffa,  Azov,  and  other  ports  on  the 
Black  sea,  through  which  they  opened  a  lucrative  trade  with  China  and 
India.  They  obtained  also  Smyrna,  and  Pera,  a  suburb  of  Constantino- 
ple, together  with  several  important  islands  in  the  Archipelago.  Nor 
were  they  less  successful  in  extending  their  power  in  Italy  and  the 
western  Alediterranean,  though  they  had  to  contend  against  powerful 
rivals  in  the  citizens  of  Pisa.  The  mutual  jealousies  of  these  republics, 
and  the  anxiety  of  both  to  possess  the  islands  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia, 
led  to  a  long  and  sanguinary  war.  It  ended  (a.  d.  1290)  in  the  com- 
plete overthrow  of  the  Pisans,  whose  commerce  was  annihilated  by  the 
loss  of  the  island  of  Elba,  and  the  destruction  of  the  ports  of  Pisa  and 
Leghorn. 

Charles  of  Anjou  did  not  long  enjoy  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 
His  subjects  justly  hated  him  for  the  murder  of  Conradin,  and  the  inso- 
lence oif  the  French  soldiery  confirmed  their  aversion.  An  atrocious 
insult  offered  to  a  Sicilian  lady,  provoked  the  celebrated  insurrection, 
commonly  called  the  Sicilian  Vespers*  (a.  d.  1282),  in  which  all  the 
French  residents  in  Sicily  were  massacred,  with  the  exception  of  Wil- 
liam Parcellet,  whose  virtues  honorably  distinguished  him  from  his 
countrymen.  The  islanders  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
the  king  of  Aragon,  and  Charles,  though  aided  by  the  pope,  was  unable 
to  regain  his  authority  over  them. 

Pope  Martin,  who  was  warmly  attached  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  excom- 
municated the  king  of  Aragon,  and  placed  his  kingdom  under  an  inter- 
dict ;  and,  finding  these  measures  ineffectual,  he  preached  a  crusade 
against  him,  and  gave  the  investiture  of  his  states  to  the  count  of  Va 

•  The  evening;  prayers  in  the  cdtliolic  church  are  called  Vespers,  and  the  revolt 
romir.enceJ  as  the  congregation  were  assembling  at  Palermo  for  the  evening  ser 
vice,  during  the  festival  of  Easter.  Some  historians  describe  this  massacie  as  th( 
"•esult  of  a  deep  and  long-planned  conspiracy ;  but  it  is  much  more  likely  to  have 
I)oen  simply  a  su  'den  outbreak  of  popular  indignation 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  43n 

ois.  second  son  of  the  king  of  France.  He  proclaimed  Charles  of 
Anjou  champion  of  the  holy  church,  and  declared  that  this  sanguinary 
lyrant  was  a  prince  chosen  by  God  himself.  The  pope,  who  thus  be- 
stowed crowns,  and  exonerated  subjects  from  their  allegiance,  was  un- 
able to  maintain  himself  in  his  own  capital ;  and  while  he  hoped  to 
humble  kings,  could  not  enforce  the  obedience  of  the  Roman  citizens. 
But  this  is  not  the  only  instance  of  a  similar  anomaly  in  the  history  of 
the  papacy.  Peter  of  Aragon,  feigning  obedience,  exchanged  his  title 
of  king  for  that  of  a  simple  knight,  retaining,  however,  all  the  power  of 
royalty ;  but  dreading  the  succors  that  the  king  of  France  sent  to  his 
imcle  more  than  the  papal  menaces,  he  sought  out  means  of  gaining 
lime  to  organize  the  defence  of  Sicily.  Knowing  the  vani-glorious  dis- 
position of  his  rival,  Peter  proposed  that  Charles  and  he,  with  a  hundred 
knights  at  each  side,  should  decide  their  respective  titles  in  a  combat, 
near  Bordeaux.  The  duke  of  Anjou,  elated  by  the  hopes  of  a  duel  with 
a  prince  who  added  to  his  modest  title,  "  Knight  of  Aragon,"  the  sound- 
ing designations,  "  Lord  of  the  Seas,  and  Father  of  Three  Kings,"  ac- 
cepted the  terms  ;  and,  while  he  prepared  for  the  expected  field,  neg- 
lected his  preparations  for  war.  Martin  fulminated  against  the  Juel, 
single  combats  being  forbidden  by  the  church  ;  but  Peter  had  never 
intended  to  expose  himself  to  the  chance,  and  on  the  appointed  day 
Charles  discovered,  from  the  non-appearance  of  his  adversary,  that 
he  had  been  baffled  by  superior  policy,  perhaps  we  should  rather  say, 
perfid)^ 

Martin  more  than  shared  the  indignation  of  his  favorite  ;  he  renewed 
the  preaching  of  the  crusade  against  Peter,  granting  to  all  who  fought 
in  the  papal  cause  the  same  indulgences  assigned  to  those  who  joined 
in  the  expeditions  for  the  recovery  of  Palestine  ;  and  he  sent  ambassa- 
dors urging  the  French  king  to  hasten  the  invasion  of  Aragon.  It  is  not 
easy  to  conceive  how  monarchs  could  be  blind  to  the  consequences  of 
accepting  these  proffered  crowns ;  they  thus  recognised  the  principle 
of  the  pope's  right  to  depose  sovereigns,  and  sanctioned  a  power  which 
inighi,  at  any  time  be  employed  against  themselves  or  their  successors. 
But  the  lessons  of  prudence  are  slow  in  penetrating  hearts  fascinated  by 
ambitirn  or  fanaticism. 

The  anathemas  of  Martin  did  not  deprive  Peter  of  his  crown  ;  they 
"■carcely  even  checked  the  current  of  his  fortunes.  All  his  subjects, 
clergy,  nobles,  and  commons,  ostentatiously  displayed  their  attachmeal 
U)  their  sovereign,  and  laughed  the  papal  decrees  to  scorn.  The  Ara« 
gonese  admiral  defeated  the  fleet  of  the  duke  of  Anjou  within  sight  of 
Naples,  and  made  his  son,  Charles  the  Lame,  a  prisoner  (a.  d.  1384). 
Tl^s  scion  of  a  detested  race  would  not  have  escaped  the  fury  of  the 
Messenians,  who  wished  to  sacrifice  him  in  revenge  for  the  murder  ot 
Conradin,  only  for  the  generous  interference  of  Queen  Constance,  Man- 
fred's daughter,  who  rescued  him  from  the  fury  of  the  populace,  and 
sent  him  lor  security  to  Catalonia.  Charles  of  Anjou  did  not  long  sur 
vive  this  calamity  ;  the  remembrance  of  his  former  triumphs  and  pros 
perity  his  pride,  his  contempt  for  his  enemies,  and  shame  for  having 
been  baffled  by  policy,  aggravated  the  mortification  of  a  defeat  which 
he  no  longer  had  power  to  retrieve. 

Spain  continued  divided  into  several  small  kingdoms.  Christian  and 


440  MODERN  HISTORY. 

MohamiaoiLir..     To  tlio  former  belonged  Navarre,  Aragon,  and  Casiiic, 
f>f  which  the  last  two  were  gradually  extending  themselves  at  the  ex- 
pense of  their  Mohammfdan  neighbors.     The  Castilian  monarch,  Ai- 
phonso  I.,  captured  Madrid  and  Toledo  (a.  d.  1085)  ;  he  would  proba 
bly  have  expelled  the  Moors  from  Spain,  had  not  a  new  burst  of  fa 
naticism  in  Africa  supplied  the  Mohammedans  with  hordes  of  enthusi 
[ustic  defenders  in  the  moment  of  danger.     The  Moors  not  only  recov 
ered  their  strength   but  became  so  formidable,  that  Pope  Innocent  III 
published  a  crusade  against  them.     A  numerous  Christian  army  assem 
l)led  on  the  confines  of  Castile  and  Andalusia ;  they  encountered  thou 
enemies  near  the  city  of  Uleda,  and  indicted  on  them  a  defeat,  fron\ 
which  the  Spanish  Mohammedans  never  recovered  (a.  d.  1212).     Fer- 
^b'nand  III.,  king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  profiting  by  the  weakness  of  the 
Moors,  subdued  the  little    kingdom  of   Cordova,  Murcia,  and  Seville 
(a.  d.  1256),  so  that  the  Moliammedans  were  reduced  to  the  single 
Iclngdom  of  Granada. 

The  crusade  in  Spain  led  to  the  fuundation  of  a  new  kingdom  in 
Europe.  Henry  of  Burgundy,  a  member  of  the  royal  family  of  France, 
was  so  eminently  distinguished  by  his  valor  in  the  Mohammedan  wars, 
that  Alphonso  VI.,  king  of  Castile,  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage, 
with  the  investiture  of  the  country  of  Portugal  as  her  dowry.  Henry 
enlarged  his  territory  at  the  expense  of  the  Mohammedans,  but  his  fame 
was  eclipsed  by  that  of  his  sou  Alphonso,  whom  his  soldiers  proclaimed 
king  on  the  glorious  field  of  battle  in  which  the  power  of  the  Moham 
medans  was  destroyed  (a.  d.  1139).  To  secure  his  new  royalty,  Al- 
phonso placed  himself  and  his  kingdom  under  the  protection  of  the 
holy  see,  and  declared  himself  a  liege  subject  of  the  pope.  His  suc- 
cessors found  the  Roman  pontiffs  by  no  means  slow  in  availing  them- 
selves of  the  power  thus  ceded  to  them ;  several  violent  struggles  were 
made  by  the  kings  to  free  themselves  from  the  yoke,  but  the  power  of 
the  popes  prevailed,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded,  by  wliich  the  Portu- 
guese clergy  were  secured  in  extensive  possessions,  almost  royal  piiv 
ileges,  and  a  complete  exemption  fro;n  secular  jurisdiction  (a.  d.  1289), 

As  the  governments  of  France  and  England  began  to  assume  a  sta- 
ble form,  rivalry  arose  between  the  two  nations,  which  led  to  a  long 
series  of  sanguinary  wars.  From  the  time  of  Capet's  usurpation,  the 
policy  of  the  French  kings  had  been  to  lessen  the  power  of  the  grea. 
feudatories;  and  it  was  a  perilous  error  in  Philip  I.  to  sanction  thr 
duke  of  Normandy's  conquest  of  England,  for  he  thus  permitted  a  vas- 
sal, already  dangerous,  to  become  his  rival  sovereign.  The  danger  was 
greatly  increased  when  Louis  VII.  divorced  his  faithless  wife  Eleanor, 
the  heiress  to  the  provhices  of  Guienne,  Poitou,  and  Gascony.  She 
married  lienr}'  II.,  king  of  England,  and  tlms  enabled  him  to  add  her 
inheritance  to  that  of  the  Plantagenets  in  France,  which  included  the 
dutchies  of  Normandy  and  the  counties  of  Anjou  and  Maine  (a.  d.  1252) 
The  vassal  was  now  more  powerful  than  his  sovereign  ;  the  throne  o{ 
France  indeed  would  scarcely  have  been  secure,  had  not  the  family  dis- 
putes of  the  Plantagenets,  secretly  fomented  by  the  wicked  Eleanor, 
caused  Henry's  scnis  to  revolt  against  their  indulgent  father,  and  brought 
that  able  sovereign  with  so.tow  to  his  grave.  Philip  Augustus  was  tht 
founder  of  the  greatness  of  the  French  monarchy.     The  Plantag■enet.^ 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWEH.  441 

of  England  sank  rapidly  before  his  superior  talents.  RichaiJ  I.  was 
nothing  more  than  a  brave  warrior,  and  unable  to  compete  with  the 
policy  of  his  rival ;  his  successor,  John,  was  neither  a  soldier  nor  a 
statesman  ;  he  provoked  the  resentment  of  all  his  subjects,  and  while 
assailed  in  England  by  the  discontented  barons,  and  menaced  abroad 
by  the  pope,  he  was  deprived  of  most  of  his  continental  dominions  by 
the  watchful  king  of  France.  Philip's  neighbors,  and  many  of  hi^ 
vassals,  were  alarmed  at  the  vast  increase  of  his  power  after  his  con- 
quest of  the  Norman  provinces  ;  they  formed  a  league  against  him,  but 
at  the  battle  of  Bouvines  (a.  d.  1214),  he  triumphed  over  the  united 
forces  of  the  Germans,  the  English,  and  the  Flemings,  and  by  this  vic- 
tory secured  the  possession  of  his  acquisitions. 

After  the  death  of  Nicholas  (a.  d.  1292),  the  papacy,  as  if  exhausted 
by  its  own  excesses,  seemed  to  have  fallen  into  a  lethargy.  The  holy 
see  remained  vacant  for  two  years  and  three  months  ;  an  interval  which 
the  heads  of  the  church  might  have  improved  to  accommodate  the  ec- 
clesiastical system  to  the  improved  state  of  intelligence,  and  the  con- 
sequent changes  in  the  wants  and  wishes  of  Europe  But,  in  an  evil 
hour,  they  had  adopted  the  doctrine  of  infallibility,  and  believed  them- 
selves bound  to  keep  their  system  stationary  while  everything  around 
was  in  progress.  In  a  former  age  the  papacy  had  taken  the  lead  in  the 
advancement  of  intelUgence  ;  the  clergy  and  the  friars  were  the  mis- 
sionaries of  knowledge  ;  but  the  church  had  now  fallen  into  the  rear  ; 
kings,  not  pontiffs,  were  the  patrons  of  learning  ;  in  the  new  contest 
between  the  spiritual  and  temporal  powers,  we  shall  find  the  latter  con- 
quering, because  on  their  side  Avere  ranged  all  who  took  a  share  in  the 
advancement  of  civilization.  Intelligence,  emancipated  from  the  clois- 
ter, found  a  temporary  abode  in  the  palace,  and  finally  spread  even  to 
the  cottage  ;  the  pcpes  became  its  enemies  from  the  moment  it  quitted 
their  protection,  but  they  were  necessarily  vanquished  in  the  struggle  ; 
one  age  beheld  monarchs  despise  the  deposing  power,  the  next  witnes- 
sed the  pope's  authority  a  mockery,  and  his  very  name  a  reproach  in 
one  half  of  Europe. 

The  vacancy  in  the  papacy  became  the  signal  for  civil  wars  in  Rome, 
and  thrcvughout  Italy  ;  superstition  attributed  these  calamities  to  the  car- 
dinals, who  left  the  church  without  a  head :  an  insane  hermit  stimula- 
ted the  populace  to  menace  them  with  death  unless  they  proceeded  to 
an.  election,  and  they  chose  a  feeble,  ignorant,  old  fanatic,  who  took  the 
name  of  Celestine  IV.  Though  destitute  of  any  other  qualification, 
Celestine  had  at  least  the  pride  of  a  pontiff — the  bridle  of  the  ass,  on 
which,  with  blasphemous  imitation,  he  made  his  public  entry  into  Aquilla, 
was  held  by  two  kuigs,  Charles  II.,  the  perjured  sovereign  of  Naples, 
and  his  son  Charles  Martel,  nominal  king  of  Hungary.  But  the  cardi- 
nals soon  became  weary  of  an  idiot  monk  forced  upon  them  by  an  in- 
sane hermit ;  Benedict  Cajetan  worked  upon  the  weak  mind  of  Celes- 
tine to  resign  a  dignity  which  he  was  unable  to  maintain,  and,  having 
previously  gained  the  suffrages  of  the  college,  ascended  the  throne  un- 
der the  name  of  Boniface  VIII.*      In  its  altered  circumstances,  the 

•  Almost  thf  only  thing  memorable  in  the  pontificate  of  Celestine,  is  the  fabied 
aiiracle  of  the  chapel  of  Loretto,  which  was  said  to  have  been  transported  b) 
mgels  from  Nazareth  to  the  place  where  it  no"v  stands,  that  it  should  not  by 


442  MODERN  HISTORV 

papacy  thus  found  a  ruler  who  had  fortitude  and  courage  suthcienl  ic 
maintain  its  pretensions  against  the  kings  wlio  had  now  begun  to  dis- 
cover their  rights  ;  but  the  defeat  of  the  pontiff  added  one  to  the  m.i.ny 
examples  that  history  affords  of  the  failure  of  antiquated  pretensions 
when  opposed  to  common  sense  and  common  honesty. 

Section  XIII. — Pondjicale  of  Boniface  VIII. 

Most  historians  assert  that  Boniface  had  recourse  to  very  treacher- 
ous artifices,  in  order  to  obtain  the  resignation  jf  Celestine  :  however 
this  may  be,  the  abdicated  pontiff  was  immediately  shut  up  in  a  prison, 
lest  his  scruples,  or  his  remorse,  should  trouble  his  successor,  Boni- 
face, to  the  ambition  and  despotic  character  of  Gregory  VII  ,  added  a 
more  crafty  maimer,  and  more  dissimulation,  than  had  been  recently 
seen  in  the  chair  of  St.  Peter.  He  aspired  to  universal  sovereignty 
over  ecclesiastics,  princes,  and  nations  ;  and  he  diligently  sought  out 
means  for  rendering  them  submissive  to  his  laws.  Aware  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  revive  the  crusading  passion  in  Europe,  he  resolved  to 
make  the  recovery  of  Palestine  a  pretext  for  interfering  in  the  quarrels 
of  sovereigns.  He  wrote  to  Philip  the  Fair,  king  of  France,  to  Ed- 
ward I.  of  England;  and  to  Adolphus,  emperor  of  Germany,  command- 
ing them,  imder  pain  of  excommunication,  to  accommodate  their  differ- 
ences ;  and  he  mediated  a  peace  between  the  sovereigns  of  France 
and  Aragon. 

James,  king  of  Aragon,  anxious  to  conciliate  the  pope,  resigned  his 
pretensions  to  Sicily ;  but  the  islanders,  detesting  the  house  of  Anjou, 
and  despising  the  commands  of  a  sovereign  who  had  so  weakly  aban- 
doned his  rights,  crowned  PVedcric,  the  brother  of  James,  at  "Palermo, 
and  expelled  the  papal  legates.  Excommunications  were  fulminated 
against  the  Sicilians,  and  the  sovereign  of  their  choice  ;  even  the  fee- 
ble James  was  induced  to  arm  against  his  brother,  and  aid  in  his  expul- 
sion from  the  island  ;  and  this  violation  of  natural  ties  was  rewarded 
by  the  cession  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  over  which  the  pope  had  not  a 
shadow  of  right.  But  the  ambition  of  Boniface  was  not  limited  to 
bestowing  islands  and  Italian  principalities ;  he  resolved  to  establish 
his  authority  over  the  most  powerful  sovereigns  of  Europe. 

Philip  the  Fair  was  one  of  the  most  able  monarchs  in  Christendom , 
resolute  in  establishing  his  influence  over   the    great    vassals  of  the 
crown,  he  strengthened  himself  by  the  support  of  his  people,  and  re- 
solved that  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  should,  henceforth,  form  classes 
of  his  subjects.     Feudal  anarchy  disappeared,  and   equal  jurisdiction 
v/as  extended  over  all  ranks  ;  the  lower  classes  were  delivered  from 
the  most  jralling  burdens  of  vassalage,  and  the  despotism  of  the  sover- 
eign became  a  blessing  to  the  nation.     In  the  midst  of  his  career  he  re 
ceived  an  embassy  from  the  pope,  commanding  him  to  spare  a  con 
quered  vassal,  to  abstain  from  taxing  the  clergy,  and  to  submit  his  dis 
putes  with  the  count  of  Flanders  to  the  arbitration  of  the  holy  see 
Philip  spurned  these  demands,  upon  which  the  pope  issued  the  cele 
brated  bull,  called,  from  the  words  with  which  it  commences,  Clericic 

polluted  bj-  the  Saracens.  This  absurd  storv  was  long  credited  by  the  Romannts^, 
Sut  it  is  now  deridec  even  in  I;aly. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  443 

Irdcos,  excommunicating  the  kings  who  should  levy  eccletiastical  subsi- 
ditcj,  and  the  priests  who  should  pay  them  ;  and  withdrawing  the  clerg)' 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  lay  tribunals. 

This  attempt  to  establish  a  theocracy,  independent  of  monarchy 
exched  general  indignation.  In  England,  Edward  ordered  his  judges 
:•>  admit  no  causes  in  which  ecclesiastics  were  the  complainants,  but  to 
kiy  every  suit  brought  against  them,  averring  that  those  who  refused  to 
contribute  to  the  support  of  the  state,  had  no  claim  to  the  protection  of 
the  law.  This  expedient  succeeded,  and  the  English  ecclesiastics 
hastened  to  pay  their  subsidies,  without  further  compulsion.  Philip  the 
Fair  exhibited  even  more  vigor ;  he  issued  an  edict  prohibiting  the  ex- 
port of  gold,  silver,  jewels,  provisions,  or  munitions  of  war,  without  a 
license  ;  biid  he  forbade  foreign  merchants  to  establish  themselves  in 
his  dominions.  Boniface,  aware  that  these  measures  would  destroy  the 
revenue  which  the  court  of  Rome  derived  from  France,  remonstrated  in 
urgent  terms,  explained  away  the  most  offensive  parts  of  his  formei 
bull,  and  offered  several  advantages  to  the  king  if  he  would  modify  his 
edicts.  Philip  allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  ;  the  bull  Clericis  laicos 
was  rendered  less  stringent :  Louis  IX.  was  canonized,  and  Philip 
could  boast  of  having  a  saint  for  an  ancestor ;  finally,  the  pope  prom- 
ised that  he  would  support  Charles  of  Valois,  as  a  candidate  for  the 
empire.  Dazzled  by  these  boons,  the  French  monarch  accepted  the 
arbitration  of  the  pope,  in  his  disputes  with  the  king  of  England  and 
the  count  of  Flanders.  But  Boniface,  to  his  astonishment,  decided 
that  Guienne  should  be  restored  to  England,  that  all  his  former  posses- 
sions should  be  given  back  to  the  count  of  Flanders,  and  that  Philip 
himself  should  undertake  a  new  crusade.  When  this  unjust  sentence 
was  read  in  the  presence  of  the  French  court,  by  the  bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, Edward's  ambassador,  the  king  listened  to  it  with  a  smile  of  con- 
tempt ;  but  the  count  of  Artois  enraged  at  such  insolence,  snatched  the 
bull,  tore  it  in  pieces,  and  flung  the  fragments  into  the  fire.  This  was 
the  only  answer  returned  :  Philip,  heedless  of  the  pope's  anger,  renew- 
ed the  war. 

Boniface  VIII.  little  dreamed  that  Philip's  resistance  would  be  so 
energetic,  or  of  such  dangerous  example  ;  but  he  prepared  for  the 
coming  struggle,  by  securing  his  authority  in  Italy,  and  especially  in 
Rome,  where  the  papal  power  had  been  long  controlled  by  the  factious 
nobles.  Immediately  after  his  elevation  to  the  pontificate,  he  had 
caused  himself  to  be  elected  senator,  but  the  Ghibellines  rendered  the 
dignity  of  such  a  magistrate  very  precarious  ;  it  was  necessary  to  de 
stroy  them,  and  in  this  instance  personal  vengeance  was  united  to  the 
projects  of  ambition.  Tne  leaders  of  the  Ghibelline  faction  at  Rome 
were  the  illustrious  family  of  the  Colonna :  two  cardinals  of  that  name 
had  strenuously  resisted  the  abdication  of  Celestine,  and  had  long  been 
marked  out  as  victims  Under  the  pretext  of  their  alliance  with  the 
kings  of  Sicily  and  i^r6,gon,  they  were  summoned  to  appear  before  the 
papal  tribunal ;  but,  justly  dreading  that  their  doom  was  predetermined 
they  fled  to  their  castles,  protesting  against  the  sentence  of  him  whom 
they  denied  to  be  a  legitimate  pope.  Boniface  hurled  the  most  terrible 
anathemas  against  them,  declaring  them  infamous,  excommunicate,  and 
Lncapal)le  of  any  public   charge,  to  the  fourth  generation :  he  devoted 


444  MODERN  HISTORY. 

fuem  to  the  fires  of  the  Inquisition,  and  preached  a  crusade  ior  '.heir  de 
sirucvion.  Intimidated  for  a  moment,  the  Colonnas  submitted,  and  sur 
rendered  their  town  of  Palestrina  as  a  pledge  of  their  fidelity.  Nc 
sooner  was  Boniface  master  of  this  stronghold,  than,  regardless  of  his 
oaths,  he  levelled  the  fortress  to  the  ground,  forbade  it  to  be  rebuilt,  re- 
newed his  persecutions  against  the  Colonnas,  and  compelled  them  to  fly 
from  Italy.  They  sought  shelter  at  tho  court  of  France,  where  they 
were  hospitably  received  by  Philip,  who  thus  gave  a  signal  proof  of  his 
independence  and  his  generosity. 

Boniface  was  alarmed,  but  not  dismayed ;  he  resolved  to  lull  the 
king's  vigilance  by  stimulatin'g  his  ambition :  for  this  purj)ose  he  pro- 
posed to  dethrone  Albert,  emperor  of  Germany,  and  give  the  crown  to 
Charles  of  Valois,  whom  he  had  already  created  imperial  vicar,  and 
captain-general  of  the  holy  church.  Philip  turned  a  deaf  car  to  this 
tempting  proposal ;  he  even  entered  into  alliance  with  Albert,  and  ce- 
mented the  union  by  giving  his  sister  in  marriage  to  the  emperor's  son, 
Rodolph,  duke  of  Austria.  Boniface  was  enraged  at  this  disappoint- 
ment but  his  attention  was  diverted  by  the  institution  of  a  jubilee,  to 
mark  Jhe  commencement  of  a  new  century  (a.  d.  1300).  He  published 
a  bull,  promising  full  pardon  and  remission  of  all  sins  to  those  who, 
being  confessed  and  penitent,  should  visit  the  toml»s  of  the  apostles  at 
Rome,  during  hfteen  days.  Multitudes  of  pilgrims,  anxious  to  obtain 
the  benefits  of  the  crusades,  without  the  perils  of  war,  flocked  to  the 
city,  and,  by  their  liberal  expenditure,  ^reatlv  enriched  the  Romans. 
This  profitable  contrivance  was  renewed  by  the  successors  of  Boniface, 
at  intervals  of  fifty  years,  and  proved  to  l)e  an  eflicacious  means  of  re- 
cruiting the  papal  treasury. 

Scarcely  had  the  jubilee  terminated,  when  the  disputes  between  the 
pope  and  the  king  of  France  were  revived,  in  consequence  of  the  rival 
claims  for  supremacy,  between  the  archbishop  and  the  viscount  of 
Narbonne.  The  king  supported  his  vassal ;  the  prelate  appealed  to  the 
pope,  and  Boniface  promptly  responded  to  the  call.  A  legate  was  sent 
to  Philip,  and  the  choice  of  an  ambassador  was  almost  a  declaration  of 
war.  The  pope's  messenger  was  the  bishop  of  Pamiers,  a  rebellious 
subject,  whose  treasons  were  notorious,  and  whose  insolence  to  his 
sovereign  excited  general  indignation.  The  seditious  prelate  was 
driven  from  the  court ;  but  the  king,  instead  of  bringing  him  to  trial, 
com.plained  to  his  metropolitan,  the  archbishop  of  Narbonne,  and  de- 
manded justice.  Boniface  addressed  an  insolent  bull  to  the  king,  sum- 
mered the  French  bishops  to  meet  at  Rome,  to  consult  respecting  the 
doom  that  should  be  pronounced  on  their  sovereign,  and  invited  Philip 
himself  to  be  present  at  this  unprecedented  conclave.  But  the  king 
supported  by  the  legists  or  professors  of  the  law,  a  body  rising  rapidlj 
into  importance,  defied  the  papal  power,  and  appealed  to  the  good  sense 
of  his  people.  Boniface  had  sent  a  bull,  known  in  history  by  the  namu 
Ausculla  fli*  to  France,  in  which  all  the  delinquencies  of  Philip,  not 
only  toward  the  church,  but  every  class  of  his  subjects,  were  portrayed 
with  apparent  moderation,  but  with  great  vigor  and  eloquence.  Petei 
Flotte,  the  royal  chancellor,  presented  an  abridgment  of  this  document 
to  the  great  council  of  the  nation,  craftily  culling  out  those  passages  it 
•  "  Listen,  son,"  the  words  with  which  it  commenced. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER  445 

ifthich  the  papal  pretensions  were  most  offensively  put  forward.  This 
Jocument,  called  "  the  little  bull,"  was  as  follows  : — 

"  Boniface,  bishop,  servant  of  the  servants  of  God,  to  Philip,  knig  of 
ihe  Franks.  Fear  God  and  keep  his  commandments.  We  desire  you 
to  know  that  you  are  subject  to  us  in  temporal  as  well  as  in  spiiltual 
affahs;  that  the  appointment  to  benefices  and  prebends  belongs  not  t<i 
you  ;  that  if  you  have  kept  benefices  vacant,  the  profits  must  be  reserved 
for  the  legal  successors  ;  and  if  you  have  bestowed  any  benefice,  we  de- 
clare the  appointment  invalid,  and  revoke  it  i^  executed.  Those  who 
oppose  this  judgment  shall  be  deemed  heretics. 

Philip  ordered  this  deciaiation  to  be  publicly  bi  nieci.  unCt  he  published 
a  memorable  reply,  which,  however,  was  probably  never  sent  to  Rome. 
It  is  a  very  remarkable  proof  of  the  decline  of  the  papal  power  that 
such  a  manifesto  should  be  issued,  and  preseAted  to  the  states-general 
c^  France,  as  their  monarch's  answer  to  the  supreme  pontilT.  The  let- 
ter of  the  king  is  thus  given  by  historians  : — 

"  Philip,  by  the  grace  of  God,  king  of  the  French,  to  Boniface, 
claiming  to  be  pope,  little  or  no  greeting.  May  it  please  your  sublime 
stupidity  to  learn,  that  we  are  subject  to  no  person  in  temporal  afi'airs  ; 
that  the  bestowing  of  fiefs  and  benefices  belongs  to  us  by  right  of  our 
crown  ;  that  the  disposal  of  the  revenues  of  vacant  sees,  is  part  of  our 
prerogative  ;  that  our  decrees,  in  this  respect,  are  valid,  both  for  the 
past  and  for  the  future ;  and  that  we  will  support,  with  all  our  might, 
those  on  whom  we  have  bestowed,  or  shall  bestow,  benefices.  Those 
who  oppose  this  judgment  shall  be  deemed  fools  or  idiots." 

The  manifestos  sent  to  Rome  by  the  three  orders  of  the  state  s-gerv- 
eral,  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  and  the  commons,  are  of  greater  importance 
to  the  historian  than  "  the  little  bull"  or  the  royal  reply.  That  of  the 
French  barons  was  addressed  to  the  college  of  cardinals;  it  openly 
accused  the  pope  of  having  periled  the  unity  of  the  church  by  his  ex- 
travagant ambition,  and  it  denied,  in  the  strongest  terms,  his  right  to 
appellate  jurisdiction  over  the  kingdom  of  France.  The  clergy  ad- 
dressed Boniface  himself  in  a  measured  and  respectful  tone,  but  they 
declared  that  they  had  taken  a  new  oath  to  their  sovereign,  that  they 
would  firmly  maintain  the  independence  of  his  crown.  The  declara- 
tion of  the  o  -mmons  has  not  been  preserved,  but  like  that  of  the  nobles, 
it  appears  to  have  been  addressed  to  the  college  of  cardinal.s.  The 
court  of  Rome  was  alarmed,  letters  of  explanation  were  seat  to  the  dif- 
ferent orders,  but  the  pope  declared  he  would  not  write  to  the  king, 
whom  he  considered  subject  to  the  sentence  of  excommunicatioi;. 

While  Bunil'ace  Vlll.  was  thus  engaged  with  France  and  its  ruler, 
he  did  not  lose  sight  of  his  pretensions  over  other  kingdoms.  Edward 
ot  England,  having  overcome  the  feudal  turbulence  of  his  vassals,  was 
abOof  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Scotland,  when  tlie  holy  see  forbade 
die  enterprise.  Edward  in  reply  traced  his  right  to  Scotland,  up  to  the 
age  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  and  a  synod  of  the  English  clergy  declared, 
that  the  claims  of  their  sovereign  were  better  founded  th;  ,n  those  of  the 
uontiff.  A  legate,  by  command  of  Boniface,  labored  to  pacify  Hungary', 
which  was  divided  between  the  "randson  of  Charles  the  Lame,  kiuii  of 
Naples,  and  Andrew  the  Venetian.  On  the  death  of  the  latter  prince, 
iljA  Hungarian   barons,  fearing  the  loss  of  their  liberties  urder  a  king 


446  MODERN  HISTORY 

imposed  upon  them  by  the  church,  elected  for  their  sovereign  the  so;: 
i;f  the  kinir  of  Bavaria,  and  he  was  solemnly  crowned  by  the  arch- 
bishop of  Colreza.  The  pope  wrote  fierce  denunciations  against  the 
election,  and  even  commanded  the  king  of  Bavaria  to  dethrone  his  own 
son.  But  though  Hungary  refused  sulimission,  the  obedience  of  Spain 
consoled  the  pontiff;  he  declared  the  marriage  of  Sancho  the  Brave 
valid,  after  his  death,  and  in  consequence  of  this  decision,  Ferdinand 
IV.,  the  eldest  son  of  that  monarch,  was  permitted  to  retain  the  king- 
dom of  Castile. 

Though  Philip  had  ordered  that  the  goods  of  all  the  clergy  who 
Quitted  the  kingdom  should  be  confiscated,  many  of  the  prelates  braving 
the  penalty,  proceeded  to  the  court  of  Rome.  Conscious  that  this  dis- 
obedience portended  a  struggle  between  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
power,  the  French  king  took  the  unexpected  pTe>.aufion  of  denouncing 
the  horrors  of  the  inquisition,  and  thus  representing  royalty  as  the 
shield  of  the  people  against  the  tyranny  of  the  priesthood.  Boniface, 
encouraged  by  the  presence  of  the  French  bishops,  yielded  to  the 
impetuosity  of  his  passions,  and  issued  the  famous  bull  Unarn  snnctam, 
in  which  the  claims  of  the  papacy  to  universal  dominion  are  stated 
with  more  strength  and  precision  than  the  court  of  Rome  had  yet 
ventured  to  use.  After  this  document  had  been  sanctioned  by  the 
council,  a  legate  was  sent  to  France,  whose  instructions  contained 
the  demand  that  the  king  should  not  oppose  the  prelates  who  wished 
to  travel,  the  disposal  of  benefices  by  the  holy  see,  or  the  entrance  of 
legates  into  his  kingdom  ;  that  he  should  not  confiscate  the  properties 
of  ecclesiastics,  nor  bring  them  to  trial,  before  civil  courts  ;  that  the 
king  should  appear  in  person  at  Rome,  and  answer  to  the  charge  of 
having  burned  a  bull  sealed  with  the  effigies  of  the  holy  apostles  ; 
and  finally,  that  he  should  recompense  the  losses  occasioned  by  the 
depreciation  of  the  currency,  and  abandon  the  city  of  Lyons  to  itg 
archbishop,  as  an  ecclesiastical  fief.  Philip  the  Fair,  undaunted  by 
the  threat  of  excommunication,  peremptorily  rejected  all  these  demands, 
and  in  his  turn  caused  Boniface  to  be  accused  by  William  de  Nogarel, 
the  royal  advocate,  of  usurpation,  heresy,  and  simony.  The  advocate 
required  that  a  general  council  should  be  summoned  to  investigate 
these  charges,  and  that  the  pope  should  be  detained  in  prison  until  his 
gudt  or  innocence  should  be  decided. 

Boniface  wa-s  now  seriously  alarmed  ;  when  he  ascended  the  throne, 
Ceiestine  had  Qfcclared  *'  This  cardinal,  who  stole  like  a  fox  into  the 
chair  of  St.  Peter,  will  have  the  reign  of  a  lion,  and  the  end  of  a  dog ;" 
his  violence  in  the  struggle  with  the  king  of  France,  tended  to  realize 
both  predictions.  But  it  was  necessary  to  obtain  allies,  and  Frederic, 
king  of  Sicily,  was  won  over  to  declare  himself  a  vassal  of  the  holy 
Bee,  by  obtaining  the  recognition  of  his  royal  title,  and  absolution  from 
the  many  anathemas  hurled  against  him.  The  emperor  Albert  was 
similarly  prevailed  upon  to  recognise  the  extravagant  pretensions  of  the 
papacy,  on  obtaining  a  bull  confirming  his  election  ;  he  even  issued  let- 
ters patent  confessing  that  the  imperial  power  was  a  boon  conferred  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  holy  see.  Thus  strengthened,  Boniface  laid  aside 
all  appearance  of  moderatif)n,  and  solenuily  excommunicated  the  con- 
cumacious  king  of  France. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  447 

Philip  on  the  other  hand  assembled  the  states  of  his  realm  at  the 
Louvre,  and  presented  to  them  a  new  act  of  accusation  against  Boni- 
face, in  which  he  was  charged  with  the  most  detestable  and  unnatural 
crimes.  It  was  voted  that  an  appeal  should  be  made  to  a  new  pope 
and  a  general  council,  and  so  general  was  the  disapprobation  of  the 
pontiff's  ambitious  schemes,  that  the  greater  part  of  the  French  ecclesi- 
astical dignitaries,  including  nine  cardinals,  sent  in  their  adhesion  to 
the  appeal. 

Boniface  met  the  storm  with  firmness ;  he  replied  to  the  charges 
urged  against  him  with  more  temper  than  could  have  been  anticipated, 
but  he  secretly  prepared  a  bull  of  excommunication,  depriving  Philip 
of  his  throne,  and  anathematizing  his  posterity  to  the  fourth  generation. 

This  final  burst  of  hostility  was  delayed  until  the  8th  of  September 
(,i.  T>.  1303),  when  the  Romish  church  celebrates  the  nativity  of  the 
blessed  Virgin,  and  Boniface  awaited  the  day  in  the  city  of  Anagni. 

On  the  eve  of  the  Virgin's  nativity  the  pope  had  retired  to  rest,  hav- 
ing arranged  his  plans  of  vengeance  for  the  following  day ;  he  was 
suddenly  roused  by  cries  of  "  Long  live  Philip  !  Death  to  Boniface  !" 
Nogaret,  at  the  command  of  the  king  of  France,  had  entered  Anagni 
with  three  himdred  cavaliers,  and  being  joined  by  some  of  the  towns- 
men, was  forcing  his  way  into  the  palace.  Sciarra  Colonna  and  No- 
garet rushed  together  into  the  chamber  of  Boniface  ;  they  fonnd  the 
old  man  clothed  in  his  pontifical  robes,  seated  on  his  throne,  waiting 
their  approach  with  unshaken  dignity.  They  made  him  their  prisoner, 
and  prepared  for  his  removal  to  France  until  a  general  council.  But 
Nogaret  having  unwisely  delayed  three  days  at  Anagni,  the  citizens 
and  the  neighboring  peasants  united  to  liberate  the  pontiff;  Colonna 
and  his  French  allies  were  forced  to  abandon  their  prey,  and  could 
only  save  their  lives  by  a  rapid  flight.  Boniface  hastened  to  Rome  ; 
but  fatigue,  anxiety,  and  vexation,  brousfht  on  a  violent  fever,  which 
soon  put  an  end  to  his  troubled  life. 

The  reign  of  Boniface  was  fatal  to  the  papal  power ;  he  exaggerated 
its  pretensions  at  the  moment  when  the  world  had  begun  to  discover 
the  weakness  of  its  claims  ;  in  the  attempt  to  extend  his  influence  fur- 
ther than  any  of  his  predecessors,  he  exhausted  the  sources  of  his 
strength,  and  none  of  his  successors,  however  ardent,  ventured  to  re- 
vive pretensions  which  had  excited  so  many  wars,  shed  so  much  blood, 
and  dethroned  so  many  kings.  The  priesthood  and  the  empire,  fa- 
tigued by  so  long  and  disastrous  a  struggle,  desired  tranquillity,  but 
tranquillity  was  for  the  court  of  Rome  a  political  death,  The  illusion 
of  its  own  omnipotence  vanished  with  the  agitations  by  which  it  had 
been  produced,  and  new  principles  of  action  began  to  be  recognised  in 
Its  policy. 

The  death  of  Boniface  marks  an  important  era  in  the  history  of 
pjpery  ;  from  this  time  we  shall  see  it  concentrating  its  strength,  and 
husbanding  its  resources  ;  fighting  only  on  the  defensive,  it  no  longer 
provokes  the  hostility  of  kings,  or  seeks  cause  of  quarrel  with  the  em- 
perors. The  bulls  that  terrified  Christendom  must  rjpo'se  as  literary 
curiosities  in  the  archives  of  St.  Angelo,  and  though  the  claims  to 
luiiversal  supremacy  will  not  be  renoimced,  there  will  be  no  effort  made 
'o  enforce  them.     A  fe»i'  pontiffs  will  be   found  now  a  id  theii  revivin£ 


448  MODERN  HISTOKy. 

the  claims  of  Gregory,  of  Innocent,  and  of  Boniface  ;  but  their  altein]rtr> 
will  be  found  desultory  and  of  brief  duration,  like  the  last  flashes,  fierce 
but  {ew,  that  break  out  from  the  ashes  of  a  conflagration. 

Benedict  XL,  the  successor  of  Boniface,  hasted  to  exhibit  proofs  of 
the  moderation  which  results  from  defeat.  Without  waiting  for  any 
solicitation,  he  alisolved  Philip  the  Fair  from  the  anathemas  fulminated 
against  him  by  Boniface  ;  recalled  the  Colonnas  from  exile,  and  en- 
couraged the  Roman  people  to  restore  the  ancient  inheritance  of  tha. 
illustrious  family ;  finally,  he  exerted  himself  to  reconcile  the  Guelphs 
and  Ghibellines  in  Tuscany,  but  unfortunately  without  effect.  His 
early  death  prepared  the  way  for  a  new  crisis,  in  which  the  political 
system  of  the  papacy  was  destined  to  sufTer  greater  shocks  than  any  to 
which  it  had  been  yet  exposed,  and  to  give  fresh  proofs  that  it  could  not 
be  improved,  even  by  the  stern  lessons  of  adversity. 

Section  XIV. — State  of  England  and  the  Northern  Kingdoms  at  the  Com 
mencement  of  the  Fourteenth  Century. 

William  the  Conqueror  reduced  the  Saxon  population  of  England  to 
tne  most  degrading  state  of  vassalage,  but  he  could  not  destroy  the  love 
and  memory  of  their  ancient  laws  and  liberties  retained  by  the  nation 
His  sons,  William  Rufus,  and  Henry  I.,  were  successively  enabled  to 
seize  the  throne  in  prejudice  of  the  rights  of  their  elder  brother  Robert, 
by  promising  to  restore  the  ancient  laws  of  the  kingdom.  Henry,  to 
conciliate  the  English  more  efTectually,  married  a  princess  of  Saxon 
descent ;  on  his  death  he  bequeathed  the  crown  to  the  surviving  child 
by  this  marriage,  Matilda,  the  wife  of  GeofTry  Plantagenet,  earl  of 
Anjou.  This  arrangement  was  defeated  by  the  usurpation  of  Stephen . 
England  was  convulsed  by  a  civil  war,  which  was  terminated  by  Ste 
phen's  adopting  Henry,  Matilda's  son,  as  his  successor. 

Henry  II.,  the  first  of  the  Plantagenet  djiiasty,  on  ascending  the 
throne,  united  to  England  the  dutchy  of  Normandy,  the  county  of  Anjou. 
and  the  fairest  provinces  of  northwestern  France  (a.  d.  1154).  To 
these  he  added  the  more  important  acquisition  of  Ireland,  partly  by  s 
papal  donation,  and  partly  by  right  of  conquest. 

Ireland  was  at  this  period  divided  into  five  petty  sovereignties,  whose 
monarchs  harassed  each  other  by  mutual  wars,  and  could  rarely  be  in- 
duced to  combine  for  their  common  interest.  The  island  had  been. fre- 
quently devastated,  and  once  completely  subdued,  by  the  Danes : 
several  septs  of  these  foreigners  retained  possession  of  the  chief  cc-m- 
mercial  cities,  and  even  the  king  of  Man  was  formidable  to  a  country 
distracted  by  intestine  wars.  When  their  Norman  brethren  conquered 
England,  the  Danes  in  Ireland  entered  into  a  close  correspondence 
with  William  and  his  successors,  a  circumstance  which  probably  firs' 
suggested  to  Henry  the  notion  of  conquering  the  island.  He  applied 
to  the  pope  for  a  sanction  of  his  enterprise.  Adrian,  the  only  English- 
man that  ever  filled  the  papal  throne,  was  at  that  time  the  reigning  pon- 
tiff; his  desire  to  gratify  his  native  sovereign  was  stimulated  by  his 
anxiety  to  extend  the  papal  authority.  The  Irish  church  had  been 
long  independent  of  Rome ;  and  the  connexion  between  its  prelates  and 
♦he  papacy  was  as  yet  insecure  ;  it  was  therefore  on  the  condition  of 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  POWER.  449 

subjecting  Ireland  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Romish  church  that  a  bull 
was  issued,  granting  Henry  permission  to  invade  the  country.  The 
oitter  feuds  in  the  Plantitgenet  family,  and  the  state  of  his  continental 
dominions,  long  prevented  the  English  monarch  from  availing  himself 
of  this  permission.  At  length  Dermod,  king  of  Leinster,  driven  from 
ais  dominions  by  a  rival  sovereign,  sought  English  aid,  and  was  per- 
mitted to  engage  the  services  of  Stronghow.  and  some  other  military 
.adventurers,  on  condition  of  doing  homage  for  his  kingdom  to  Henry 
The  rapid  successes  of  Stronghow  awakened  Heniy's  jealousy  ;  he  went 
to  Ireland  }n  person,  and  received  the  submission  of  its  principal 
sovereigns  (a.  d.  1172).  He  returned  without  corapleiing  the  conquest 
.)f  the  country,  a  circumstance  productive  of  much  misery  and  blood- 
:}hed  through  several  successive  centuries. 

The  reign  of  Richard  I.  was  a  period  of  little  importance  in  English 
nistory ;  but  that  of  his  brother  and  succes-^^or,  the  profligate  John,  led 
to  the  most  important  results.  The  barons,  provoked  by  his  tyranny 
and  his  vices,  took  up  arms,  and  compelled  hnn  to  sign  the  Great  Char- 
ter, which  laid  the  first  permanent  foundation  of  British  freedom  ;  the 
.iope  forced  him  to  resign  his  crown,  and  to  receive  it  back  again,  only 
:>n  condition  of  vassalage  to  the  holy  see,  while  Philip  Augustus  took 
adi'antage  of  these  circumstances  to  deprive  the  English  monarchs  ol 
most  of  their  continental  possessions.  John's  death  saved  England 
from  becoming  a  province  of  France  :  absolved  by  Pope  Innocent  III. 
from  his  oath,  he  ventured  to  abrogate  the  Great  Charter,  upon  whicli 
the  English  barons  proffered  the  crown  to. Louis,  the  eldest  son  of 
Philip  Augustus,  who  invaded  England  with  the  fairest  prospects  of 
success.  John  was  completely  defeated  (a.  d.  1216);  he  fled  toward 
Scotland,  but  died  upon  the  road.  The  English,  already  disgusted. 
with  their  French  allies,  embraced  this  opportunity  of  rallying  round 
Prince  Henry,  and  Louis  was  glad  to  conclude  a  treaty  for  abandoning 
the  island. 

Henry  III.  was  a  monarch  wholly  void  of  energy  ;  it  was  his  misfor- 
tune to  fill  the  throne  at  one  of  the  most  turbulent  periods  of  English 
history,  without  talents  to  command  respect,  or  resolution  to  enforce 
obedience.  During  his  long  reign,  England  was  engaged  in  few  ibr- 
eign  wars,  but  these  were  generally  unfortunate.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  country  was  agitated  by  internal  commotions  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  fifty  years  that  he  swayed  the  sceptre.  The  discontent  of 
the  prelates  and  barons  at  the  favor  that  the  king  showed  to  foreignerd 
induced  them  to  form  an  association,  by  which  the  king  was  virtually 
deposed,  and  the  supreme  authority  vested  in  a  committee  of  peer^, 
with  the  earl  of  Leicester  at  its  head.  Leicester  introduced  an  impor- 
tant change  into  the  constitution,  by  summoning  representatives  of 
counties,  cities,  end  boroughs,  to  unite  with  the  barons  in  the  great 
council  of  the  nation  (a.  d.  1265).  This  innovation  hiid  the  basis  for 
the  house  of  commons,  which  henceforth  had  an  increasing  share  in 
English  legislation.  The  tyranny  of  the  barons  being  found  less  en- 
lurable  than  that  of  the  king,  Henry  was  restored  to  his  former  power ; 
md  his  authority  seemed  fixed  so  permanently,  that  Prince  Edward  led 
-t'l  irmament  tc  the  Holy  Land,  in  aid  of  the  last  crusade  of  St.  Louis 
lleuiy  died    during   his  son's   absence  (a.  d.  1272);  but  though   twc 

29 


450  MODERN  HISTORY. 

years  eli.psed  before  Edward's  return  home,  the  tranquillit)'  of  thf 
jountr}'  continued  undisturbed. 

The  chief  object  of  Edward's  ambition  was  to  unite  the  whole  of 
Great  Britain  under  one  sovereignty.  Under  the  pretext  of  the  Welsh 
prince,  Llewelyn,  haA'ing  refused  homage,  he  invaded  the  country,  and 
completely  subdued  it,  but  not  without  encountering  a  desperate  resist- 
ance. The  English  monarch  stayed  more  than  a  year  in  Wales  to 
complete  its  pacification,  and  during  that  time  his  queen,  Eleanor,  gave 
birth  to  a  son  in  the  castle  of  Carnarvon  (a.  d.  1284).  The  Welsh 
claimed  the  child  as  their  countryman,  and  he  was  declared  Prince  of 
Wales,  a  title  which  has  ever  since  been  borne  by  the  eldest  sons  of 
the  English  kings. 

The  failure  of  the  direct  heirs  to  the  crown  of  Scotland  gave  Ed^^ard 
a  pretence  for  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  iliat  kingdom.  Three  com- 
petitors, Baliol,  Bruce,  and  Hastings,  laid  claim  to  the  crown  ;  to  avert 
the  horrors  of  civil  war,  they  agreed  to  leave  the  decision  to  Edward ; 
and  he  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  first,  on  condition  of  Baliol's  becom- 
ing a  vassal  to  the  king  of  England.  Baliol  soon  grew  weary  of  the 
authority  exercised  over  him  by  Edward,  and  made  an  effort  to  recover 
his  independence  ;  but  being  defeated  and  taken  prisoner,  he  abdicated 
the  throne  (a.  d.  1296),  and  was  confined  in  the  Tower  of  London. 
The  Scottish  nation,  though  vanquished,  was  not  subdued  ;  several  in- 
surrections w-ere  raised  against  the  English  yoke  ;  but  after  the  defeat 
and  capture  of  the  Scottish  hero.  Sir  AVilliam  Wallace,  all  hope  of  in- 
dependence seemed  to  have  vanished.  At  length,  Robert  Bruce  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt,  and  was  crowned  king  at  Scone  (a.  d.  1306). 
Edward  once  more  sent  an  army  into  Scotland,  and  soon  followed  in 
person  to  subdue  that  obstinate  nation.  His  death  on  the  border  (a.  d, 
1307)  freed  Bruce  from  his  most  dangerous  foe;  and  in  the  following 
reign  the  independence  of  Scotland  was  established  by  the  decisive 
battle  of  Bannockburn  (a.  d.'  1314). 

The  northren  kingdoms  of  Europe,  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries,  offer  little  to  our  notice  but  scenes  of  horror  and  carnage. 
The  natural  ferocity  and  warlike  spirit  of  the  Northmen,  the  want  of 
fixed  rules  of  succession,  and  the  difficulty  of  finding  employment  for 
turbulent  spirits  in  piratical  expeditions  when  the  increase  of  civili- 
ijation  had  given  consistency  to  the  governments  of  the  south,  and 
enabled  them  to  provide  for  the  protection  of  their  subjects,  multiplied 
factions,  and  produced  innumerable  civil  wars.  Crusades,  however, 
were  und(;rtaken  against  the  Sclavonian  and  other  pagan  nations,  by 
which  the  kings  of  Denmark  and  Sweden  added  considerably  to  their 
dominions,  and  gave  them  a  high  rs.nk  among  the  states  of  Europe. 
Prussia  and  Livonia  were  subdued  by  the  knights  of  the  Teutonic 
order ;  and  Hungary,  ai'ter  having  been  almost  ruined  bv  the  IMongoIian 
lutrdes,  began  gradually  to  recover  its  importance  after  the  re-treat  of 
llxHH.e  barbarians  (a.  d.  1244). 

Section-  X  V. — Revolutions  in  the  East  in  consequence  of  the  AlongoHan 

Invasion. 

TncRE  IS  no  phenomenon  more  remarkable  in  history  than  the  nao, 
n)TogTess,  and  extent  of  the  Moncolian  empire.     Jenghiz  Khan    in  ! 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PAPAL  I  OWER. 


i51 


single  reign,  issuing  from  a  petty  principality  in  Jie  wiids  of  I'artary 
acquiied  an  empire  stretching  about  six  thousand  miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  at  least  half  that  space  from  north  to  south,  including  within 
Its  limits  the  most  powerful  and  wealthy  kingdoms  of  Asia. 

The  Mongols  were  first  raised  into  eminence  by  Jenghiz  Khan ;  his 
original  name  was  Temujin,  and  he  was  the  chief  of  a  small  horde  which 
nis  father's  valor  had  elevated  above  the  surrounding  tribes.  At  an 
early  age  he  was  invited  to  the  court  of  Vang  Khan,  the  nominal  head 
of  the  tribes  of  the  Tartarian  deserts,  and  received  the  hand  of  that 
potentate's  daughter  in  marriage.  Mutual  jealousy  soon  led  to  a  war 
between  Temujin  and  his  father-in-law ;  the  latter  was  slain  in  battle, 
and  Temujin  succeeded  to  his  authority.  On  the  day  of  his  installation, 
a  pretended  prophet  named  Kokza,  addressing  the  new  sovereign, 
declared  that  he  was  inspired  by  God  to  name  him  Jenghiz  Khan, 
tliat  is,  supreme  monarch,  and  to  promise  him  the  empire  of  the 
universe. 

Inspired  by  this  prophecy,  which,  however,  he  is  suspected  of 
having  suggested,  Jenghiz  zealously  labored  to  establish  military 
discipline  among  the  vast  hordes  that  flocked  to  his  standard  ;  and 
when  he  had  organized  an  army,  he  invaded  those  provinces  of  north- 
ern China  called  Khatai  by  the  oriental  writers,  and  Cathay  by  oui 
old  English  authors.  In  five  years  this  extensive  country  was  subdued, 
and  Jenghiz  directed  his  arms  westward,  provoked  by  an  outrage  of  the 
sultan  of  Kharasm.  This  kingdom  of  Kharasm  was  among  the  most 
flourishing  in  central  Asia  ;  the  literary  eminence  of  Bokhara,  and  the 
commercial  prosperity  of  Samarcand,  were  celebrated  throughout  the 
East.  The  sultans  Mohammed  and  his  son  and  successor,  Jalaloddin, 
were  monarchs  of  dauntless  bravery,  but  nothing  could  withstand  the 
fury  of  the  Mongols,  and  not  only  Kharasm,  but  the  greater  part  of 
northern  and  eastern  Persia,  full  under  the  svvay  of  Jenghiz.  Astrachan 
was  taken  by  a  Mongolian  detachment,  and  some  of  the  hordes  pushed 
their  incursions  as  far  as  the  confines  of  Russia.  Jenghiz  died  in  his 
seventy-sixth  year  (a.  d.  1227),  continuing  his  career  of  conquest 
almost  to  the  last  hour  of  his  life.  Few  conquerors  have  displayed 
greater  military  abilities,  none  more  savage  ferocity.  He  delighted  in 
slaughter  and  devastation  ;  his  maxim  was  to  slaughter  without  mercy, 
all  that  oflTered  him  the  least  resistance. 

The  successors  of  the  Mongolian  conqueror  followed  the  course  he 
had  traced.  They  completed  the  bubjugation  of  China,  they  overthrew 
the  khahphate  of  Bagdad  (a.  d.  1258),  and  rendered  the  sultans  of 
Iconium  tributary.  Oktai  Khan,  the  immediate  successor  of  Jenghiz, 
sent  two  armies  from  the  centre  of  China,  one  against  the  peninsula 
of  Corea,  the  other  to  subdue  the  countries  north  and  east  of  the 
Caspian.  This  latter  army,  under  the  guidance  of  Batu  Khan,  pene- 
trated and  subdued  the  Russian  empire  (a.  d.  1237) ;  thence  the 
Mongols  spread  into  Hungary,  Poland,  and  Silesia,  and  even  reached 
the  coasts  of  the  Adriatic  sea.  The  dutchy  of  Wladimir  was  the  only 
native  Russian  dynasty  that  preserved  its  existence  ;  it  owed  its  good 
fortune  to  Alexander  Newski,  whose  prudent  measures  conciliated  the 
fnvor  of  the  concjuerors,  and  secured  him  a  tranquil  reign.  Al'er  the 
leath  of  Kublai  Khan,  the  grandson  of  Jenghiz,  the  Mongolian  empi'^f- 


t52  MODKHN  HISTORY. 

was  partitioned  by  the  provincial  governors,  and  gradually  sank 
into  decay. 

The  overthrow  ol  the  Seljukian  sultans  and  the  Fatimite  kiialiphs, 
by  Noureddiu  and  Saladin,  has  been  already  mentioned.  The  djTiasty 
of  the  Ayubites  was  founded  by  Saladin's  desoe^adaniii  in  Syria  and 
Egj'pt,  and  this,  after  having  been  divided  into  several  states,  was  over- 
thrown by  the  Mamelukes  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  INIamelukes  were  Turkish  captives,  waom  the  ferocious  Mon- 
gols sold  into  slavery  ;  great  numbers  of  them  were  imported  into 
Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Sultan  Saleh,  of  the  Ayubite  dynasty.  This 
prince  purchased  multitudes  of  the  younger  captives,  whom  he  formed 
into  an  army  and  kept  in  a  camp  on  the  seacoast,  where  they  received 
instruction  in  military  discipline.*  From  this  they  were  removed  to 
receive  the  charge  of  the  royal  person,  and  the  superintendence  of  the 
officers  of  state.  In  a  short  time,  these  slaves  became  so  numerous 
and  so  powerful  that  they  were  enabled  to  usurp  the  throne,  having 
murdered  Tiiran  Shah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Saleh,  who  had  vainly 
endeavored  to  break  the  yoke  which  the  Mamelukes  had  imposed  upon 
their  sultan  (a.  d.  1250).  This  revolution  took  place  in  the  presence 
of  St.  Louis,  who  had  been  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Mansurah, 
and  had  just  concluded  a  truce  for  ten  years  with  Turan  Shah.  The 
Mameluke  insurgent,  named  at  first  regent  or  atta-beg,  was  finally  pro- 
claimed sultan  of  Egypt. 

The  dominion  of  the  Mamelukes  over  Eg}-pt  lasted  for  more  than 
two  centuries  and  a  half.  Their  body,  constantly  recruited  by  Turkish 
and  Circassian  slaves,  disposed  of  the  throne  at  its  pleasure  ;  the  boldest 
of  their  chiefs,  provided  he  could  prove  his  descent  from  Turkestan, 
was  chosen  sultan.  Notwithstanding  the  frequent  wars  and  revolutions 
necessarily  resulting  from  the  licentiousness  of  military  election,  the 
Mamelukes  made  a  successful  resistance  to  the  Mongols,  and  after  the 
death  of  Jenghiz  Khan's  inuuediate  heirs,  conquered  the  kingdoms  of 
Aleppo  and  Damascus,  which  the  Mongolian  khans  had  taken  from  the 
Ayubites  (a.  d.  1260).  The  surviving  princes  of  the  Ayubite  dynasty 
in  Syria  and  Arabia  tendered  their  submission  to  the  Mamelukes,  who 
vere  thus  masters  of  all  the  ancient  Saracenic  possessions  in  the 
Levantine  countries,  wiih  the  exception  of  the  few  forts  and  cities  which 
were  still  retained  by  the  Franks  and  western  Christians.  The  Mame- 
lukes soon  resolved  to  seize  these  last  memorials  of  the  crusades. 
They  invaded  the  principalities  of  Antioch  and  Tripoli,  which  were 
subdued  without  much  difficulty.  A  fierce  resistance  was  made  by  the 
garrison  of  Acre,  but  the  town  was  taken  by  assault  and  its  gallant 
defenders  put  to  the  sword.  Tyre  soon  after  surrendered  by  capitula- 
tion (a.  d.  1291),  and  thus  the  Christ"  xns  were  finally  expelled  from 
Syria  and  Palestine. 

•Hence  thej'  were  called  the  Baharite  or  Maritime  Mamelukes,  to  distinguish 
them  froni  the  Borjiie  or  Garrison  Mamelukes,  another  body  of  this  militia,  formeO 
by  the  Baharite  sultan,  K  ?laun,  to  counterbalance  the  authority  usurped  by  the 
Turkish  emirs.  The  Borjites  derived  their  name  from  the  forts  which  they  garri- 
soned ;  they  soon  increased  in  power,  and  made  the  Baharite  dynasty  undergo  the 
fate  it  inflicted  on  the  Ayubite  sultans.  They  rose  against  their  masters  (a.  n 
1382),  gained  possession  of  the  supreire  autliority,  and  placed  one  of  their  chiefs' 
on  the  throne  of  Egypt.  Tlie  Borjites  in  their  turn  were  overthrown  by  th( 
Ottomans  (a.  d.  1517). 


I 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  463 


CILIPTER  V. 

THE  REVIVAL  OF  LITERATURE      THE  PROGRESS  OF 
CIVILIZATION   AND  INVENTION. 

Section  I. — Decline  of  the  Papal  Power. —  The  Geat  Schism  of  (he  West 

Clement  V.,  elevated  to  the  papacy  by  tlie  influence  of  the  French 
King,  Philip  the  Fair,  to  gratify  his  patron,  abstained  from  going  to 
Rome,  had  the  ceremony  of  his  coronation  performed  at  Lyons,  and 
fixed  his  residence  at  Avignon  (a.  d.  1309). 

Philip  further  insisted  that  the  memory  of  Boniface  should  be  stig- 
matized, and  his  bones  disinterred  and  ignominiously  burned.  Clement 
was  afraid  to  refuse  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  he  dreaded  the  scandal  of 
such  a  proceeding,  and  the  danger  of  such  a  precedent ;  he  therefore 
resolved  to  temporize,  and  persuaded  Philip  to  adjourn  the  matter  until 
a  general  council  should  be  assembled.  But  some  sacrifice  was  neces- 
sary to  appease  the  royal  thirst  for  vengeance,  and  the  illustrious  order 
of  the  Templars  was  sacrificed  by  the  head  of  that  church  it  had  been 
instituted  to  defend.  On  the  13th  of  October,  1307,  all  the  knights  of 
that  order  Avere  simultaneously  arrested ;  they  were  accused  of  the 
most  horrible  and  improbable  crimes  ;  evidence  was  sought  by  every 
means  that  revenge  and  cupidity  could  suggest ;  the  torture  of  the  rack, 
was  used  with  unparalleled  violence  to  extort  confession  ;  and  sentence 
of  condemnation  was  finally  pronounced  on  these  unfortunate  men, 
whose  only  crime  was  the  wealth  of  their  order,  and  their  adherence 
to  the  papal  cause  in  the  reign  of  Boniface. 

The  assassination  of  the  emperor  Albert  inspired  Philip  with  the 
hope  of  procuring  the  crown  of  Charlemagne  for  his  brother,  and  he 
hastened  to  Avignon  to  claim  the  promised  aid  of  the  pope.  But 
though  Clement  had  abandoned  Italy  to  tyrants  and  factions,  he  had 
not  resigned  the  hope  of  re-establishing  the  papal  power  over  the  penin- 
sula, and  he  shuddered  at  the  prospect  of  a  French  emperor  reconciling 
the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  crushing  opposition  by  the  aid  of  his 
royal  brother,  and  fixing  the  imperial  authority  on  a  permanent  basis  ; 
he  therefore  secretly  instigated  the  German  princes  to  hasten  the  elec- 
tion, and  Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg  was  chosen  at  his  suggestion. 
Though  Henry  possessed  little  hereditary  influence,  his  character  and 
talents  secured  him  obedience  in  Germany ;  he  had  thus  leisure  to  at- 
tend to  the  afl'airs  of  Italy,  which  no  emperor  had  visited  during  the 
preceding  half  century.  He  crossed  the  Alps  with  a  band  of  fuithfu] 
f)llowers  ;  the  cities  and  their  tyrants,  as  if  impressed  by  magic  with 
•jnuRual  resoect  for  the  imperial  majesty,  tendered  him  their  allegiance 


io4  AIODERN  HISTOlty. 

and  the  peninsula,  for  a  brief  space,  submitted  to  orderly  go\  ern/ntiu 
But  the  rivalry  of  the  chief  cities,  the  ambition  of  powerful  barons,  anti 
the  intrigues  of  Clement,  soon  excited  fresh  commotions,  which  Henr} 
had  not  the  means  of  controlling. 

The  council  of  Vienne  had  been  summoned  for  the  posthumous  trial 
of  Boniface  VIII.,  and  an  examination  of  the  charges  brought  agains. 
the  Templars  (a.  d.  1309).  Twenty-three  witnesses  gave  evidence 
against  the  deceased  pontiff,  and  fully  established  the  charges  of  profli- 
gacy and  infidelity  ;  but  Clement's  own  immoralities  were  too  flagrant 
for  him  to  venture  on  establishing  such  a  principle  as  the  forfeiture  of 
the  papacy  for  criminal  indulgences,  and  the  confession  that  Chris- 
tianity had  been  described  by  a  pope  as  a  lucrative  fable,  was  justly 
regarded  as  dangerous,  not  only  to  the  papacy,  but  to  religion  itself. 
Philip  was  persuaded  to  abandon  the  prosecution,  and  a  bull  was  issued 
acquitting  Boniface,  but,  at  the  same  time,  juttifying  he  moti-tes  of  his 
accusf  ^s.  The  order  of  the  Templars  was  formally  abolished,  and  their 
estates  transferred  to  the  Hospitallers,  or  Knights  of  St.  John  of  Jeru- 
salem ;  but  the  Hospitallers  were  forced  to  pay  such  large  sums  to 
Philip  and  the  princes  who  had  usurped  the  Temple  lands,  that  they 
were  impoverished  rather  than  enriched  by  the  grant.  The  council 
passed  several  decrees  against  heretics,  ar.d  made  some  feeble  efforts 
to  reform  the  Ua'cs  of  the  clergy  ;  finally,  it  ordained  a  new  crusade 
which  had  no  result  but  the  filling  of  the  papal  coffers  with  gifts  from 
the  devout,  bribes  from  the  politic,  and  the  purchase-money  of  indul 
gcnces  from  the  cowardly. 

When  the  emperor  Henry  VII.  was  crowned  at  Rome,  he  establish- 
i:d  a  tribunal  to  support  his  authority  over  the  cities  and  princes  of 
Italy ;  sentence  of  forfeiture  was  pronounced  against  Robert,  king  of 
Naples,  on  a  charge  of  treason,  and  this  prince,  to  the  great  indignation 
of  the  French  monarch,  was  placed  under  the  ban  of  the  empire.  The 
pope  interfered  to  protect  the  cousin  of  his  patron,  Philip  ;  the  wars 
between  the  papacy  and  the  empire  were  about  to  be  renewed,  when 
Henry  died  suddenly  at  Bonconventio,  in  the  state  of  Sienna.  It  was 
generally  believed  that  the  emperor  was  poisoned  by  his  confessor,  a 
Dominican  monk,  who  administered  the  fatal  dose  in  the  eucharist 
Clement  fulminated  two  bulls  against  Henry's  memory,  accusing  him 
of  perjury  and  usurpatiop  ;  he  also  annulled  the  sentence  against  Rob- 
ert of  Naples,  and  nominated  that  prince  imperial  vicar  of  Italy. 

The  death  of  Henry  exposed  Germany  to  the  wars  of  a  disputed 
succession  ;  that  of  Clement,  which  soon  followed,  produced  alarming 
dissensions  in  the  church.  Philip  did  not  long  survive  the  pontiff,  and 
ais  successor,  Louis  X.,  was  too  deeply  sunk  in  dissipation  to  regard 
die  concerns  of  the  papacy.  Twenty-seven  months  ela])sed  in  contests 
between  the  French  and  Italian  cardinals,  each  anxious  to  have  a  pon- 
tiff of  their  own  nation.  When  first  they  met  in  conclave,  at  Carpen- 
tras,  the  town  was  fired  in  a  battle  between  their  servants,  and  the  car- 
dinals, escaping  from  their  burning  palace  through  the  windows,  dis- 
persed without  coming  to  any  decision.  At  length,  Philip  the  Long 
count  of  Poictiers,  assembled  the  cardinals  at  Lyons,  having  voluntarily 
8v/om  that  he  would  secure  their  perfect  freedom.  During  their  de- 
liberations, the  death  of  Louis  X.  gave  Philip  the   regency,  and  soot 


I'BOGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  455 

aflei  the  crown  of  France  ;  the  first  use  he  made  of  his  power  was  \c 
shut  up  the  cardinals  in  close  conclave,  and  compel  them  to  expedite 
the  election.  Thus  coerced,  they  engaged  to  choose  the  pontiff  who 
should  be  nominated  by  the  Cardinal  de  Porto ;  this  prelate,  to  the 
great  surprise  of  all  parties,  named  himself,  and  was  soon  after  solemnly 
installed  at  Avignon,  under  the  title  of  John  XXII. 

Europe  was  at  this  period  in  a  miserable  state  of  distraction.     Italy 
was  convulsed  by  the  civil  wars  between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibelliues, 
whose  animosities  were  secretly  instigated  by  the  intrigues  of  the  king 
of  Naples  ;  Spain  and  Portugal  were  harassed  by  the  struggles  between 
the  Christians  and  the  Moors  ;  England  and  France  were  at  war  with 
each  other,  while  both  were  distracted  by  internal  commotions  ;  two 
emperors  unfurled  their  hostile  banners  in  Germany  ;  and,  finally,  the 
Ottoman  Turks  were  steadily  advancing  toward  Constantinople.     In 
these  difiicuU  times,  John  displayed  great  {  ohcy ;  he  refused  to  recog- 
nise either  of  the  rivals  to  the  empire,  and  took  advantage  of  their  dis- 
sensions to  revive  the  papal  claims  to  the  supremacy  of  Italy.     But  the 
battle  of  Muhldorf  having  established  Louis  of  Bavaria  on  the  imperial 
ihrone,  John,  who  had  previously  been  disposed  to   favor  the  duke  of 
Austria,  vainly  attempted  to  gain  over  the  successful  sovereign.     Louis 
sent  efficient  aid  to  the  Ghibellines,  and  the  papal  party  in  Italy  seemed 
on  the  point  of  being  destroyed.     John,  forced   to   seek  for   allies,  re- 
solved to  offer  the  imperial  crown  to   Charles  the   Fair,  who  had  just 
succeeded  his  brother  Philip  on  the  throne  of  France.     The  Germans, 
ever  jealous  of  the  French,  were  filled  with  indignation   when  they 
heard  that  the  pope  was  endeavoring  to  remove  their  popular  emperor  ; 
Louis   summoned  a  diet,  in  which  he  publicly  refuted  the   charges 
brought  against  him  by  the  court  of  Avignon ;  several   learned   meu 
published  treatises  to  prove  the   subordination  of  the  ecclesiastical  tc 
the  imperial  authority ;  the  chapter  of  Freysingen  expelled  the  bishop 
for  his  attachment  to  the  pope  ;  and  the  citizens  of  Strasburg  threw  a 
priest  into  the  Rhine,  for  daring  to  affix  a  copy  of  John's  condemnation 
of  Louis  to  the  gates  of  the  cathedral.     Even  the  religious  orders  were 
divided ;  for,  while  the  Dominicans  adhered  to  the  pope,  the  Francis- 
ca.is  zealously  supported  the  cause  of  the  emperor. 

Irritated  rather  than  discouraged  by  anathemas,  Louis  led  an  tinny 
into  Italy,  traversed  the  Appenines,  received  the  iron  crown  of  Lom- 
bardy  at  Milan,  and,  advancing  to  Rome,  found  a  schismatic  bishop 
willing  to  perform  the  ceremony  of  his  coronation.  It  was  in  vain  that 
John  declared  these  proceedings  void,  and  issued  new  bulls  of  excom- 
munication ;  the  emperor  conciliated  the  Guelphs  by  his  real  or  pre- 
tended zeal  for  orthodoxy,  and,  confident  in  his  strength,  ventured  tc 
pronounce  sente.ice  of  deposition  and  death  against  John,  and  to  procure 
the  election  of  Nicholas  V.  by  the  Roman  clergy  and  people.  The 
Franciscans  declared  in  favor  of  the  antipope,  who  was  one  of  theii 
oody  ;  and  if  Louis  had  shown  prudence  and  forbearance  ei^ual  to  his 
vigor,  the  cause  of  Pope  John  would  have  been  irretrievably  ruined. 
But  the  avarice  of  the  emperor  alienated  the  affections,  not  only  of  the 
Romans,  but  of  many  Italian  princes,  who  had  hitherto  been  attached 
to  the  Ghibelline  party ;  he  was  deserted  by  his  chief  supporters,  and 
ne  embraced  the  pretext  afforded  him  by  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Au3 


t56  *  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Lria,  to  return  to  Bavi-ria.  Nicholas,  abandoned  by  his  allies,  was  forced 
to  surrender  to  the  pope,  and  only  obtained  his  life  by  submitting  to  ap 
pear  before  John,  with  a  rope  round  his  neck,  and  to  ask.  pardon  of  thf 
pope  and  the  public,  for  the  scandal  he  had  occasioned  (a.  d.  1330) 
Though  by  this  Humiliation  the  antipope  escaped  immediate  death,  h'- 
was  detained  a  close  prisoner  for  the  remainder  of  his  days,  "  treated,'' 
says  a  contemporary,  "  like  a  friend,  but  watched  like  an  enemy.' 

The  emperor  would  doubtless  have  suffered  severely  for  his  share  in 
the  elevation  of  Nicholas,  had  not  the  church  been  disturbed  by  a  re- 
ligious controversy.  Jn  a  discourse  at  Avignon,  the  pope  maintained 
that  the  souls  of  the  blessed  would  not  enjoy  the  full  fruition  of  celes- 
tial joys,  or,  as  he  termed  it,  "  the  beatific  vision,"  until  the  day  of  judg- 
ment. The  university  of  Paris,  and  several  leader"  of  the  mendicant 
orders,  declared  that  such  a  doctrine  was  heretical ;  Philip  of  Valois, 
who  had  only  recently  obtained  the  crown  of  France,  reouired  that  the 
pope  should  retract  his  assertions,  and  John  was  compelled  to  appease 
his  adversaries  by  equivocal  explanations.  The  dispute  afforded  the 
emperor  a  pretext  for  refusing  obedience  to  the  papal  bulls,  and  appeal- 
ing to  a  general  council ;  new  wars  were  about  to  commence,  when 
John  died  at  Avignon,  leaving  behind  him  the  largest  treasure  that  had 
ever  been  amassed  by  a  pontiff. 

It  was  not  without  cause  that  the  Italians  named  the  sojourn  of  the 
popes  in  Avignon,  "  the  Babylonish  captivity."  The  strength  of  the 
papacy  was  shaken  to  its  very  foundation,  when  its  possessors  appear- 
ed mere  dejiciidants  on  the  kings  of  France,  the  instruments  of  war  and 
of  power,  whose  possession  monarchs  contested,  while  they  spurned 
their  authority.  The  successor  of  John  owed  his  election  to  his  prom- 
ise, that  he  would  not  reside  at  Rome  :  he  took  the  title  of  Benedict 
XII.,  and  began  his  reign  by  an  attempt  to  restore  peace  to  the  church 
and  to  the  empire.  Philip  of  Valois  had  other  interests,  and  he  com- 
pelled the  pope  to  adopt  his  views.  Edward  III.  was  preparing  to  as- 
sert his  claims  to  the  crown  of  France,  and  Philip  feared  that  he  would 
be  supported  by  his  brother-in-law,  the  emperor ;  he  therefore  threat- 
ened Benedict  with  his  vengeance,  if  he  should  enter  into  negotiations 
with  Louis,  and,  as  a  proof  of  his  earnestness,  he  seized  the  revenues 
of  the  cardinals.  The  king  of  England  and  the  German  emperor,  aware 
ihat  the  pope  was  a  mere  instrument  in  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  dis- 
regarded his  remonstrances  and  derided  his  threats.  Benedict  had  not 
courage  or  talents  adequate  to  the  crisis  ;  his  death  delivered  the  papacy 
from  the  danger  of  sinking  into  contempt,  under  a  feeble  ruler,  who 
sacrificed  everything  to  his  love  of  ease  ;  the  cardinals,  in  choosing  a 
successor,  sought  a  pontiff  whose  energy  and  ambition  might  again  in- 
vest the  church  with  political  power. 

Clement  VL,  unanimously  chosen  by  the  electors,  commenced  his 
reign  by  claiming  the  restoration  of  those  rights  of  the  holy  see  which 
had  fallen  into  abeyance  during  the  government  of  his  feeble  predeces- 
sor. The  Romans  sent  a  deputation  to  request  that  he  would  return  to 
the  city  and  appoint  the  celebration  of  a  jubilee  at  the  middle  of  the 
century  ;  Clement  granted  the  latter  request,  but  he  refused  to  visi" 
Rome,  through  dread  of  the  turbulent  spirit  of  its  inhabitants  (a.  d 
1343).     Bi.'t  Clement  did  not  neglect  the  alTairs  of  Italv    though  bt 


1 


PROGRESS  OF  ClVILIZArivJN  AND  INVENTION.  457 

refused  to  reside  in  the  country :  Roger,  king  of  Naples,  at  his  death 
oequeathed  his  kingdom  to  his  daughter  Jane,  or  Joan,  and  named  a 
council  of  regency :  Clement  insisted  that  the  government,  during  the 
minority  of  the  princess,  belonged  to  the  holy  see  ;  he,  therefore,  an- 
nulled the  king's  will,  and  sent  a  papal  legate  to  preside  over  the 
administration.  The  emperor  Louis  V.  sent  an  ambassador  to  the 
pope,  soliciting  absolution  ;  Clement  demanded  humiliating  submissions, 
which  were  indignantly  refused ;  upon  which  the  anathemas  were  re- 
newed, and  the  German  electors  were  exhorted  to  choose  a  new  sover- 
eign. As  if  resolved  to  brave  all  the  princes  that  opposed  the  king  of 
France,  Clement  nominated  cardinals  to  the  vacant  benefices  in  Eng- 
land ;  but  Edwaid  III.,  supported  by  his  clergy  and  people,  refused  to 
admit  the  intruders ;  nor  could  any  threats  of  ecclesiastical  censure 
shake  his  resolution.  About  the  same  time,  Clement  conferred  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Canary  islands  on  Prince  Louis  of  Spain,  as  Adrian 
had  given  Ireland  to  the  English  king.  "  In  these  grants,"  says  Henry, 
"  the  pretensions  of  the  popes  seem  to  be  less  remarkable  than  the  cre- 
dulity of  princes." 

The  pusillanimity  of  Louis  V.  is  more  surprising  than  the  credulity 
of  those  who  obtained  papal  grants  to  confirm  questionable  titles ; 
though  supported  by  all  the  princes  and  most  of  the  prelates  in  Ger- 
many, the  emperor  sought  to  purchase  pardon  by  submission ;  but  the 
Diet  would  not  allow  the  extravagant  claims  of  the  pope  to  be  recog- 
nised, and  the  humiliations  to  which  Louis  submitted  alienated  hia 
friends,  without  abating  the  hostility  of  his  enemies. 

But  Italy  was  now  the  theatre  of  events  calculated  to  divert  public 
attention  from  tlie  quarrels  of  the  pope.  Jane,  queen  of  Naples,  had 
married  Andrew,  brother  to  the  king  of  Hungary,  whose  family  had 
ancient  claims  on  the  Neapolitan  crown.  Political  jealousy  disturbed 
the  harmony  of  the  marriage  ;  a  conspiracy  was  formed  by  the  courtiers 
against  Andrew ;  he  was  murdered  in  his  wife's  bed,  and  she  was  more 
than  suspected  of  having  consented  to  the  crime.  Clement  shared  the 
general  indignation  excited  by  this  atrocity,  and,  in  his  chimerical 
quality  of  suzerian  of  Naples,  ordered  that  a  strict  search  should  be 
made  after  the  murderers,  against  whom  he  denounced  sentence  of  ex- 
communication (a.  d.  1346).  Jane  soon  conciliated  the  pontifi",  and 
purchased  a  sentence  of  acquittal^  by  selling  her  pretensions  to  the 
county  of  Avignon  for  a  very  moderate  sum,  which,  it  may  be  added, 
was  never  paid.  But  the  king  of  Hungar}  Avas  not  so  easily  sati'sfied  ; 
he  levied  a  powerful  army  to  avenge  the  murder  of  his  brother  ;  and  the 
emperor  of  Germany  gladly  embraced  the  opportunity  of  venting  his 
resentment  on  the  Guelphs  and  the  partisans  of  the  king  of  France,  to 
whose  intrigues  he  attributed  the  continuance  of  the  papal  excommuni- 
cations. 

Clement  saw  the  danger  with  which  he  was  menaced  by  the  Hunga- 
rian league  ;  to  avert  it,  he  negotiated  with  the  king  of  Bohemia,  and 
prevailed  upon  some  of  the  German  electors  to  nominate  that  monarch's 
Bon,  Charles,  marquis  of  Moravia,  to  the  empire.  The  new  sovereign 
agreed  to  recognise  all  the  extravagant  claims  of  the  popes,  which  hia 
predecessors  had  so  strenuously  resisted  ;  but  no  real  authority  was 
added  to  the  papacy  by  this  degradation  oi'  the  empire  ;  even  Clemenf 


t58  MODERN  HISTORY. 

was  aware  that  his  autliority  should  be  supported  by  art  ilk  e  md  nego 
liation,  rather  than  by  any  direct  assertion  of  power. 

While  tlie  princes     ot"  Europe  were  gradually  emancipating  them- 
belves  from  the  tnraldom  of  the  pontiffs,  a  remarkable  revolution  wrested 
Rome  itself  from  their  grasp,  and  revived  for  a  moment  the  glories  of 
the  ancient  republic.     Rienzi,  a  young  enthusiast  of  great  learning,  but 
humble  origii.,  addressed  a  pathetic  speech  to  his   countrymen  on  the 
deplorable  state  of  their  city  and  the  happiness  of  their  ancient  liberty 
Such  was  the  effect  of  his  eloquence,  that  the  citizens   immediately 
elected  him  tribune  of  the  people,  and  conferred  upon  him  the  supreme 
power  (a.  d.  1347).     He  immediately  degraded  the  senators  appointed 
by  the  pope,  punished  with  death  several  malefactors  of  high  rank,  and 
banished  the  Orsini,  the  Coionnas,  and  other  noble  families,  whose  fac 
tions  had  filled  the  city  with  confusion.     The  messengers  sent  by  the 
tribune  to  announce  his  elevation  were  everywhere  received  with  great 
respect ;  not  only  the  Italian  cities,  but  even  foreign  princes,  sought  his 
alliance  :  the  king  of  Hungary  and  the  queen  of -Naples  appealed  to  him 
as  a  mediator  and  judge,  the  emperor  Louis  sought  his  friendship,  and 
the  pope  wrote  him  a  letter  approving  all  his  proceedings.     Such  unex- 
pected power  intoxicated  the  tribune  ;  he  summoned  the  candidates  for 
the  empire  to  appear  before  him,  he  issued  an  edict  declaring  Rome  the 
metropolis  of  the  world,  and  assumed  several  strange  titles  that  prove 
both  his  weakness  and  his  vanity.     This  extravagance  proved  his  ruin  , 
Rienzi  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  the  banished  nobles  entered 
Rome,  the  fickle  populace  deserted  the  tribune,  and   after  wandering 
about  for  some  time  in  various  disguises,  he  was  arrested  by  the  papal 
ministers,  and  sent  to  Avignon,  where  he  was  detained  a  close  prisoner. 
In  the    meantime,  the  king  of  Hungary  had  entered  Italy  ;    Jane, 
whose  recent  marriage  to  the  duke  of  Tarentum,  one  of  the  murderers 
of  her  husband,  had  given  great  offence  to  her  subjects,  abandoned  the 
Neapolitan  territories  at  his  approach,  and  sought  refuge  at  Avignon 
But  a  dreadful  pestilence,  which  at  this  time  desolated  southern  Europe, 
compelled  the  king  of  Hungary  to  abandon  the  territories  he  had  so 
easily  acquired.     About  the  same  time,  the  death  of  the  emperor  Louis 
left  Charles  without  a  rival ;  and  Clement  resolved  to  take  advantage 
of  the  favorable  juncture  to  restore  the  papal  authority  in  Italy.     He 
ordered  a  jubilee  to  be  celebrated  at  Rome ;  he  excommunicated  Vis- 
conti,  archbishop  of  Milan,  but  afterward  sold  absolution  to  this  prelate 
who  was  formidable  as  a  statesman  and  a  soldier;  finally,  he  persuaded 
the  king  of  Hungary  and  the  queen  of  Naples  to  submit  their  differences 
to  his  arbitration.     But  the  court  of  Avignon  was  devoted  to  the  house 
of  Anjou  ;  it  did  not  venture  to  pronounce  the  queen  innocent,  but  it 
declared  that  a  weak  woman  could  not  resist  the  temptations  of  evil 
spirits,  and  decided  that  she  should  be  restored  to  her  kingdom  on  pay- 
ing a  subsidy  to  the  king  of  Hungary.     That  generous  prince  refused 
the  money,  declaring  that  he  had  taken  up  arms  to  avenge  the  murder 
of  his  brother,  not  to  gain  a  paltry  bribe.     Thus  the  pontiff  still  seemed 
the  arbitrator  of  kings  ;  some  years  before  he  had  engaged  Humbert,  a 
prince  of  southern  France,  to  bequeath  his  dominions  to  the  French 
king,  on  the  condition  that  the  eldest  son  of  that  monarch  should  take 
the  title  of  dauphin  ;  he  had  been  victorious,  though  by  accident,  in  bin 


I 


k-RUGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVKNTION.  459 

contest  with  the  emperor  Louis,  and   at  his   death  Clement  left  the 
papacy  in  full  possession  of  all  its  titles  to  supreme  power. 

But  while  the  nominal  authority  of  the  papacy  was  as  great  as  ever, 
Its  real  power  was  considerably  weakened.  Innocent  VI.,  unablo  to 
escape  from  the  yoke  which  the  kings  of  France  had  imposed  on  the 
popes  during  their  residence  at  Avignon,  resolved  to  recover  the  ancient 
patrimony  of  St.  Peter  ;  Rienzi  was  sumnoned  from  his  dungeon,  and 
was  sent  back  to  Rome  with  the  title  of  senator.  But  the  turbulen 
Romans  soon  grew  weary  of  their  former  favorite  and  Rienzi  was  mui 
dered  by  the  populace,  at  the  time  he  was  most  zealously  labormg  to 
chastise  the  disturbers  of  public  ti'anquillity,  and  rescue  the  people  from 
the  oppression  of  the  nobles  (a.  d.  1354).  Soon  afterward  the  emperor 
Charles  IV.  entered  Rome,  and,  by  the  permission  of  the  pope,  was 
solemnly  "rowned.  This  feeble  prince  negotiated  with  all  partie<«,  and 
betrayed  all ;  he  sold  liberty  to  the  cities,  because  he  had  neither  die 
military  force  nor  the  political  power  to  defend  a  refusal,  and  he  sub- 
mitted to  receive  a  passport  from  the  pope,  and  to  abide  in  Rome  only 
the  limited  period  prescribed  by  the  jealousy  of  the  pontiff. 

But  though  the  popes,  during  their  residence  at  Avignon,  favored  the 
discords  of  Italy,  stimulated  the  mutual  animosity  of  the  Guelphs  and 
Ghibellines,  and  encouraged  civil  war  in  the  empire,  they  were  desirous 
to  terminate  the  sanguinary  struggles  for  the  crown  of  France,  and  made 
several  efforts  to  reconcile  the  English  Edward  to  the  house  of  Valois. 
Edward  was  not  to  be  checked  in  his  career  of  victory ;  the  glory  of 
the  French  arms  was  destroyed  at  Crecy,  and  the  king  of  France  him- 
self became  a  prisoner  at  Poictiers.  It  was  through  the  mediation  of 
Innocent  VI.  that  King  John  recovered  his  liberty,  and  the  war  between 
England  and  France  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Bretigny.  Soon 
after  his  deliverance,  John,  distressed  for  money,  was  induced  by  a  large 
bribe  to  give  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Visconti,  the  most  formidable 
enemy  of  the  church,  while  Innocent  was  too  occupied  by  nearer  dan- 
gers to  prevent  an  alliance  so  injurious  to  his  interests.  The  numerous 
bands  of  mercenaries,  who  were  thrown  out  of  employment  by  the  res- 
toration of  peace,  formed  themselves  into  independent  bands,  called  Free 
Companies,  and  quitting  the  southern  districts  of  France,  already  deso- 
lated by  frequent  campaigns,  directed  their  march  toward  Provence. 
The  anathemas  hurled  agains^t  them  neither  retarded  their  progress  nor 
diminished  their  number  ;  a  crusade  was  vainly  preached  ;  no  soldiers 
would  enlist,  when  the  only  pay  was  indulgences  ;  the  plundering 
hordes  approached  Avignon,  and  the  treasures  of  the  ecclesiastics  were 
on  the  point  of  falling  into  the  hands  of  these  unscrupulous  spoilers 
By  paying  a  large  bribe,  and  giving  them  absolution  for  all  their  sins, 
Innocent  prevailed  upon  the  Free  Companies  to  turn  aside  from  Avignon 
and  entei  into  the  service  of  the  marquis  of  Montferrat,  who  was  engaged 
in  the  war  against  the  Visconti. 

Urban  V.  succeeded  Innocent,  and  though,  like  him,  inclined  to  favor 
the  king  of  France,  he  became  convinced  that  the  residence  of  the  popes 
at  Avignon  was  injurious  to  his  interests.  The  emperor  solicited  Urban 
to  visit  Rome,  and  the  Free  Companies  having  again  extorted  a  large 
oribe,  for  sparing  Avignon,  the  pope  hasted  to  leave  a  residence  where 
tie  was  exposed  to  insult  and  subservient  to  foreign  authority.     The 


460  MODERN  HISTORY 

popn  was  received  in  Italy  with  great  joy,  the  emperor  Charles  hus 
tened  to  meet  him,  and  gave  the  last  example  of  imperial  degradation 
by  leading  the  horse  on  which  the  pontiff  rode  when  he  made  his  tri 
umphal  entry  into  Rome  (a.  d.  1368).  This  spectacle,  instead  of  grati 
fying  the  Italians,  filled  them  with  rage  ;  they  treated  the  emperor  with 
so  much  contempt,  that  he  soon  returned  to  Germany ;  and  Urban 
finding  that  he  could  not  check  the  republican  licentiousness  which  h:d 
so  long  prevailed  in  Rome  and  the  other  cities  of  the  patrimony  of  St. 
Peter,  began  to  languish  for  the  more  tranquil  retirement  of  Avignon. 
The  only  advantage  he  gained  by  his  visit  to  Italy,  was  the  empty  honor 
of  seeing  the  emperor  of  the  east  bow  at  his  footstool,  and  offer  as  the 
reward  of  aid  against  the  Turks,  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches.  But  Urban  could  not  prevail  upon  the  western  princes  to 
combine  in  defence  of  Constantinople  ;  and  the  Greek  emperor  would 
have  been  unable  to  gain  the  consent  of  his  subjects  to  lay  aside  either 
tlie  peculiar  ceremonies  or  doctrines  that  had  severed  their  church  from 
the  papacy.  The  renewal  of  the  war  between  France  and  England, 
when  Charles  V.  succeeded  the  imbecile  John,  afforded  Urban  a  pre- 
text for  returning  to  Avignon.  Death  seized  him  soon  after  he  reached 
the  city,  and  Gregory  XI.  was  chosen  his  successor. 

Gregory's  great  object  was  to  break  the  power  of  the  Visconti,  v/ho 
had  become  the  v-irtual  sovereigns  of  northern  Italy ;  but  he  did  not 
neglect  the  general  interests  of  the  church,  exerting  himself  diligently 
to  suppress  heresy.  The  emperor  created  the  pontiff  his  vicar,  and 
Gregory,  to  support  his  authority,  took  some  of  the  free  companies 
into  pay,  and  among  the  rest  a  band  of  Englishmen  commanded  by 
-John  Hawkwood.  It  was  of  importance  to  gain  over  the  city  of  Flor- 
ence ;  the  papal  legate  thought  that  this  object  could  best  be  obtained 
by  producing  a  famine,  and  stimulating  the  citizens  by  the  pressure  of 
want  to  rise  against  their  government.  In  pursuance  of  this  infamous 
policy,  means  were  taken  to  cut  off  the  import  of  corn,  while  Hawk- 
wood  ravaged  the  territory  of  the  city  and  destroyed  the  harvests.  Of 
all  the  Italian  people,  the  Florentines  had  beer  (he  most  constant  in 
iheir  attachment  to  the  cause  of  the  holy  see — tne.r  indignation  was 
therefore  excessive,  and  their  hate  implacable. 

A  general  revolt  against  the  papal  power  was  soon  organized 
through  Italy  by  the  outraged  Florentines  ;  they  embroidered  the  word 
/jIbertas  on  their  standards  in  letters  of  gold,  while  their  emissaries 
preached  freedom  in  the  cities,  in  the  castles,  and  in  the  cottages  ;  the 
summons  was  eagerly  heard,  and  the  states  of  the  church  soon  refused 
to  recognise  the  sovereignty  of  its  head.  Gregory  sent  new  legate? 
and  menaced  the  confederates  with  excommunication ;  he  pronouncei^ 
sentence  of  excommunication  against  the  Florentines,  exhorting  al 
princes  to  confiscate  the  property  of  those  who  should  be  found  in 
their  several  dominions,  and  to  sell  their  persons  into  slavery ; — an 
iniquhous  edict,  which  was  partially  acted  upon  both  in  France  and 
England  :  new  hordes  of  mercenaries  were  taken  into  pay,  and  when 
ihe  citizens  of  Bologna  applied  to  the  legate  for  pardon,  he  replied 
ihat  he  would  not  quit  their  city  until  he  had  bathed  his  hands  and 
feet  in  their  blood.  The  Florentines  were  imdaunted,  but  the  dis 
onion  and  mutual  jealousies  between  the    othtr    confederates  proved 


PROGBESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND   INVENTION.  461 

futal  to  the  national  cause  ;  the  citizens  of  Rome  were  anxious  to  have 
the  pontifical  court  restored  to  their  city,  and  to  obtain  this  desirable 
object,  they  willingly  sacrificed  their  claims  to  freedom.  In  their  state 
of  moral  degradation,  indeed,  they  were  unable  to  appreciate  the  ad^  an- 
tages  of  rational  liberty,  and  unfit  to  exercise  its  privileges. 

During  these  commotions  in  Italy,  Gregory,  being  informed  of  the 
reformed  doctrines,  or,  as  he  called  them,  the  heresies  published  hi 
England  by  John  Wicklitfe,  wrote  to  the  chancellor  and  university  of 
Oxford,  severely  reproving  them  for  permitting  such  opinions  to  be 
promulgated,  and  ordaining  that  Wickliffe  should  be  brought  to  trial 
before  an  ecclesiastical  tribunal.  Smhlar  letters  were  sent  to  Richard 
II.,  the  young  king  of  England,  who  had  just  succeeded  his  grand- 
father Edward  III.,  but  the  duke  of  Lancaster  and  several  other  i  obles 
took  the  reformer  under  their  protection ;  Wicklifle  was  rescued  from 
the  .tialice  of  his  enemies,  while  his  doctrines  rapidly,  though  secretly, 
spread  not  only  through  Italy,  but  through  Germany.  The  chief 
articles  he  was  accused  of  teaching,  were,  that  the  wafer  in  the 
eucharist,  after  consecration,  is  not  the  real  body  of  Christ,  but  its 
figure  only ;  that  the  Roman  church  had  no  right  to  be  the  head  of  all 
churches  ;  that  the  pope  has  no  more  authority  than  any  other  priest ; 
that  lay  patrons  may,  and  ought  to,  deprive  a  delinquent  church  of  its 
.emporal  possessions  ;  that  the  gospel  was  sufficient  to  direct  any 
Christian  ;  that  no  prelate  of  the  church  ought  to  have  prisons  for 
punishing  delinquents.  The  publication  of  these  sentiments  enraged 
Gregory,  who  had,  from  the  very  commencement  of  his  reign,  shown 
himself  a  virulent  persecutor,  and  procured  the  burning  of  several  un- 
fortunate wretches  accused  of  heresy,  both  in  France  and  Germany. 
Scarcely  had  he  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Rome,  when  he  pre- 
pared to  take  some  effective  measures  for  checking  the  progress  of 
innovation.  But  domestic  troubles  soon  engaged  his  attention  ;  the 
Romans,  who  had  received  him  on  his  first  arrival  with  so  much  en- 
thusiasm, soon  began  to  brave  his  authority  and  disobey  his  edicts ; 
baffled  in  his  expectations  of  peace  and  power,  he  even  contemplated 
returning  to  Avignon,  where  part  of  the  papal  court  still  continued. 
But  before  taking  this  step,  he  resolved  to  secure  the  tranquillity  of 
Italy,  and,  if  possible,  avert  the  divisions  which  he  foresaw  would 
probably  trouble  the  church  *after  his  death  (a.  d.  1378).  A  congress 
was  opened  at  Serazante,  but  before  its  deliberations  could  produce 
any  important  result,  Gregory  was  seized  with  mortal  illness,  and  all 
hopes  of  peace  were  destroyed  by  the  schism  which  arose  respecting 
the  choice  of  his  successor. 

The  death  of  Gregory  XI.  was  the  commencement  of  »  new  era  for 
the  ancient  capital  of  the  world,  from  which  the  popes  had  been  absent 
during  so  many  years.  Pride,  interest,  and  self-love,  combined  to  attach 
the  Romans  to  the  papacy ;  had  they  combined  with  the  P^lorentiues,  it 
is  possible  that  the  cities  of  Italy  might  have  formed  a  confederacy  suf 
ficiently  strong  to  defy  an  absent  pope,  and  an  emperor  powerless  and 
distant ;  perhaps  they  might  even  have  solved  the  problem  which  still 
continues  to  ba'He  sta  ^smen,  and  form  a  federative  union  in  Italy.  But 
the  Romans  were  incapable  of  such  profound  views;  they  looked  to 
nothing  beyond  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  residence  of  the 


4Ga  MODERN  HISTORV. 

payvA  court  ;  and,  instead  of  aiming  at  reviving  their  ancien  glor^ 
they  contented  themselves  with  disputing  the  profits  that  had  hithertt: 
been  enjoyed  by  the  city  of  Avignon. 

No  sooner  had  the  cardinals,  the  nvajoritv  of  whc:n  belonged  to  the 
French  party,  shut  themselves  up  in  a  conclave,  than  the  Romans  were 
filled  with  alarm  lest  a  Transalpine  prelate  should  be  chosen,  who  would 
establish  his  court  at  Avignon.  They  assembled  in  arms  round  the 
Vatican,  and  by  their  menaces  sent  terror  into  its  inmost  recesses. 
They  demanded  that  the  new  pope  should  be  an  Italian ;  this  was  the 
only  virtue  they  required  in  the  successor  of  St.  Peter.  The  French 
cardinals,  already  disunited,  were  intimidated  by  these  clamors  ;  they 
gave  their  votes  to  a  Neapolitan  archbishop,  wao  took  the  title  of  Ur- 
Dan  VI. 

The  cardinals  seem  to  have  expected  that  Urban,  who  was  cele- 
brated for  his  modesty,  his  humility,  and  his  skill  in  the  .anon  law, 
would  have  acknowledged  that  his  election  was  vitiated  by  the  force 
that  had  been  used,  and  that  he  would  therefore  have  abdicated  the 
)ontificate.  But  Urban  soon  convinced  them  of  their  error :  he  not 
only  showed  a  determmation  to  retain  his  power,  but  openly  set  the 
discontented  cardinals  at  defiance.  In  a  public  discourse,  immediately 
after  his  coronation,  he  severely  reprehended  their  pomp  and  luxury, 
threatened  to  punish  those  who  had  been  convicted  of  receiving  bribes, 
and  reproached  some  of  them  by  name  for  corresponding  with  the 
enemies  of  the  church.  Exasperated  by  this  austerity,  the  discontented 
cardinals  fled  to  Anagni,  proclaimed  the  late  election  void,  sent  circu- 
lars to  all  Christian  princes  warning  them  not  to  acknowledge  Urban, 
took  a  body  of  Bretons  into  their  pay,  and,  relying  on  the  protection 
of  this  military  force,  excommunicated  the  new  pope  as  an  apostate 
usurper.  The  duke  of  Brunswick,  the  husband  of  Jane,  queen  of 
Napl(!s,  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  a  schism,  attempted  to  mediate  ; 
but  his  efforts  to  effect  a  reconciliation  were  bafHed  by  the  resentment 
of  th(;  cardinals  and  the  haughtiness  of  Urban.  On  all  sides  proposals 
were  made  to  assemble  a  general  council,  but  the  pope,  the  cardinals, 
and  the  emperor,  disputed  the  right  of  convocation  ;  the  fortune  of  war 
could  alone  determine  the  fate  of  the  church. 

Urban  showed  no  ''.esire  to  conciliate  his  opponents  ;  he  announced 
a  speedy  creauon  of  new  cardinals  to  overwhelm  their  votes,  and 
threatened  the  queen  of  Naples  for  granting  them  protection.  He 
showed  similar  severity  in  his  conduct  to  the  Roman  aristocracy,  and, 
on  a  verj'  slight  pretext,  ventured  to  deprive  the  count  of  Fondi  of 
his  fiefs.  The  count  at  once  declared  himself  a  partisan  of  the 
cardinals  ;  he  gave  them  shelter  in  the  town  of  Fondi,  where,  pro- 
tected by  Neapolitan  troops,  they  proceeded  to  a  new  election.  It  is 
said  by  many  historians  that  they  would  have  chosen  the  king  of 
France,  Charles  V.,  had  not  his  being  maimed  in  the  left  arm  incapaci- 
tated him  from  performing  the  ceremonies  of  the  mass  ;  but  their  se- 
lection was  scarcely  less  swayed  by  temporal  motives  when  they  gave 
their  votes  to  Cardinal  Robert  of  Geneva,  who  assumed  the  title  of 
Clement  VI  I.  This  prelate  had  served  in  the  field,  and  even  acquired 
some  reputation  as  a  warrior ;  but  he  was  generally  and  justly  hated  bv 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  463 

.he  Italians  for  having  massacred  all  the  inhabitants  of  CcbOiia  cluring 
the  Florentine  war. 

The  death  of  the  emperor  Charles  l\  added  neiv  troubles  to  the 
complicated  policy  of  Europe  ;  that  despicable  slave  of  superstition  had 
purchased  from  the  venal  electors  the  nomination  of  his  son  Wences- 
laus  as  his  successor ;  and  the  young  prince,  from  the  moment  of  his 
succession,  gave  himself  up  to  the  practice  of  the  meanest  vices,  and 
wallowed  in  disgusting  debauchery.  These  crimes,  however,  did  not 
prevent  him  from  enjoying  the  favor  of  Urban,  whose  cause  he  warmly 
e.'^poused — a  merit  which,  in  the  eyes  of  the  pontiff,  compensated  for 
the  want  of  all  the  virtues. 

The  queen  of  Naples  declared  in  favor  of  Clement,  and  invited  him 
to  her  court.  So  great,  however,  was  the  hatred  of  a  French  pontiff, 
that,  in  spite  of  the  turbulent  disposition  of  Urban,  the  defection  of  the 
cardinals,  the  authority  of  the  queen,  and  the  jealousy  of  the  states  so 
recently  at  war  with  the  court  of  Rome,  all  Italy  declared  against 
Clement,  and  the  Neapolitans  showed  such  hatred  to  his  cause,  that  he 
was  forced  to  escape  by  sea  to  Marseilles,  whence  he  proceeded  to 
establish  his  court  at  Avignon. 

The  king  of  France,  Charles  V.,  had  eagerly  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  cardinals  who  had  elected  the  antipope  ;  most  of  them  were  his 
subjects,  and  all  were  devoted  to  the  interests  of  France ;  he  therefore 
declared  himself  the  partisan  of  Clement,  trusting  that  he  would  obtain 
important  political  advantages  by  the  residence  of  the  pope  at  Avignon. 
Unfortunately  the  result  was  to  involve  his  kingdom  in  a  ruinous  war, 
which  long  doomed  France  to  loss  and  calamity. 

Urban's  vengeance  was  promptly  directed  against  the  queen  of  Na- 
ples, whose  supposed  murder  of  her  husband,  thirty  years  before,  was 
still  remembered  to  her  disadvantage  ;  he  declared  that  she  had  forfeited 
her  right  to  the  throne,  which  he  conferred  on  her  cousin  Charles  of 
Durazzo ;  ard  to  support  this  king  of  his  vengeance,  he  not  only  sold 
ecclesiastical  benefices,  but  pledged  the  plate  belonging  to  the  churches. 
Jane,  driven  from  her  kingdom,  adopted  the  duke  of  Anjou  as  her  son 
and  successor ;  the  French  monarchs  believed  themselves  bound  to 
support  his  claims,  and  exhausted  their  resources  in  the  effort. 

All  Europe  was  divided  by  the  schism  :  Italy,  Holland,  Germany, 
Bohemia,  Poland,  Hungary  Flanders,  and  England,  declared  for  Ur- 
ban ;  while  Clement  was  supported  by  Spain,  Navarre,  Scotland, 
Savoy,  Lorraine,  and  France.  The  rival  popes  hurled  anathemas 
against  each  other ;  excommunication  was  answered  by  excommunica- 
tion ;  and  both  prepared  piles  to  burn  the  partisans  of  their  adversary 
as  heretics.  Charles  V.  set  the  example,  by  issuing  an  edict  confisca- 
ting the  property  and  life  of  those  who  ventured  to  recognise  Urban  in 
his  dominions.  Urban  retorted,  by  preaching  a  crusade  against  Charles  ; 
the  English  eagerly  seized  this  pretext  for  renewing  war  against 
France,  and  a  powerful  army  entered  Britanny  to  support  its  duke 
against  his  liege  lord. 

The  death  of  Charles  V.,  and  the  minority  of  his  son  Charles  VI., 
added  to  the  embarrassments  of  France  ;  the  duke  of  Ajijou  seized  the 
royal  treasures  to  suj)port  his  claims  on  Naples  ;  the  new  taxes  imposed 
upon  the  people  provoked  insurrection;  the  revolfers   were  puni^ho'l 


4G4  MODKRN  HISTORY. 

with  remorseless  cruelty,  and  they,  on  tlie  other  hand,  practised  horri- 
ble retaliations  whenever  they  had  an  opportunity.  Charles  Durazzo, 
in  the  meantime,  found  little  diiFiculty  in  taking  possession  of  the  Nea- 
politan territories ;  Jane,  abandoned  by  her  subjects,  was  forced  to  sur- 
render to  her  cousin,  and,  by  his  command,  was  strangled  in  prison 
(a.  d.  1382).  Louis  of  Anjou  immediately  claimed  her  inheritance 
and,  having  obtained  the  investiture  of  Naples  from  Clement,  entered 
Italy  at  the  head  of  fifteen  thousand  men.  No  opposition  was  offered 
to  the  French  in  their  passage  ;  Louis  reached  the  frontiers  of  the 
Abruzzi  in  safety,  and  was  there  joined  by  several  Neapolitan  nobles 
attached  to  the  memory  of  Jane,  and  anxious  to  avenge  her  death. 

Durazzo  was  unable  to  meet  his  enemy  in  the  field ;  but  he  garri- 
soned his  fortresses,  encouraged  the  peasantry  of  the  Abruzzi  to  harass 
the  Fiencu  by  a  guerilla  warfare,  and  destroyed  all  the  forage  and  pro- 
visions in  the  open  country.  Famine  and  pestilence  wasted  the  gallant 
chivalry  of  France  ;  the  duke  of  Anjou  fell  a  victim  to  a  fever,  whose 
severity  was  aggravated  by  his  disappointment ;  his  army  dispersed, 
and  many  noble  barons,  who  had  joined  his  banners,  were  forced  to 
beg  their  way  home,  amid  the  jeers  and  insults  of  the  Italians.  The 
English,  commanded  by  the  bishop  of  Norwich,  made  a  feeble  attack 
upon  the  schismatic  French ;  they  were  defeated,  and  the  bishop  re 
turned  with  shame  to  his  diocese. 

Urban  disapproved  of  the  cautious  policy  of  Durazzo,  and,  proceed- 
ing to  Naples,  began  to  treat  the  king  as  his  vassal ;  Charles  tempo- 
rized, until  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Anjou  delivered  him  from  pressing 
danger,  but  then  he  refused  all  obedience  to  the  pope,  and  treated  him 
so  uncivilly,  that  Urban  removed  to  Nocera.  Several  of  the  cardinals, 
wear)''  of  the  tyranny  to  which  they  were  subjected,  plotted  the  murder 
of  the  pope ;  but  their  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  six  of  them 
were  sentenced  to  suffer  the  tortures  of  the  rack  that  they  might  be 
compelled  to  betray  their  accomplices.  Urban  personally  superintended 
these  cruellies,  and  suggested  new  modes  of  torture  to  the  execution- 
ers. ,  When  confessions  were  thus  obtained,  he  degraded  the  cardinals 
from  their  dignity,  and  pronounced  sentence  of  excommunication,  not 
only  against  them,  but  against  the  king  and  queen  of  Naples,  the  anti- 
pope  Clement,  his  cardinals,  and  his  adherents.  Durazzo,  justly  en- 
raged, marched  against  Nocera,  and  captured  the  town  ;  but  the  pope 
found  shelter  in  the  citadel,  from  which  he,  several  times-a-day,  fulmi- 
nated anathemas  with  bell  and  candle  against  the  king  of  Naples  and 
his  army.  Urban  at  length  made  his  escape,  and,  embarking  on  board 
some  Genoese  galleys,  reached  Genoa  in  safety,  where  he  was  honor- 
ably received  by  the  doge,  who  deemed  the  city  honored  by  his  pres- 
ence. During  his  flight,  he  ordered  the  bishop  of  Aquila  to  be  mur- 
dered, suspecting  that  he  meditated  desertion ;  and  soon  after  he  put  to 
death  five  of  the  guilty  cardinals,  sparing  the  sixth,  who  was  an  Eng- 
lisliman,  at  the  intercession  of  Richard  II. — a  monarch  who  had  given 
the  weight  of  England's  influence  to  Urban's  cause. 

Clement  VII.  did  not  conduct  himself  one  whit  better  than  his  rival ; 
he  insulted  and  imprisoned  the  German  and  Hungarian  ambassadors, 
who  were  sent  to  propose  expedients  for  terminating  the  schism ,  his 
exactions  from  the  churches  that  acknowledged  his  authority  alienated 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION  465 

Jie  minds  of  those  whom  their  political  position  had  ranged  on  his 
3ide ;  his  intrigues  and  his  servility  were  oli'ensive  to  the  kings  thaf 
supported  him.  The  double  papacy  was  found  a  heavy  tax  on  Christen- 
dom ;  each  pontiff  collected  around  him  a  court  of  dissolute  and  prodi- 
gal cardinals,  whose  lavish  expenditure  was  supported  by  alienating 
the  revenues  of  all  the  benefices  within  their  grasp. 

But  the  kingdom  of  Naples  was  especially  destined  to  suffer  from 
the  schism;  the  rival  pontiffs  claimed  the  right  of  bestowing  the  Nea- 
politan crown  at  their  discretion,  and  their  pretensions  perpetuat»;d 
civil  discord.  Charles  Durazzo  quitted  his  kingdom  to  seek  a  new 
crown  in  Hungary,  but  fell  a  victim  to  assassins  in  the  hour  of  success  ; 
Margaret,  his  queen,  on  receiving  the  news,  assumed  the  regency,  and 
caused  her  son  Ladislaus  to  be  recognised  as  sovereign  by  the  states 
of  the  realm.  But  Urban  VI.,  who  had  excommunicated  Charles  Du- 
razzo, pretended  that  the  kingdom  of  Naples  reverted  as  a  vacant  fief 
to  the  holy  see,  and  began  forming  a  party  against  the  queen.  Clem- 
ent on  his  side  raised  a  similar  claim,  and  sold  the  church  phite  to  pay 
troops  ;  he  zealously  supported  the  house  of  Anjou,  and  employed  Otho 
of  Brunswick,  the  widower  of  the  unfortunate  Jane,  to  expel  the  family 
of  Durazzo. 

Hitherto  the  division  in  the  church  had  been  political ;  a  doctrinal 
controversy,  however,  was  added  to  the  schism,  which,  though  il  led 
to  no  immediate  results,  deserves  to  be  briefiy  described.  A  Dominican 
doctor  of  divinity,  John  de  Mon^on,  preaching  on  the  doctrine  of  ori- 
ginal sin,  declared  that  the  virgin  Mary  was  conceived  in  sm.  But  the 
faculty  of  theology  in  the  university  of  Paris,  the  Sorbonne,  declared 
that  his  assertion  was  an  impious  outrage  against  the  mother  of  Christ : 
the  doctors  added  that  the  prophesied  sacrifice  of  Christ  had  an  effect 
before  its  accomplishment,  on  his  birth  and  that  of  his  mother,  and  to 
this  exemption  from  the  ordinary  law  of  humanity,  they  gave  the  name 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception. 

The  worship  of  the  virgin  Mary  has  always  been  the  most  populai 
portion  of  the  Romish  liturgy  ;  the  doctrine  of  the  Sorbonne  seemed 
to  \  mfer  new  honor  upon  her  name,  and  it  was  ardently  received  by 
multitudes  of  ignorant  enthusiasts. 

Mon^on,  alarmed  at  the  ferment  he  had  unwittingly  excited,  fled  to 
A-vignon.  The  entire  order  of  the  Dominicans,  enraged  to  find  one  of 
their  brethren  accused  of  heresy,  sent  seventy  of  their  most  eminent 
d'">ctors  to  support  Mongon's  opinions  before  the  papal  tribunal.  The 
Sorbonne,  on  the  other  hand,  deputed  its  most  eminent  professors  to 
prosecute  Mon^on,  and  procure  the  condemnation  of  his  opinions 
The  pope  was  sorely  embarrassed  ;  the  opposing  parties  were  so  pow 
urtul  that  he  did  not  wish  to  alienate  either  ;  and  he,  therefore,  had  re- 
course to  the  expedient  of  dismissing  Mon^on  secretly,  and  sending 
him  to  seek  refuge  in  Aragon. 

But  the  theologians  of  the  Sorbonne  would  not  rest  satisfied  with  an 
imperfect  victory  ;  profiting  by  the  popular  ferment  to  work  on  the 
mind  of  their  sovereign,  Charles  VI.,  they  persuaded  the  king,  who 
had  not  yet  attained  his  twenty-first  year,  and  whose  ignorance  was 
extreme,  to  undertake  the  decision  of  a  question  beyond  the  limits  of 
^'iiman  knowledge.     The  young  and  stupid  king  took  upon  himself  to 

80 


^66  MODERN  HISTORY. 

maintain  that  the  virgin  Mary  was  free  from  the  stain  of  original  sin ; 
he  even  sent  to  prison  all  who  denied  the  doctrine  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception. 

Clement  VII.,  always  in  fear  of  being  sacrificed  to  his  rival,  Urbai 
VI.,  and  relying  for  support  chiefly  on  the  court  of  France,  did  not 
>-enture  to  make  any  further  resistance.  He  issued  a  bull  condemning 
John  de  Mongon,  and  all  his  adherents  :  he  permitted  the  king  to  insti- 
tute a  new  festival  in  honor  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  The  whole 
order  of  St.  Dominic  was  degraded  to  the  lowest  rank  of  monastics, 
Lnd  it  was  ordained  that  no  one  of  their  body  should,  in  future,  hold 
the  office  of  confessor  to  the  king. 

Urban  VI.  paid  little  regard  to  theologica  controversies  ;  he  was 
more  anxious  to  re-establish  his  authority  over  southern  Italy.  But  as 
he  marched  toward  Naples,  his  troops  mutinied  for  want  of  pay,  and  he 
was  forced  to  return  to  Rome.  The  citizens  proved  to  bt  as  discon- 
tented as  the  soldiers ;  to  stifle  their  murmurs  he  published  a  bull  for 
the  celebration  of  a  jubilee  the  following  year  at  Rome,  and  ordered 
that  this  solemnity  should  be  repeated  every  thirty-three  years,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  years  that  Christ  remained  upon  earth.  He  hoped 
that  this  festival  would  enrich  the  Romans  and  himself,  but  he  died  be- 
fore the  time  for  its  celebration  (a.  d.  1389).  It  is  supposed  that  his 
end  was  hastened  by  poison,  for  his  most  ardent  supporters  were  wpary 
of  his  tyranny. 

A  few  days  after  the  death  of  Urban,  the  cardinals  at  Rome  chose  a 
new  pontiff,  who  took  the  title  of  Boniface  IX.,  and  commenced  his 
reign  by  an  interchange  of  anathemas  and  excommunications  with  his 
rival  at  Avignon.  More  prudent  than  his  predecessor,  Boniface  hasted 
to  make  terms  with  the  family  of  Durazzo  at  Naples  ;  he  recognised 
young  Ladislaus  as  a  legitimate  king,  and  sent  a  legate  to  perform  the 
ceremony  of  his  coronation.  Ladislaus,  in  return,  took  an  oath  of 
fidelity  and  homage,  binding  himself  never  to  recognise  the  antipope 
at  Avignon. 

Clement  VII.  strengthened  himself  by  a  closer  union  with  the  king 
of  France,  whom  he  induced  to  visit  Avignon,  and  to  witness  the  cere- 
mony of  the  coronation  of  Louis  II.  of  Anjou,  as  king  of  Naples. 
The  imbecile  Charles  was  so  gratified  by  his  reception,  that  he  pro- 
joctel  a  crusade  against  Rome,  but  he  was  soon  induced  to  abandon 
his  purpose,  and  he  gave  very  feeble  aid  to  his  cousin  of  Anjou,  when 
he  prepared  an  armament  to  invade  the  Neapolitan  territories.  The 
doctors  of  the  Sorbonne  became  eager  to  terminate  the  schism ;  and 
encouraged  by  their  success  in  the  controversy  of  the  Immaculate  Con- 
ception, they  presented  to  the  king  a  project  for  restoring  the  peace  of 
the  church,  by  compelling  the  rival  popes  to  resign,  and  submit  the 
choice  of  a  new  pontiff"  to  a  general  council  (a.  d.  1394).  Though 
tliis  counsel  was  not  favorably  received  by  the  king,  it  gave  great  alarm 
to  Clement,  and  agitation  of  mind  is  supposed  to  have  produced  the 
apopletic  fit  which  occasioned  his  death. 

The  French  ministers  wrote  to  the  cardinals  at  Avignon,  urging  them 
to  embrace  the  opportunity  of  terminating  the  schism  ;  but  these  prelates 
basted  to  conclude  a  new  election  without  opening  the  letter,  with  the 
aontenls  of  which  they  were  acquainted.     Peter  de  Luna,  cardinal  of 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  467 

A.raoon,  was  nominated  pope  ;  he  took  the  name  of  Benedict  XIII.,  and 
iho  schism  became  wider  than  ever.  When  the  news  of  the  election 
reached  Paris,  Charles,  instead  of  recognising  the  pope  of  Avignon, 
convoked  the  clergy  of  his  kingdom  to  deliberate  on  the  means  of  re- 
storing peace  to  the  church.  After  some  delay,  the  convocation  met, 
and  came  to  the  inconsistent  resolution  of  recognising  Benedict,  and  pro- 
[)0sing  that  the  schism  should  be  terminated  by  the  abdication  of  the 
two  popes.  Ambassadors  were  sent  with  this  proposal  to  Avignon,  but 
a  ridiculous  though  insuperable  difficulty  prevented  the  success  of  their 
negotiations.  The  plenipotentiaries  on  both  sides  preached  long  ser- 
mons to  each  other,  until  the  French  princes  who  were  joined  in  the 
legation,  completely  fatigued,  and  seeing  no  probable  termination  of 
the  conference,  returned  home  indignant  and  disappointed.  The  king 
of  England  and  the  emperor  of  Germany  joined  the  French  monarch 
in  recommending  the  double  application  ;  Boniface  declared  his  readi- 
ness to  resign,  if  Benedict  would  set  the  example,  but  the  latter  pontiff 
absolutely  refused  submission.  An  army  was  sent  to  compel  him  to 
obedience  ;  Avignon  was  taken,  and  Benedict  besieged  in  his  palace, 
but  his  obstinacy  continued  unshaken,  and  the  party  feuds  which  the 
weakness  of  the  king  encouraged  in  France,  gave  him  hopes  of  final 
triumph. 

The  state  of  the  western  governments  tended  to  protract  the  schism 
of  the  church  ;  the  king  of  France  fell  into  idiotcy  ;  Richard  II.  was  de- 
posed in  England  by  his  cousin  Henry  IV. ;  the  duke  of  Anjou  was 
driven  from  Naples  ;  the  Byzantine  emperor  and  the  king  of  Hungary 
were  harassed  by  the  Turks,  whose  increasing  power  threatened  ruin 
■,o  both  ;  the  Spanish  peninsula  was  distracted  by  the  Moorish  wars  ; 
at.d  the  emperor  Wenceslaus  was  forced  to  abdicate  by  the  German 
electors.  Boniface  took  advantage  of  these  circumstances  to  establish 
the  papal  claim  to  the  first-fruits  of  all  ecclesiastical  benefices,  and  to 
render  himself  absolute  master  of  Rome,  by  fortifying  the  citadel  and 
castle  of  St.  Angelo.  The  Roman  citizens  were  deprived  of  the  last 
shadow  jf  their  former  franchises  ;  the  readiness  with  which  they  sub- 
mitted, is,  however,  a  sufficient  proof  that  they  were  unworthy  of  free- 
dom. The  pope  did  not  long  survive  this  triumph;  the  Roman  cardinals 
electee'  Innocent  VII.  to  supply  his  place  ;  but  he  died  about  twelve 
months,  after  his  elevation,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XII.  (a.  b. 
1406).  Benedict  having,  in  the  meantime,  recovered  his  freedom,  pro- 
tested against  the  Roman  elections,  but  offered  to  hold  a  personal  con- 
ference with  Gregory  for  reconciling  all  their  differences  The  cardi- 
nals, weary  of  these  controversies,  deserted  the  rivals,  and  having 
assembled  a  general  council  at  Pisa,  elected  a  third  pope,  who  took  the 
title  of  Alexander  V 

There  were  now  three  heads  to  the  Christian  church  :  Ladisiaus  and 
bome  of  the  Italian  cities  supported  Gregory  ;  the  kings  of  Scotland 
and  Spain  adhered  to  Benedict  ;  while  Alexander  was  recognised  in 
the  rest  of  Christendom.  The  disputes  of  these  hostile  pontiffs  had 
greatly  tended  to  enfranchise  the  human  mind,  and  weaken  the  hold  of 
tiuperstition.  Wickliffe's  doctrines  spread  in  England,  and  in  Ger- 
many they  were  advocated  by  John  Huss,  who  eloquently  denounced 
the  corruptions  that  debased  the  pure  doctrines  of  Christianity.     Pope 


468  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Alexander  was  preparing  to  resist  the  progress  of  the  courageotu-. 
reformer,  when  his  death  threw  the  afTairs  of  the  church  into  fresh  ccin- 
fusion. 

Tlie  presence  of  an  armed  force  induced  the  cardinals  to  elect  John 
XXllI.,  whose  promotion  gave  great  scandal,  as  he  was  more  remark- 
able for  liis  military  than  his  religious  qualifications  (a.  d.  1411).  Johii 
soon  compelled  Ladislaus  to  abandon  Gregory's  party ;  he  then  assem- 
bled a  general  council  at  Rome,  where  sentence  of  condemnation  was 
pronounced  on  the  doctrines  of  Huss  and  WicklifTe.  But  Ladislaus  soon 
grew  weary  of  peace  ;  he  led  an  army  against  Rome,  plundered  the  city, 
and  compelled  the  pope  to  seek  protection  from  Sigismond,  emperor  of 
Germany.  John  consented  very  reluctantly  to  the  imperial  demand, 
that  the  schism  should  finally  be  terminated  by  a  general  council ;  he 
made  an  ineffectual  effort  to  have  the  assembly  held  in  one  of  his  own 
cities,  but  Sigismond  insisted  that  it  should  meet  in  Constance.  John 
then  attempted  to  interpose  delays,  but  the  general  voice  of  Christendom 
was  against  him  ;  he  judged  his  situation  accurately,  when,  pointing  to 
Constance  from  the  summit  of  the  Alps,  he  exclaimed,  "  What  a  fine 
trap  for  catching  foxes  !" 

The  at'ention  of  all  Christendom  was  fixed  upon  the  deliberations  of 
the  council  of  Constance,  whither  bishops,  ambassadors,  and  theologians, 
flocked  from  every  part  of  Europe  (a.  d.  1415).  John  Huss,  having 
obtained  the  emperor's  safe  conduct,  appeared  before  the  council  to  de- 
fend his  doctrines,  but  Sigismond  was  persuaded  to  forfeit  his  pledge 
and  deliver  the  courageous  reformer  to  his  enemies,  to  be  tried  for  heresy. 
Pope  John  was  not  treated  better ;  a  unanimous  vote  of  the  council  de- 
manded his  abdication  ;  he  fled  to  Austria,  but  he  was  overtaken  and 
detained  in  the  same  prison  with  Huss,  until  he  ratified  the  sentence  of 
his  own  deposition.  Gregory  XII.  soon  after  abdicated  the  pontificate, 
but  Benedict  still  continued  obstinate  ;  his  means  of  resistance,  however, 
were  so  trilling,  that  the  council  paid  little  attention  to  his  refusal.  John 
Huss,  and  his  friend  Jerome  of  Prague,  were  sentenced  to  be  burnt  at 
the  stake  as  obsiinate  heretics,  but  their  persecutors  coidd  not  stop  the 
progress  of  the,  truth  ;  the  Hussites  in  Bohemia  had  recourse  to  arms  tor 
the  defence  of  their  liberties,  and,  under  the  command  of  the  heroic 
Zisca,  maintained  the  cause  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  in  many  glori- 
ous fields. 

The  emperor,  the  princes  of  Germany,  and  the  English  deputies,  streii- 
uously  urged  the  council  to  examine  the  abuses  of  the  church,  and  form 
some  plan  for  its  thorough  reformation  ;  but  the  prelates,  fearing  that 
■some  proposals  might  be  made  injurious  to  their  interests,  steadily  re- 
sisted these  efforts  ;  declaring  that  the  election  of  a  pope  ought  to  have 
precedence  of  all  other  business.  After  long  lisputes,  the  choice  of 
die  electors  fell  on  Otho  Colonna,  a  Roman  noble,  who  took  the  titlo  of 
Martin  V'.  The  new  pontiff  combined  with  the  cardinals  to  strangle  all 
the  plans  of  reform,  and  the  council,  from  whose  deliberations  so  much 
had  been  expected,  terminated  its  sittings,  without  iiaving  applied  any 
effectual  remedy  to  the  evils  which  had  produced  the  schism.  A  prom- 
ise, indeed,  was  made,  that  another  council  would  be  convened,  for  the 
roform  of  the  church,  at  Pavia,  but  no  one  cared  to  claim  its  perform- 
ance ;  the  condiict  of  those  who  met  at  Constance  convinced  the  worlc! 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  4G9 

•iiLit  no  effectual  redress  of  grievances  could  be  expected  from  ^uc•h 
assemblies. 

The  projects  of  reform,  begun  at  Constance,  were  revived  at  the  couu- 
cil  of  Basle  (a.  d.  1431);  but  Eugenius  IV.,  the  successor  of  Martin 
soon  felt  that  tne  proposed  innovations  would  be  fatal  to  the  papal  au- 
thority, and  dissolved  the  council.  This  precipitancy  caused  another 
schism,  which  lasted  ten  years  ;  but  at  length  the  ex-duke  of  Savoy,  who 
had  been  chosen  pope  by  the  partisans  of  the  council,  under  the  name 
of  Felix  v.,  gave  in  his  submission  ;  and  the  council,  from  whose  labors 
so  much  had  been  expected,  ended  by  doing  nothing.  Still  the  convo- 
cations of  the  prelates  of  Christendom  at  Constance  and  Basle  struck  a 
fatal  blow  against  the  despotism  of  the  popes.  Henceforth  monarcha 
had,  or  seemed  to  have,  a  court  of  appeal — one  so  dreaded  by  the  pon- 
tiffs, that  the  mere  dread  of  its  convocation  procured  from  them  liberal 
concessions.  But  a  new  and  more  formidable  enemy  to  the  despotism 
of  the  pontiffs  than  the  resistance  of  kings  or  of  councils,  was  the  prog- 
ress of  literature  and  knowledge,  which  brought  the  extravagant  claims 
of  spiritual  and  temporal  rulers  to  be  investigated  on  their  real  merits, 
not  according  to  their  asserted  claims. 

Sectio.v  II. — First  Revival  of  Literature,  and  Inventions  in  Science. 

In  the  controversy  between  Philip  the  Fair  and  Boniface  VIII.,  liter- 
ary talent  was  for  the  first  time  employed  against  the  church  by  John 
of  Paris,  a  celebrated  Dominican,  who  advocated  the  royal  indepen- 
dence with  great  zeal  and  considerable  ability.  The  celebrated  poet 
Dante  Aligliieri,  v/ho  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Italian  litera- 
ture, and  almost  of  the  Italian  language,  followed  the  same  course,  advo- 
cating strenuously  the  cause  of  the  emperor  Louis  of  Bavaria.  Their 
example  was  a  model  for  many  other  writers,  who  laid  aside  the  shackles 
of  authority,  and  supported  the  independence  of  states.  But  literature 
itself  was  subject  to  trammels  which  checked  the  progress  of  improve- 
ment It  was  deemed  a  crime  scarcely  less  than  heresy,  to  doubt  of 
any  explanation  given  by  the  schoolmen  of  physical,  mental,  or  moral 
phenomena.  Roger  Bacon,  a  Franciscan  monk,  was  the  first  who  re- 
vived experimental  science  ;  he  made  several  important  discoveries  in 
mechanics  and  chymistry,  but  his  great  merit  is  to  be  found,  not  so 
much  in  his  various  inventions  and  projects,  as  in  the  bold  appeal  which 
he  made  to  experiment,  and  the  observation  of  nature.  His  lectures  at 
Oxford,  published  under  the  title  of  "  Opus  Majus"  (a.  d.  1266),  raised 
against  him  a  host  of  enemies  ;  he  was  prohibited  from  giving  instruc 
tions  in  the  universit}  ,  and  was  subjected  to  confinement  in  his  convent 
His  scientific  discoveries  were  deemed  a  species  of  magic  in  that  age 
of  ignorance  ;  he  was  the  first  of  the  long  list  of  victims  of  ecclesiastical 
persecution,  and  the  leader  of  a  long  line  of  patriots  who  supported  the 
cause  of  intellectual  and  moral  liberty  against  the  odious  encroachments 
of  spiritual  despotism.  The  emancipation  of  literature  accompanied 
that  of  science ;  the  impulse  which  Dante  had  given  to  the  cultivation 
of  Italian  poetry  was  long  felt ;  he  was  followed  by  Petrarch  and  Boc 
cacio.  whose  writings  at  once  elevated  the  charactor  and  formed  th'; 
language  of  their  countrymen 


ilO  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Several  new  invenlions,  or  perhaps  importations  from  me  icmoic 
East,  accelerated  the  progress  of  men  in  learning  and  the  arts.  Of  these 
wo  may  mention  more  particularly  the  art  of  forming  paper  from  linen- 
rags,  painting  in  oil,  the  art  of  printing,  the  use  of  gunpowder,  and  of  tht 
mariner's  compass. 

Before  the  invention  of  linen-paper,  parchment  was  gerorally  used  in 
Europe,  both  for  copying  books  and  preserving  public  records.  This 
material  was  scarce  and  dear.  When  the  Arabs  conquered  Bokhara 
(a.  d.  704),  they  are  said  to  have  found  a  large  manufactory  of  cottou- 
paper  at  Samarcand,  which  is  not  improbable,  as  the  fabric  was  known 
in  China  before  the  Christian  era.  They  brought  the  knowledge  of  the 
■art  into  their  western  territories,  but  the  scarcity  of  the  materials  long 
impeded  its  progress.  At  length,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  it  was  dis- 
covered that  linen  w^ould  answer  all  the  purposes  of  cotton  ;  but  when, 
where,  or  by  whom,  this  valuable  discovery  was  made,  can  not  be  ascer- 
tained. The  first  great  factory  of  linen-paper  of  which  we  have  any 
certain  accounts,  was  established  at  Nuremberg  (a.  d  1390),  but  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  paper  was  manufactured  in  western  Europe  a 
century  earlier. 

The  invention  of  painting  in  oils  is  usually  attributed  to  two  brothers. 
Van  Eyck,  of  whom  the  younger,  called  John  of  Bruges,  flourished  tow- 
ard the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  invention,  however,  is  of 
much  earlier  date,  but  the  brothers  deserve  the  merit  of  having  brought 
it  into  practical  use,  and  carried  it  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  Owing 
to  this  invention,  modern  paintings  excel  the  ancients  both  in  finish  of 
execution  and  permanence. 

More  important  than  either  of  these  was  the  invention  of  printing, 
which  seems  to  have  been  at  least  partially  derived  from  the  East. 
Solid  blocks  of  wood,  graven  with  pictures  and  legends,  were  used  in 
China  from  a  very  remote  period.  Tbe  great  improvement  of  having 
separate  types  for  each  letter,  was  made  by  John  Gutenberg,  a  citizen 
of  Mayence  (a.  d.  143G) ;  he  used  small  blocks  of  wood,  but  the  matrix 
for  casting  metal  t}^es  was  soon  after  devised  by  Peter  Schoefier,  of 
Gemheim.  Gutenberg  established  the  first  printing-press  known  in 
Europe,  at  Strasburg  ;  thence  he  removed  to  Mayence,  where  he  entered 
into  partnership  with  John  Fust,  or  Faustus,  whose  ingenuity  greatly 
contributed  to  perfect  the  invention.  Gutenberg  did  not  put  his  name 
to  any  of  the  books  he  printed  ;  Faustus,  more  ambitious  of  fame,  placed 
liis  name  and  that  of  his  partner  to  his  celebrated  Psalter,  and  thus  re- 
ceived no  small  share  of  the  glory  that  properly  belonged  to  the  first 
discoverer.  The  art  of  engraving  on  copper,  was  discovered  about 
the  same  time  as  the  use  of  moveable  types,  but  its  history  is  very 
obscure. 

Scarcely  less  important  than  printing  was  the  manufacture  and  use 
,of  gunpowder.  The  explosive  power  of  saltpetre  was  probably 
known  in  the  east  from  a  very  remote  age.  With  less  certainty  we 
may  conjecture  that  the  process  of  compounding  saltpetre  with  othei 
ingredients,  was  brought  from  the  remote  east  by  the  Saracens.  Friai 
Bacon,  the  first  European  writer  who  describes  the  composition  of  gun 
powder,  derired  his  knowledge  of  chymistry  chiefly  from  the  Arabian 
writers  who  weie  the  originators  of  that  science.     The  employment  of 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION  471 

gunpowder  for  throwing  bullets  and  stones  began  in  Europe  abou  the 
fommencment  of  the  fourteenth  century ;  it  was  introduced  by  the  Sar- 
acens in  their  Spanish  wars  ;  and  the  first  certain  account  of  this  change 
in  warfare,  is  in  an  Arabian  history  of  the  siege  of  Baza,  by  the  king 
of  Granada  (a.  d.  1312).  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  Genoese 
were  the  first  who  used  powder  in  mines,  to  destroy  walls  and  fortifica- 
tions, at  the  siege  of  Seranessa  (a.  d.  1487).  Bombs  and  mortars  are 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Malatesta,  prince  of  Rimini  (a.  d.  1467) ; 
and  about  the  same  time  guns,  or  rather  portable  cannons,  began  to  be 
used  by  soldiers.  Several  circumstances  prevented  the  immediate  adop- 
tion of  firearms  and  artillery  in  v/ar :  long  habit  made  many  prefer  their 
ancient  weapons  ;  the  construction  of  cannons  was  imperfect,  they  were 
mad )  more  frequently  of  wood,  leather,  or  iron  hoops,  than  solid  metal, 
and  were  therefore  liable  to  burst ;  the  gunpowder  was  of  imperfect 
manufacture,  and  frequently  failed  in  the  field.  Above  all,  the  mail-clad 
chivalry  of  Europe  opposed  a  change  in  the  art  of  war  which  greatlv 
lowered  the  value  of  knights  and  cavalry. 

The  last  great  invention  that  requires  notice,  is  the  polarity  of  the 
magnet,  and  its  application  to  the  mariner's  compass.  It  was  generally 
believed  that  the  inventor  of  this  precious  instrument  was  Flavio  Gioia, 
a  native  of  Amalfi,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  ;  and  so  precise  were  the 
historians,  that  they  specified  the  date  of  the  invention  as  either  a.  d 
1302,  or  1303.  A  more  careful  examination  of  the  subject  showed 
that  the  magnet's  polarity  had  been  noticed  by  Chinese,  Arabian,  and 
even  European  writers,  long  before  the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth 
century. 

The  time  when  the  polarity  of  the  magnet  was  first  known  to  the 
Chinese  is  lost  in  the  night  of  antiquity.  But  many  centuries  before 
the  Christian  era,  this  property  of  the  loadstone  was  applied  to  the 
construction  of  magnetic  chariots ;  but  it  was  probably  not  until  the 
Chinese  began  to  direct  their  attention  to  navigation,  under  the  Tsin 
dynasty,  that  is,  between  the  middle  of  the  third  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  fifth  centuries  of  our  era  that  it  was  used  for  the  guidance 
of  vessels  at  sea.  We  have  no  certain  account  of  the  introduction  of 
the  compass  into  Europe,  but  writers  of  the  twelfth  century,  speaking 
of  it,  as  far  as  we  know  for  the  first  time,  mention  it  as  a  thing  gene- 
rally known.  From  this  sudden  notoriety  of  the  polarity  of  the  magnet, 
it  seems  probable  that  its  use  had  been  practically  known  to  sailors,  be- 
fore li  engaged  the  attention  of  the  learned.  Only  one  century  previ- 
ous to  tliis  notoriety,  we  find  that  the  northern  navigators  had  no  bettei 
expedient  for  directing  their  course,  than  watching  the  flight  of  birds 
"  The  old  northern  sailors,"  says  a  Danish  chronicle,  "  took  a  supply 
nf  lavens  for  their  guides  ;  they  used  to  let  these  birds  fly  from  their  barks 
when  in  the  open  sea ;  if  the  birds  returned  to  the  ship,  the  sailor^ 
concluded  that  there  was  no  land  in  sight,  but  if  they  flew  ofl',  the  ves 
feels  were  steered  in  the  direcdon  of  their  flight."  The  improvements 
ni  the  compass  were  made  by  slow  degrees,  and  for  the  most  important 
of  them  the  world  is  indebted  to  Enolishmen. 


t<2 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Skctiox  III. — Progress  of  Commerce. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  to  the  middle  of  the  fifteer.lh 
ijentur}'  the  ccinmorce  of  Europe  was  engrossed  by  the  Italian,  Han 
seatic,  and  Flemish  cities.  The  Italians,  but  more  especially  the 
Floreniines,  Genoese,  and  Venetians,  possessed  the  trade  of  the  Le- 
rrint.  The  jealousy  of  the  rival  republics  led  to  sanguinary  wars, 
which  ended  in  rendering  the  Venetians  supreme  in  the  Mediterranean. 
The  manufacture  of  silk,  which  had  been  introduced  into  Sicily  from 
Greece,  spread  thence  into  various  parts  of  Italy,  but  the  largest  fao 
lories  were  established  ct  Venice.  This  city  supplied  the  greater  part 
of  Europe  with  silks,  spices,  and  Asiatic  produce.  Italian  merchants, 
commonly  called  Lombards,  carried  these  goods  into  the  northern  and 
western  kingdoms.  The  privileges  and  exemptions  granted  them  by 
sovereigns,  enabled  them  to  rule  the  traffic  of  Europe,  and  to  oecomo 
the  chief  bankers  and  money-dealers  in  its  different  states.* 

But  all  the  Italian  free  cities  did  not  enjoy  equal  prosperity.  The 
states  of  Lombardy  that  had  wrested  their  freedom  from  the  German 
emperors,  soon  fell  into  anarchy.  Disgusted  with  the  advantages  by 
which  they  knew  not  how  to  profit,  some  voluntarily  resigned  their  lib- 
erties to  new  masters,  while  others  yielded  to  usurpers.  Thus  the 
marquis  of  Este  became  lord  of  Modena  and  Reggia  (.\.  d.  1336) ;  the 
house  of  Gonzago  gained  possession  of  ?\Iantua,  and  the  Visconti  took 
the  title  of  dukes  of  Milan  (a.  d.  1395).  Florence  retained  its  freedom 
and  prosperity  for  a  longer  period.  It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  the  em- 
peror Charles  V.  (a.  d.  1530),  that  its  republican  form  of  government 
was  abolished,  and  the  supreme  authority  usurped  by  the  princely  family 
of  the  Medicis. 

The  rivalry  between  the  Genoese  and  the  Venetians  led,  as  we  have 
already  mentioned,  to  long  and  deadly  wars.  The  last  and  most  mem- 
orable of  these,  was  that  called  the  war  of  Chiozza  (a.  d.  1379),  in 
which  the  Genoese  received  so  severe  a  check,  that  they  were  no 
longer  able  to  contest  the  supremacy  of  the  sea  with  their  rn  als. 

But  these  wars  were  not  the  only  cause  of  the  decline  of  Genoa ; 
the  streets  of  the  city  frequently  streamed  with  the  blood  of  rival  fac- 
ions  ;  the  nobles  and  commons  fought  for  supremacy,  which  want  of 
internal  union  prevented  either  party  from  maintaining  ;  and  at  length, 
incapable  of  governing  themselves,  they  sought  the  protection  of  foreign 
powers.  With  their  usual  inconstancy,  the  Genoese  were  ever  chan- 
ging masters  ;  twice  they  placed  themselves  under  the  king  of  Frar:ce 
but  after  a  short  experience  of  French  rule,  took  for  their  sovereign 
first  the  marquis  of  Montferrat,  and  afterward  the  duke  of  Milan.  From 
the  year  1464,  Genoa  remained  a  dependancy  on  the  dutchy  of  Milan 
until  1528,  when  it  recovered  its  former  freedom. 

While  the  power  of  the  Genoese  republic  was  declining,  mat  of 
Venice  was  increasing  by  rapid  strides.  The  permanence  given  to  its 
government  by  introducmg  the  principle  of  hereditary  aristocracy,  saved 

•  The  street  in  London  where  tnese  foreigners  were  settled,  still  retains  the 
name  of  Lombard  street,  and  continues  to  be  the  chief  seat  of  banking  establish- 
ments. Iv  is  not  generaDy  known  that  the  three  balls  exhibited  over  pawnbroker's 
snops,  are  the  arms  of  Lombardy,  and  have  been  retained  as  a  sign,  ever  sin^d  thr 
Lombards  were  the  sole  money-lenders  of  Europe. 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  473 

Jie  States  from  internal  convulsions,  while  the  judicious  establishment 
of  commercial  stations,  on  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  and  Levant,  se- 
cured and  fostered  its  trade.  The  greatest  advantage  that  the  Vene- 
tians obtained  over  their  commercial  rivals,  arose  from  their  treaty  with 
the  sultan  of  Egypt  (a.  d.  1343) ,  by  this  alliance,  the  republic  obtained 
full  liberty  of  trade  in  the  Syrian  and  Egyptian  ports,  with  the  privilege 
of  having  consular  establishments  at  Alexandria  and  Damascus.  These 
advantages  soon  enabled  them  to  acquire  supreme  command  over  the 
trade  of  central  and  southern  Asia ;  the  spices  and  other  commodities 
of  India  were  brought  to  Syrian  markets,  and  the  Genoese  establish- 
ments on  the  Black  sea  soon  became  worthless.  The  territorial  ac- 
quisitions of  the  republic  on  the  northern  coasts  of  the  Adriatic,  formed 
a  powerful  state  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  But  tho 
power  of  the  republic  was  less  secure  than  it  appeared  ;  oppressive  to 
its  dependancies,  it  provoked  hostile  feelings,  which  only  waited  for  an 
opportunity  to  blaze  forth  in  open  rebellion  ;  insolent  to  all  the  sur- 
rounding powers,  a  secret  jealousy  and  enmity  were  excited,  which, 
at  no  distant  date,  exposed  Venice  to  the  resentments  of  a  league  too 
powerful  to  be  resisted. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  Hanseatic  confederation  of  the  com- 
mercial cities  in  northern  and  western  Europe,  to  protect  their  trade 
from  pirates  and  robbers.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  the  league  be- 
came so  extensive  as  to  form  an  important  power,  that  claimed  and  re- 
ceived the  respect  of  kings  and  emperors.  The  maritime  cities  of  Ger- 
many, from  the  Scheldt  and  the  isles  of  Zealand,  all  round  to  the  bor- 
ders of  Livonia,  joined  the  confederacy,  and  several  cities  in  the  in- 
terior sought  its  protection,  and  admission  into  its  alliance.  The  first 
known  act  of  confederation  was  signed  by  the  deputies  of  the  several 
cities  at  Cologne  (a.  d.  1364).  All  the  allied  cities  were  divided  into 
four  circles,  whose  limits  and  capitals  varied  at  different  periods  ;  the 
general  administration  of  the  confederacy  was  intrusted  to  a  confeder- 
acy which  assembled  triennially  at  Lubeck.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  no  less  than  eighty  cities  sent  delegates  ")  the  con- 
gress, while  many  others  were  connected  with  the  league,  though  they 
had  not  the  power  of  sending  delegates.  Possessing  the  exclusive 
commerce  of  the  Baltic  sea,  the  Hanse  towns  exercised  the  right  of 
making  war  and  peace,  and  forming  alliances  ;  they  equipped  powerful 
fleets  and  waged  successful  wars  with  the  northern  sovereigns  that  at- 
tempted to  interfere  with  their  monopoly,  or  limit  the  privileges  extorted 
from  the  ignorance  or  weakness  of  their  predecessors. 

The  principal  marts  were  Bruges  for  the  Flemish  countries,  London 
for  England,  Bergen  for  Norway,  and  Novogorod  for  Russia.  In  the 
close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  Novogorod  was  deprived  of  its  republican 
constitution,  and  the  merchants  migrated  to  Narva  and  Revel.  Through 
.he  Flemings  the  Hanseatic  commercial  cities  were  brought  into  con- 
nexion with  those  of  Italy  ;  the  merchants  of  both  met  in  the  fairs  and 
Hiarkets  of  Bruges,  where  the  produce  of  the  unexplored  north  was  ex 
changed  for  that  of  the  unknown  regions  of  India.  The  progress  of 
trade,  and  the  intercourse  thus  effected  between  remote  nations,  excited 
i  love  for  maritime  and  inland  discovery,  which  soon  produced  impor- 


474  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Uiut  changes,  and  aided  the  other  causes  that  necessarily  led   to  tli« 
ijverthrow  of  the  confederation. 

Extensive  as  was  the  commerce  of  the  Hanse^utic  cities,  if  posst;ii>«ed 
neither  permanence  nor  durability.  Having  neirlier  produce  nor  mnji 
ufacturcs  of  their  own,  the  merchants  had  merelv  a  carrying  traao,  and 
Jie  produce  of  simple  barter  ;  consequently  the  progress  oi  inuustry 
especially  in  countries  where  the  useful  arts  were  cultivated,  raised 
powerful  rivals  against  them,  and  gave  commerce  a  new  airecticu 
The  establishment  of  stable  government  was  also  injurious  to  a  con- 
federation ;  the  German  princes  gradually  recovered  their  supren.acy 
over  the  cities  that  had  been  withdrawn  from  their  authority.  This  re- 
sult was  hastened  by  the  internal  dissensions  of  the  cunfederate  cities. 
When  the  northern  sovereigns,  enlightened  on  the  advantages  that  their 
subjects  might  derive  from  commerce,  assailed  the  privileges  of  the 
Hanse  towns  by  force  of  arms  ;  many  of  the  southern  cities  withdrew 
themselves  from  the  league ;  and  the  northern  confederates,  thus  de- 
serted, were  unable  to  preserve  their  monopoly  of  the  Baltic  trade, 
which  they  were  forced  to  share  with  the  merchants  of  England  and 
Holland.  The  confederacy  thus  gradually  declined,  until  in  the  seven- 
teenth centuiy,  this  league,  once  so  extensive,  included  only  the  citiesi 
of  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  and  Bremen. 

In  Flanders,  commercial  prosperity  was  based  on  manufacturing  in- 
dustry ;  the  Flemings  supplied  the  principal  markets  of  Europe  with 
cloth  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries ;  while,  through  the 
commercial  cities  of  Italy,  they  were  enabled  to  send  the  produce  of 
their  looms  to  the  ports  of  the  Levant,  and  exchange  them  for  spices, 
jewels,  and  other  articles  of  oriental  luxury.  The  wealth,  the  popula- 
tion, and  the  resources  of  these  cities,  rendered  the  earls  of  Flanders 
more  wealthy,  and  scarcely  less  powerful  than  their  nominal  sovereigns, 
the  kings  of  France.  When  Edward  I.  of  England  wished  to  recovei 
Guienne,  which  had  been  wrested  from  his  predecessors,  he  sought  the 
alliance  of  Guy  de  Dampierre,  earl  of  Flanders,  and  proposed  to  make 
the  earl's  daughter,  Philippa,  his  queen  ;  being  attracted  both  by  her 
personal  charms  and  the  enormous  sums  promised  as  her  dowry.  So 
great  was  the  lady's  wealth,  and  such  the  importance  attached  to  the 
Flemish  alliance,  that  Philip  the  Fair  had  recourse  to  the  most  infamous 
treachery  in  order  to  defeat  the  marriage.  As  he  was  the  godfather  of 
the  young  lady,  he  invited  her  and  the  earl  to  pay  him  a  visit  in  Paris ; 
but  no  sooner  did  they  reach  the  capital  than  he  threw  them  both  into 
prison,  declaring  that  the  marriage  of  so  wealthy  an  heiress  could  not 
be  arranged  without  the  consent  of  the  superior  lord,  and  that  the  earl 
was  guilty  of  felony  in  promising  the  hand  of  his  daughter  to  an  enemy 
of  the  kingdom.  Guy  escaped  from  prison,  but  his  daughter  died  a 
captive,  under  circumstances  which  led  to  a  strong  suspicion  of  poison  ; 
the  earl,  believing,  or  feigning  to  believe  the  charge,  assembled  his 
chief  vassals  at  Grammont,  and  there,  in  the  presence  of  the  ambassa- 
dors from  England,  Germany,  and  Lorraine,  he  solemnly  renounced 
his  allegiance  to  the  crown  of  France,  and  proclaimed  war  against 
Philip,  Such  was  the  commencement  of  the  long  series  of  Flemish 
wars,  which  early  assumed  the  form  of  a  desperate  struggle  betweet 
he  mercantile  and  landed  aristocracy. 


i-ROGllESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  475 

Commerce  and  manufactures  had  brought  together  a  large  and 
vvoaUhy  population  into  the  cities  of  Flanders  ;  the  burgesses  had  pur- 
chased charters  of  privileges  from  their  respective  lords,  being  well 
K,ware  that  municipal  freedom  was  necessary  to  commercial  prosperity ; 
they  began  to  rival  their  former  masters  in  wealth  and  influence,  and 
they  formed  an  order  of  their  own,  which  was  as  much  respected  in 
'he  trading  communities  as  the  landed  aristocracy  in  the  rural  districts. 
The  nobles  soon  began  to  view  the  rapid  progress  of  the  merchants  and 
traders  with  jealousy  and  dislike.  Not  only  were  the  lords  grieved  at 
the  loss  of  their  power  to  distort  discretionary  impos*^?  but  they  regret- 
ted the  growth  of  that  mercantile  wealth  which  invested  counting-houses 
Bnd  stores  with  a  political  influence  not  inferior  to  that  whicli  had 
hitherto  attached  exclusively  to  castles  '  and  estates.  Municipal  im- 
munities were  found  to  be  at  variance  with  feudal  privileges ;  neither 
the  merchants  nor  the  nobles  would  make  such  concessions  as  might 
form  the  basis  of  a  reasonable  compromise,  and  war  was  thus  rendered 
inevitable.  Under  the  guidance  of  several  eminent  and  popular  lead- 
ers, particularly  the  two  Artaveldes,  the  mercantile  Flemings  main- 
tained a  long  and  vigorous  warfare  against  their  earls  and  aristocracy, 
though  the  latter  were  supported  by  the  whole  power  of  France. 
A-t  the  close  of  the  contest,  the  trading  cities  preserved  their  immuni- 
ties ;  but  in  the  course  of  the  war,  capitalists  had  been  ruined,  artisans 
had  fled  to  more  peaceful  lands,  the  nobles  were  impoverished,  and  the 
peasants  reduced  to  despair.  Though  the  Flemings  continued  to  retain 
a  large  share  of  their  commercial  and  manufacturing  supremacy,  they 
had  the  mortification  to  witness  the  rise  of  a  powerful  rival  in  England, 
where  the  woollen  manufacture  gradually  attained  to  a  greater  height 
than  it  had  reached  even  in  Flanders. 

Wool  was  the  most  important  article  of  British  produce  ;  and  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  we  find  that  wool  constituted  about 
thirteen  fourteenths  of  the  entire  exports  of  the  kingdom. 

Little  cloth  was  made  in  England,  and  that  only  of  the  coarsest 
description,  until  Edward  III.,  in  the  year  1331,  invited  weavers, 
dyers,  and  fullers,  to  come  over  from  Flanders  and  settle  in  England, 
promising  them  his  protection  and  favor  on  condition  that  they  would 
carry  on  their  trades  here,  and  teach  the  knowledge  of  them  to  his 
subjects.  The  native  wool-growers  and  merchants  looked  upon  these 
foreign  manufactm'ers  with  very  jealous  eyes,  especially  when  Edward 
created  a  monopoly  in  their  favor,  by  prohibiting  the  wearing  of  any 
cloth  but  of  English  fabric  ;  and  many  petitions  are  preserved  from  the 
weavers  of  woollen  stuffs,  complaining  of  the  heavy  impositions  laid  upon 
them  by  the  corporations,  in  which  the  corporation  of  Bristol  is  espe- 
cially conspicuous.  The  manufacture,  however,  took  root  and  flourishedj 
though  it  received  a  severe  check  from  the  jealousy  of  parliament,  which, 
by  a  very  unwise  law,  prohibited  the  export  of  woollen  goods,  and  per- 
mitted that  of  un wrought  wool. 

The  land-owners  of  England  were  slow  in  discovering  that  their  own 
prosperity  was  connected  with  that  of  the  manufacturing  interest.  Their 
P.vowed  object  in  legislation  was  to  keep  up  the  high  price  of  the  raw 
material,  the  wool  grown  upon  their  estates  ;  and  their  had  the  honesty 
to  say  go  in  the  preamble  to  a  statute  (14  Rich.  II.  c.  4)  prohibiting 


4TG 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


any  denizen  of  England  from  buying  wool  exce{  t  fiom  the  owners  of  the 
sheep  and  for  his  own  use.  This  of  course  closed  the  home  market ; 
the  grower,  in  his  anxiety  to  sfrasp  the  profits  of  the  wool-merchant  and 
retailer  in  addition  to  his  own,  found  that  he  had  turned  off  his  besi 
customers  ,  and  we  learn  from  a  contemporary  historian  that  the  growers 
were  reduced  to  the  greatest  distress  by  having  the  accumulated  stock 
of  two  or  three  years  left  on  their  hands. 

In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  not  more  than  a,  century  after  its  introduc- 
tion, the  woollen  manufacture  had  thriven  so  well,  that  it  was  made  to 
contribute  to  the  revenue,  and  we  were  enabled  to  compete  with  the 
nations  by  whom  we  had  been  taught  it,  on  equal  terms  :  a  reciprocity 
law,  passed  at  this  time,  ordains,  that  "  if  our  woollen  goods  were  not 
received  in  Brabant,  Holland,  and  Zealand,  then  the  merchandise  grow- 
ing or  wrought  within  the  dominions  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy  shall  be 
prohibited  in  England  under  pain  of  forfeiture."  But  there  was  olvuady 
a  growing  jealousy  between  the  landed  and  manufacturing  interests, 
caused  by  the  rise  in  the  price  of  labor,  resulting  from  increase  of  em- 
ployment;  for  so  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  an  act  was  passed 
that  "  no  one  should  bind  his  son  or  daughter  to  an  apprenticeship,  un- 
less he  was  possessed  of  twenty  shillings."  This  attempt  to  limit  the 
supply  of  labor  in  manufacture  wovdd  have  wholly  destroyed  the  woollen 
trade,  had  not  the  first  monarch  of  the  house  of  Tudor  granted  an  ex- 
emption from  the  act  to  the  city  of  Norwich,  and  subsequently  to  tho 
whole  county  of  Norfolk. 

The  besetting  error  of  legislators  in  this  age  was  the  belief,  that 
gold  and  silver  had  some  inherent  and  intrinsic  value  in  themselves, 
independent  of  their  exchangeable  and  marketable  value.  They  could 
not  understand  that  the  very  essence  of  all  commerce  is  barter,  and  that 
money  only  serves  as  a  third  term  or  common  measure  for  ascertaining 
the  comparative  value  of  the  articles  to  be  exchanged.  Ignorant  of  this 
fact,  they  made  several  attempts  to  compel  foreigners  to  pay  for  English 
goods  in  money.  In  1429,  a  law  was  passed,  that  no  Englishman 
should  sell  goods  to  foreigners  except  for  ready  money,  or  other  goods 
delivered  on  the  instant. 

This  was  such  a  fatal  blow  to  trade,  that,  in  the  very  next  year,  the 
parliament  was  compelled  to  relax  so  far  as  to  admit  of  the  sale  of  goods 
on  six  months'  credit.  With  equal  wisdom,  and  for  the  same  perplexing 
reason,  "  the  prevention  of  the  exportation  of  treasure  out  of  the  country," 
a  law  was  passed  prohibitmg  "  foreign  merchants  from  selling  goods  in 
England  tn  any  other  foreigner."  This  precious  piece  of  legislation  did 
not,  of  course,  prevent  the  exportation  of  the  precious  metals,  but  it  pre- 
vented the  import  of  merchandise  and  of  bullion,  a  result  which  quite  per 
nlexed  the  legislature,  but  did  not  lead  to  the  abolition  of  the  foolish-law 

Henry  VII.,  removed  a  still  greater  check  to  industry, by  restraining 
the  usurpations  of  corporations.  A  law  was  enacted,  that  corporations 
should  not  pass  by-laws  without  the  consent  of  three  of  the  chief  officers 
'jf  state  ;  they  were  also  prohibited  from  exacting  tolls  at  their  gates 
The  necessity  of  legislative  interference  was  proved  by  the  conduct  ot 
the  corporations  of  Gloucester  and  Worcester,  which  had  actually  im- 
posed transit  tolls  on  the  Severn — these,  of  course,  were  abolished. 
But  the  monarch  was  not   superior  to  the  prejudices  of  his   age ;    he 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  477 

affixed  prices  to  woollen  cloths,  caps,  and  hats,  which,  of  course,  led  to 
a  deterioration  of  the  several  articles.  Yet  this  law  was  highly  ex- 
tolled as  a  master-stroke  of  policy  by  the  statesmen  of  the  day. 

The  parliaments  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  were  too  busily  engaged 
in  enforcing  the  king's  caprices,  by  inconsistent  laws  against  heresy 
und  treason,  to  pay  much  attention  to  trade  and  commerce.  One  cir- 
cumstance, however,  connected  with  the  woollen  trade  deserves  to  be 
noticed.  So  greatly  had  our  woollen  manufactures  increased,  that  the 
Flemings,  no  longer  able  to  compete  with  the  English  as  producers, 
entered  into  the  carrying  trade,  bought  the  English  commodities,  and 
distributed  them  into  other  parts  of  Europe.  In  1528,  hostilities  com 
menced  between  England  and  the  Low  Countries  ;  there  was  an  im- 
mediate stagnation  of  trade  ;  the  merchants  having  no  longer  their  usual 
Flemish  ctstomers,  could  not  buy  goods  from  the  clothiers  ;  the  clothiers 
in  consequence  dismissed  their  workmen,  and  the  starving  operatives 
tumultuously  demanded  "  bread  or  blood." 

Wolsey  scarcely  knew  how  to  account  for  these  riots  ;  he  tried  force 
with  the  workmen,  but  hunger  was  stronger  than  the  law ;  he  threait/i- 
ed  the  clothiers  unless  they  gave  employment,  but  wages  could  not  be 
paid  from  empty  purses  ;  at  length  he  sent  for  the  merchants,  and  com- 
manded them  to  buy  cloth  as  usual !  The  merchants  replied,  that  they 
could  not  sell  it  as  usual;  and,  notwithstanding  his  menaces,  would  give 
no  other  answer.  At  length  the  true  remedy  was  discovered  ;  an  agree- 
ment was  made  that  commerce  should  continue  between  the  two  states 
even  during  war. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  an  act  was  passed,  by  which  every  one 
was  prohibited  from  making  cloth,  unless  he  had  served  an  apprentice- 
ship of  seven  years  ;  this  law  was  repealed  in  the  first  year  of  Queen 
Mary,  as  the  preamble  of  the  act  states,  "  because  it  had  occasioned  the 
decay  of  the  woollen  manufactory,  and  had  ruined  several  towns."  It 
was,  however,  subsequently  restored  by  Elizabeth. 
*  The  persecution  of  the  protestants  in  France,  but  more  especially  in 
Flanders,  drove  many  eminent  manufacturers  to  seek  refuge  in  England, 
where  they  were  graciously  received  by  Elizabeth.  She  passed  an  ack 
jelieving  the  counties  of  Somerset,  Gloucester,  and  Wihshire,  from  the 
old  oppressive  statutes,  which  confined  the  making  of  cloth  to  corporate 
towns  ;  and  trade,  thus  permitted  to  choose  its  own  localities,  began  tc 
flourish  rapidly.  In  a  remonstrance  of  the  Hanse  towns  to  the  diet  of 
the  empire,  ir  1588,  it  is  asserted  that  England  exported  annually  about 
200,000  pieces  o '  cloth.  In  this  reign,  also,  the  English  merchaais, 
instead  of  selling  their  goods  to  the  Hanseatic  and  Flemish  traders, 
began  to  export  themselves  ,  and  their  success  so  exasperated  the 
Hanse  towns,  that  a  general  assembly  was  held  at  Lubeck  to  concer* 
measures  for  distressing  the  English  trade.  But  the  jealousy  of  for 
eigners  was  far  less  injurious  to  British  commerce  than  the  monopolies 
which  Elizabeth  created  in  countless  abundance.  An  attempt,  indeed 
was  made  to  remove  one  monopoly ;  but  the  experiment  was  not  fai."ly 
tried,  and  its  consequent  ill-success  was  used  as  an  argiuuent  against 
any  similar  eflbrts.  By  an  old  patent,  the  company  of  Merchant  Ad- 
venturers possessed  the  sole  right  of  trading  in  woollen  goods.  This 
tnonstroas  usurpation  of  the  staple  commodity  of  the  kingdom  was  tor 


478  MODERN  HISTORY. 

bad  even  for  that  age  of  darkness,  and  Elizabeth  opened  the  tiade  ;  but 
tiio  Merchant  Adventurers  entered  into  a  conspiracy  not  to  make  pur- 
chases of  cloth,  and  the  queen,  alarmed  at  the  temporary  suspei.siou  of 
trade,  restored  the  patent. 

In  the  reign  of  James  I.  it  was  calculated  that  nine  tenths  of  the 
cbmmerce  of  the  kingdom  consisted  in  woollen  goods.  Most  of  the 
cloth  was  exported  raw,  and  was  dyed  and  dressed  by  the  Dutch,  Avho 
gained,  it  was  pretended,  700,000/.  annually  by  this  manufacture.  The 
king,  at  the  instigation  of  Cockayne  and  some  other  London  merchants, 
issued  a  proclamation  prohibiting  the  exportation  of  raw  cloths  :  the 
Dutch  and  Germans  met  this  piece  of  legislation  by  prohibiting  the  im- 
portation of  English  dyed  cloth  ;  the  consequence  was,  that  our  export 
trade  was  diminished  by  two  thirds,  and  he  price  of  wool  fell  from 
seventy  to  eighty  per  cent.  The  king  was  forced  to  recall  his  procla- 
mation. In  the  year  1622  a  board  of  trade  was  erected,  as  the  com- 
mission states,  "  to  remedy  the  low  price  of  wool,  and  the  decay  of  the 
woollen  manufactory."  It  is  recommended  to  the  commissioners  to 
examine  "  whether  a  greater  freedom  of  trade,  and  an  exemption  from 
the  restraint  of  exclusive  companies,  would  not  be  beneficial."  A  grati- 
fying proof  of  the  progress  of  intelligence  ;  but,  imfortunately,  it  led  to 
no  practical  result. 

Engli.sh  commerce  increased  greatly  under  the  commonwealth,  oe- 
cause  no  regard  was  paid  to  the  prerogative  whence  the  charters  of  the 
exclusive  companies  were  derived,  and  because  the  progress  of  demo- 
cratical  principles  led  the  country  gentlemen  to  bind  their  sons  appren- 
tices to  merchants.  But  with  the  restoration  came  the  old  rage  for  pro- 
hibitions and  protections ;  two  thousand  manufacturers  from  Warwick 
shire,  and  a  great  number  from  Herefordshire,  emigrated  to  the  Pala- 
tinate ;  and,  in  1662,  the  compaiw  of  Merchant  Adventurers  declared, 
in  a  public  memorial,  that  the  white  clothing  trade  had  abated  from 
100,000  pieces  to  11,000!  In  1668,  however,  some  Walloons  were 
encouraged  to  introduce  the  manufacture  of  fine  cloths,  from  Spanish 
wool  only,  without  the  admixture  of  any  inferio4-  wool  ;  but  the  progress 
of  this  branch  of  trade  was  very  slow,  owing  chiefly  to  our  municipal 
laws,  I'bich  pressed  heavily  on  foreigners. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  bring  down  the  history  of  our  gieat  staple 
manufactory  to  a  later  date.  What  has  been  already  stated  is  sufH- 
cient  to  illustrate  the  evils  which  arose  from  legislative  'nterference 
with  the  natural  course  of  commerce,  industry,  and  capital,  in  past  ages. 
It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  this  impolicy  was  peculiar  tc 
England  ;  on  the  contrary,  English  statesmen  were  generally  in  ad- 
vance of  the  rest  of  Europe,  and  monopolies  were  only  supported  by 
cornipt  adventurers.  The  nobility  and  the  country  gentlemen  of  Eng- 
and  resisted  the  imposing  of  any  unnecessary  shackles  on  tri^de  until 
after  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  when  the  system  of  protection  be 
gan  to  be  introduced  ;  that  system  derived  its  chief  support  from  the 
short-sighted  cupidity  of  the  manufacturers  themselves,  and  the  entire 
blame  must  not  therefore  be  attributed  to  the  legislature. 

The  extension  of  English  commerce  during  tiie  period  of  history  v-c 
have  been  examining  was  very  slow.  The  long  wars  with  France,  and 
ihe  civil  wars  of  the  Roses,  diverted  attention  from  the  peaceful  pursuit 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION  479 

ol  trade.  It  was  not  until  after  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.  tliJit  Eng* 
laad  began  to  feel  the  impulse  for  maritime  discovery  and  commercial 
enterprise  which  had  hitherto  been  confined  to  southern  Europe  the 
elTecis  of  this  change  belong,  however,  to  a  more  advanced  period  of 
history,  and  will  come  under  consideration  in  a  future  chapter. 

Section  IV. — Revolutions  of  Germany,  France,  and  Spain. 

FnoM  the  period  of  the  accession  of  Rodolph,  the  first  emperor  of  the 
house  of  Hapsburgh,  the  German  empire  began  to  assume  a  constitu- 
tional form,  and  to  be  consolidated  by  new  laws.  Under  the  govern- 
ment of  Albert,  the  son  of  Rodolph,  an  important  change  took  place  ii^ 
Switzerland,  which,  at  the  commencement  of  the  fomtecuth  century', 
was  divided  into  a  number  of  states,  both  secular  and  ecclesiastical. 
The  cantons  of  Uri,  Schwitz,  and  Underwalden,  were  immediate  de- 
pendancies  of  the  empire,  while  some  minor  adjoining  districts  belong- 
ed to  the  dukes  of  Austria  as  counts  of  Hapsburgh.  Albert,  anxious  to 
found  a  new  kingdom  for  one  of  his  younger  children,  resolved  to  an- 
nex the  imperial  to  the  Austrian  cantons  ;  and  in  order  to  reconcile  the 
hardy  mountaineers  that  inhabited  them  to  the  intended  yoke,  he  sanc- 
tioned and  encouraged  the  cruel  tyranny  of  their  German  governors. 
Three  brave  men  resolved  to  attempt  the  delivery  of  their  country ; 
they  secretly  engaged  a  number  of  partisans,  who  surprised  the  impe- 
rial forts  on  the  same  day  (a.  d.  1308),  and  accomplished  a  revolution 
without  shedding  a  drop  of  blood.  The  Austrians  made  a  vigorous  ef- 
fort to  recover  their  supremacy,  but  they  suffered  a  ruinous  defeat  at 
Morgarten  (a.  d.  1315),  which  secured  the  independence  of  the  Can- 
toris. Their  league  of  union  was  renewed  at  Brunnen,  in  a  treaty  that 
became  the  base  of  the  federative  union  of  Switzerland.  Five  other 
cantons  successively  joined  the  former  three,  and  the  Helvetic  posses- 
sions of  the  house  of  Austria  were  conquered  by  the  Swiss  during  the 
interval  in  which  the  family  of  the  counts  of  Hapsburgh  ceased  to  wear 
the  imperial  crown. 

On  the  death  of  Alben  (a.  d.  1308),  Henry  VII.,  count  of  Luxem- 
burg, was  chosen  emperor  ;  he  was  a  brave  and  politic  prince  ;  taking 
advantage  of  the  pope's  absence  at  Avignon,  and  the  distracted  state  of 
Italy,  he  made  a  vigorous  effort  to  restore  the  imperial  authority  in  the 
peninsula,  and  would  probably  have  succeeded  but  for  his  premature 
death. 

The  troubled  reign  of  the  emperoi  Louis  of  Bavaria,  his  contest  for 
the  empire  with  Frederic,  duke  of  Austria,  and  the  wars  occasioned  by 
his  efforts  to  restrai.)  the  extravagant  pretensions  of  the  popes,  led  the 
German  princes  to  discover  the  necessity  of  having  a  written  constitu- 
tion. On  the  accession  of  Charles  of  Luxemburg  (a.  d.  1347),  the 
calamities  of  a  disputed  election  to  the  empire  were  renew(!d,  and  after 
a  long  series  of  wars  and  disorders,  a  diet  was  convened  at  Nuremburg, 
to  form  a  code  of  laws,  regulating  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  spir- 
itual and  temporal  authorities.  The  result  of  the  diet's  labors  was  pub- 
lished in  a  celebr.al(;d  edict,  called  a  Golden  Bull,  from  the  bitUa,  ox 
peulof  gold,  affixed  to  the  document  (a.  d.  1356).  This  bull  fixed  th»- 
order  and  form  of  the   imperial  elections,  and   the   ceremonial  ot  the 


480  MODERN  HISTORY 

coronation.  It  ordained  that  the  crown  should  be  given  by  the  plurality 
of  votes  of  seven  electors  ;  the  prince  chosen  emperor  having  a  righ. 
to  give  his  suffrage .  The  right  of  voting  was  restricted  to  possessors 
of  seven  principalities,  called  electorates,  of  which  the  partition  was 
prohibited,  and  the  regularity  of  their  inheritance  secured  by  a  strict 
law  of  primogeniture.  Finally,  the  Golden  Bull  defined  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  the  several  electors,  confirming  to  the  princes  of  the  Pala- 
tinate and  Saxony  the  administration  of  the  empire  during  an  interreg- 
num. 

The  next  reign,  nevertheless,  evinced  the  danger  of  investing  the 
electors  with  such  preponderating  authority.  Wenceslaus,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Charles,  was  a  supine  and  voluptuous  prince,  who  paid  lit- 
tle attention  to  the  interests  of  the  empire  ;  he  was  deposed  by  a  plu- 
rality of  votes  (a.  d.  1400),  and  Robert,  the  elector  palatine,  chosen  in 
his  stead.  Several  of  the  states  continued  to  acknowledge  Wences 
laus,  but  Robert  is  usually  regarded  as  the  legitimate  emperor.  On 
Robert's  death,  the  empire  returned  to  the  house  of  Luxemburg,  Wen- 
ceslaus having  consented  to  resign  his  pretensions  in  favor  of  his  brother 
Sigismond,  king  of  Hungary. 

A  cloud  had  long  hung  over  the  house  of  Hapsburgh ;  it  was  dis- 
pelled by  the  fortunate  union  of  Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  with  Sigis- 
mond's  only  daughter,  queen  in  her  own  right  of  Hungary  and  Bohe- 
mia. On  the  death  of  his  father-in-law  (a.  d.  1437),  he  succeeded  to 
the  empire,  but  survived  his  elevation  only  two  years.  Albert's  pos- 
thumous son  Ladislaus  inherited  his  mother's  realms  ;  his  cousin  Fred- 
eric, duke  of  Stiria,  was  chosen  emperor,  and  from  his  posterity  the 
imperial  dignity  never  departed  until  the  extinction  of  his  male  issue 
(a.  d.  1740). 

The  wise  policy  of  Philip  Augustus,  in  weakening  the  power  of  the 
feudal  aristocracy  and  reuniting  the  great  fiefs  to  the  crown,  was  vig- 
orously pursued  by  his  successors,  but  by  none  more  effectually  (ban 
Philip  the  Fair.  On  the  death  of  that  monarch  (a.  d.  1314),  the  king 
of  France  was  undoubtedly  the  most  powerful  sovereign  in  Europe. 
Philip  left  three  sons,  who  successively  reigned  in  France  ;  Louis, 
surnamed  Hutin,  Philip  the  Long,  and  Charles  the  Fair ;  together  with 
a  daughter  named  Isabel,  married  to  Edward  II.,  king  of  England. 
The  three  French  sovereigns  just  mentioned,  died  without  leaving  male 
issue  ;  all  had  daughters,  but  Philip  and  Charles  asserted  that  no  fe- 
male could  inherit  the  crown  of  France.  The  claims  founded  on  this 
law  of  succession  were  but  slightly  questioned  ;  and  on  the  death  of 
Charles  iV.,  Philip,  Count  de  Yalois,  the  nearest  male  heir,  ascended 
the  throne  without  encountering  any  immediate  opposition  (a.  d.  1328). 
Edward  111.  of  England  resolved  to  claim  the  kingdom  in  right  of  his 
mother  Isabel,  but  the  distractions  of  his  native  dominions  long  pre- 
sented insuperable  obstacles  to  his  projects.  He  even  did  liege  hom- 
age to  Philip  for  the  province  of  Guienne,  and  for  several  years  gave 
uo  sign  of  meditating  such  a  mighty  enterprise  as  the  conquest  of  France. 

Aided  by  his  son,  the  celebrated  Black  Prince,  the  English  monarch 
invaded  France,  and,  contrary  to  the  opinions  of  all  the  contemporary 
princes,  was  everywhere  victorious  (a.  d.  1338).  The  war  was  main- 
tained by  Philip  of  Valois,  and  his  son  and  successor  John,  with  more 


PflOGKESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  481 

obstinacy  than  wisdom  ;  the  former  suffered  a  terrible  defeat  at  Crecy, 
;hie  most  glorious  field  ever  won  by  English  valor  ;  King  John  was 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Poictiers.  But  these  achievements, 
however  glorious,  could  not  ensure  the  conquest  of  France,  the  countrj 
was  too  large,  the  French  nation  too  hostile  to  the  invaders,  and  Ed 
ward's  army  too  small  for  such  a  revolution.  Both  sides  became  weary 
of  the  contest,  a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Bretigui,  by  which  several 
important  provinces  were  ceded  to  Edward,  on  the  condition  of  his  re- 
nouncing his  claims  to  the  French  crown  (a.  d.  1360).  A  troubled 
period  of  eight  years  followed,  which  can  scarcely  be  called  a  peace, 
although  there  was  a  cessation  from  open  hostilities. 

There  is  scarcely  a  calamity  by  which  a  nation  can  be  afflicted  that 
did  not  visit  France  during  this  disastrous  season.  A  foreign  enemy 
was  in  the  heart  of  the  kingdom  ;  the  seditions  of  the  capital  deluged 
its  streets  with  blood ;  and  a  treacherous  prince  of  the  blood,  Charles 
the  Bad,  king  of  Navarre,  was  in  arms  against  the  sovereign  authority. 
Famine  devastated  the  land,  and  a  plague  of  unparalleled  virulence  (a.  d. 
1348)  consummated  the  work  of  hunger  and  the  sword  The  compa- 
nies of  adventurers  and  mercenary  troops  that  remamed  unemployed 
during  the  truce  that  followed  the  victory  of  Poictiers,  spread  them- 
selves over  the  land,  in  marauding  troops,  which  there  was  no  force  to 
withstand.  So  little  scrupulous  were  they,  that  they  assailed  the  pope 
in  Avignon,  and  compelled  the  pontiff  to  redeem  himself  by  a  ransom 
of  forty  thousand  crowns.  Finally,  the  peasantry  of  several  districts, 
impatient  of  distress,  and  maddened  by  the  oppressions  of  their  lords, 
broke  out  into  a  fearful  insurrection.  This  was  named  the  Jacquerie, 
from  the  contemptuous  phrase,  "  Jacques  bon  homme,"  applied  by  the 
nobles  to  their  serfs,  and  it  was  marked  by  all  the  horrors  that  neces- 
sarily attend  a  servile  war,  when  men,  brutalized  by  tyranny,  and  mad- 
dened by  wrongs,  seek  vengeance  on  their  oppressors. 

Edward  the  Black  Prince  was  intrusted  by  his  father  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  French  provinces.  A  brave  and  adventurous  warrior,  Ed- 
ward was  deficient  in  the  qualities  of  a  statesman.  Having  exhausted 
his  finances  by  an  unwise  and  fruitless  invasion  of  Castile,  he  laid 
heavy  taxes  on  his  subjects,  and  they  in  anger  appealed  for  protection 
to  their  ancieu'  sovereigns.  Charles  V.,  who  had  succeeded  his  father 
John  on  the  throne  of  France,  gladly  received  this  appeal,  and  sum- 
moned Edward  to  appear  before  him  as  his  liege  lord  (a  d.  1368). 
Though  enfeebled  by  sickness,  the  answer  of  the  gallant  prince  to  thia 
summons  was  a  declaration  of  war,  but  the  tide  of  fortune  was  changed, 
and  in  a  few  campaigns  the  English  lost  all  their  acquisitions  in  France, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  important  seaports. 

The  weakness  of  Richard  11.,  and  the  doubtful  title  of  Henry  IV. 
prevented  the  English  from  renewing  the  war  with  France  during  their 
reigns  ;  indeed  they  would  probably  have  been  expelled  from  all  their 
continental  possessions,  but  for  the  deplorable  imbecility  of  the  French 
monarch,  Charles  VI.,  and  the  sanguinary  contests  of  the  factions  oi 
Orleans  and  Burgundy.  The  English  nation  had  been  long  commer 
riajly  connected  with  Flanders,  and  when  that  country  was  annexed  to 
'he  dutchy  of  Burgundy,  provision  had  been  made  for  the  continuance 
Dl  trade  by  separate  truces.     Encouraged  by  the  promised  neutrality 

31 


t82  MODERN  HISTORY. 

if  not  the  acti\'e  co-operation  of  the  Burgundian  duke,  Henry  V.  invu- 
ded  France,  and  destroyed  the  flower  of  the  French  chivalry  on  the 
memorable  field  of  Agincourt  (a.  d.  1415).  The  progress  of  the  Er- 
glish  was  uninternipted  antil  the  defection  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy 
(a.  d.  1419),  an  event  which  seemed  to  threaten  Henry  with  ruin  ;  but 
that  prince  having  been  assassmated,  his  partisans  in  revenge  joined 
the  English,  and  this  circumstance,  combined  with  the  unnatural  hatred 
of  the  French  queen  Isabel  to  her  son  the  dauphin,  led  to  the  treaty 
of  Troyes,  by  which  Henry,  on  condition  of  marrying  the  princess 
Catharine,  was  appointed  regent  of  France,  and  heir  to  the  unconscious 
Charles  VI. 

Notwithstanding  this  arrangement,  Charles  VII.  on  the  death  of  hia 
''ather,  was  recognised  as  king  in  the  southern  provinces  of  France 
while  Henry  VI.,  the  infant  inheritor  of  the  crowns  of  England  and 
France,  was  proclaimed  in  the  northern  provinces,  under  the  reign  of 
his  uncle,  the  duke  of  Bedford  (a.  d.  1422).  At  first  the  fortunes  of 
Charles  wore  the  most  unfavorable  appearance ;  and  the  siege  of  Orleans 
(a.  d.  1428)  threatened  to  deprive  him  of  hope.  A  simple  country  girl 
overthrew  the  power  of  England.  Joan  of  Arc,  called  also  the  Maid  of 
Orleans,  whether  influenced  by  enthusiasm  or  imposture,  it  is  not  easy 
to  determine,  declared  herself  supernaturally  inspired  to  undertake  the 
deliverance  of  her  country.  The  English  felt  a  superstitious  awe,  and 
lost  their  conquests  one  by  one,  and  after  a  protracted  but  feeble  struggle 
no  memorial  of  the  victories  of  Edward  and  Henry  remained  but  the 
town  of  Calais  and  an  empty  title  (a.  d.  1449).  The  destruction  of  the 
French  nobility  in  this  long  series  of  wars,  enabled  Charles  VII.  to 
mould  the  government  into  a  despotic  form,  which  was  permanently 
fixed  by  his  crafty  successor  Louis  XI.  Scarcely  a  less  important 
change  was  made  in  ecclesiastical  aflairs  ;  Charles  VII.  secured  the 
Gallican  church  from  any  future  encroachment  of  the  holy  see,  by 
adopting  several  decrees  of  the  council  of  Basil,  which  were  solemnly 
recognised  in  a  national  assembly  held  at  Bourges  (a.  d.  1438),  and 
published  under  the  name  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction. 

Spain,  during  this  period,  continued  to  be  divided  in  several  king- 
doms ;  the  CViristian  monarchies  of  Navarre,  Castile,  and  Aragon,  could 
wnt  be  brough.  "i  combine  against  the  Moors,  whose  strength  was  con- 
centrated in  the  province  of  Granada.  Alphonso  XI.  was  the  only  Cas- 
vilian  monarch  who  distinguished  himself  in  war  against  the  Moham- 
medans ;  he  defeated  the  combined  forces  of  the  kings  of  Morocco  and 
Granada,  who  had  united  to  besiege  TaritTa  (a.  d.  1340),  and  by  this 
victory,  not  only  delivered  his  own  frontiers,  but  acquired  several  im- 
portant fortresses.  The  power  of  Castile  was  weakened  by  the  unex 
ampled  tyranny  of  Peter  the  Cruel.  He  was  dethroned  by  his  illegit- 
imate brother,  Henry,  count  of  Trastamare,  but  was  subsequently  re- 
stored by  Edward  the  Black  Prince.  Proving  ungrateful  to  his  bene- 
factor, he  provoked  a  second  contest,  in  which  he  lost  his  kmgdom  and 
life.  The  kingdom  now  passed  to  the  house  of  Trastamare  (a.  d  1368), 
and  for  a  considerable  period  enjoyed  peace  and  prosperity  Though 
the  kingdom  of  Aragon  was  inferior  in  extent  to  that  of  Castile,  yet  the 
advantages  of  a  better  government,  and  wiser  sovereign,  with  those  of 
industry  and  commerce,  along  a  line  of  seacoast,  rendered  it  almost 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZAriON  AND  INVENTION. 


483 


equally  important.  The  Aragonese  kings  acquired  the  kingdom  of  the 
two  Sicilies,  the  Balearic  islands,  Sardinia,  and  the  county  of  Barcelona, 
with  several  other  Catalonian  districts.  They  would  probably  have 
stni"-glcd  for  the  supremacy  of  Spain,  had  not  the  crowns  of  Aragon 
and  Castile  been  united  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
(a.  d.  1469). 

A  similar  event  had  nearly  united  the  crowns  of  Castile  and  Portugal. 
Ferdinand,  king  of  Portugal,  having  no  male  heir,  wished  to  secure  the 
succession  for  his  daughter  Beatrice,  and  married  her,  at  the  early  ago 
of  eleven,  to  John  I.,  king  of  Castile.  On  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  his 
illegitimate  brother,  Don  Juan,  commonly  called  John  the  Bastard, 
profiting  by  the  national  hatred  between  the  Portuguese  and  Castilians, 
usurped  the  regency.  A  fierce  war  ensued,  the  Castilians  were  over- 
thrown in  the  decisive  battle  of  Aljiibarota  (a.  d.  1385),  and  John  was 
proclaimed  king  by  the  states  of  Portugal.  The  war  was  continued  foi 
several  vears,  but  finally  a  treaty  was  concluded,  by  which  the  Castilian 
monarohs  resigned  all  claim  to  the  inheritance  of  Beatrice. 

Skction  V. —  The  State  of  Erifflavd  and  the  Northern  Kingdoms  in  the 
Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries. 

The  inglorious  reign  of  Edward  II.  in  England  was  not  on  the  whole 
unfavorable  to  the  progress  of  constitutional  liberty.  After  the  weak- 
ness of  the  king  and  profligacy  of  his  favorites  had  for  four  years  dis- 
gusted the  nations,  the  barons  compelled  the  monarch  to  grant  a  reform 
of  abuses  in  full  parliament  (a.  d.  1311).  The  Great  Charter  was  re- 
newed, and  a  fresh  clause  added,  of  too  much  importance  to  be  omitted 
even  in  this  scanty  page  :  "  Forasmuch  as  many  people  be  aggrieved 
by  the  king's  ministers  against  right,  in  respect  to  which  grievances  no 
one  can  recover  without  a  common  parliament ;  we  do  ordain  that  the 
king  shall  hold  a  parliament  once  in  the  year,  or  twice,  if  need  be." 
But  this  security  against  mis-government  proved  inefficacious,  the  mon- 
arch was  deposed,  and  soon  after  murdered  (a.  d.  1327).  Edward  III. 
was  proclaimed  king ;  and  during  his  minority,  the  administration  was 
intrusted  to  Queen  Isabella.  After  the  lapse  of  three  years,  Isabella, 
who  had  disgraced  herself  by  a  criminal  intrigue  with  Mortimer,  earl 
of  March,  was  stripped  of  power,  and  her  paramour  beheaded. 

Edward  III.  rendered  his  reign  illustrious,  not  more  by  his  splendid 
achievements  in  France,  than  by  the  wise  laws  he  sanctioned  in  Eng- 
land. These,  perhaps,  must  be  ascribed  less  to  the  wisdom  of  the 
sovereign  than  the  increasing  spirit  of  the  commons.  It  was  during 
this  long  and  prosperous  reign  that  parliament  established  the  three 
fundamental  principles  of  our  government — the  illegality  of  raising  money 
v?ithout  the  consent  of  parliament  ;  the  necessity  of  both  houses  con- 
curring in  any  alteration  of  the  laws  ;  and  the  right  of  the  commons  to 
investigate  public  abuses,  and  impeach  the  royal  ministers  for  mal-admia- 
istration.  While  in  the  midst  of  victory,  able  to  boast  of  his  queen 
having  conquered  and  captured  the  king  of  Scotland,  and  of  his  son  hav- 
ing taken  the  king  of  France  prisoner,  Edward  found  his  parliaments 
well-dis[)osed  to  second  all  his  efforts,  and  gratify  all  his  wishes  ;  but, 
when  the  tide  of  fortune  turned,  he  had  to  encount*^'  the  hostility  of  c 


t84  MODERN  HISTORY. 

constitutional  opposition,  at  the  head  of  which  appeared  lht3  prince  ol 
Wales.  On  the  deatn  of  the  heroic  Black  Prince,  the  royal  favorite 
the  duke  of  Lancaster  became  supreme  in  parliament,  but  the  fruits  uf 
*.he  victories  acquired  by  the  patriots  were  not  lost,  the  statute  law  of 
ihe  realm  was  improved,  the  administration  of  justice  improved,  and  the 
^reit  security  of  ministerial  responsibility  established.  English  litera- 
ture began  to  assume  a  settled  form  ;  Chaucer,  the  greatest  poet  that 
modern  Europe  had  produced,  with  the  exception  of  Dante,  nourished 
in  the  time  of  Edward ;  and  the  language  had  become  so  far  perfect, 
(hat  it  was  resolved  to  have  all  laws  written  in  English,  instead  of  the 
Norman  French,  which  had  been  used  since  the  time  of  the  conquest. 

Richard  II.,  son  of  the  Black  Prince,  succeeded  his  grandfather  (a.  n. 
1377),  ere  he  had  attained  his  twelfth  year.  The  eaisly  part  of  hi.s 
reign  was  troubled  by  the  contests  '^f  his  ambitious  uncles  for  the  regency, 
and  by  a  dangerous  insurrection  of  the  peasants,  headed  by  the  celebra- 
ted blacksmith,  Wat  Tyler.  About  the  same  time,  the  zeal  with  which 
WicklifTe  denounced  the  corruptions  of  the  church,  provoked  the  hostili- 
ty of  the  clergy  ;  his  doctrines  were  condemned  by  a  national  synod 
(a.  d.  1382),  but  they  had  taken  fast  hold  of  the  people,  and  some  of  his 
disciples  carried  them  to  the  continent,  more  especially  into  Bohemia, 
where  they  continued  to  flourish  in  spite  of  persecution.  The  continued 
misgovernment  of  Richard  provoked  a  revolution,  while  he  was  absent 
in  Ireland.  Henry  of  Lancaster,  duke  of  Hereford,  enraged  at  the  for- 
feiture of  his  paternal  estate,  headed  the  revolt ;  Richard,  on  his  return, 
finding  lue  royal  cause  hopeless,  surrendered  to  his  haughty  cousin,  and 
vas  forced  to  abdicate  the  crown  (a.  d.  1399). 

The  throne,  thus  vacated,  was  claimed  by  Henry,  as  representative 
of  the  duke  of  Lancaster,  the  third  son  of  Edward  III.,  but  the  hered- 
itary right  belonged  to  Edmund  Mortimer,  earl  of  March,  the  lineal 
descendant  of  Lionel,  duke  of  Clarence,  second  son  of  Edward  III. 
The  Mortimer  claim,  at  a  later  period,  was  vested  by  marriage  in  the 
family  of  York,  descended  from  the  fourth  son  of  Edward.  Henry  of 
Lancaster,  however,  was  the  idol  of  the  people,  and  the  master  of  the 
parliament ;  his  demand  passed  without  question,  and  the  first  acts  of 
his  reisjn  were  well  calculated  to  make  the  nation  acquiesce  in  his  title. 
The  eff*orts  of  some  discontented  nobles  to  restore  Richard,  were 
crushed  by  the  spontaneous  exertions  of  the  populace,  and  the  death 
of  the  deposed  monarch  seemed  to  secure  tranquillity.  But  the  fourth 
Henry  found  that  discontented  friends  were  the  most  dangerous  ene- 
mies ;  the  proud  Percies,  to  whom  he  owed  his  elevation,  dissatisfied 
with  the  scanty  reward  of  their  services,  took  up  arms,  and  involved 
the  country  in  civil  war.  The  Percies  were  overthrown  at  Slirewsbury 
(a.  d.  1403),  but  their  Welsh  ally,  Owen  Glendower,  maintained  a  stern 
resistance  to  the  house  of  Lancaster  for  several  years. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  IV.,  his  son,  Henry  of  Monmouth,  ascended 
ihe  throne  (a.  d.  1413).  His  dissipation  in  youth  gave  little  promise 
of  a  glorious  reign,  but  immediately  after  his  accession  he  resigned  all 
bis  follies,  and  having  secured  the  tranquillity  of  England  by  judicioup 
Pleasures  of  reform,  he  revived  the  claims  of  Edward  to  the  throne  of 
France.  The  glorious  battle  of  Agincourt  left  him  master  of  the  oper 
Seld,  the   crimes  and  follies  of  the  French  court  gave  him  possesbioc 


PROGRESS  OF    CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  485 

of  Paris;  he  died  in  the  midst  of  victory  (a.  d.  1422),  leaving  a  son 
only  nine  months  old  to  inherit  his  kingdoms. 

The  early  part  of  Henry  VI. 's  reign  is  occupied  by  the  senes  of 
wars  that  ended  in  tlie  expulsion  of  the  English  from  their  continenta. 
■jossessions.  The  loss  of  trophies  so  gratifying  to  popular  vanity,  alien- 
ated the  affections  of  the  nation  from  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and  this 
dislike  was  increcsed  by  the  haughtiness  of  Henry's  queen,  Margaret 
of  Anjou,  and  the  ambition  of  unprincipled  favorites.  Richard,  duke 
of  York,  sure  of  succeeding  to  the  crown,  would  probably  not  have 
asserted  the  claims  of  his  house,  but  for  the  unexpected  birth  of  a  prince, 
on  whose  legitimacy  some  suspicion  was  thrown.  Encouraged  by 
many  powerful  nobles,  he  took  up  arms  ;  the  cognizance  of  the  Yorkists 
was  a  white  rose,  that  of  the  Lancastrians,  a  red  rose,  and  the  fierce 
contests  that  ensued  are  usually  called  the  "  wars  of  the  roses."  After 
a  sanguinary  struggle,  marked  by  many  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  the 
white  rose  triumphed,  and  Edward  IV.,  son  of  Richard,  duke  of  York, 
became  king  of  England  (a.  d.  1461).  Ten  years  afterward,  his  tri- 
umph was  completed,  and  his  rights  secured,  by  the  battle  of  Tewkes- 
bury, in  which  the  Lancastrians  were  decisively  overthrown.  Ed- 
ward's reign  was  sullied  by  cruelty  and  debauchery ;  after  his  death 
(a.  d.  1483),  the  crown  was  usurped  by  Richard,  duke  of  Gloucester, 
who  endeavored  to  secure  himself  by  the  murder  of  his  nephews.  But 
the  claims  of  the  Lancastrian  family  were  now  revived  by  Henry  Tudor, 
earl  of  Richmond,  the  heir  to  that  house  by  right  of  his  mother,  and  a 
proposal,  favored  by  the  principal  nobles,  was  made  for  uniting  this 
nobleman  in  marriage  to  the  princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward 
IV.,  and  thus  for  ever  extinguishing  the  hostility  between  the  rival 
houses.  At  the  decisive  battle  of  Bosworth  field,  Richard  was  defeated 
und  slain  (a.  d.  1485)  ;  Henry  became  king  of  England,  and  his  mar- 
riage with  Elizabeth  united  the  rival  claims  of  York  and  Lancaster  in 
the  Tudor  family. 

The  wars  excited  by  disputed  successions  in  Scotland,  were  termin- 
ated by  the  transfer  of  the  crown  to  the  family  of  the  Stuarts  (a.  d.  1371). 
Under  this  dynasty,  the  royal  authority,  which  had  been  almost  annihi- 
lated by  the  nobles,  was  greatly  extended,  and  judicious  laws  enacted 
for  restraining  the  turbulence  of  the  aristocracy. 

Intestine  wars  long  harassed  the  northern  kingdoms,  but  their  tran- 
quillity was  restored  by  Queen  Margaret,  commonly  called  the  Semi- 
ramis  of  the  North,  who  united  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  into 
one  state,  by  the  treaty  of  Calmar  (a.  d.  1397).  The  predilection 
shown  by  Margaret's  successors  for  their  Danish  subjects,  displeased 
the  Swedes,  and  on  the  death  of  King  Christopher,  without  issue,  they 
separated  from  the  union,  and  chose  Charles  VIII.,  one  of  their  native 
nobles,  to  be  their  sovereign.  The  Danes  conferred  their  crown  on 
Christian  I.,  count  of  Oldenberg  (a.  d.  1450),  and  it  has  ever  since 
continued  in  his  family. 

During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  Russia  was  divided 
into  several  principalities,  all  of  which  were  under  the  Mongolian  yoke, 
while  the  western  provinces  had  the  additional  misery  of  being  ravaged 
by  the  Poles  and  Lithuanians.  A  diversion  in  their  favor  was  made  by 
the  Teutonic  knights,  who  added  several  rich  provinces  to  their  Prus- 


486  MODERN  HISTORY. 

sian  dominions,  but  the  oppressive  governmen  ol  the  ordoi  pro\okeO 
insurrections,  of  which  the  Poles  took  advantage,  not  only  to  regain 
their  former  provinces,  but  also  to  acquire  a  considerable  portion  ol 
Prussia,  which  was  ceded  to  them  by  the  peace  of  Thorn  (a.  d.  1466) 
A  ereat  revolution  in  the  Polish  form  of  government  roused  the  martia. 
enthusiasm,  but  proved  fatal  to  the  tranquillity  of  the  Poles.  Casimii 
he  Great,  having  no  male  issue,  wished  to  secure  the  succession  foi 
his  nephew,  Louis,  king  of  Hungary,  and  convoked  a  general  assembly 
of  the  states  (a.  d.  1339).  The  nobles,  to  whom  a,r.  appeal  was  thus 
made,  took  advantage  of  the  circumstance  to  render  the  throne  elective, 
and  to  place  great  restrictions  on  the  royal  authority.  When  Louis  of 
Hungary  became  king  of  Poland  (a.  d.  1370),  he  was  obliged  to  swear 
fealty  to  a  constitution  which  changed  the  monarchy  into  a  republican 
aristocracy.  On  his  death,  the  crown  of  Poland  was  given  to  Jage.Ion, 
duke  of  Lithuania  (a.  d.  1382),  who  renounced  paganism  on  his  elec- 
tion, and  established  the  Christian  religion  in  his  hereditary  estates 
Though  the  crown  continued  elective,  the  Polish  kings  were  always 
chosen  from  the  Jagellon  family,  until  its  extinction  in  the  sixteenth 
cputury. 

Sbxtion  VI. — Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Oltuman  Etnjnre. 

(Jnoer  the  administration  of  the  Palseologi,  the  Byzantine  empire 
sunk  into  hopeless  decay ;  its  history  presents  an  unvaried  picture  of 
vice  and  folly ;  the  weakness  of  the  sovereigns,  the  exorbitant  powci 
of  the  patriarchs  and  monks,  the  fury  of  theological  controversy,  the 
multiplication  of  schisms  and  sects,  would  have  ruined  the  state,  but  foi 
the  external  pressure  of  the  Mohammedan  dynasties ;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  triumph  of  these  enemies  was  delayed  by  the  revolu- 
tions in  the  sultanies  of  Anatolia,  and  the  difficulties  that  the  siege  of  a 
maritime  capital  presents  to  hordes  ignorant  of  navigation.  But  when 
the  power  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  became  consolidated,  it  was  manifest 
that  the  fate  of  Constantinople  could  not  be  averted,  though  its  fall  was 
long  delayed. 

The  power  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  commenced  in  Asia  Minor  ;  when 
the  Mongolian  hordes  overthrew  the  Seljukian  dynasties,  a  small  wan- 
dering tribe  of  Turks  sought  refuge  in  Armenia,  but  after  seven  years 
of  exile,  seized  what  they  deemed  a  favorable  opportunity  of  returning 
to  their  ancient  possessions.  While  fording  the  Euphrates,  the  leader 
of  the  Turks  was  drowned,  and  the  tribe  was  divided  into  four,  by  his 
sons.  Ertogrul,  the  warlike  leader  of  one  division,  resolved  to  return 
into  Asia  Minor  :  the  sultanies  into  which  the  Seljiikian  empire  had 
been  divided,  were  harassing  each  other  with  mutual  wars,  and  could 
not  be  persuaded  to  combine  against  either  the  Mongols  or  the  crusaders, 
and  consequently  a  band  of  adventurous  warriors  might  reasonably  hope 
to  obtain  fame  and  fortune  in  such  a  distracted  country.  During  Ert.o- 
grul's  retrograde  march,  he  met  two  armies  engaged  in  mortal  combat, 
and  without  giving  himself  the  trouble  of  investigating  the  cause,  he 
took  thg  chivalrous  resolution  of  joining  the  weaker  party.  His  unex- 
pected aid  changed  the  fortunes  of  the  day,  and  he  was  rewarded  by 
the  conqueror,  who  proved  to  be  a  chief  of  the  Seljukians,  with  the  gif 


PROGRESS  OF  CIV'ILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  487 

of  a  mountainous  district,  forming  the  frontiers  of  ancient  Bithynia  and 
Phrygia. 

Othman,  or  Ottoman,  usually  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Turkish 
empire  (born  a.  d.  1358),  succeeded  his  father  Ertogrul  at  an  early  ago. 
He  was  fortunate  in  winning  the  friendship  of  a  young  Greek,  wlio 
embraced  Islamism  to  please  his  patron,  and  instructed  the  Turkish 
prince  in  the  art  of  government.  From  this  renegade  descended  the 
family  of  Mikal-ogli,*  which  so  often  appears  conspicuous  in  Turkish 
history.  To  the  information  obtained  from  this  Greek.  Othman  owed 
the  supremacy  which  he  speedily  acquired  over  his  St  jukian  rivals ; 
aided  by  the  surrounding  emirs,  he  wrested  several  important  places 
from  the  Byzantine  empire,  particularly  Prusa,  the  ancient  capital  of 
Bithynia,  which  under  the  slightly  altered  name  of  Briisa,  became  his 
metropolis  (a.  d.  1327).  The  new  kingdom,  thus  formed  at  the  expense 
of  the  sultans  of  Iconiura  and  the  Greek  emperors,  increased  rapidly, 
and  soon  became  one  of  the  most  flc.irishing  states  in  the  east. 

Orkhan,  the  son  and  successor  of  Othman,  instituted  the  military 
force  of  the  Janissaries,  to  which  the  Turks  owe  the  chief  part  of  their 
success.  Having  greatly  enlarged  his  dominions,  he  took  the  title  of 
sultan  and  began  to  expel  the  Greeks  from  Anatolia.  While  Orkhan 
pursued  his  victorious  career  in  Asia,  his  son  Soliman  crossed  the  Hel- 
lespont (a.  d.  1358),  captured  Gallipoli,  and  thus  laid  the  first  founda- 
tion of  the  Turkish  power  in  Europe. 

Amurath,  or  JNIorad  I.,  steadily  pursued  the  policy  of  his  father  and 
brother.  He  captured  Adrianople  (a.  d.  1360),  which  he  made  his 
capital.  He  subdued  Thrace,  Macedon,  and  Servia,  but  h  11  at  the  bat- 
le  of  Cossova,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  ever  fought  between  Turks 
and  Christians. 

Bayezid,  surnamed  Ilderin,  or  the  Thunderer,  put  an  end  tO'  all  the 
petty  Turkish  sovereignties  in  Asia  Minor;  he  subdued  Bulgaria,  and 
maintained  his  conquest  by  the  decisive  victory  that  he  gained  at  Ni- 
copolis  over  Sigismond,  king  of  Hungary.  The  pride,  the  cruelty,  and 
the  bravery  of  Bayezid  have  been  celebrated  in  history  and  romance. 
Southern  Greece,  the  countries  along  the  Ddnube,  and  the  western  dis- 
tricts of  Thrace,  submitted  to  his  arms ;  the  empire  of  Constantinople 
was  bounded  by  the  walls  of  the  city ;  even  this  was  held  blockaded  foi 
ten  years,  and  must  eventually  have  fallen,  had  not  Bayezid's  attention 
been  directed  to  Asia,  by  the  rapid  successes  of  a  conqueror,  more  sav- 
age than  himself. 

Timur  Lenk,  that  is  to  say,  "  Lame  Timur,"  a  name  connnonly  cor- 
rupted into  Tamerlane,  was  the  son  of  a  Jagatay  Turk,  who  ruled  a 
liorde,  nominally  subject  to  the  descendants  of  Jenghiz  Khan.  His  ama- 
zing strength,  exhibited  even  in  early  infancy,  procured  him  the  namo 
Timur,  which  signifies  "  iron."  While  yet  a  youth,  he  resolved  to  de 
liver  his  country  from  the  Mongolian  yoke,  but  at  the  same  time,  aware 
of  the  high  value  placed  upon  illustrious  birth,  he  pretended  to  be  de- 
scended trom  Jenghiz,  and  on  this  account  he  is  frequently  called  Timui 
the  Tartar  ;  and  this  error  was  perpetuated  in  India,  where  his  descencf 
ants,  the  emperors  ol  Delhi,  have  been  denominated  the  Great  Moguls 

*  Sona  of  Mich-iej. 


488  MODERN  HISTORY 

His  empire  was  rapidly  extended  from  the  wall  of  China  to  the  Mcdil 
prranean  sea  ;  India  in  the  south,  and  Russia  in  the  north,  acknowledged 
his  sway,  and  his  determination  to  wrest  Syria  and  Anatolia  from  the 
Turks,  compelled  Bayezid  to  abandon  the  siege  of  Constantinople,  and 
hasten  to  the  defence  of  his  Asiatic  dominions  (a.  d.  1403).  Before  he 
i':ould  reach  the  scene  of  action,  Sivas  (the  ancient  Sebaste)  had  fallen, 
and  the  bravest  warriors  of  the  garrison  had  been  buried  alive  by  the 
ferocious  victor  Damascus  soon  after  shared  the  same  fate  ;  it  wae 
laid  waste  by  fire  and  sword,  and  a  solitary  tower  alone  remained  to 
mark  the  spot  that  had  once  been  a  city. 

Bayezid  encountered  Timur  in  the  plains  of  Angora  ;  he  was  defeated 
with  great  loss,  and  taken  prisoner.  The  Turkish  historians  assert  that 
Bayezid  was  confined  by  the  conqueror  in  an  iron  cage,  but  Timur's 
own  companion  and  historian  asserts  that  the  conqueror  treated  his  cap- 
tive with  great  lenity  ;  all  that  can  be  determined  with  certainty  is  that 
the  sultan  died  in  the  enemy's  camp.  Timiir  himself  fell  a  victim  to 
disease,  while  preparing  to  invade  China  (a.  d.  1405).  His  empire  was 
dismembered  after  his  death,  but  Baber,  one  of  his  descendants,  estab- 
lished an  empire  at  Delhi,  in  northern  India  (a.  d.  1526),  which,  sadly 
shorn  of  its  ancient  glories,  subsisted  almost  to  our  own  times,  under  the 
name  of  the  empire  of  the  Great  Moguls. 

After  a  long  fratricidal  war,  Mohammed  I.,  the  youngest  of  Bayezid's 
sons,  succeeded  to  his  father's  dominions.  The  greater  part  of  his  reign 
was  spent  in  restoring  the  Ottoman  power  in  western  Asia,  and  thus 
the  Byzantines  obtained  a  respite,  by  which  they  knew  not  how  to 
profit.  Morad,  or  Amurath  II.,  raised  the  glory  of  the  Ottomans  to  a 
height  greater  than  it  had  yet  attained.  He  deprived  the  Greeks  of  all 
their  cities  and  castles  on  the  Euxine  sea,  and  along  the  coasts  of 
Thrace,  Macedon,  and  Thessaly  ;  he  even  stormed  the  fortifications  that 
had  been  constructed  across  the  Corinthian  isthmus,  and  carried  his  vic- 
torious arms  into  the  midst  qf  the  Peloponnesus.  The  Grecian  empe- 
rors acknowledged  him  as  their  superior  lord,  and  he,  in  turn,  accorded 
them  protection.  Two  Christian  heroes  arrested  the  progress  of  the 
sultan — John  Hunniades,  and  George  Castriot,  better  known  by  the 
name  of  Scanderbeg.  Hunniades  was  a  celebrated  Hungarian  general ; 
he  drove  the  Turks  from  Servia,  whose  possession  they  eagerly  coveted, 
and  long  impeded  their  progress  westward.  Scanderbeg  was  an  Alba- 
man  prince,  possessing  a  small  district  in  the  Epirote  mountains,  of 
wlrch  Croia  was  the  capital.  At  the  head  of  a  small  but  faithful  band 
of  followers,  he  long  resisted  the  mighty  armies  of  the  Ottomans,  and 
compelled  Amurath  himself  to  raise  the  siege  of  Croia. 

At  length  Mohammed  II.  ascended  the  Ottoman  throne  (a.  d.  1451), 
3,nd  from  the  moment  of  his  accession,  directed  all  his  efforts  to  the 
cfipture  of  Constantinople.  At  the  head  of  an  army  of  three  hundred 
thousand  men,  supported  by  a  fleet  of  three  hundred  sail,  ne  laid  siege 
to  this  celebrated  metropolis,  and  encouraged  his  men  by  spreading  re- 
ports of  prophecies  and  prodigies,  that  portended  the  triumph  of  Islam 
i?jm.  Constantine,  the  last  of  the  Greek  emperors,  met  the  storm  with 
becoming  resolution  ;  supported  by  the  Genoese,  and  a  scanty  band  of 
followers  from  western  Europe,  he  mahitained  the  city  for  fifty-thret 
days.,  though  the  fanaticism  of  his  enemies  was  raised  to  the  highest 


PROGRESS  OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION.  489 

pitcli  by  their  confident  reliance  on  the  favor  of  Heaven,  while  prophe- 
cies of  impending  vi^o  and  desolation  proportionably  depressed  the  in- 
habitants of  Constantinople.  At  length,  on  the  29th  of  May,  a.  d.  1453, 
the  Turks  stormed  the  walls,  the  last  Constantine  fell  as  he  boldly  dis- 
puted every  inch  of  ground,  multitudes  of  his  subjects  were  massacred 
in  the  first  burst  of  Turkish  fury,  the  rest  were  dragged  into  slavery,  and 
when  Mohammed  made  his  triumphal  entry,  he  found  the  city  a  vast 
solitude. 

Tlie  conquest  of  Constantinople  was  follov/ed  by  that  of  Servia,  Bos- 
nia, Albania,  Greece,  including  the  Peloponnesus,  several  islands  of  the 
Archipelago,  and  the  Greek  empire  of  Trebizond.  All  Christendom 
was  filled  with  alarm ;  Pope  Pius  II.  convened  a  council  at  Mantua,  for 
the  purpose  of  organizing  a  general  association  to  resist  the  progress  of 
the  Turks  (a.  d.  1459).  A  crusade  was  preached  by  his  order,  and  he 
was  about  to  undertake  the  command  of  the  expedition  in  person,  when 
death  cut  short  his  projects  at  Ancona  (a.  d.  1464).  The  Christian 
league  was  dissolved  by  his  death,  the  Turks  were  permitted  to  estab- 
lish their  empire  in  Europe,  and  this  received  a  great  increase,  both  of 
security  and  strength,  by  the  voluntary  tender  of  allegiance  which  the 
khans  of  the  Crimea  made  to  Mohammed  II.  (a.  d.  1478).  After  tho 
first  burst  of  fanaticism  was  over,  Mohammed  granted  protection  to  his 
Christian  subjects,  and,  by  his  wise  moasures,  Constantinople  wan  ro- 
etored  to  its  former  prosperity. 


-190  MODRRN  HISTOaV 


CHA.PTER  VI. 

THE  REFORMATION,  AND  COMMENCEMENT  OF 
THE  STATES-SYSTEM  IN  EUROPE. 

Section  I. — Progress  of  Maritime  Discovery. 

The  scene  of  the  earliest-known  navigation  was  the  Mediterranean 
sea,  wliich  naturally  seemed  to  the  ancients  to  be  situated  in  the  middle 
of  the  earth ;  as  is  implied  by  its  name.  As  navigation  advanced  only 
at  a  creeping  pace,  and  as  but  a  small  amount  of  fresh  experience  waa 
laid  up  by  one  generation  for  the  benefit  of  the  next,  it  took  very  many 
ages  to  explore  the  Mediterranean,  Tyrrhene,  Hadriatic,  and  iEgean 
seas. 

The  great  natural  relief,  given  to  ancient  navigation,  was  the  discov- 
ery of  the  trade-winds  which  prevail  ia  the  Indiaa  ocean.  These  peri- 
odical changes  of  winds,  if  noticed  by  the  Arabians,  were  not  made  to 
serve  their  maritime  trade,  until  the  keener  enterprise  of  the  West,  in 
the  person  of  Hippalus  (about  a.  d.  50),  first  ventured  to  steer  off  from 
the  Arabian  and  Persian  shores,  and  to  be  impelled  eastwdid,  in  the 
direction  of  the  wind.  A  voyage  which  had  consumed  years,  now  took 
up  but  as  many  months,  by  a  conformity  on  the  part  of  the  mariner  with 
this  invariable  law  of  nature.  The  means  of  profit  and  infoiination  were 
now  less  monopolized,  and  the  west  became  better  acquainted  with  the 
inhabitants  and  produce  of  the  east. 

The  navigation  to  the  Indies  was  cOiiLinued,  when  tho  Romans  be- 
came masters  of  Egypt,  by  sailing  down  the  Arabian  gulf,  and  thence 
to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Indus,  along  the  southern  coasis  of  Arabia  and 
Persia.  But  under  the  emperor  Claudius  this  route  was  so  far  changed, 
that  after  emerging  from  the  Arabian  gulf,  they  cut  across  the  Indian 
ocean  directly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  by  noticing,  and  taking  advan- 
tage cf,  the  time  when  the  southwest  trade-wind  blew. 

When  the  Arabians,  in  their  rapid  career  of  conquest,  had  reached 
the  Euphrates,  they  immediately  perceived  the  advantages  to  be  de- 
rived from  an  emporium  situated  upon  a  river  which  opened  on  the  one 
hand  a  shorter  route  to  India  than  they  had  hitherto  had,  and  on  the 
other  an  extensive  inland  navigation  through  a  wealthy  country  ;  and 
Brissora,  which  they  built  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river  (a.  d.  636), 
soon  became  a  great  commer-^ial  city,  and  entirely  cut  oflf  the  indepen- 
dent part  of  Persia  from  the  oriental  trade.  The  Arabian  merchants 
of  Bassora  extended  their  discoveries  eastward,  far  beyond  the  tracka 
of  all  preceding  navigators,  and  imported  directly  from  the  place  of  thojj 


THE  STATES  SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE. 


491 


growth,  many  Indian  articles,  hitherto  procured  at  second  hand  in  Cey 
on  ;  which  they  accordingly  furnished  on  their  own  terms  to  the  nations 
of  the  west. 

As  an  instance  of  the  depressed  state  of  human  knowledge  during 
the  middle  ages,  we  may  mention  that  Ccsnias,  a  Greek  merchant  of 
the  sixth  century  wrote  a  book  called  "  Christian  Topography"  the 
chief  intent  of  which  was  to  confute  the  heretical  opinion  of  the  earth 
being  a  globe,  together  with  the  pagan  assertion  that  there  was  a  tem- 
perate zone  on  the  southern  side  of  the  torrid  zone.  He  informed  his 
readers  that,  according  to  the  true  orthodox  system  of  cosmography,  the 
earth  was  a  quadrangular  plane,  extending  four  hundred  courses,  or  days' 
journeys,  from  east  to  west,  and  exactly  half  as  much  from  north  to 
south,  enclosed  by  lofty  mountains,  upon  which  the  canopy  or  vault  of 
ilie  firmament  rested  ;  that  a  huge  mountain  on  the  north  side  of  the 
earth,  by  intercepting  the  light  of  the  sun,  produced  the  vicissitudes  of 
day  and  night ;  and  that  the  plane  of  the  earth  had  a  declivity  from 
north,  by  reason  of  which  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  and  other  rivers  run- 
ning southward,  are  rapid  ;  whereas  the  Nile,  having  to  run  up-hill,  has 
necessarily  a  very  slow  current. 

The  Feroe  islands  had  been  discovered  about  the  latter  end  of  the 
ninth  century,  by  some  Scandinavian  pirates  ;  and  soon  after  this,  Ice- 
land was  colonized  by  Flok,  the  Norwegian.  Iceland,  it  appears,  had 
been  discovered  long  before  the  Norwegians  settled  there  ;  as  many 
relics,  in  the  nature  of  bells,  books  in  the  Irish  language,  and  wooden 
crosses,  were  discovered  by  Flok,  in  different  parts  of  the  island :  so 
that  the  Irish  seem  first  to  have  set  foot  upon  that  isle.  The  Icelandic 
chronicles  also  relate  that,  about  these  times,  the  Northmen  discovered 
a  great  country  to  the  west  of  Ireland,  which  account  has  by  many 
been  deemed  apocryphal :  for,  if  true,  they  must  be  held  to  be  some 
of  the  early  discoverers  of  America  ;  but  it  seems  pretty  clear  that  they 
made  their  way  to  Greenland  in  the  end  of  the  tenth  century.  The 
settlement  effected  in  Greenland,  though  comprising  but  a  small  popu- 
lation, seems  to  have  been  very  prosperous  in  these  earh  Umes  in 
mercantile  affairs.  They  had  bishops  and  priests  from  Europe  ;  and 
paid  the  pope,  as  an  annual  tribute,  twenty-six  hundred  pounds  of  wal- 
rus-teeth, as  tithe  and  Peter's  pence.  The  voyage  from  Greenland  to 
Iceland  and  Norway,  and  back  again,  consumed  five  years  ;  and  upon 
one  occasion  the  goverument  of  Norway  did  not  hear  of  the  death  of 
the  bishop  of  Greenland  until  six  years  after  it  had  occurred  ;  so  that  the 
art  of  navigation,  after  all,  must  have  been  in  these  times  but  at  a  very 
low  pitch. 

Greenland  seems  to  have  been  called  Viinland,  or  Finland,  from  the 
vines  which  were  discerned  by  the  early  discoverers  as  abounding  in 
this  country  ;  and  in  fact,  wild  vines  are  found  growing  in  all  the  nor 
thern  districts  of  America.  This  Viinland  is,  however,  supposed  by 
some  persons  to  have  been  Newfoundland  ;  and  if  so,  America  must  in 
reality  have  been  discovered  as  much  as  five  centuries  before  Columlus 
sailed  so  far  as  the  West  Indies  ;  and  moreover,  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  many  traditions  about  the  west,  existing  in  the  time  of  Co- 
lumbus, first  set  him  to  prosecute  the  idea  of  discovering  another 
»vorld 


i92  MODERN  HISTORY. 

The  impulse  which  the  cultivation  of  ancient  learning  had  received 
ui  Europe  was  greatly  strengthened  by  the  downfall  of  Constantinople, 
which  drove  the  most  learned  G".  eeks  into  exile  ;  they  sought  refuge  foi 
the  most  part  in  Italy,  and  the  libraries  of  that  peninsula  became  the  de- 
positories of  what  remained  of  the  ancient  treasures  of  Gretk  literature 
ciud  philosophy.  It  was  hence  that  the  first  stimulus  was  given  to  the 
study  of  the  Greek  language  in  Europe.  Translators  of  the  Greek  au- 
thors, and  commentators  upon  them,  began  to  multiply ;  and  the  rapid 
progress  of  the  art  of  printing  gave  an  additional  impulse  by  the  facili- 
ties it  afforded  for  the  dissemination  of  learning.  The  belief  that  there 
existed  a  fourth  division  of  the  globe,  larger  than  any  yet  discovered, 
had  been  encouraged  by  some  of  the  ancient  philosophers  ;  and  it  had 
been  so  generally  received,  that  two  eminent  fathers  of  the  church,  St. 
Augustine  and  Lactantius,  had  zealously  labored  to  refute  the  theory, 
believing  it  inconsistent  with  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  With  the 
culuvation  of  Greek  literature  the  old  notion  was  revived,  and  at  the 
fame  time  the  rapid  development  of  the  spirit  of  maritime  discovery  in- 
duced several  nations,  but  especially  the  Portuguese,  to  search  out  new 
and  unknown  lands. 

The  Canaries,  or  Fortunate  islands,  were  the  first  discovery  that  fol- 
lowed the  introduction  of  the  mariners  compass ;  they  became  known 
to  the  Spaniards  early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  but  no  regular  attempt 
was  made  for  their  colonization. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  John  I.,  king  of  Portugal, 
had  effected  some  very  important  conquests  over  the  Moors  ;  in  which  he 
had  been  very  materially  assisted  by  his  son.  Prince  Henry,  who  being  an 
able  and  active-minded  cavalier,  took  delight  rather  in  the  more  solid 
glories  of  learning  and  science,  than  in  the  fame  of  war,  in  which  he 
had,  however,  of  late  so  highly  distinguished  himself.  Upon  the  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities  he  retired  to  the  promontory  of  St.  Vincent,  and  lived 
at  the  seaport  town  of  Sagres,  which  he  had  himself  founded,  where  he 
cultivated  the  science  of  astronomy,  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  avail- 
able to  the  mariner,  in  guiding  him  over  the  ocean,  when  he  had  quitted 
the  servile  tracking  of  the  shore.  He,  in  fact,  established  a  naval  col- 
lege, and  an  observatory.  He  engaged  to  his  assistance  all  the  best- 
informed  men  of  his  time  ;  and  the  point  to  which  he  especially  directed 
his  attention,  was  the  practicability  of  sailing  round  Africa,  and  of  thus 
reaching  the  East  Indies.  Prince  Henry  did  not  live  to  see  the  whole 
of  his  views  accomplished ;  but  the  many  minor  discoveries  which  were 
effected  under  his  auspices,  laid  up  a  fund  of  knowledge  and  experience 
for  succeeding  generations  to  profit  by.  Maps  were  formed  under  hi? 
superintendence :  by  which  means  all  the  geographical  knowledge  re- 
specting the  earth  was  brought  together  •  the  different  parts  were  marked 
out ;  and  the  rocks,  coasts,  and  quicksands,  to  be  avoided,  were  all  noted 
down. 

The  southernmost  cape  of  Africa  known  in  those  days  was  Cape  Non, 
which  received  this  appellation  from  the  idea  that  it  was  utterly  impos- 
sible to  get  beyond  this  cape  ;  but  the  officers  of  Henry  having  at  length 
doubled  it  found  Cape  Bojador  in  the  distance,  whose  violent  curicnta 
and  ragmg  breakers,  running  for  miles  out  to  sea,  seemed  a  barriel 
which  could  not  even  be  approached  with  safety  by  mariners,  who  were 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  493 

in  the  habit  of  coasting  along  the  shore.  Seamen  now  began  to  be 
more  alarmed  than  ever  at  the  idea  of  the  torrid  zone,  and  to  propagate 
the  notion,  that  he  who  should  double  Cape  Bojador  would  never  re- 
turn. At  length  this  awful  cape  was  passed  by  ;  the  region  of  the 
tro{iics  was  penetrated,  and  divested  of  its  fancied  terrors  ;  the  river 
Senegal  was  observed,  the  greater  part  of  the  African  coast,  from  Cape 
Blanco  to  Cape  de  Verde,  was  explored,  and  the  Cape  de  Verde  and 
the  Azore  islands  were  discovered ;  the  Madeiras  and  Canaries  having 
been  visited  for  the  first  time  by  the  Spaniards  some  years  before.  Thi? 
prince  died  in  the  year  1473,  alter  having  obtained  a  papal  bull,  investing 
the  crown  of  Portugal  with  sovereign  authority  ever  all  the  lands  it 
might  discover  in  the  Atlantic,  to  India  inclusive. 

The  passion  for  discovery  languished  after  the  death  of  Prince  Henry, 
but  it  was  revived  by  his  grand-nephew,  King  John  II.,  with  additional 
ardor  (a.  d.  1481).  In  his  reign,  the  Portuguese,  for  the  first  time, 
cTLSsed  the  equator,  and  for  the  first  time  beheld  the  stars  of  a  new 
hemisphere.  They  now  discovered  the  error  of  the  ancients,  respect- 
ing the  torrid  zone,  and  practically  refuted  the  common  belief  that  the 
continent  of  Africa  widened  toward  the  south,  for  they  beheld  it  sensibly 
contracting  and  bending  toward  the  east.  The  hopes  inspired  by  this 
discovery,  induced  the  Portuguese  monarch  to  send  ambassadors  in 
search  of  an  unknown  potentate  supposed  to  profess  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, by  whose  aid  it  was  hoped  that  a  lucrative  trade  might  be  opened 
with  India,  and  the  progress  of  the  true  faith  secured. 

Early  in  the  thirteenth  century,  reports  were  prevalent  in  Europe  of 
some  great  potentate  in  a  remote  part  of  Asia  having  embraced  the 
Christian  faith.*  In  consequence,  the  pope.  Innocent  IV.,  sent  two 
monks  to  preach  Christianity  in  the  Mongolian  court  (a.  d.  1246)  ;  and 
soon  after,  St.  Louis  of  France  employed  the  celebrated  Rubruquis  to 
Reek  the  aid  of  the  supposed  Christian  sovereign,  who  was  commonly 
called  Pre?'er  John,  in  the  crusade  that  he  contemplated.  A  Venetian, 
named  Marco  Polo,  visited  the  most  distant  parts  of  Asia  (a.  d.  1263), 
and  penetrated  to  Pekin,  the  capital  of  China.  He  was  followed  by 
Sir  John  Mandeville,  an  Englishman  (a.  d.  1322),  and  the  narration.'? 
of  both,  though  deficient  in  accuracy  of  information,  contributed  to  keep 
alive  the  feelings  of  interest  and  curiosity  which  had  been  excited  in 
Europe. 

While  the  Portuguese  monarch's  emissaries  were  engaged  in  a  hope- 
less search  for  Prester  John,  and  the  more  useful  task  of  investigating 
the  state  of  navigation  in  the  Indian  seas,  an  expedition  from  Lisbon, 
conducted  by  Bartholomew  Diaz,  had  actually  discovered  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  African  continent  (a.  d.  1483).  A  storm  preventing 
him  from  pursuing  his  career,  he  named  the  promontory  that  terminated 
his  voyage  "the  cape  of  Tempests  ;"  but  King  John,  aware  of  the  vas' 
importance  of  the  discovery,  called  it  "  the  cape  of  Good  Hope."  Ai 
the  same  time  letters  were  received  from  the  monks  who  had  been  senl 
overland,  in  which  the  practicability  of  reaching  the  East  Indies,  by 
sailing  round  Africa,  was  strenuously  maintained.     But  the  intervening 

•  It  's  probable  that  this  error  arose  from  some  inaccurate  descri,nion  of  Rudfl- 
tisEQ.     Most  persons  are  aware  that  the  rituals  and  ceremonials  of  the  Bnddliist 
rinsta  bear  a  atrikiog  rcseml>lance  to  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  rhurch. 


494  MODERN  HISTORY 

discovery  of  America  diverted,  for  a  season,  men's  minds  from  „hib 
voyage  roimd  Africa  ;  and  fifteen  years  had  nearly  elapsed  before  Vasco 
de  Gama,  having  rounded  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  reached  India,  and 
anchored  in  the  harbor  of  Calicut,  on  tlie  coast  of  Malabar  (Mu)  22, 
A.  D.  1498). 

Among  the  adventurers "  who  flocked  to  join  the  Portuguese  fro::: 
every  part  of  Europe  was  Christopher  Colon,  or  Columbus,  a  native  oi 
Genoa.  The  narrative  of  Marco  Polo  had  led  to  the  belief  that  tlie 
extent  of  India,  beyond  the  Ganges,  was  greater  than  that  of  the  rest 
of  Asia ;  and,  as  the  spherical  figure  of  the  earth  was  known,  he  was 
naturally  led  to  the  conclusion  that  India  might  more  easily  be  reached 
by  sailing  westward,  tlian  by  the  long  and  tedious  circumnavigation  of 
Africa.  After  enduring  many  disappointments,  Columbus  obtained  a 
buiall  armament,  from  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spair  ;  and,  on  the 
third  of  August,  a.  d.  1492,  sailed  from  the  little  port  of  Palos,  in  An- 
dalusia, to  discover  a  new  world. 

During  the  long  voyage,  the  crew  of  Columbus  was  more  than  once 
on  the  point  of  mutinying  and  turning  back  in  despair;  at  length  land 
was  discovered  on  the  twelfth  of  October,  and  Columbus  found  himself 
soon  in  the  midst  of  that  cluster  of  islands,  which,  in  consequence  of 
the  original  error  about  the  extent  of  India,  were  named  the  West 
Indies.  On  his  return  to  Europe,  he  was  received  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  with  the  highest  honors  ;  a  second  expedition  was  jjrepared 
to  extend  and  secure  his  discoveries,  but,  before  his  departure,  applica- 
tion was  made  to  the  pope  for  a  grant  of  these  new  dominions,  and 
Alexander  VI.  shared  all  the  unknown  regions  of  the  earth  inhabited 
by  infidels  between  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  fixing  as  their  com- 
mon boundary  an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  pole  to  pole,  one  hundred 
leagues  to  the  west  of  the  Azores,  and  assigning  all  west  of  that  line  to 
Spain,  and  all  cast  of  it  to  Portugal. 

The  colonies  established  by  the  Spaniards  differed  from  those 
founded  by  other  European  countries.  The  Spaniards  were  not  a  tra- 
ding people,  indeed  ignorance  of  the  advantages  that  re:<ult  from  com- 
merce has  been  always  a  chaiacteristic  of  that  nation;  the  pmious 
metal"  were  the  only  objects  that  excited  their  attention,  and  for  a  series 
of  yeais  they  devoted  themselves  exclusively  to  the  exploration  of 
nines.  It  was  ordy  when  the  augmentation  of  the  European  popula- 
tion, and  the  diminished  returns  from  the  mines,  forced  their  attention 
to  agriculture,  that  they  began  to  pay  any  attention  to  raising  colonial 
produce.  In  consequence  of  these  restricted  views,  the  commercial 
and  colonial  policy  of  Spain  was  always  the  worst  possible ;  it  was 
fettered  by  monopolies,  exclusions,  and  restrictions,  equally  injurious 
to  the  parent  state  and  its  dependancies  ;  and  perseverance  in  this  erro- 
neous system  is  a  principal  cause  of  the  low  state  of  civilization  both 
in  Spain  and  its  late  colonies. 

Not  only  the  Dutch,  but  the  English  and  French,  were  roused  to 
emulation  by  the  success  of  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.,  Cabot,  a  mariner  of  Bristol,  made  some  consid- 
erable additions  to  maiVime  knowledge  ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  timn 
of  Elizabeth  that  regular  plans  of  colonization  were  formed. 

The  growth  of  commerce  in  this  age  was  very  rapid,  but  there  ap- 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OP  EJROPE.  495 

peared  still  room  for  further  discoveries  until  the  globe  was  circuiTinnv- 
igated  by  Magellan  (a.  d.  1521).  From  that  time  the  attention  of  na 
tions  began  to  be  directed  more  to  completing  old  discoveries  than  to 
the  search  for  new  lands.  The  navies  of  Europe  began  to  assume  a 
formidable  aspect ;  manufactures  multiplied,  and  states,  previously 
poor,  became  suddenly  rich.  Sovereigns  and  governments  began  to 
direct  their  attention  to  commerce,  justly  persuaded  that  mercantile 
wealth  is  equally  the  source  of  the  prosperity  and  glory  of  nations. 

Section  II. — Origin  of  the  Reformation. 

The  extravagant  claims  of  the  popes  to  temporal,  as  well  as  spirit- 
ual supremacy,  had  been  resisted  by  several  men  of  learning,  whose 
works  did  not  die  with  them,  but  continued  to  exercise  a  powerful, 
though  secret  effect,  on  succeeding  generations.  This  repugnance  to 
ecclesiastical  domination  was  greatly  increased  by  the  scandalous 
schism  at  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  and  commencement  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  Two  or  three  popes  reigning  at  the  same  time,  excommuni- 
cating each  other,  appealing  to  the  laity  for  support,  compelled  men  to 
exercise  the  right  of  private  judgment,  and  directed  attention  to  the 
ecclesiastical  abuses  that  had  produced  such  unhappy  fruits.  The  par- 
tial reforms,  or  rather  attempts  at  reformation,  made  by  the  councils  of 
Constance  and  Basil,  spread  the  disrespect  for  the  Romish  see  still 
wider ;  their  deposition  of  contending  pontiffs  taught  men  that  there 
was  a  jurisdiction  in  the  church  superior  to  the  papal  power,  their  fee- 
ble efforts  to  correct  abuse  brought  the  evils  prominently  forward,  and 
left  them  unamended  to  meet  the  public  gaze.  While  this  dissatisfac- 
tion was  hourly  increasing,  the  papal  chair  was  filled  successively  by 
two  pontiffs,  whose  career  of  unscrupulous  guilt  was  sufficient  to  dis- 
gust even  a  less  enlightened  age.  Alexander  VI.,  profligate  in  private 
life,  cruel  and  tyrannical  in  his  public  administration,  was  followed  by 
Julius  II.,  whose  overbearing  ambition  led  him  to  trample  on  the  very 
semblance  of  justice  and  moderation  when  they  interfered  with  the 
success  of  his  schemes.  The  sovereigns  of  France  and  Germany, 
alternately  engaged  in  active  hostilities  with  these  heads  of  the  church, 
could  not  prevent  their  subjects  from  ridiculing  papal  pretensions,  and 
assailing  papal  vices.  Nor  were  these  scandals  confined  to  the  papa- 
cy; the  licentious  lives  of  the  ecclesii  sties  in  Italy  and  Germany,  the 
facility  with  which  they  obtained  pardons  for  erormous  crimes,  their 
exorbitant  wealth,  their  personal  immunities,  and  their  encroachment? 
on  the  rights  of  the  laity,  had  given  just  offence  ;  and  this  was  the 
more  sensibly  felt  in  Germany,  because  most  of  the  great  benefices 
were  in  the  hands  of  foreigners. 

When  men's  minds  were  ever)  where  filled  with  disgust  at  the  exist- 
ing administration  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  eager  for  some  change 
a  dispute,  trivial  in  its  origin,  kindled  a  flame,  which  rapidly  spread 
over  Europe,  destroying  all  the  strongholds  that  had  been  so  laboriously 
erected  for  the  security  of  tyranny  and  superstition.  Leo  X.,  on  \ii6 
accession  to  the  papal  chair,  found  the  treasury  of  the  church  exhausted 
by  the  ambitious  projects  of  his  predecessors,  Alexander  VI.  and  .lu- 
'iu3  II       Generous  in  his  disposition,  magnificent  in  his  habits  f  f  lifo 


49G  MODERN  HISTORY. 

eager  for  the  asrgrandizement  of  his  family,  the  princely  Medicis,  hi< 
could  not  practise  the  economy  necessary  to  recruit  his  finances,  and 
he  therefore  had  recourse  to  every  device  that  his  ingenuity  could  sug- 
gest to  raise  money  for  the  splendid  designs  he  contemplated.  Among 
these  he  introduced  an  extensive  sale  of  indulgences,  which  often  had 
proved  a  source  of  large  profits  to  the  church. 

The  origin  of  indulgences  has  been  sometimes  misrepresented  by 
eminent  writers  ;  and  as  we  have  now  reached  a  period  when  tlieir 
abuse  produced  the  most  decisive  blow  which  the  papacy  had  yet  re- 
ceived, it  will  be  necessary  to  take  a  brief  survey  of  their  history.  In 
the  primitive  church  it  was  customaiy  that  those  who  had  committeiJ 
any  heinous  ofl^ence  should  perform  a  public  penance  before  the  con. 
gregation,  "  that  their  souls  might  be  saved  in  the  day  of  the  Lord ; 
and  that  others,  admonished  by  their  example,  might  be  the  more 
afraid  to  oifend."  In  process  of  time  rich  and  noble  offenders  became 
anxious  to  avoid  public  exposure,  and  private  penances  or  a  pecuniary 
compensation  w^ere  substituted  for  the  former  discipline.  On  thi.s 
change  the  popes  founded  a  new  doctrine,  which,  combined  with  the 
commutation  of  indulgences,  opened  the  way  for  profitable  traffic 
They  taught  the  world  that  all  the  good  works  of  the  saints,  over  and 
above  those  which  were  necessary  to  their  own  justification,  are  de- 
posited, together  with  the  infinite  merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  one  inex- 
haustible treasury.  The  keys  of  this  were  committed  to  St.  Peter  and 
his  successors  the  popes,  who  may  open  it  at  pleasure,  and  by  trans- 
ferring a  portion  of  this  superabundant  merit  to  any  particular  person 
for  service  in  a  crusade,  or  for  a  sum  of  money,  may  convey  to  him 
either  the  pardon  of  his  own  sins,  or  a  release  for  any  one,  in  whose 
happiness  he  is  interested,  from  the  pains  of  purgatory.  These  indul- 
gences were  first  issued  to  those  who  joined  personally  in  the  expedi- 
tions for  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land ;  subsequently  to  those  who 
hired  a  soldier  for  that  purpose  ;  and  finally  to  all  who  gave  money  for 
accomplishing  any  work  which  it  pleased  the  popes  to  describe  as  good 
and  pious.  Julius  II.  bestowed  indulgences  on  all  who  contributed  tc 
the  building  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  Leo  continued  the  traffic  under 
the  same  pretence. 

Difi^erent  orders  of  monks  derived  considerable  profit  from  the  sale 
of  indulgences,  and  great  indignation  was  excited  among  the  Augus- 
tinian  friars  when  the  monopoly  of  the  trade  in  Germany  was  granted 
to  their  rivals,  the  Dominicans.  TeiziJ.  the  chief  agent  in  retailing 
them,  was  a  man  of  licentious  morals,  but  of  an  active  spirit,  and  re- 
markable for  his  noisy  and  popular  eloquence.*    He  executed  his  com- 

•  The  following  is  the  form  of  absolution  used  by  Tetzel : — "  May  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  h  ive  mercy  upon  tiiee,  and  absolve  thee  by  all  the  merits  of  his  most 
holy  passion;  and  I,  by  his  authority,  that  of  his  blessed  apostles,  Peter  and 
Paul,  and  of  the  most  holy  pope,  granted  anJ  committed  to  me  in  these  parts,  do 
absolve  thee  first  from  all  ecclesiastical  censures,  in  whatever  manner  they  have 
been  incurred,  and  then  from  all  thy  sins,  transgressions,  and  excesses,  how  enor- 
mous soever  they  may  be,  even  from  such  as  are  reserved  for  the  cognizance  of 
the  holy  see  :  and  as  far  as  the  keys  of  the  holy  church  extend,  I  remit  to  yor  all 
punishment  which  you  deserve  in  purgatory  on  their  account;  and  1  restore  you 
to  the  holy  sacraments  of  the  church,  to  the  unity  of  the  faithful,  and  to  that  in- 
nocence and  puntv  which  you  possessed  at  baptism ;   so  that  when  you  die.  the 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  497 

mission  with  little  regard  to  discretion  or  decency,  describing  the  merus 
of  the  indulgences  in  such  a  blasphemous  style  of  exaggeration,  thai 
all  men  of  sense  were  disgusted,  and  even  the  ignorant  began  to  sus- 
pect the  worth  of  pardons  for  sins  dispensed  by  men  whose  profligacy 
was  notorious  and  disgusting.  The  princes  and  nobles  of  Germany 
were  enraged  by  witnessing  the  large  sums  of  money  drained  from 
fheir  vassals  to  support  the  lavish  expenditure  of  the  poutitf,  and  many 
of  the  higher  ranks  of  the  clergy  viewed  with  jealousy  the  favor  dis- 
played to  the  monastic  orders. 

Martin  Luther,  an  Augustinian  friar  of  great  learning  and  indom- 
itable courage,  had  prepared  his  mind  for  the  noble  career  on  which  he 
was  about  to  enter  by  a  diligent  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  ;  ihc 
question  of  indulgences  early  engaged  his  attention,  and  he  convinced 
himself  that  the  Bible,  which  he  begai  to  consider  as  the  great  stand- 
ard of  theological  truth,  afforded  no  countenance  to  a  practice  equally 
subversive  of  faith  and  morals.  Having  vainly  sought  to  procure  the 
suppression  of  the  trafhc  from  the  archbishop  of  Magdeburgh,  he  ap- 
pealed to  the  suffrages  of  men  of  letters,  by  publishing  ninety-five 
theses  condemning  the  sale  of  indulgences  as  contrary  to  reason  and 
Scripture. 

Much  has  been  written  respecting  the  personal  cnaracter  of  this 
daring  reformer ;  his  boldness  frequently  degenerated  into  violence,  his 
opposition  to  the  corrupt  discipline  of  the  church  sometimes  passed  the 
bounds  of  decency ;  but  these  errors  arose  from  the  circumstances  of 
his  position  ;  he  was  in  fact  the  representative  of  the  public  opinion  of 
his  age ;  and  before  we  pass  too  severe  a  censure  on  the  aberrationg 
:hat  sully  his  career,  we  must  remember  that  the  age  had  scarcely 
emerged  from  barbarism,  and  that  the  human  mind,  as  yet  unaccustomed 
to  freedom,  when  suddenly  delivered  from  habitual  restraint,  necessarily 
rushed  into  some  extravagances.  While  hostile  writers  describe  Luthei 
as  the  vilest  of  sinners,  or  the  purest  of  saints,  they  forget  that  there 
a  a  previous  question  of  some  importance,  the  standard  by  which  his 
conduct  must  be  measured.  We  have  no  right  to  expect  that  Luther 
engaged  in  a  struggle  for  life  and  death,  should  display  the  moderation 
of  a  modern  controversialist,  or  to  look  for  the  intelligence  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  at  the  commencement  of  the  sixteenth.  Remembering 
the  school  in  which  he  was  educated,  it  is  reasonable  to  believe  that 
many  munKish  absurdities  must  long  have  been  perceptible  in  his  words 
and  actions ;  we  need  not,  therefore,  deny  that  he  was  sometimes 
wrong,  we  need  not  disguise  nor  palliate  his  errors,  for  the  cause  which 
he  promoted  depends  not  on  the  character  of  him  or  of  any  other  per- 
son. His  adversaries,  however,  have  never  ventured  to  deny  his  cour- 
age, his  sincerity,  his  integrity  of  purpose,  and  his  superiority  to  all 
pecuniary  considerations.  He  lived  and  died  poor,  though  Rome  would 
have  purchased  his  return  by  wealth  and  dignity,  though  the  leading 
reformers  were-  ready  to  reward  his  perseverance  by  any  grants  he 
might  have  required. 

gates  of  punishment  shall  be  sliut,  and  the  gates  of  the  paradise  of  delight  shall 
be  opened  j  and  if  you  shall  not  die  at  present,  this  grace  shall  remain  in  lull 
force  when  you  are  at  the  poira  of  death.  In  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the 
Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghcsl," 

32 


*98  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Luther  comprehended  the  state  of  public  opinion;  his  jmblications 
were  the  manifestation  of  tlie  revolt  of  reason  against  authority,  rathei 
than  a  thesis  in  his  theology.  His  perseverance,  the  very  violence  and 
grossness  of  his  invectives,  showed  that  he  felt  human  reason  to  be  ori 
his  side.  If  he  had  not  at  first  calculated  the  effect  of  his  first  blow, 
he  showed  great  sagacity  in  measuring  its  results.  Numerous  echoes 
responded  to  his  summons  ;  Zuinglius  began  to  preach  in  Switzerland, 
and  the  reform  engaged  the  attention  of  enlightened  men  of  letters  ; 
among  others,  the  celebrated  Erasmus  pointed  out  corruptions  in  the 
church,  though  he  liad  not  moral  courage  enough  to  separate  himself 
from  it  openly.  The  papal  party  accepted  Luther's  challenge,  fully 
believing  that  the  slightest  exertion  of  power  would  at  once  stifle  op- 
position (a.  d.  1520).  Leo  X.,  too  indolent  to  examine  the  state  of  the 
public  mind,  and  too  proud  to  trouble  himself  about  the  opposition  of  a 
simple  friar,  published  a  bull  condemning  the  theses  of  Luther  cs  he- 
retical and  impious  (a.  d.  1520).  The  bold  reformer  at  once  declared 
open  war  against  the  papacy,  by  appealing  to  a  general  coi  ncil,  and 
burning  the  bull  of  excommunication  in  presence  of  a  vast  multitude  at 
Wittemberg.  He  treated  the  volumes  of  the  canon  law  with  the  same 
contumely,  and  justified  his  action  in  a  manner  more  offensive  to  the 
advocates  of  the  papacy  than  the  action  itself.  Having  collected  from 
the  canon  law  some  of  the  most  extravagant  propositions  with  regard  to 
the  plenitude  and  omnipotence  of  the  papal  power,  as  well  as  the  sub- 
ordination of  all  secular  jurisdiction  to  the  authority  of  the  holy  see,  ho 
published  these,  with  a  commentary,  pointing  out  the  impiety  of  such 
tenets,  and  their  evident  tendency  to  subvert  all  civil  governments. 
From  this  time,  the  interests  of  princes  were  even  more  deeply  en- 
gaged on  the  side  of  Luther  than  popular  reason.  In  fact,  as  a  Romish 
historian  has  remarked,  "  policy  became  more  Lutheran  than  religous 
reform  !"  Sovereigns  naturally  received  with  enthusiasm  a  doctrine 
which  placed  at  their  disposal  the  enormous  wealth  of  the  clergy,  and 
gave  them  mastery  over  more  riches  than  could  be  acquired  by  the 
most  formidable  force,  or  the  most  sanguinary  combats.  Thus,  in  Ger- 
many, Luther,  who  could  at  first  with  difficulty  procure  a  horse  when 
he  had  lO  appear  before  the  diet,  soon  counted  princes  and  entire  nations 
among  his  disciples.  Frederick  the  Wise,  duke  of  Saxony,  was  the 
first  among  his  converts,  and  the  most  powerful  of  his  protectors. 

It  is  assuredly  very  inconsistent  in  the  advocates  of  the  Romish 
church,  to  expose  the  mixture  of  secular  and  religious  motives  in  the 
active  supporters  of  the  Reformation  ;  for  the  abuses  wliich  they  con- 
demned were  equally  temporal  and  spiritual.  Indeed,  it  is  very  obvi- 
ous, that  ihe  corruptions  of  doctrine  were  introduced  to  serve  the  politi- 
cal purposes  of  the  papacy  ;  a  sordid  desire  for  wealth  was  the  founda- 
tion of  the  system  of  indulgences,  which  first  provoked  the  revolt ;  an 
imbitious  lust  for  power  had  caused  the  subversion  of  the  independence 
nf  the  national  churches,  which  it  was  the  earliest  object  of  the  Luther 
ans  to  restore.  Politics  influenced  the  enemies  of  the  papacy  only  be- 
cause popery  was  itself  a  political  system,  and  because  in  the  struggle 
that  no'v  menaced  its  existence,  it  had  at  once  recourse  to  secular  aux- 
iliaries 

John  Calvin,  another  reformer,  was  a  follo^ver  oi'  Zuinglius ;  he  waw 


THE  STATES-SYSTE.VI  OF  EUROPE.  499 

a  native  of  Noyon,  in  Picardy,  and  began  first  to  publish  his  opinions 
at  Paris  (a.  d.  1532).  Driven  thence  by  the  persecutions  of  the  French 
clergy,  he  removed  to  Strasburgh,  where  he  soon  rendered  himself  so 
eminent  by  his  talents  as  a  writer  and  a  preacher,  that  the  name  of 
Calvinists  were  given  to  that  section  of  the  reformed  congregations 
which  had  at  first  been  named  Zuinglians. 

Calvin  was  subsequently  invited  to  Geneva,  where  he  organized  a 
system  of  church-government  on  the  presbyterian  principle  ;  and  under 
the  pretence  of  providing  for  purity  of  morals  and  the  continuance  of 
sound  doctrine,  he  contrived  to  transfer  no  small  portion  of  the  power 
of  the  state  to  the  ecclesiastical  courts.  Unfortuiiately,  these  courts 
«oon  began  to  emulate  the  tyranny  of  the  Romish  inquisition,  by  per- 
secutmg  those  who  differed  from  the  standard  of  religious  opinion 
adopted  by  the  church  of  Geneva,  and  an  unfortunate  Spaniard,  named 
Servetus,  was  burned  alive  for  publishing  some  obnoxious  doctrines  on 
the  subject  of  the  Trinity.  The  diflierences  which  arose  between  the 
followers  of  Luther  and  Calvin,  the  obstinacy  manifested  by  each  of 
'he  parties  in  support  of  their  own  opinions,  and  the  virulence  with 
which  they  inveighed  against  each  other,  sadly  checked  the  progress 
of  the  Reformation,  and  produced  a  reaction  whicli  enabled  the  court 
of  Rome  to  recover  several  countries  which  it  had  very  nearly  lost. 

Although  much  of  the  early  success  of  the  Reformatiori  was  owing 
to  the  general  progress  of  intelligence  and  scientific  research,  there 
were  many  among  the  leading  reformers  who  viewed  all  secular  learn- 
ing with  suspicion,  and  thus  enabled  their  adA-ersaries  to  identify  their 
cause  with  ignorance  and  barbarism.  This  was  a  serious  injury  to  the 
progress  of  improvement,  for  there  were  many  like  Erasmus  who  would 
gladly  have  joined  in  overthrowing  the  monkish  corruptions  which  had 
defaced  Christianity,  but  who  were  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  being 
subjected  to  the  bigoted  caprice  of  the  presbyteries  and  other  bodies 
which  began  to  claim  and  exercise  a  power  of  control  over  opinion  in 
most  of  the  cities  where  the  reformed  religion  was  established. 
Whether  the  Romish  church  would  have  displayed  a  greater  spirit  of 
concession,  had  the  reformers  exhibited  more  moderation  in  their  de- 
mands for  innovation,  may  be  questioned,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  papal 
party  could  not  have  made  so  effectual  a  struggle  as  it  maintained,  had 
it  not  taken  advantage  of  the  violence,  the  impi'udence,  and  the  dissen- 
sions of  the  reform -^rs  themselves. 

The  rapid  progress  of  the  new  doctrines  was  attempted  to  be  check- 
ed by  the  diet  of  Spires  (a.  d.  1529),  where  a  decree  was  promulgated, 
forbidding  any  innovation  until  the  assembling  of  a  general  council. 
Luther's  friends  and  followers  protested  against  this  decree,  and  hence 
the  professors  of  the  reformed  religion  received  the  common  name  of 
Protestants.  Soon  afterward  they  presented  a  general  confession  of 
their  faith  to  the  emperor  at  Augsburgh  ;  but  unfortunately  this  cele- 
brated document  showed  that  there  were  irreconcilable  differences  be- 
tween the  Calvinistic  and  Lutheran  sections  of  the  reformers. 

As  the  struggle,  once  begun,  was  maintained  with  great  obstinacy, 
it  sooc.  led  to  serious  political  convulsions.  Half  of  Germany,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Norway,  Prussia,  and  Livonia,  adopted  the  doctrines  of 
Lulhcr,  as  taught  in  the  confession  of  Augsburg.     England,  Scotland, 


500  MODERN  HISTORY 

Holland,  and  Switzerland,  embraced  the  tenets  of  Zuingiius  and  Cal 
un  ;  while  efTorts  to  establish  similar  principles  were  made  in  France, 
Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Poland. 

The  means  taken  to  end  the  controversy  only  aggravated  the  evil 
It  was  proposed  that  the  entire  matter  of  dispute  should  be  submitted 
to  a  general  council,  but  it  was  impossible  to  determine  the  basis  on 
which  it  should  be  convoked.  After  much  delay,  a  council  was  assem- 
bled at  Trent  (a.  d.  1545),  whose  sittings  were  continued,  with  some 
interruption,  for  several  years  ;  but  wben  at  the  close  (a.  d.  1563),  its 
decrees  were  published,  they  were  rejected,  not  only  by  the  protestants, 
but  by  many  catholic  princes,  especially  the  king  of  France,  as  subver- 
sive of  the  independence  of  national  churches,  and  destructive  of  tho 
lawful  authority  r^  sovereigns 

Section  III. — History  of  the  Negotiations  and  Wars  respecting  Italy. 

Ix  the  midst  of  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  changes  produced  by  the 
progress  of  intelligence,  a  system  of  policy  for  regulating  the  external 
relations  of  states  was  gradually  formed,  and  attention  began  to  be  paid 
to  what  was  called  the  Balance  of  Power  ;  that  is,  the  arrangement  of 
the  European  states  in  such  a  system  that  the  weak  might  be  protected 
from  the  aggressions  of  the  powerful  and  the  ambitious.  This  system 
first  began  in  Italy,  which  was  divided  into  a  number  of  petty  states  ; 
its  chief  members  were  the  dutchy  of  Milan,  and  the  republic  of  Venice, 
in  the  north  ;  the  republic  of  Florence,  and  the  states  of  the  church,  in 
the  centre  ;  and  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  the  south.  Encouraged  by 
the  distracted  condition  of  the  peninsula,  foreigners  were  induced  to 
attempt  its  conquest ;  and  the  kings  of  France  and  Spain,  and  the  em 
perors  of  Germany,  made  this  country  the  battle-field  of  rival  ambition 

Alter  the  expulsion  of  the  house  of  Anjou  from  Italy,  it  was  estab- 
lished in  the  petty  principality  of  Provence,  where  the  graces  of  courtly 
refinement  and  light  literature  were  more  sedulously  cultivated  than. in 
any  other  part  of  Europe.  Rene,  the  last  monarch  of  the  line,  the 
father  of  the  heroic  English  queen,  Margaretof  Anjou,  had  the  prudence 
not  to  hazard  his  security  l)y  mingling  in  the  troubled  politics  of  France 
and  Burgundy,  but  amused  himself  and  his  subjects  by  floral  game.s 
and  poetic  contests,  heedless  of  the  sanguinary  wars  that  convulsed  the 
surrounding  states. 

On  Rene's  death  Provence  became  a  county  under  the  French  crowU;, 
and  was  justly  deemed  a  most  important  acquisition  (a.d.  1481).  But 
with  the  substantial  dominions  of  the  house  of  Anjou,  the  French  mon- 
archs  also  inherited  its  pretensions  to  the  thrones  of  Naples  and  Sicily 
Louis  XI.  was  far  too  prudent  a  monarch  to  waste  his  strength  on  the 
Hssertion  of  such  illusory  claims  ;  he  directed  his  attention  to  a  far 
more  useful  object,  the  establishment  of  the  royal  power  over  the  great 
vassals  of  the  crown,  several  of  whom  possessed  greater  real  power 
than  the  nominal  sovereign. 

Charles  VIII.  departed  from  his  father's  prudent  line  of  policy;  in- 
stead of  securing  the  royal  authority  at  home,  he  directed  his  attention 
to  foreign  conquests,  and  resolved  to  assert  his  imaginary  claims  to  the 
tlirone  of  Naples.     He  was  instigated  also  by  th^  invitations  of  Liidov 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  ^^^ 

ico  Sforza,  duke  of  Milan,  and  by  some  romantic  hope  of  overtliiowing 
die  Turkish  empire.  A  French  army  crossed  the  Alps  (a.  d.  1494), 
and  marched  through  the  penirsula  without  encountering  any  effective 
opposition.  Rome,  Florence,  a,nd  Naples,  submitted  to  the  conqueror, 
and  Ferdinand  II.  fled  to  the  island  of  Ischia.  But  during  the  progress 
of  the  expedition,  a  league  was  formed  for  the  expulsion  of  all  foreign- 
ers from  Italy ;  the  Venetian  republic  was  the  moving  power  of  the 
confederacy,  in  which  the  pope  and  even  Sforza  were  associated,  while 
the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  secretly  favored  its 
designs.  Alarmed  by  the  coming  danger,  Charles,  leaving  half  his 
army  to  protect  his  conquests,  led  the  remainder  back  to  France.  He 
encoimtered  the  Venetians  on  his  road,  and  gained  a  complete  victory ; 
but  the  forces  he  left  in  Italy  were  compelled  to  capitulate,  and  Fei- 
iinand  II.  was  restored  to  the  throne  of  Naples. 

Charles  VIII.  was  bent  on  vengeance,  and  the  distracted  stale  of  the 
peninsula  gave  him  hope  of  success  ;  but  before  he  could  complete  his 
arrangements  for  a  second  expedition,  he  was  snatched  away  by  a  sud- 
den death  (a.  d.  1498).  The  duke  of  Orleans,  Louis  XII.,  in  addition 
to  his  cousin's  claims  on  Naples,  inherited  from  his  grandmother  a  title 
to  the  dutchy  of  Milan.  But  the  French  monarch,  before  undertaking 
such  an  extensive  conquest,  deemed  it  necessary  to  strengthen  himself 
by  alliances  with  the  republic  of  Venice,  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  and 
Ferdinand,  king  of  Spain.  Thus  strengthened,  he  found  little  difficulty 
in  overrunning  Italy;  Milan  was  captured  (a.  d.  1499),  and  the  turbu- 
lent Sforza,  after  vain  attempts  to  re-establish  his  power,  diea  m  cap- 
tivity. Naples  was  next  attacked  ;  Ferdinand  of  Spain  had  entered 
into  alliance  with  the  Neapolitan  monarch  Frederick  ;  and  his  invader, 
Louis,  secretly  determined  to  cheat  both.  By  his  aid  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  was  subdued,  and  the  dupe  Frederic  imprisoned  for  life  (a.  d. 
1501)  ;  but  no  sooner  was  the  conquest  completed,  than  the  Spaniard 
prepared  to  secure  the  whole  of  the  spoil.  Aided  by  the  abilities  of 
Gonsalvo  de  Cordova,  Ferdinand  succeeded  in  expelling  the  French 
from  Naples  ;  and  the  kingdom  was  finally  confirmed  to  him  on  his 
marriage  with  Germaine  de  Foix,  niece  of  Louis  XII.,  with  whom  the 
French  monarch  on  the  receipt  of  a  million  of  ducats,  assigned  over 
his  claims  on  Naples  as  a  dowry  (a.  d.  1505). 

Italy,  however,  was  soon  destined  to  have  its  tranquillity  disturbed 
by  the  grasping  ambition  of  Pope  Julius  II.  Anxious  to  recover  the 
dependencies  of  the  holy  see  which  had  been  seized  by  Venice,  he 
organized  a  confederacy  against  that  republic,  of  which  he  was  himself 
the  head ;  while  Louis,  Maximilian,  and  Ferdinand,  were  active  mem- 
bers (a.  d.  1509).  The  republic  would  have  been  rained,  had  the 
anion  of  the  confederates  been  sincere  and  permanent ;  but,  owing  to 
the  mutual  jealousies  of  its  enemies,  it  escaped  when  brought  to  the 
verge  of  destruction.  The  impetuous  valor  of  the  French  disconcerted 
all  the  measures  the  Venetians  had  taken  to  preserve  their  territories ; 
and  the  total  ruin  of  their  army  at  Aguadello  (a.  d.  1509),  left  them 
wholly  without  defence.  Julius  seized  all  the  towns  which  they  held 
In  the  ecclesiastical  territories  ;  Ferdinand  added  all  their  seaports  in 
Apulia  to  his  Neapolitan  dominions  ;  but  at  the  moment  when  the  dier 
memberment  of  the  republic  seemed  inevitable,  the  mutual  jealousies  oi 


502  MODEUN  HISTORY 

Louis  and  Maximilian  dissolved  the  confederacy.  The  Venetian:*  aji- 
peased  the  pope  and  Ferdinand,  by  large  concessions,  which  were  the 
more  readily  accepted,  as  Julius  had  now  formed  the  design  of  expel- 
ling all  foreigners  from  Italy,  especially  the  French,  of  whose  valor  an'! 
ambition  he  was  justly  afraid. 

From  the  fragments  of  the  league  of  Cambray,  a  new  and  strongei 
confederacy  was  formed  against  France,  and  Henry  VIII.,  who  had 
just  ascended  the  throne  of  England,  was  engaged  to  divert  the  atten- 
tion of  Louis  from  Italy,  by  an  invasion  of  his  dominions  (a.  d.  1511). 
The  master-stroke,  however,  of  the  pope's  policy  was  winning  over  the 
Swiss,  whose  mercenary  infantry  was  the  best  body  of  troops  then  used 
in  war.  Louis  XII.  resisted  all  the  efforts  of  this  formidable  conspir- 
acy with  undaunted  fortitude.  Hostilities  were  carried  on  during  sev- 
eral campaigns  in  Italy,  on  the  frontiers  of  Spain,  and  in  Picardy,  with 
alternate  success.  But  weakened  by  the  loss  of  his  allies,  Florence 
and  Navarre,  of  which  the  former  having  been  subjected  to  the  Medicis, 
joined  the  league  (a.  d.  1512),  and  the  latter  Avas  conquered  and  annex- 
ed to  Spain,  Louis  would  probably  have  been  reduced  to  great  distress, 
had  not  the  death  of  Pope  Julius  (a.  d.  1513)  come  to  his  relief.  Leo, 
of  the  princely  house  of  the  Medicis,  succeeded  to  the  papacy,  and  im- 
mediately made  peace  with  France.  Spain,  England,  and  the  empire, 
followed  this  example,  and  the  war  terminated  with  the  loss  of  everj'- 
thing  which  the  Frencli  had  acquired  in  Italy,  except  the  castle  of 
Milan  and  a  few  inconsiderable  towns  in  that  dutchy. 

Section  IV. — The  History  of  Burtrundy  under  the  Princes  of  the  House  of 

Valois. 

No  feudal  state  was  more  important  in  the  middle  ages  than  the 
dutchy  of  Burgundy,  and  its  history  is  the  best  calculated  to  illustrate 
the  political  condition  of  states,  and  the  relations  between  powerful 
princes  and  their  sovereign,  produced  by  the  institutions  of  feudalism. 
At  the  same  time,  the  history  of  Burgundy  must  in  some  degree  be 
regarded  as  an  episode  in  the  general  annals  of  Europe,  for  though  its 
existence  was  brilliant. -it  left  no  permanent  trace  behind,  save  the  re- 
sentment between  the  houses  of  France  and  Austria,  arising  from  the 
division  of  its  spoils. 

The  dutchy  of  Burgundy  lapsed  to  the  crown  of  France  soon  after 
the  liberation  of  King  John  from  the  captivity  in  which  he  had  been 
detained  by  the  English  after  the  battle  of  Poictiers.  He  resolved  to 
bestow  this  rich  inheritance  upon  his  third  son,  Philip,  surnamed  the 
Hardy,  who  had  fought  gallantly  by  his  side  in  the  unfortunate  battle 
of  Poictiers,  though  only  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  who  when  John  wa? 
taken  prisoner  had  accompanied  him  to  England  to  share  his  captivity 
John's  bequest  was  honorably  executed  by  his  son  and  successor 
Char.es  V.  of  France  ;  he  gave  to  Philip  the  investiture  of  the  dutch) 
with  all  legal  forms,  and  on  the  2d  of  June,  1364,  the  new  duke  entered 
jpon  his  inheritance  ;  he  soon  afterward  married  the  only  daughter  of 
the  count  of  Flanders,  and  thus  became  involved  in  the  wars  which  that 
nobleman  waged  against  the  insurgent  citizens  of  Ghent,  and  at  th< 
tiame  time  he  actively  assisted  his  brother  against  the  English. 

After  a  long  war,  in  which  the  burgesses  of  the  free  cities  of  Flan 


THE  STATES  SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  503 

ders  sustained  with  great  bravery  their  municipal  franchises  against  the 
feudal  chivalry  of  their  count  and  his  allies,  the  insurgents  suffered  t 
severe  defeat  at  Rosebecque,  in  which  their  gallant  leader,  the  younger 
Artavelde,  was  slain.  Philip  took  advantage  of  the  crisis  to  mediate  a 
peace  between  the  count  of  Flanders  and  the  revolted  cities,  which  was 
finally  concluded  on  very  equitable  conditions.  When  tranquillity  was 
restored,  the  duke  directed  his  whole  attention  to  the  affairs  of  France, 
and  during  the  reign  of  his  unfortunate  nephew,  Charles  VI.,  took  a 
principal  share  in  the  government  of  that  kingdom.  While  he  was  thus 
engaged,  ambassadors  arrived  from  the  king  of  Hungary  to  announce 
that  the  Turks  not  only  menaced  his  territories  with  ruin,  but  avowed 
their  determination  to  subdue  the  whole  of  Christendom.  Sultan  Ba- 
yezid  openly  vaunted  that  his  cavalry  should  trample  on  the  cross  in 
every  European  city,  and  that  he  would  himself  feed  his  horses  on  the 
altar  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome. 

Duke  Philip  eagerly  seconded  the  solicitationt  3f  the  Hungarian  an*- 
bassadors :  under  his  auspices  a  crusade  was  ra'oclaimed  ;  the  great 
body  of  French  chivalry  and  all  the  young  nobility  embraced  the  proj- 
ect with  the  greatest  ardor,  and  the  young  count  de  Nevers,  heir  of 
Burgundy,  was  appointed  to  command  the  expedition  (1396). 

Sigismund  of  Luxemburg,  king  of  Hungary,  was  far  from  being  graf 
ified  by  the  arrival  of  such  auxiliaries.  Bayezid,  engaged  in  suppres 
sing  some  petty  insurrections  in  his  Asiatic  dominions,  had  concluded 
a  truce  with  the  Hungarians,  and  the  prudent  king  was  far  from  being 
disposed  to  revive  a  war  with  so  dangerous  an  enemy.  His  remon- 
strances were  wasted  on  the  proud  chivalry  of  France  ;  the  count  de 
Nevers  at  once  crossed  the  Turkish  frontier,  and  after  capturing  some 
places  of  minor  importance,  laid  siege  to  Nicopolis.  In  the  hurry  of 
their  advance  the  French  had  left  their  battering  artillery  behind ;  they 
were  therefore  compelled  to  blockade  the  place  in  the  hope  of  reducing 
it  by  famine. 

So  little  vigilance  was  exhibited  by  the  Christians,  that  the  garrison 
of  N  2opolis  had  intelligence  of  the  near  approach  of  Bayezid  before 
the  Christians  knew  that  he  had  commenced  his  march.  The  news 
that  the  sultan  was  close  at  hand  filled  their  camp  with  confusion  ;  the 
siege  of  Nicopolis  was  precipitately  raised,  and  in  the  first  alarm  the 
knights  massacred  all  their  prisoners,  forgetting  that  the  chances  of  war 
might  expose  them  to  a  terrible  retribution.  They,  however,  were  all 
eager  to  come  to  an  immediate  engagement ;  the  Hungarians  vaiiily 
advised  them  not  to  hazard  a  battle  until  they  had  ascertained  the  num- 
ber of  the  Turks,  and  the  tactics  which  the  sultan  intended  to  employ. 
Some  of  the  more  aged  and  experienced  warriors  seconded  this  advice, 
but  they  were  overborne  by  the  clamors  of  the  young  knights,  whose 
ardor  was  far  too  great  to  be  moderated  by  prudence. 

Bayezid  had  arranged  his  troops  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  with  the 
convex  side  turned  toward  the  enemy :  he  expected  thus  to  induce  the 
jphristians  to  attack  his  centre,  by  gradually  withdrawing  which  he 
might  reverse  the  form  of  his  line,  and  thus  getting  his  enemies  into 
the  concavity  of  the  crescent,  avail  himself  of  his  vast  superiority  of 
numbers  to  ovei  whelm  them  on  both  flanks.  The  Christians  fell  into 
the  snare,  and  were  surrounded.     The  Hungarian  infantry,  left  exposed 


504  MODERN  HISTOKV. 

by  the  rapid  advance  of  the  French  knights,  wab  broken  b^^  a  charge 
of  a  select  body  of  the  Turkish  cavahy  ;  Sigismund  and  the  gi'and  mas 
ter  of  Rhodes  escaped  in  a  small  boat,  leaving  their  allies  to  their  fate ; 
the  palatine  of  Hungary  alone  remained  with  a  small  body  of  his  coun- 
trymen to  rescue  the  French  from  the  consequences  of  their  rashness. 

Friends  and  foes  have  equally  celebrated  the  desperate  valor  of  thr 
French  knights  on  this  fatal  day.  The  Turks  at  first  gave  no  quarter; 
it  was  late  in  the  day  before  Bayezid  commanded  them  to  make  pris- 
oners, and  even  then  be  was  induced  to  do  so  by  no  feelings  of  mercy, 
but  by  his  desire  to  have  an  opportuni.y  of  revenging  the  fate  of  tlie 
Turks  who  had  been  slaughtered  in  the  camp  before  Nicopohs. 

Bayezid  recognised  Sir  .lames  de  Helly  (one  of  the  prisoners)  as  one 
of  his  old  companions  in  arms,  and  ordered  him  to  be  set  at  liberty  by 
his  captors.  He  then  commanded  him  to  point  out  vho  were  the 
greatest  lords  among  the  Christian  captives,  that  they  might  be  spared 
for  the  sake  of  their  ransoms.  The  count  de  Nevers  and  several  other 
princes  were  pointed  out  to  the  sultan  as  "  of  the  noblest  blood  in 
^rance,  nearly  related  to  the  king,  and  willing  to  pay  for  their  liberty  a 
great  sum  of  money."  The  sultan  said,  "  Let  these  alone  be  spared, 
and  all  the  other  prisoners  put  to  death,  to  free  the  country  from  them, 
and  that  others  may  take  example  from  their  fate." 

Heavy  taxes  were  laid  on  the  states  of  Burgundy  to  raise  the  enor- 
mous sum  which  the  sultan  demanded  as  a  ransom  for  the  heir  of  the 
dutchy.  To  increase  the  difficulty  of  the  transaction,  the  king  of  Hun- 
gary refused  to  allow  such  rich  treasures  to  pass  through  his  dominions 
for  the  purpose  of  strengthening,  his  enemies.  It  was  not  until  after  the 
lapse  of  several  months  that  a  Genoese  merchant,  named  Pellegrini,  in 
the  island  of  Chios,  undertook  to  arrange  the  terms  of  ransom  ;  and  the 
sultan  more  readily  accepted  the  security  of  a  commercial  house,  which 
could  onlv  exist  by  credit,  than  the  plighted  oaths  of  kings  and  princes, 
which  he  knew  were  too  often  most  dagrantly  and  shamelessly  violated. 

While  the  count  de  Nevers  was  thus  engaged  in  the  east,  his  brother- 
in-law,  the  count  of  Ostrevant,  aided  by  his  lather,  Albert,  duke  of  Ba- 
varia, was  carrying  on  a  war  scarcely  less  destructiA^e  against  the  Fris- 
ons.  These  barbarous  tribes  sent  out  piratical  expeditions,  which  rav- 
aged the  coasts  of  Holland,  Flanders,  and  sometimes  of  France ;  the 
naval  forces  maintained  to  keep  them  in  check  were  found  very  expen 
sive,  and  no*,  always  efficacious,  so  that  the  Flemings  and  Hollanders- 
supplicated  their  princes  to  attack  the  Frisonsin  their  native  fastnesses. 
An  immense  armament  was  prepared  for  this  hazardous  enterprise  ; 
auxiliaries  were  obtoined  from  England,  France,  and  western  Germa- 
ny, while  crowds  of  Hollanders  and  Flemings  hastened  to  volunteer 
their  services  against  enemies  who  had  been  their  constant  plague. 

In  about  five  weeks  after  the  landing,  winter  set  in  vvith  unusual  so- 
verity,  and  at  an  earlier  period  than  had  been  known  for  many  years 
before.     The  duke  was  forced  to  evacuate  the  country  and  disband  liis 
army  ;  l^ut  about  three  years  after  he  took  advantage  of  the  civil  dissel^r 
sious  among  the  Frisuns  to  reduce  the  entire  country  to  obedience. 

The  administration  of  the  government  of  France  by  Philip,  duke  of 
Burgundy,  was  on  the  whole  advantageous  to  the  nation.  It  was  chiefly 
■jwias  to  his  prudence  that  the  insanity  of  Charles  VI    did  not  produce 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUllOPE.  505 

tJie  calamities  of  civil  war.  He  had,  however,  one  great  fajli  ;  his  ex 
penditure,  both  public  and  private,  was  most  extravagant,  and  at  hia 
death  his  sons  were  forced  to  sell  his  plate  in  order  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  his  funeral.  He  died  of  fever  (April  27th,  1404),  generally 
regretted,  for  it  was  not  difficult  to  foresee  the  commotions  that  would 
ensue  when  the  conduct  of  the  state,  which  had  taxed  his  talents  and 
energies  to  the  utmost,  should  be  intrusted  to  a  feebler  hand. 

Sectio:^  V. — The  History  of  Burgundy  (continued). 

John  the  Fearless  succeeded  Philip  the  Hardy,  and  immediately  be- 
gan to  take  measure  for  procuring  to  himself  the  same  influence  in  the 
government  of  France  which  his  father  had  possessed  ;  he  was  opposed 
by  the  queen  and  the  duke  of  Orleans,  who  justly  dreaded  his  ambition. 
In  the  fury  of  civil  contest  he  hired  assassins  to  murder  the  duke  of 
Orleans  ;  and  this  atrocious  crime  was  perpetrated  in  the  very  midst 
of  Paris.  Such,  however,  were  the  power  of  the  duke  and  the  apathy 
of  the  times,  that  he  would  probably  have  obtained  a  justification  of  his 
conduct  from  the  court,  had  he  not  been  obliged  to  retire  to  his  territo- 
ries to  quell  an  insurrection  of  the  citizens  of  Liege ;  the  partisans  of 
Orleans  took  advantage  of  his  absence  to  raise  a  cry  for  justice,  and 
being  joined  by  all  the  enemies  of  Burgundy,  they  soon  formed  a  very 
powerful  faction. 

The  general  belief  that  the  duke  had  committed  treason  against  the 
state,  enabled  the  faction  of  Orleans  to  persuade  the  dauphin  that  his 
death  was  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  join  in  a 
perfidious  plot  for  his  assassination  Ambassadors  were  sent  to  invite 
John  the  Fearless  to  an  interview  with  the  dauphin  on  the  bridge  of 
Montereau,  in  order  that  they  might  in  common  concert  measures  for 
the  defence  of  the  kingdom.  He  went  to  the  appointed  rendezvous 
with  a  very  scanty  train,  armed  only  with  such  weapons  as  gentlemen 
of  the  period  usually  wore  on  visits  of  ceremony.  So  soon  as  he  came 
into  the  dauphin's  presence,  he  took  oft'  his  velvet  cap,  and  bent  his 
knee  in  token  of  homage  ;  but  before  he  could  rise,  he  was  struck  down 
by  the  axes  and  swords  of  the  royal  guards,  and  butchered  with  such 
of  his  tra  n  as  had  entered  the  saloon  (a.  d.  1419).  The  murder  of 
the  duke  of  Orleans  was  almost  the  only  stain  upon  the  memory  of 
John  the  Fearless  ;  his  Flemish  subjects,  whose  franchises  he  had 
protected,  and  whose  trade  he  had  fostered,  were  most  grieved  for  his 
loss ;  but  they  respected  his  memory  most  for  his  having  intrusted  the 
education  of  his  eldest  son  to  the  magistrates  of  the  free  cities,  and  iu 
fact  the  young  prince  had  been  educated  as  a  Fleming  rather  than  as  a 
Burgundian. 

Philip  the  Good,  immediately  after  his  accession,  prepared  to  take 
vengeance  for  the  murder  of  his  father ;  his  Flemish  education  had 
prevented  him  from  having  any  very  strong  sense  of  the  feudal  obliga- 
tions which  bound  the  dutchy  of  Burgundy  to  the  crown  of  France,  he 
therefore  did  not  hesitate  to  enter  into  alliance  with  Henry  V.  of  Eng- 
and,  and  recognised  him  as  the  legitimate  heir  to  the  crown  of  France, 
on  rundition  tliat  Charles  VI.  should  not  be  deprived  of  his  regal  dig- 
nity during  ihe  ren\ainder  of  his  unhappy  existence. 


506  MODERN    HISTORY 

The  war  oetween  the  English  and  French  now  bei'anje  ulcniifiea 
with  the  struggle  between  the  Burgundians  and  Arniagnacs,  as  the  fa- 
vorers of  Orleans  were  called  ;  the  virulence  of  private  animosities 
was  thus  added  to  the  horrors  of  open  war,  and  the  atrocities  committed 
on  both  sides  were  shocking  to  human  nature. 

The  death  of  Henry  V.  of  England,  followed  speedily  by  that  of 
Charles  VI,  of  France,  produced  a  great  change  in  the  aspect  of  the 
war.  Henry  VI.,  who  was  proclaimed  king  of  England  and  France, 
was  an  infant  in  the  cradle,  while  the  dauphin  was  in  the  very  prime 
of  life,  surrounded  by  the  greater  part  of  the  French  nobility,  and 
warmly  supported  by  the  bulk  of  the  nation.  Though  severely  defeat- 
ed, and  apparently  brought  to  the  brink  of  ruin,  when  his  chief  city 
Orleans  was  besieged,  a  deliverer  suddenly  appeared  in  the  person  of 
Joan  of  Arc,  the  tide  of  prosperity  which  had  hitherto  flowed  in  favor 
of  the  English,  suddenly  turned,  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy  opened 
negotiations  with  the  dauphin.  It  was  at  this  crisis  that  Philip  insti- 
tuted the  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage 
with  Isabella  of  Portugal  (a.  d.  1430),  an  order  of  knighthood  which 
soon  became  the  most  illustrious  in  Europe.  Soon  after  his  marriage, 
•he  alienation  of  the  duke  from  the  English  interest  continued  to  in- 
crease, and  finally,  under  the  auspices  of  the  pope,  he  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Charles  VII.,  whom  he  consented  to  recognise  as  legitimate 
sovereign  of  France. 

Having  disengaged  himself  from  the  French  wars,  the  duke  of  Bur 
gundy  devoted  himself  to  the  improvement  of  his  dominions  in  the  Low 
Countries.  His  brilliant  court  realized  the  visions  of  chivalry  ;  the 
jousts  and  tournaments  given  under  his  sanction  surpassed  in  magnifi- 
cence any  that  had  yet  been  witnessed  in  Europe  ;  the  wealth  of  the 
commercial  cities  in  Flanders  was  freely  poured  forth  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses, and  noble  knights  from  all  parts  of  Europe  flocked  to  the  court 
of  Burgundy  to  prove  their  valor  in  the  lists.  Philip  encouraged  this 
taste  for  display  among  his  subjects  from  political  motives  ;  he  found 
that  luxury  diverted  the  attention  of  the  turbulent  municipalities  and 
their  magistrates  from  afiairs  of  state,  and  suspended,  if  it  did  not  erad- 
icate, the  ancient  jealousies  between  conmiercial  freedom  and  feudalism. 

Nearly  a  century  and  a  half  had  now  elapsed  since  the  Swiss  can- 
tons had  emancipated  themselves  from  the  yoke  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria ;  the  free  states  had  become  jealous  of  each  other,  some  leagued 
with  their  ancient  enemies,  others  sought  alliances  with  the  petty  prin- 
ces of  Germany,  and  the  feudal  powers,  to  whom  the  example  of  Swiss 
hidependence  seemed  traught  with  dangerous  consequences,  believed 
that  an  opportunity  was  offered  for  reducing  the  mountaineers  to  theii 
former  bondage.  A  league  for  the  purpose  was  formed  by  the  poten- 
tates of  western  Germany  under  the  direct  sanction  of  the  emperor, 
and  application  was  made  to  the  duke  of  Burgundy  for  assistance.  He 
received  the  proposal  very  coolly,  upon  which  the  imperialists  sough', 
the  aid  of  the  king  of  France,  who  was  very  anxious,  now  that  the 
wars  were  over,  to  get  rid  of  the  Armagnacs,  and  other  companies  of 
soldiers,  who  lived  at  free  quarters  on  the  peasantry,  and  prevented  the 
country  from  enjoying  the  blessings  of  tranquillity.  An  immense  armv 
was  soon  raised  and  placed  under  the  command  of  the  dauphin. 


THE  STATES  SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  507 

On  tho  morning  of  the  24th  of  August,  1444,  Switzers  and  French- 
men met  for  the  first  time  in  mortal  combat.  The  advanced  guard  of 
the  French,  which  alone  was  ten  times  more  numerous  than  the  entire 
SwitiS  army,  occupied  the  heights  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Pirsc, 
while  the  main  body  remained  on  the  left  bank,  urging  forward  the 
hieo'e  of  Basle.  The  Swiss  were  routed,  but  the  dauphin's  victory  was 
obtained  with  the  loss  of  eight  thousand  of  his  best  so4diers.  The 
French  were  not  willing  to  fight  a  second  battle  with  such  fearless  war- 
riors ;  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  Germans,  the  dauphin  re- 
solved to  act  the  part  of  mediator,  and  a  peace  was  concluded  under 
his  auspices,  by  which  the  liberties  of  the  Swiss  cantons  were  formally 
recognised.  The  duke  of  Burgundy  took  no  share  in  this  war ;  he 
was  too  deeply  engaged  by  the  troubles  of  Flanders,  where  a  formida- 
ble revolt  had  been  raised  by  the  citizens  of  Ghent.  After  a  sanguin- 
ary struggle  the  insurgent  Flemings  were  subdued,  and  Ghent  was  de- 
prived of  most  of  its  municipal  privileges. 

The  dauphin  of  France,  afterward  Louis  XL,  having  provoked  his 
father  to  war,  was  obliged  to  fly  from  his  estates  and  seek  shelter  with 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  who  was  at  the  time  rendered  uneasy  hy  the 
turbulent  disposition  of  his  own  son,  the  count  of  Charolais,  iubse 
quently  known  in  history  as  Charles  the  Bold.  These  family  disturb- 
ances embroiled  the  courts  of  France  and  Burgundy  for  several  year? 
but  at  length  the  death  of  Charles  VI L  rendered  the  dauphin  king  ci 
France  ;  the  duke  escorted  him  safely  to  his  dominions,  rendered  hiu 
homage  as  his  sovereign,  and  assisted  in  the  ceremonies  of  his  corona- 
tion. Louis  was  far  from  being  grateful  for  these  benefits ;  he  formed 
several  plots  to  seize  the  person  of  the  count  of  Charolais,  foreseeing 
that  he  would  become  his  most  formidable  rival,  and  he  broke  all  the 
engagements  he  had  made  to  restore  he  towns  which  had  at  various 
times  been  wrested  from  the  dukes  of  Burgundy  by  the  monarchs  of 
France.  The  count  of  Charolais  was  not  disposed  to  endure  these 
\^Tongs  wi*h  patience  ;  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  father,  he  support- 
ed the  nobles  of  France  in  their  revolts  against  their  sovereign,  and  had 
just  organized  a  formidable  league  against  Louis,  when  the  death  of 
Duke  Philip  compelled  him  to  adjourn  his  warlike  designs,  until  he  had 
secured  to  himself  his  inheritance  of  the  dutchy  of  Burgundy. 

Few  sovereigns  were  more  generally  and  justly  lamented  than  Philip 
the  Good ;  during  the  fifty  years  of  his  reign.  Burgundy  was  the  most 
wealthy,  prosperous,  and  tranquil  of  all  the  states  of  Europe  ;  and  had 
he  pleased  to  assert  his  independence,  he  might  have  become  a  more 
powerful  sovereign  than  the  king  of  France  himself.  The  genera] 
grief  for  his  loss  was  increased  by  the  dread  which  the  character  of 
ais  successor  inspired  ;  the  rashness,  the  pride,  the  obstinacy,  and  the 
cruelty  of  Charles  the  Bold  had  stained  his  entire  career  as  count  of 
Charolais  ;  his  subjects  and  his  neighbors  were  equally  filled  with 
alarm,  lest  the  same  qualities  should  be  still  more  signally  manifested 
m  the  duke  of  Burgundy. 

Section  VL — Tlie  History  of  Burgundy  (conciuaed J. 

Immediately  on  the  installation  of  Charles  the  Bold,  as  duKe  of 
Burgundy,  an  insurrection  was  organized  in  Ghent.     The  duke  wa.T 


508  MODERN  HISTORY. 

forced  to  yield  lo  trie  popular  demands,  but  in  doing  so,  lie  made  i  !?e 
cret  vow  that  he  would  exact  deadly  vengeance  for  the  insult  whict 
had  been  offered  to  his  authority.  His  indignation  was  increased  by 
similar  revolts  in  the  cities  of  Brabant  and  in  Liege,  which  he  justly 
attributed  to  the  example  of  Ghent,  aided  hy  the  secret  intrigues  ol" 
French  emissaries. 

The  troubles  of  Brabant  were  easily  quieted  ;  but  the  citizens  of 
Liege,  relying  on  the  indistinct  promises  of  aid  made  by  the  king  of 
France,  not  only  raised  the  standard  of  revolt,  but  committed  such 
atrocious  crimes,  that  Charles  determined  to  destroy  the  city.  With 
some  dilFiculty  his  councillors  dissuaded  him  from  executing  his  design 
In  revenge  for  the  incentives  to  rebellion  which  the  king  of  Franco' 
was  more  than  suspected  of  having  supplied  to  the  people  of  Liege, 
Charles  entered  into  a  close  league  with  the  discontented  French  prin- 
ces who  had  taken  up  arms  against  Louis  XL,  while  that  monarch  re- 
newed his  intrigues  with  the  discontented  burgesses  in  all  the  cities 
subject  to  the  duke  of  Burgundy.  Louis  was,  however,  far  the  more 
successful  in  this  species  of  unavowed  warfare ;  cold,  cautious,  and 
cunning,  he  was  able  to  conduct  complicated  intrigues,  and  to  await  their 
success  with  patience,  while  the  violent  temper  of  Charles  frequently 
led  him  to  frustrate  the  plans  on  which  he  had  bestowed  the  most  care 
and  attention.  In  one  memorable  instance,  the  reliance  of  Louis  on 
his  own  craft  had  nearly  proved  his  destruction  ;  finding  that  his  envoys 
did  not  produce  the  effect  he  desired  on  the  mind  of  his  rival,  he  re- 
solved to  try  the  effect  of  a  personal  interview,  and  unexpectedly  pre- 
sented himself  at  the  duke  of  Burgundy's  court  in  Peronne,  escorted 
by  a  feeble  company  of  his  personal  retainers.  The  interview  be- 
tween the  king  and  the  duke  was  far  from  satisfactory  ;  their  mutual 
jealousies  soon  began  to  threaten  a  rupture,  when  the  intelligence  of  a 
new  revolt  in  Liege,  and  the  massacre  of  all  the  partisans  of  Burgund} 
in  that  city,  including  the  prince-bishop,  so  roused  the  fury  of  Charles 
that  he  made  his  sovereign  a  prisoner,  and  would  probably  have  pro- 
ceeded to  further  extremities,  but  for  the  interference  of  his  council. 

Louis,  taken  in  his  own  toils,  was  obliged  to  submit  to  the  terms  of 
j/oace  dictated  by  Charles  ;  the  most  mortifying  condition  of  his  libera- 
tion was  that  he  should  lead  an  anny  against  the  insurgent  citizens  of 
Liege,  and  thus  aid  his  vassal  in  suppressing  a  revolt  which  he  had 
himself  secretly  instigated.  The  ducal  and  royal  armies  were  soon 
assembled,  and  they  marched  together  against  the  devoted  citizens  o 
Liege,  who  had  never  imagined  the  possibility  of  such  a  combination. 
They  did  not  however  despair,  but  defended  themselves  with  great 
courage,  until  the  advanced  guard  of  the  Burgundians  had  forced  its  way 
through  the  breaches  of  the  walls,  and  made  a  lodgement  in  the  princi* 
pal  street.  All  resistance  was  then  at  an  end;  the  city  became  the 
prey  of  the  barbarous  soldiers  ;  it  was  cruelly  pillaged  for  several  days 
tad  those  citizens  who  escaped  the  sword  either  perished  of  hungei 
as  they  wandered  through  the  woods  and  fields,  or  were  delivered  ovel 
to  the  executioner.  After  this  scene  of  massacre  had  lasted  eight  days, 
Charles  left  the  city,  after  having  given  orders  that  every  edifice  iii 
Liege  should  be  destroyed,  except  the  churches,  and  the  iouses  belong 
ing  to  the  clergy.     As  Liege  was  an  episcopal  city,  the  clergy  pus 


THE  8TATKS-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  509 

sessed  or  claimed  a  very  considerable  portion  of  it,  and  the  exception 
ni'^de  in  their  favor  saved  it  from  ruin. 

Louis  never  fori^ave  the  indignities  which  he  had  endured  at  Pe- 
ronne,  and  in  his  forced  march  to  Liege  ;  without  openly  declaring  war 
against  Burgundy,  he  secretly  raised  up  enemies  against  the  duke  in 
every  quarter  and  Charles,  by  the  violence  of  his  passions,  constantly 
exposed  himself  at  disadvantage  to  the  machinations  of  his  rival.  Ren- 
dered insolent  by  continued  prosperity,  he  aliuiated  from  him  the  bravo 
chivalry  of  Burgundy,  by  bestowing  all  his  confidence  on  a  foreign  fa- 
v'orite,  the  count  of  Campo-Basso,  who  flattered  his  vanity  by  an  ab- 
solute submission  to  his  caprices.  Louis  had  the  good  fortune  to  win 
the  friendship  of  the  Swiss,  whom  his  rival  had  changed  from  friends 
into  foes  by  the  most  wanton  violation  of  treaties ;  and  Charles,  to 
whom  the  very  name  of  freedom  was  odious,  on  account  of  the  revolts 
of  Ghent  and  Liege,  resolved  to  bring  the  independent  mountaineers 
once  more  under  the  yoke  of  feudal  bondage. 

Rarely  had  Europe  seen  so  splendid  an  armv  as  that  which  Charles 
'ed  to  the  invasion  of  Switzerland  ;  it  consisted  of  thirty-six  thousand 
soldiers,  long  inured  to  military  exercises,  accompanied  by  the  most 
formidable  train  of  artillery  that  had  ever  yet  been  brought  into  the 
field.  The  duke  advanced  to  besiege  Granson  ;  it  was  bravely  de- 
fended, but  the  walls  soon  began  to  crumble  vmder  the  heavy  fire  of 
the  Burgundian  artillery,  and  several  of  the  citizens,  seduced  by  prom- 
ises and  bribes,  clamored  for  a  capitulation.  It  was  agreed  that  the 
governor  and  the  best  soldiers  of  the  garrison  should  present  themselves 
before  Charles  and  demand  to  be  admitted  to  mercy,  as  his  emissaries 
had  promised.  The  moment,  however,  that  they  appeared,  Charles 
ordered  them  to  be  seized ;  the  governor  and  his  officers  to  be  hanged, 
and  all  the  rest  to  be  hurled  as  they  were,  bound  hand  and  foot,  into 
the  lake.  About  two  hundred  Swiss  wei"e  thus  treacherously  mas- 
aacred. 

Intelligence  of  this  event  spread  rapidly  through  the  cantons ;  on 
every  side  the  bold  mountaineers  flew  to  arms,  while  the  duKC,  having 
formed  ar  entrenched  camp  at  Granson,  advanced  with  a  strong  de- 
tachment toward  Neufchatel.  Pride  had  rendered  him  so  regardless 
of  ordinary  precai.tions  that  he  came  unexpectedly  in  presence  of 
the  main  body  of  the  Swiss  in  the  mountain  defiles,  when  with  his 
usual  impetuosity  he  gave  the  signal  to  engage.  The  Swiss  pikcmen 
formed  in  close  line,  drove  back  the  Burgundian  cavalry,  and  steadily 
advancing  in  close  order  forced  the  squadrons  of  horse  before  them, 
destroying  some  of  the  bra.jst  knights  of  the  enemy  as  they  got  en- 
tangled in  the  press.  Every  effort  which  the  duke  made  to  extricate 
his  gallant  chivalry  only  added  to  the  confusion,  and  while  he  vainly 
strove  to  form  his  hnes,  fresh  troops  appeared  upon  the  heights  on  his 
left  flank,  raising  the  war-cry  of  "  Granson !  Granson !"  to  show  that 
.hey  came  to  revenge  the  massacre  of  their  brethren.  Soon  fifter  the 
horns  of  Uri  and  Unterwalden  were  heard  in  the  distance  ;  they  were 
two  enormous  horns,  which  according  to  tradition  had  been  bestowed 
upon  these  cantons  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne  ;  their  sound  had  ofter 
filled  invaders  with  dread  during  the  old  wars  of  Austria,  and  appeared 
on  the  pre^'ent  occasion  scarcely  less  ominous  to  the  Burgundiana. 


510  MODERN  HISTORY. 

The  retreat  of  the  advanced  guard  of  Charles  became  every  niomnnt 
more  disorderly,  it  was  at  length  converted  into  a  precipitate  flight,  and 
the  fugitives  on  reaching  the  entrenched  camp,  filled  it  with  the  samt 
terror  and  confusion  by  which  they  were  possessed  themselves.  In 
vain  did  Charles  attempt  to  remedy  the  disorder ;  his  artillerymen  after 
a  feeble  and  ineffectual  fire  abandoned  their  guns  ;  his  Italian  auxiliariea 
fled  without  striking  a  blow,  and  at  length,  being  left  almost  alone,  he 
quitted  his  camp  with  a  few  attendants,  leaving  to  the  Swiss  the  richest 
booty  that  had  been  gained  in  war  for  several  centuries.  Among  the 
spoils  thus  abandoned  were  three  celebrated  diamonds,  of  which  one 
now  adorns  the  tiara  of  the  pope,  a  second  is  reckoned  among  the  most 
splendid  treasures  of  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  the  third,  usuall} 
called  the  Souci  diamond,  was  long  the  richest  brilliant  in  the  crown 
of  France. 

Grief  and  rage  for  his  defeat  reduced  Charles  to  a  state  borderii.g 
on  insanity.  It  was  not  until  after  the  lapse  of  several  weeks  that  he 
began  to  take  active  measures  for  repairing  his  losses,  and  previnting 
the  king  of  France  from  profiting  by  his  reverses.  All  the  wealth 
which  he  had  hoarded  during  his  reign ;  all  the  treasures  which  he 
could  procure  from  the  wealthy  commercial  cities  in  Flanders  and  Bra- 
bant, were  freely  poured  forth  to  recruit  his  army  ;  the  bells  of  the 
churches  were  melted  down  and  cast  into  cannon  to  repair  the  loss  of 
his  artillery  at  Granson ;  he  hired  auxiliaries  from  France,  from  Italy, 
and  from  England.  On  the  other  hand  the  Swiss  employed  themselves 
in  fortifying  Morat,  which  they  regarded  as  the  key  of  Berne,  and  sent 
pressing  messages  to  their  confederates  to  hasten  the  arrival  of  their 
respective  contingents. 

On  the  27th  of  May,  1476,  Charles  quitted  his  camp  at  Lausaune  to 
commence  the  siege  of  Morat ;  rarely  has  a  place  been  more  vigorously 
assailed  or  more  obstinately  defended  ;  the  walls  were  breached  in 
several  places,  but  every  assault  of  the  Burgundians  was  repulsed,  and 
the  duke  himself  was  twice  driven  back  from  the  ruined  ramparts. 
This  marvellous  resistance  gave  the  Swiss  time  to  assemble  their  ar- 
mies, but  Morat  was  on  the  point  of  falling  when  they  advanced  to  its 
relief.  Several  of  his  officers  advised  Charles  to  raise  the  siege  on  the 
a'^oroach  of  the  Swiss,  and  retire  to  ground  more  favorable  for  a  field 
of  oattle  ;  but  he  was  as  obstinately  deaf  to  good  counsel  as  he  had  been 
at  Granson,  and  his  passions  had  produced  a  kind  of  fever  which  ren 
dered  him  so  irritable  that  his  dearest  friends  were  afraid  to  approach 
him.  The  Swiss  formed  their  line  of  battle  under  the  shelter  of  a  line 
of  hills  covered  with  trees,  which  effectually  concealed  their  move 
nients  from  their  enemies ;  Charles  advanced  to  dislodge  them  from 
this  position  in  a  tempest  of  rain  which  injured  his  powder  and  relaxec? 
the  bowstrings  of  his  archers.  The  Burgundians,  finding  that  the) 
could  not  gel  through  the  wood,  nor  entice  the  Swiss  from  their  lines, 
began  to  retire  toward  their  camp,  drenched  with  rain  and  exhausted 
by  their  useless  march.  The  Swiss  general,  Hans  de  Hallvvyll,  who 
had  already  earned  high  fame  in  the  wars  of  Hungary,  gave  the  signa! 
of  pursuit ;  Rene,  the  young  duke  of  Lorraine,  whom  Charles  ha'l 
Btripped  of  his  paternal  dominions,  advanced  at  the  head  of  the  cavalrv 
of  the  confederates,  and   th  j   Burtrundians  were   attacked  in   their  in 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  511 

treiiclied  camp.  Charles  could  scarcely  be  persuade  d  that  the  Swiss 
would  have  hazaided  so  perilous  an  attempt ;  he  hastened  to  bnng  up 
his  men  at  arms  to  the  place  where  the  chief  assault  was  made,  and  at 
the  same  time  opened  a  heavy  fire  from  his  batteries  on  the  advancing 
columns.  His  best  artillerymen  however  had  fallen  at  Granson  ;  his 
cannon  being  ill-served  did  but  little  execution,  while  Hallwyll  under 
cover  of  the  smoke  led  a  body  of  troops  along  the  Burgundian  lines 
R.nd  suddenly  falling  on  their  exposed  flank,  forced  his  way  into  the 
midst  of  „he  camp  before  the  manoeuvre  was  discovered.  On  the  other 
extreme  the  Burgundians  were  equally  surprised  by  an  unexpected 
sally  from  the  garrison  of  Morat ;  they  fell  into  remediless  confusion, 
the  battle  was  no  longer  a  fight  but  a  carnage,  for  the  Swiss  sternly 
refused  quarter,  so  that  "  cruel  as  at  Morat,"  long  continued  to  be  a 
proverb  in  their  mountains. 

The  states  of  Burgundy,  Flanders,  and  Brabant,  refused  to  grant  the 
duke  the  enormous  sums  which  he  demanded  to  raise  a  third  army, 
and  while  he  was  engaged  in  threatening  them  with  his  wrath,  and 
collecting  as  many  soldiers  as  he  could  procure  from  his  own  resour- 
ces, he  learned  that  Lorraine  was  nearly  recovered  by  its  young  duke 
Rene,  who,  after  making  himself  master  of  several  towns,  with  little  or 
no  opposition,  had  laid  siege  to  Nancy.  The  city  was  taken  before 
Charles  was  ready  to  march,  and  Rene  having  secured  it  with  a  faith- 
ful garrison,  proceeded  to  the  Swiss  cantons  to  solicit  aid  against  their 
common  enemy.  Sieges  were  always  unfavorable  to  the  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy ;  he  was  unable  to  reduce  Nancy,  but  he  obstinately  persisted 
in  remaining  before  the  walls,  while  his  army  suffered  severely  from 
an  inclement  winter  and  the  increasing  want  of  pay  and  provisions 
In  fact  the  unfortunate  duke  wds  now  sold  to  his  enemies  by  his  favor 
ite  Campo-Basso,  and  his  rash  cruelty  had  led  him  to  precipitate  the 
execution  of  the  chief  agent  of  the  plot,  whom  he  had  by  chance  made 
prisoner. 

On  the  4th  of  January,  1477,  Rene  of  Lorraine,  at  the  head  of  the 
Swiss  confederates,  was  seen  from  the  Burgundian  camp  advancing  to 
the  relief  of  Nancy.  In  the  very  beginning  of  the  battle  the  desertion 
of  the  traitor  Campo-Basso  decided  the  fate  of  the  day,  but  the  brave 
chivalry  of  Burgundy  in  this,  the  last  of  their  fields,  maintained  a  des- 
perate resistance  until  night  put  an  end  to  the  combat.  The  fate  of  the 
duke  of  Burgundy  was  for  a  long  time  uncertain,  but  after  a  tedious 
search  his  body  was  found  covered  with  wounds,  some  of  which  had 
every  appearance  of  being  inflicted  by  assassins.  Rene  paid  every 
possible  respect  to  the  remains  of  the  unfortunate  Charles,  and  he  lib- 
erated all  his  Burgundian  prisoners  that  they  might  attend  the  funeral. 

The  history  of  Mary  of  Burgundy,  the  daughter  and  successor  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  must  be  related  briefly.  No  sooner  was  the  news  of 
her  father's  death  known,  than  the  king  of  France  prepared  to  seize  on 
her  dominions  in  Burgundy,  and  the  Flemings  rose  in  insurrection  against 
her  authority.  Louis  at  first  was  disposed  to  force  her  to  marry  the 
dauphin,  and  thus  jeunite  Burgundy  to  France,  but  the  tortuous  co'.irse 
af  policy  which  he  pursued  defeated  his  object.  The  Flemings  discov- 
ered the  intrigue  ;  they  seized  on  the  favorite  counsellors  of  the  unhap 
pv  jirincess,  and  beheaded  them  before  her  eyes  in  the  market-place  o! 


512  MODERN  HISTORY 

Ghent.  Mary  was  subsequently  married  to  Duke  Maximilian  of  jVub- 
tria,  but  he  only  obtained  possession  of  her  dominions  in  the  Nether- 
lands ;  Burgundy  was  conquered  by  the  French,  and  Maximilian  had 
neither  the  energy  nor  the  wisdom  to  recover  it  from  Louis.  This  was 
the  origin  of  the  bitter  hostility  between  the  sovereigns  of  France  and 
Austria,  which  for  a  long  series  of  years  kept  the  continent  of  Europe 
in  almost  perpetual  war. 

Sectio>-  Yll.— The  Age  of  Charles  V. 

The  political  idea  of  maintaining  a  balance  of  power,  which  was  first 
formed  in  Italy,  began  to  spread  north  of  the  Alps,  in  consequence  of 
the  rapid  and  overwhelming  increase  of  the  Austrian  power.  Maxi- 
milian of  Austria,  son  of  the  emperor  Frederic  III.,  married  Mary  of 
Burgundy,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy 
(a.  d.  1477),  as  has  been  already  related,  and  in  her  righi-  obtained  pos- 
session of  the  fertile  and  wealthy  provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  His 
son,  Philip  the  Fair,  was  united  to  Joanna,  infanta  of  Spain,  daughter 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  whose  union  had  joined  the  kingdoms  of 
Ara-gon  and  Castile.  The  fruit  of  Philip's  marriage  with  Joanna  was 
two  sons,  Charles  and  Ferdinand  ;  and  the  elder  of  these,  at  the  age  of 
sixteen,  inherited  the  crown  of  Spain  and  its  colonies,  in  addition  to  his 
paternal  dominions  in  the  Netherlands  (a.  d.  1516).  The  death  of  his 
grandfather  Maximilian  transmitted  to  him  the  Austrian  territories,  and 
the  other  domains  of  the  house  of  Hapsburgh,  and  the  electors  chose  him 
to  fill  the  vacant  throne  of  the  empire.  Thus  Charles,  the  first  of  Spain, 
and  the  fifth  of  the  empire,  possessed  greater  power  than  any  sovereign 
that  had  flourished  in  Europe  since  the  days  of  Charlemagne.  In  the 
beginning  of  his  reign,  he  resigned  his  hereditary  dominions  in  Germany 
to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  who  afterward  succeeded  him  in  the  empire, 
and  became  the  founder  of  the  second  Austrian  line  of  emperors,  which 
ended  with  Charles  VI.  (a.  d.  1740).  From  the  emperor  Charles  de- 
scended the  Austrian  family  of  Spanish  kings,  which  was  terminated  by 
the  death  of  Charles  II.  (a.  d.  1700). 

These  two  branches  of  the  Austrian  house,  the  German  and  the 
Spanish,  long  acted  in  concert,  to  procure  reciprocal  advantages,  and 
were  fortunate  in  strengthening  their  power  by  new  alliances.  Ferdi- 
nand married  Anne,  sister  of  Louis,  king  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia  ; 
and  when  that  monarch  fell  in  war  against  the  Turks,  added  both 
these  kingdoms  to  the  hereditary  dominions  of  Austria.  Charles  V., 
by  his  marriage  with  Isabella,  daughter  of  Emmanuel,  king  of  Portu- 
gal, prepared  the  way  for  his  son  Philip's  annexation  of  that  country  to 
Spain. 

Two  monarchs,  contemporary  with  Charles,  were  almost  equally 
bound  by  their  interests  to  check  the  preponderance  of  the  house  of 
Austria — Henry  VIII.  of  England,  and  Francis  I.  of  France.  Henry 
VII.,  after  the  victory  of  Bosworth-field  had  given  him  undisputed  pos- 
session of  the  crown,  labored  diligently  and  successfully  to  extend  the 
, royal  authority,  and  to  raise  the  commercial  prosperity  of  the  nation.  On 
his  death  (a.  d.  1509),  he  bequeathed  to  his  son  a  rich  treasury  and  a 
flourishing  kingdom.     Possessing  such  advantages,  Henry  VIII.  migh: 


THE  STATESSYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  jilS 

nave  been  the  arbitrator  of  Europe  ;  but  his  naturally  fine  talents  were 
perverted  by  flattery  ;  he  allowed  free  scope  to  all  his  passions,  and  his 
actions  were  consequently  the  result  of  caprice,  vanity,  or  resentment — 
rarely,  if  ever,  of  enlightened  policy.  Many  of  the  defects  in  his  ad- 
ministration must,  however,  be  ascribed  to  the  pride  and  ambition  of  his 
prime  minister.  Cardinal  Wolsey,  who  sacrificed  the  welfare  of  England 
and  the  honor  of  his  sovereign  to  further  his  private  ends  or  gratify  hi.-' 
idle  vanity. 

Francis  I.  was  a  prince  of  higher  character  ;  he  had  many  of  the 
noble  qualities,  and  not  a  few  of  the  faults,  usually  ascribed  to  the  spirit 
of  chivalry  ;  bold,  enterprising,  and  personally  brave  ho  did  not  always 
regulate  his  actions  by  prudence,  and  his  rashness  li  st  what  his  valor 
had  won.  Soon  after  coming  to  the  crown,  he  undertook  to  recover 
Milan,  and  overthrew  Sforza  and  the  imperialists  at  Marignano.  The 
defeated  duke  resigned  his  country  for  a  pension  ;  the  pope  and  the 
northern  Italian  states  assented  to  the  arrangement,  and  tl.  j  possession 
of  the  contested  dutchy  seemed  secured  to  France  by  the  conclusion  of 
a  treaty  with  the  Swiss  cantons  (a.  d.  1516).  Nearly  at  the  same 
time  a  treaty  was  made  with  Charles,  who  had  not  yet  succeeded  t*^ 
the  empire,  which  seemed  to  establish  peace,  but  only  rendered  was 
more  certain. 

Henry  and  Francis  were  both  candidates  with  Charles  for  the  em- 
pire ;  the  former,  however,  had  no  rational  hopes  of  success,  while 
Francis  could  not  hide  his  anticipations  of  success,  no  more  than  his 
mortification  when  he  failed.  The  mutual  jealousies  of  the  French  and 
Spanish  monarchs  were  aggravated  by  hostile  claims  ;  Charles,  by  right 
of  descent,  could  demand  the  ancient  possessions  of  the  duke  of  Bur- 
gtmdy,  and  he  was  feudal  sovereign,  as  emperor,  over  the  northern 
Italian  states,  the  chief  dutchy  of  which  had  been  recently  annexed  to 
France.  On  the  other  hand,  Francis  had  claims  to  the  thrones  of  Na- 
varre and  Naples,  which  he  was  very  unwilling  to  resign.  Peace  could 
not  long  subsist  between  these  potentates,  neither  were  their  forces  so 
unequally  matched  as  might  at  first  be  supposed.  The  extensive  domin- 
ions of  Charles  were  governed  by  dilTerent  constitutions ;  in  none,  not 
even  in  Spain,  was  he  wholly  unfettered,  while  in  Germany,  where  the 
Reformation  was  constantly  raising  embarrassing  questions,  and  the 
princes  ever  anxious  to  circumscribe  the  imperial  authority,  added  more 
to  his  nominal  than  to  bis  real  strength.  His  finances  were  also  em- 
barrassed, and  he  often  fovmd  it  an  almost  insuperable  dilliculty  to  pro- 
vide for  the  payment  of  his  troops,  most  of  whom  were  necessarily  mer- 
cenaries. On  the  other  hand,  Francis  inherited  almost  despotic  au- 
thority ;  his  power  concentrated,  his  own  subjects  were  enrolled  as  hia 
Boldiers,  and  the  regular  organization  of  the  French  government  freed 
him  from  the  financial  embarrassments  of  his  rival.  Both  strengthened 
themselves  by  alliances  :  Charles  gained  the  aid  of  the  pope,  and  won 
Henry  VIII.  to  his  side  by  duping  the  egregious  vanity  of  Wolsey  , 
P'rancis,  on  the  other  hand,  was  supported  by  the  Swiss  and  the  Vene- 
Uans.  The  war  began  nearly  at  the  same  moment  in  Navarre,  the 
Netherlands,  and  Lombardy.  The  treachery  of  the  queen-mother,  who 
withheld  from  the  fVench  connnander,  Lautrec,  the  money  necessary 
to  pay  the  troops  employed  in  Italy,  led  to  the  loss  of  Milan  and  lh« 

33 


514 


MODERN   HISTORY 


greater  part  of  the  diitchy.  An  effort  made  to  recover  the  lost  ground 
led  to  the  battle  of  Bicocca  (a.  d.  1522),  in  which  the  French  were  to^ 
tally  defeated,  and  finally  expelled  from  Italy ;  and  Genoa,  their  mosi 
faithful  ally,  was  subjected  to  the  power  of  their  enemies.  An  evenl 
of  scarcely  less  -mportance  was  the  death  of  Leo,  and  the  elevatioi, 
of  Adrian,  a  dcA'oted  adherent  of  Charles,  to  the  papal  chair  ;  and  thi; 
was  soon  followed  by  the  desertion  of  the  'N\metians  to  the  imperial 
side. 

Francis  might  have  still  recovered  the  Milanese,  where  the  emperor's 
troops  had  been  disbanded  for  want  of  pay,  had  not  the  queen-mothf:v, 
blinded  b)  passion,  induced  him  to  treat  the  constable  of  Bourbon  with 
such  gross  injustice,  that  this  powerful  noble  entered  into  a  secret  in- 
trigue with  the  emperor,  and  agreed  to  raise  the  standard  of  revolt.  The 
discovery  of  the  plot  delayed  the  French  king's  march  into  Italy ;  and 
though  he  protected  his  own  territories,  the  Milanese  was  irrecoverably 
lost.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  Charles  commanded  the  imperial 
generals  to  invade  France  on  the  side  of  Provence,  .vhile  the  king  of 
England  promised  to  attack  it  on  the  north.  Had  this  plan  been  exe- 
cuted, Francis  must  have  been  ruined  ;  but  Wolsey,  provoked  by  the 
elevation  of  Clement  VII.  to  the  papacy,  on  the  death  of  Adrian, 
avenged  himself  for  the  broken  promises  of  the  emperor,  abated  Henry's 
ardor  for  the  enterprise,  and  persuaded  him  to  keep  his  forces  at  home 
under  pretence  of  resisting  the  Scots,  v,ho  had  embraced  the  side  of 
the  French  king.  Charles,  unable  to  command  money,  could  not  make 
a  diversion  on  the  side  of  Spain  or  the  Netherlands  ;  and  the  imperial- 
ists, having  uselessly  wasted  the  country,  were  compelled  to  retire  from 
Provence. 

Elated  hy  his  success,  Francis  hastened  to  invade  Italy  ;  but  instead 
of  pressing  the  pursuit  of  the  shattered  imperialists,  he  laid  siege  to 
Pavia,  and  thus  gave  his  adversaries  time  to  strengthen  and  recruit 
their  forces.  With  similar  imprudence,  he  sent  a  large  detachment  to 
mvade  Naples,  hoping  that  the  viceroy  of  that  kingdom  would  withdraw 
u  large  portion  of  the  imperialists  from  the  Milanese  for  its  defence  ;  but 
Charles's  generals,  having  received  a  strong  reinforcement  raised  in 
Germany  by  the  constable  of  Bourbon,  attacked  the  French  in  their  in- 
trenchments,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory,  in  which  Francis  himself 
was  made  prisoner. 

This  great  alamity  was  principally  owing  to  the  romantic  notions  of 
honor  entertained  by  the  French  king  :  he  had  vowed  that  he  would 
take  Pavia  or  perish  in  the  attempt ;  and  rather  than  expose  himself  to 
the  imputation  of  breaking  a  promise  of  chivalry,  he  remained  in  his  iii- 
trenchments,  though  the  means  of  safe  retreat  were  open  to  him.  Never 
did  arini(!s  engage  with  greater  ardor  than  the  French  and  imperialists 
before  the  walls  of  Pavia  (February  24,  1525).  On  the  one  hand,  a 
gallant  young  monarch,  seconded  by  a  generous  nobility,  and  followed 
by  subjects  to  whose  natural  impetuosity  indignation  at  the  opposition 
which  they  had  encountered  added  new  force,  contended  for  victory  and 
honor.  On  the  other  side,  troops  more  completely  discij)lined,  and  con- 
ducted by  generals  of  greater  abilities,  fought,  from  necessity,  with 
courage  heightened  by  despair.  The  imperialists,  however,  were  una 
file  to  res; -St  the  first  eflforts  of  the  French  valor,  and  thei'  firmest  battal 


THE  STATES  SYSTEM  OF  KUROPE.  515 

Lns  began  to  give  way.  But  the  fortune  of  the  day  was  quickly 
changed.  The  Swiss  in  the  service  of  France,  unmindful  of  the  repu- 
tation of  their  country  for  fidelity  and  martial  glory,  abandoned  their  post 
in  a  cowardly  manner.  The  garrison  of  Pavia  sallied  out  and  attacked 
the  rear  of  the  French  during  the  heat  of  the  action  with  such  fury  as 
threw  it  into  confusion ;  and  Pescara,  falling  on  their  cavalry  with  the 
imperial  horse,  among  whom  he  had  prudently  intermingled  a  consider 
bie  number  of  Spanish  foot,  armed  with  the  heavy  muskets  then  in  use, 
broke  this  formidable  body  by  an  unusual  method  of  attack,  against 
which  they  were  totally  unprovided.  The  rout  became  universal,  and 
resistance  ceased  in  almost  every  part  but  where  the  king  was  in  person, 
who  fought  now,  not  for  fame  or  victory,  but  for  safety.  Though  wounded 
m  several  places,  and  thrown  from  his  horse,  which  was  killed  under 
him,  Francis  defended  himself  on  foot  with  an  heroic  courage  ;  n.ciny  of  his 
bravest  officers,  gathering  round  him,  and  endeavoring  to  save  his  life,  at 
the  expense  of  their  own,  fell  at  his  feet.  The  king,  exhausted  with 
fatigue  and  scarcely  capable  of  further  resistance,  was  left  almost  alone, 
exposed  to  the  fury  of  some  Spanish  soldiers,  strangers  to  his  rank,  and 
enraged  at  his  obstinacy.  At  that  moment  came  up  Pomperant,  a 
French  gentleman  who  had  entered,  together  with  Bourbon,  into  the 
emperor's  service,  and  placing  himself  by  the  side  of  the  monarch 
against  whom  he  had  rebelled,  assisted  in  protecting  him  from  the  vio- 
lence of  the  soldiers  ;  at  the  same  time  beseeching  him  to  surrender  to 
Bourbon,  who  was  not  far  distant.  Imminent  as  the  danger  was  which 
now  surrounded  Francis,  he  rejected  with  indignation  the  thoughts  of 
an  action  which  would  have  afforded  such  triumph  to  his  traitorous 
subject ;  and  calling  for  Launoy,  who  also  happened  to  be  near  at  hand, 
gave  up  his  sword  to  him ;  which  he  kneeling  to  kiss  the  king's  hand, 
received  with  profound  respect ;  and  taking  his  own  sword  from  his 
side,  presented  it  to  him,  saying  that  "  it  did  not  become  so  great  a 
monarch  to  remain  iisarined  in  the  presence  of  one  of  the  emperor's 
subjects." 

Although  Launoy  treated  his  royal  captive  with  all  the  marks  of  re- 
spect due  to  his  rank  and  character,  he  nevertheless  guarded  him  with 
the  utmost  precaution.  He  was  solicitous,  not  only  to  prevent  any 
possibility  of  his  escaping,  but  afraid  that  his  own  troops  might  seize 
his  person,  and  detain  it  as  the  best  security  for  the  payment  of  their 
arrears.  In  order  to  provide  against  both  these  dangers,  he  conducted 
Fi'dncis,  the  day  after  the  battle,  to  a  strong  castle,  and  committed  him 
to  the  custody  of  an  officer  remarkable  for  the  strict  vigilance  which 
sucn  a  trust  required.  Francis,  who  formed  a  judgment  of  the  empe- 
ror's disposition  by  his  own,  was  extremely  desirous  that  Charleb 
should  be  informed  of  his  situation,  fondly  hoping  that,  from  his  gener- 
osity or  sympathy,  he  should  obtain  sjieedy  relief.  He  therefore  gave 
a  passport  to  an  imperial  officer  to  curry  ilie  intelligence  of  the  battle 
of  Pavia  and  his  own  capture-  through  France,  as  the  communication 
with  Spam  by  land  was  the  most  sale  and  certain  at  this  season  of  the 
year. 

Charles  received  the  account  of  this  signal  success  with  affected  mod- 
eration, but  at  tlie  same  time  deliberated  with  the  utmost  solicitude  how 
he  might  deriv<i  the  greatest  advantages  from  the  misfortunes  of  h'> 


516  MODERN  HISTOKf. 

adversary.  H.s  firsi  demands  were  that  Francis  should  restore  tiit 
dutchy  of  Burgundy,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  was  dishonorably  wrested 
from  his  ancestors  by  Louis  XI. ;  that  Provence  and  Dauphine  shouK' 
be  erected  into  an  indeperxlent  kingdom  for  the  constable  of  Bourbon ; 
that  satisfaction  should  be  made  to  the  king  of  England  for  his  claims 
on  France  ;  and  that  all  the  pretensions  of  France  to  territories  in  Italy 
should  be  renounced  for  ever.  Francis  was  so  indignant  at  being  re- 
quired to  make  such  ignominious  concessions,  that  he  drew  his  dagger, 
and  made  an  attempt  to  commit  suicide  ;  he  was,  of  course,  prevented, 
and  it  was  hinted  that  a  personal  interview  with  the  emperor  would 
lead  to  the  ofl'er  of  more  equitable  conditions.  Francis  himself  was  of 
the  same  opinion.  He  was  sent  in  a  Spanish  galley  to  Barcelona, 
whence  he  was  removed  to  Madrid  ;  but  on  reaching  that  city,  he  wa.'; 
sent  to  the  Alcazar,  and  guarded  more  carefully  than  ever  :  and  it  ap 
peared  evident  that  the  king's  reliance  on  the  emperor's  generosity  had 
been  wholly  misplaced. 

But  this  triumph,  which  seemed  to  have  made  Charles  master  of  Italy 
and  arbiter  of  Europe,  so  far  from  yielding  the  substantial  advantages 
which  might  reasonaljly  have  bpen  expected,  served  only  to  array  against 
him  the  jealousy  of  Englanii.  of  the  Italian  states,  and  of  the  protestant 
princes  of  Germany.  At  the  same  time,  the  disorganized  condition  of 
his  finances,  and  the  consequent  difficulty  of  finding  pay,  subsistence,  o) 
the  munitions  of  war,  for  his  soldiers,  reduced  his  Italian  armies  to  in- 
activity in  the  very  moment  of  victory.  Henry  VIII.  was  the  first  of 
the  imperial  allies  to  set  the  example  of  defection  ;  he  entered  into  d 
defensive  alliance  with  Louise,  the  queen-regent  of  France,  in  whicL 
all  the  dilTerences  between  him  and  her  son  were  adjusted  ;  at  the 
same  time  he  engaged  that  he  would  employ  his  best  offices  in  order 
to  deliver  his  new  ally  from  a  state  of  captivity.  Imprisonment  soob 
began  to  produce  such  injurious  elTects  on  the  mental  and  bodily  health 
of  Francis,  that  Charles  began  lo  fear  that  all  his  plans  might  be  frus- 
trated by  the  death  of  his  captive,  and  he  therefore  sought  a  personal 
interview  with  him,  in  which  he  held  out  a  hope  of  milder  conditions  of 
liberation. 

The  chief  obstacle  that  stood  in  the  way  of  Francis's  liberty  was  the 
emperor's  continuing  to  insist  so  peremptorily  on  the  restitution  of  Bur- 
gundy as  a  preliminary  to  that  event.  But  the  history  of  Burgundy 
while  an  independent  dutchy,  as  detailed  in  preceding  sections,  suffi- 
ciently proves  that  compliance  with  such  a  demand  would  have  reduced 
the  monarch  of  France  to  a  state  of  complete  dependance  on  his  nomi- 
nal vassals.  Francis  often  declared  that  he  would  never  consent  to 
dismember  his  kingdom  ;  and  that,  if  even  he  should  so  far  forget  the 
duties  of  a  monarch  as  to  come  to  such  a  resolution,  the  fundamental 
laws  of  the  kingdom  would  prevent  its  taking  eflect.  Finding  that  the 
einjjeror  was  inflexible  on  the  point,  he  suddenly  took  the  resolution  of 
resigning  his  crown,  with  all  its  rights  and  prerogatives,  to  his  son  the 
Janphin,  determining  rather  to  end  his  days  in  prison  than  to  purcliase 
his  freedom  by  concessions  unworthy  of  a  king. 

Charles  was  so  alarmed  by  this  resolution,  that  he  consented  to  mod- 
ify his  /Ii'inands  so  far  as  not  to  insist  on  the  restitution  of  Burgundy 
until  the  king  was  set  at  liberty.      The   remaining  conditions  of  the 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  617 

treaty  were  sufficiently  onerous  ;  but  a  few  hours  before  signing  tliem 
Francis  assembled  such  of  his  counsellors  as  happened  to  be  in  Madrid, 
and  having  exacted  from  them  a  solemn  oath  of  secresy,  he  made  a 
•ong  enumeration  in  their  presence  of  the  dishonoi'able  acts  as  well  as 
unprincely  rigor  which  the  emperor  had  employed  in  order  to  ensnare 
or  intimidate  him.  For  that  reason,  he  took  a  formal  protest  in  the  hands 
of  notaries  that  his  consent  to  the  treaty  should  be  considered  as  an 
involuntary  deed,  and  be  deemed  null  and  void.  By  this  disingenu- 
ous artifice,  for  which  the  treatment  he  had  received  was  no  apology, 
Francis  endeavored  to  satisfy  his  honor  and  conscience  in  signing 
the  treaty,  and  to  provide  at  the  same  time  a  pretext  on  which  to 
break  it. 

About  a  month  after  the  signing  of  the  treaty,  the  regent's  ratification 
of  it  was  brought  from  France,  and  two  princes  of  the  blood  sent  as 
hostages  for  its  execution.  At  last  Francis  took  leave  of  the  emperor, 
whose  suspicion  of  the  king's  sincerity  increasing  as  the  time  of  putting 
it  to  the  proof  approached,  he  attempted  to  bind  him  still  faster  by  ex- 
acting new  promises,  which,  after  those  he  had  already  made,  the 
French  monarch  was  not  slow  to  grant.  He  set  out  from  Madrid,  a 
place  which  the  remembrance  of  so  many  afflicting  circumstances  ren- 
dered peculiarly  odious  to  him,  with  the  joy  natural  on  such  an  occasion, 
and  began  the  long-wished-for  journey  toward  his  own  dominions.  He 
was  escorted  by  a  body  of  horse,  under  the  command  of  Alar9on,  who, 
as  the  king  drew  near  the  frontiers  of  France,  guarded  him  with  more 
scrupulous  exactness  than  ever.  When  he  arrived  at  the  river  Andaye, 
which  separates  the  two  kingdoms,  Lautrec,  one  of  his  favorite  gene- 
-als,  appeared  on  the  opposite  bank,  with  a  guard  equal  in  number  to 
A-lar^on's.  An  empty  bark  was  moored  in  the  middle  of  the  stream  ; 
'-he  attendants  drew  up  in  order  on  the  opposite  banks ;  at  the  same  in- 
stant Launoy  put  off  with  eight  gentlemen  from  the  Spanish,  and  Lau- 
trec with  the  same  number  from  the  French  side  of  the  river  ;  the 
former  had  the  king  in  his  boat ;  the  latter  the  two  princely  hostages, 
the  dauphin  and  the  duke  of  Orleans  ;  they  met  in  the  empty  vessel ; 
the  exchange  was  niade  in  a  moment ;  Francis,  after  a  short  embrace 
of  his  children,  leaped  into  Lautrec's  boat,  and  reached  the  French 
shore.  He  moimted  at  that  instant  a  Turkish  horse,  waved  his  hand 
over  his  head,  and,  with  a  joyous  voice,  cried  aloud  several  times,  "  I 
am  yet  a  king !"  hen,  putting  spurs  to  his  horse,  he  galloped  at  full 
speed  to  St.  Jean  de  Luz,  and  thence  to  Bayonne.  This  event,  no  less 
impatiently  desired  by  the  French  people  than  their  monarch,  happened 
on  the  18th  of  March,  1526,  a  year  and  twenty-two  days  after  the  fatal 
battle  of  Pavia. 

The  states  of  Burgundy  afforded  Francis  the  first  opportunity  of 
refusing  to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  his  liberation.  They  represented  to 
the  monarch  that  he  had  no  right  to  make  a  transfer  of  their  allegiance 
without  their  consent,  and  that  they  would  rather  assert  their  indepen- 
dence than  submit  to  a  foreign  dominion.  Upon  this,  Francis,  turning 
toward  the  imperial  ambassadors,  represented  to  them  the  impossibility 
of  performing  what  he  had  undertaken,  and  off'ered,  in  lieu  of  Burgundy, 
vO  pay  the  emperor  two  millions  of  crowns.  The  ambassadors,  who 
:vere  well  aware  that  the  entire  scene  had  been  concerted  between  the 


518  MODERN  HISTORY. 

king  and  the  states,  refused  to  admit  any  modification  of  tbe  treat}' ; 
they  returned  to  Madrid,  and  Charles,  who  perceived  that  he  had  beei: 
overreached,  exclaimed  in  the  most  public  manner  and  in  the  harshes! 
terms  against  P^'ranc's,  as  a  prmce  void  of  faith  and  honor.  The  French 
king,  on  the  other  hai  d,  asserted  that  no  promise  obtained  by  force  was 
binding,  and  easily  obtained  from  the  pope  a  full  absolution  from  all  the 
obligations  v/hich  he  had  contracted. 

During  tliis  period,  Germany  was  cruelly  harassed  by  insurrections 
of  the  peasants,  goaded  to  madness  by  the  oppressions  of  their  lords. 
In  Thuringia,  where  a  great  part  of  the  population  had  been  converted 
to  Lutheranism,  Muncer,  a  wild  fanatic,  became  the  leader  of  the  insur- 
gents, and  by  stimulating  their  ignorant  zeal,  added  religious  bigotry  to 
the  horrors  of  civil  war.  Luther  sincerely  lamented  the  scandal  that 
these  disturbances  brought  on  the  cause  of  the  reformation  ;  but  his  own 
marriage  with  a  nun  who  had  broken  her  vows,  g.  ve  such  general  of- 
fence, that  his  influence,  for  a  season,  was  greatly  diminished. 

Francis  was  not  long  at  liberty  before  he  not  only  protested  against 
the  treaty  of  Madrid  and  refused  to  fulfil  any  of  its  stipulations,  but  or 
ganized  a  new  league  against  Charles,  which  was  named  "  Holy," 
because  the  pope  was  its  nominal  head.  The  Venetians,  the  duke  of 
Milan,  and  the  English  king,  joined  the  confederacy  ;  but  their  opera- 
tions were  so  slow  and  feeble,  that  the  imperialists  easily  maintained 
their  ascendency  in  the  north  of  Italy.  The  constable  of  Bourbon, 
irritated  by  the  vacillating  conduct  of  the  pope,  marched  against  Home, 
heedless  of  the  truce  thai  had  been  granted  to  the  pontilf  by  the  viceroy 
of  Naples.  "  The  eternal  city"  was  taken  by  assault,  and  suffered  more 
severely  from  the  soldiers  of  a  catholic  king  than  from  the  barbarous 
pagans  of  an  earlier  age.  Bourbon  fell  in  the  assault ;  but  the  com- 
mand of  the  imperialists  devolved  on  the  prince  of  Orange,  who  be- 
sieged the  pope  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo,  and  compelled  him  to  yield 
himself  a  prisoner  (a.  d.  1527).  Charles  received  the  intelligence  of 
this  success  with  contemptible  hypocrisy ;  he  professed  the  most  sin- 
cere sorrow  for  the  captivity  of  the  holy  pontiff,  and  ordered  prayers  to 
be  offered  for  his  deliverance  in  all  the  Spanish  churches,  instead  of 
sending  orders  for  his  liberation.  So  great  was  the  indignation  excited 
by  the  harsh  treatment  of  the  pope,  that  Francis  was  enabled  to  invade 
Ita^y  and  penetrate  to  the  very  walls  of  Naples.  But  here  his  pros- 
perity ended ;  the  pope,  liberated  from  captivity,  resolved  to  conciliate 
the  emperor ;  the  Venetians  became  jealous  of  the  French  power,  and, 
finally,  the  Genoese  hero,  Andrew  Doria,  roused  by  the  wrongs  which 
Francis  had  inflicted  on  himself  and  his  country,  revolted  to  the  empe- 
ror, and  turned  the  scale  of  the  war  by  making  the  imperialists  superior 
at  sea.  Doria's  first  care  Avas  to  restore  the  republic  of  Genoa ;  and 
such  was  the  opinion  entertained  of  his  patriotism  and  disinterestedness, 
that  he  was  universally  called  "  The  father  of  his  country  and 
THE  RESTORER  OF  ITS  LIBERTY"  (a.  d.  1528).  Tlicse  circumstances, 
and  the  defeat  of  his  army  in  the  Milanese,  inclined  Francis  to  peace , 
a  treaty  was  negotiated  at  Cambray  by  the  emperor's  aunt  and  the  king's 
Hother,  but  the  fair  diplomatists  left  enough  of  disputable  points  unset 
lied  to  furnish  grounds  for  a  future  war. 

Charles  having  thus  prevailed  over  France,  resolved  to  make  a  vi^orou:: 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  feUROPE  519 

Struggle  to  crush  the  reformation  in  Germany,  but  the  protcstar.t  princes, 
undismayed  by  his  power,  formed  a  league  for  their  mutual  p/otection 
at  Smalkald  (a.  d.  1530),  and  applied  to  the  kings  of  France  and 
England  to  patronise  their  confederacy.  Henry  VIII.  was  eager  to  grahi 
them  support  ;  he  was  desirous  to  be  divorced  from  his  wife,  Catharnie 
Df  Aragon,  the  emperor's  aunt,  and  attributed  the  pope's  reluctance  to 
^he  intrigues  of  Charles.  Hostilities  were  for  a  time  averted  by  the 
emperor's  making  some  important  concessions,  for  he  was  anxious  to 
have  his  brother  Ferdinand  chosen  as  his  successor,  with  the  title  of 
king  of  the  Romans,  and  the  progress  of  the  Turks,  on  his  eastern 
frontiers,  could  only  be  resisted  by  the  united  strength  of  the  empire. 

Francis  had  concluded  peace  at  Cambray,  because  he  was  no  longer 
able  to  maintain  war.  He  sought  the  earliest  opportunity  of  renewing 
hostilities,  and  secured  the  friendship  of  the  pope,  by  uniting  his  son, 
the  duke  of  Orleans,  to  the  pontiff's  niece,  Catherine  de  Medicis.  But, 
though  lie  thus  gained  one  ally,  he  lost  others.  Henry  VIII.,  inflau?- 
ed  by  love  of  Anne  Boleyn,  and  enraged  by  the  pope's  confirmation  of 
his  marriage  with  Catharine,  no  longer  kept  any  measures  with  the 
court  of  Rome  ;  his  subjects  seconded  his  resentment ;  an  act  of  par 
liament  w^as  passed,  abolishing  the  papal  power  and  jurisdiction  in  Eng- 
land (a.  d.  1534)  :  by  another  act,  the  king  was  declared  supreme  head 
of  the  church,  and  all  the  authority  of  which  the  popes  were  deprived, 
was  vested  in  him.  Henry  was  thus  disinclined  to  support  the  pope's 
ally,  and  the  protestant  princes  of  Germany  viewed  Francis  with  some 
suspicion,  because  he  persecuted  the  reformed  in  his  own  dominions. 
The  death  of  Clement  VII.,  and  the  election  of  Paul  III.,  an  adherent 
of  the  emperor,  sutidenly  deprived  Francis  of  the  papal  aid,  on  which 
he  had  confidently  calculated,  and  compelled  him  to  delay  his  projects 
for  troubling  the  peace  of  Europe. 

The  insurrection  of  the  anabaptists,  a  new  set  of  fanatics  in  Germany, 
and  the  emperor's  expedition  against  the  piratical  states  of  Barbary, 
employed  men's  minds  for  a  season.  The  suppression  of  the  fanatics, 
and  the  conquest  of  Tunis,  crowned  the  emperor  with  glory,  yet  it  wa? 
at  this  moment  that  Francis  chose  to  renew  the  war  (a.  d.  1535). 
Savoy  was  immediately  overrun  by  the  French  troops,  and  its  unfor- 
tunate duke  in  vain  implored  the  aid  of  the  emperor,  whose  resources 
had  been  exhausted  in  the  African  war.  It  was  o*n  this  occasion  that 
Charles  challenged  his  rival  to  single  combat,  in  which  proposal  he  only 
imitated  the  former  follies  of  Francis.  On  the  other  hand,  the  death 
of  the  dauphin,  amid  the  joy  occasioned  by  the  repulse  of  the  impe- 
rialists, who  had  invaded  Provence,  was  absurdly  attributed  to  poison, 
administered  by  emissaries  of  Charles.  To  complete  the  exhibition  of 
folly,  Francis  summoned  Charles,  as  count  of  Flanders,  to  appear  before 
the  parliament  of  Paris,  and  on  his  refusal,  he  was  declared  to  have 
forfeited  the  Low  Countries  to  his  feudal  superior.  The  war  itself  was 
languidly  conducted,  but  the  pope,  alarmed  by  the  progress  of  the  Turks, 
personally  interfered,  and  a  truce  for  ten  years  was  concluded  between 
the  two  sovereigns  at  Nice  (a.  d.  1538). 

The  religious  disputes  in  Germany  between  the  princes  of  the 
protestant  and  those  of  the  catholic  league,  the  struggles  made  by  the 
pope  to  prevent  the  meeting  of  a  general  council,  imless  under  circum- 


1 


520  llODERN  HISTOKt. 

stances  that  wiuiKl  giro  him  complete  controV  over  its  deliberVaons 
filled  Charles  with  a..xiety,  which  was  not  a  little  increased  by  the  tur 
bulent  disposition  of  his  Flemish  subjects,  and  the  success  of  the  Turkfc 
in*  Hunjrary.  Notwithstanding  all  these  difficulties,  he  undertook  an 
expedition  against  Algiers  (a.  d.  1541),  but  his  fleet  was  shattered  bj 
a  storm,  his  army  wasted  by  a  pestilential  disease,  and  his  stores  of 
provision  rendered  unavailing.  He  was  compelled  to  return,  overwhelmed 
with  loss  and  disgrace,  and  his  defeat  raised  the  courage  of  his  enemies 
so  high  that  he  had  to  encounter  a  new  war  in  Europe. 

Francis  was  eager  to  take  advantage  of  his  rival's  distress,  and  the 
crime  of  the  imperial  governor  of  the  Milanese  furnished  him  with  a  do- 
''ent  pretext.  This  imprudent  functionary  seized  two  ambassadors,  sent 
from  the  Parisian  court  to  Turkey,  and  put  them  to  death,  in  direct 
violation  of  the  law  of  nations.  Francis  now  changed  his  plan  of  opera- 
tions ;  acting  on  the  defensive  in  Italy,  he  invaded  the  Netheuands  and 
Rousillon  (a.  d.  1542),  but  failed  to  make  any  permanent  impression. 
Charles  found  an  ally  in  the  king  of  England  :  the  death  of  his  aunt  nad 
removed  the  great  source  of  enmity  between  the  emperor  and  Henr}', 
and  the  close  alliance  between  France  and  Scotland,  recently  cemented 
by  the  marriage  of  the  Scotch  king,  James  V.,  to  a  French  princess, 
Mary  of  Guise,  had  excited  great  jealousy  and  alarm  in  England. 
Henry,  with  his  usual  impetuosity,  having  introduced  the  reformation 
into  England,  became  anxious  that  Scotland  should  also  withdraw  its 
allegiance  from  the  pope,  and  endeavored  to  win  his  nephew  James  tc 
adopt  his  plan,  by  the  most  advantageous  offers.  The  influence  of  the 
Scottish  clergy  prevailed  over  that  of  the  English  monarch,  and  Henry 
in  his  fury  proclaimed  war  against  Scotland.  In' the  midst  of  these 
troubles,  James  V.  died  leaving  his  dominions  to  his  infant  daughter 
Mary,  the  celebrated  and  unfortunate  queen  of  Scots.  This  changed  all 
Henry's  plans ;  he  aimed  at  uniting  the  two  kingdoms,  by  efl'ecting  a 
marriage  between  his  son  Edward  and  Mary,  but  he  knew  that  this 
could  only  be  aff'ected  by  crusiiing  the  French  party  in  Scotland,  and 
efiger  to  accomplish  this  object  he  readily  entered  into  the  alliance 
against  Francis. 

The  French  monarch,  on  the  other  hand,  entered  into  close  union 
with  the  Turks,  and  courted  the  support  of  the  German  protestants ; 
but  the  princes  of  tlie  empire  refused  to  join  so  bitter  a  persecutor  of 
the  reformed  doctrines,  and  his  only  ally,  the  duke  of  Cleves,  was 
forced  to  submit  to  Charles.  The  sultan  aflbrded  him  more  efifictivpi 
support  ;  he  invaded  Hungary  in  person,  and  sent  the  celebrated  admiral 
and  pirate,  Barbarossa,  to  join  the  French  in  invading  Italy.  Nice  was 
besieged  by  their  united  forces  ;  to  the  astonishment  and  scandal  of  all 
Christendom,  the  lilies  of  France  and  the  crescent  of  Mohammed  ap- 
peared in  conjunction  against  a  fortress,  on  which  the  cross  of  Savoy 
was  displayed.  The  allies  were  finally  compelled  to  raise  the  siege, 
and  Francis  had  not  even  the  poor  consolation  of  success,  in  return  for 
the  infamy  of  having  taken  as  auxiliaries  the  deadly  enemies  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  battle  of  Cerisoles  (a.  d.  1544)  gave  liis  arms  the  fame 
of  useless  victory,  but  it  did  not  prevent  the  contemporary  invasion  of 
France  by  the  emperor  on  the  side  of  Lorraine,  and  the  English  through 
Calais.     Haa  Chailc*  and  Henry  acted  in  concert.  Francis  must  have 


THE  STATPJS-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE  521 

rielded  iinc(  nditionally,  but  he  took  advantage  of  their  disunion  to  con- 
clude a  separate  peace  with  the  emperor  at  Crespy  (a.  d.  1544) 
Henry  VIII.  continued  the  war  for  some  time  longer,  but  it  did  not 
produce  any  event  of  consequence.  Charles  had  now  secured  his  pre- 
dominance in  Italy,  and  was  secretly  preparing  to  restore  the  imperial 
authority  in  Germany.  Death  removed  his  two  powerful  contemporaries, 
Francis  and  Henry,  in  the  same  year  (a.  d.  1547),  both  of  whom  would 
nave  been  dangerous  antagonists.  Though  Henry's  motives  in  favorine 
the  reformation  were  not  very  pure,  his  intense  hatred  of  the  popes  must 
have  induced  him  to  protect  the  protestant  interest  in  Germany. 

The  secularization  of  Prussia,  by  Albert  of  Brandenburg  (a.  u.  1525), 
was  the  first  example  of  the  seizure  of  church  property,  consequent  on 
the  change  of  religion  ;  but  the  indignation  of  the  catholic  princes,  and 
the  ambition  of  the  protestants,  were  restrained  by  the  Turkish  and 
the  French  wars.  Still  the  emperor's  conduct  at  the  diets  of  Spires 
and  Augsburg,  the  pope's  anxiety  to  convene  a  council  subservient  to 
his  will,  and  the  intrigues  of  the  ecclesiastics  in  the  states  that  retained 
their  connexion  with  Rome,  compelled  the  protestants  to  renew  the 
league  of  Smalkald,  and  assign  the  fixed  contingent  of  men  and  arms 
that  should  be  supplied  by  the  several  members.  When  the  council 
of  Trent  finally  opened  (a.  d.  1545),  its  very  form  and  its  first  decision 
rendered  it  impossible  for  the  protestants  to  take  any  part  in  it.  But 
the  peace  of  Crespy  left  them  unprotected,  and  their  want  of  mutual 
confidence  prevented  them  from  acting  in  concert.  At  the  very  com- 
mencement of  the  war.  Prince  Maurice  of  Saxony  deserted  the  league, 
and  joined  the  emperor ;  John  Frederic,  the  elector  of  Saxony,  and 
chief  leader  of  the  protestants,  was  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Miihlberg  (a.  d.  1547),  and  his  dominions  rewarded  the  treachery  of 
Maurice.  The  landgrave  of  Hesse,  the  last  hope  of  the  reformers,  was 
inveigled  to  visit  the  emperor,  at  Halle,  and  dishonorably  detained  as 
a  captive. 

This  rapid  success  of  the  emperior  alarmed  the  pope,  who  began  to 
fear  that  Charles  would  prevail  upon  the  council  to  limit  his  pontifical 
authority,  and  the  two  potentates,  apparently  believing  the  protestant 
cause  crushed,  began  to  seek  for  their  own  private  advantages.  Charles 
published  a  code  of  doctrines  called  the  "  Interim,"  because  the  regula- 
tions it  containeJ  were  only  tc  be  in  force  until  the  convocation  of  a 
free  general  council,  and  this  edict,  which  was  strictly  conformable  to 
the  tenets  of  the  Romish  church,  he  resolved  to  enforce  on  the  empire 
(a.  d.  1548).  Catholics  and  protestants  equally  declaimed  against  this 
summary  mode  of  settling  a  nation's  faith,  but  the  emperor  scarcely 
encountered  any  open  resistance,  except  from  the  free  city  of  Magde- 
burgh,  and  an  army  sent  to  reduce  this  disobedient  place,  was  intrusted 
to  Maurice  of  Saxony. 

Maurice  was  secretly  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  of  the  emperor. 
g.nd  was  especially  grieved  by  the  detention  of  his  father-in-law,  the 
landgrave  of  Hesse,  He  formed  a  bold  plan  for  compelling  the 
emperor,  by  a  sudden  attack,  to  establish  religious  freedom,  and  libe- 
rate the  landgrave,  but  concealed  his  projects  until  the  most  favorable 
moment  for  putting  them  into  execution.  On  the  surrender  of  Magde- 
burgh  (a   d    1551),  he  contrived  to  win  the  confidence  of  the  garrisou 


522  MODERN   HISrOR\ 

Qud  the  citizens,  Without  awakening  the  suspicions  of  the  einpero»,  aii(* 
he  entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with  Henry  II.  of  France,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Francis.  No  words  can  describe  the  astonishment  and 
distress  of  the  emperor,  when  Maurice,  having  completed  liis  prepara 
tions,  published  his  maiufesto,  detailing  the  grievances  which  he  requir- 
ed to  be  redressed.  The  active  prince  proceeded  with  so  much  prompti- 
tude and  vigor,  that  Charles  narrowly  escaped  being  made  prisoner  at 
Innsprucli.  The  council  of  Trent  was  broken  up ;  the  prelates  tumult- 
uously  voted  a  prorogation  for  two  years,  but  more  than  ten  elapsed 
before  its  proceedings  were  renewed.  The  emperor  had  the  mortifica- 
tion to  see  all  his  projects  overthrown  by  the  prince  whom  he 'had  most 
trusted,  and  was  compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  at  Passau,  by  which  the 
captive  princes  were  restored  to  liberty,  and  a  free  exercise  of  their 
religion  secured  to  the  protestants  (a.  d.  1552).  The  war  with  France 
lasted  three  years  longer  ;  it  was  conducted  without  any  great  battles, 
but  on  the  whole,  proved  unfavorable  to  the  emperor.  From  the  hour 
that  the  treaty  of  Passau  had  wrested  from  Charles  V.  the  fruits  of  his 
whole  political  career,  he  felt  that  his  crowns  were  heavy  on  his  brows. 
The  principles  of  mutual  toleration  were  formally  sanctioned  by  the 
diet  of  Augsburg  :  Paul  IV.,  who  may  be  esteemed  the  successor  of 
Pope  Julius — for  the  twenty  days'  reign  of  Marcellus  produced  no 
political  event — was  so  offended,  that  he  became  the  avowed  enemy  of 
the  house  of  Austria,  and  entered  into  close  alliance  with  the  king  of 
France.  A  storm  was  approaching,  when  Charles,  to  the  great  surprise 
of  the  world,  abdicated  his  dominions. 

Though  a  prince  of  moderate  abilities,  Charles  V.  had  reigned  with 
more  glory  than  most  European  sovereigns.  A  king  of  France  and  a 
pope  had  been  his  captives  ;  his  dominions  were  more  extensive  than 
those  of  Alexander,  or  of  Rome.  By  his  generals,  or  his  ministers, 
he  had  acquired  all  the  objects  which  usually  excite  ambition  ;  he  had 
gained  even  the  distinction  of  being  regarded  as  the  champion  of  ortho- 
doxy, in  an  age  when  toleration  was  a  crime.  But  the  triumj)h  of 
civilization  over  the  system  of  the  middle  ages,  of  which  he  was  at  once 
the  last  support  and  the  last  representative,  was  certain  and  complete, 
and  he  could  not  resist  the  mortification  of  finding  himself  vanquished  ; 
the  peace  of  Passau  was  to  him  "  the  hand-writing  on  tlie  wall  ;"  it 
announced  that  his  policy  was  past,  and  his  destiny  accomplished.  The 
feebleness  of  old  a^e  overtook  him  at  fifty-six  ;  harassed  by  vain  repi- 
nings,  overwhelmed  by  infirmities,  he  felt  that  he  could  no  longer  appear 
a  hero,  and  he  desired  to  seem  a  sage.  He  became  a  hermit,  removed 
all  his  diadems  from  his  head,  and  sank  into  voluntary  obscurity.  He 
was,  however,  sure  to  be  regretted,  for  he  bequeathed  to  the  world  hit 
successor,  the  sanguinary  Philip,  just  as  Augustus  adopted  Tiberius. 

The  protestant  religion  was  first  legally  established  in  England  by 
Edward  VI.,  the  pious  son  of  the  profligate  Henry.  But  the  troubles 
occasioned  by  his  minority,  and  the  ambition  of  his  guardians,  prevented 
the  reformed  church  from  being  fixed  on  a  permanent  foundation,  Ed- 
ward died  young  (a.  d.  1553),  and  the  papal  dominion  was  restored  by 
his  bigojed  successor  and  sister,  Mary.  Charles,  having  failed  to  pro- 
cure the  empire  for  his  son  Phihp,  negotiated  a  marriage  between  that 
piiuce  and  Queen  Mary,  which  was  concluded,  much  to  the  dissatisfac 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  523 

iion  of  the  British,  nation.  Mary's  cruel  persecutions  of  the  protestanta 
'ailed  to  reconcile  her  subjects  to  the  yoke  of  Rome,  and  on  her  death 
(a.  d.  1558),  the  reformed  religion  was  triumphantly  restored  by  hei 
sister  Elizabeth. 

The  diet  which  assembled  at  Augsburg  (a.  d.  1555),  did  not  secure 
to  the  protestants  all  the  advantages  they  had  a  right  to  expect.  Maur- 
ice had  fallen  in  a  petty  war,  and  they  had  no  leader  fit  to  be  his  suc- 
cessor. With  strange  im])rudence,  the  Lutherans  consented  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  Calvinists  from  the  benefits  of  religious  toleration,  and 
left  several  important  questions  undecided,  the  pregnant  source  of  future 
wars.  When  the  labors  of  the  diet  terminated,  Charles,  mortified  at 
being  forced  to  resign  the  hope  of  securing  the  empire  to  his  son,  sad- 
dened by  his  experience  of  the  instability  of  iortime,  and  broken  down 
by  illness,  resolved  to  abdicate  his  double  authority.  He  resigned  the 
sceptre  of  Spain  and  the  Netherlands  to  his  son,  Philip  II.,  and  the 
imperial  crown  some  months  after  to  his  brother  Ferdinand  :  he  then 
retired  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Justus,  in  Valladolid,  where  he  died 
(a.  d.  1558). 

The  lon^;  struggle  for  religious  freedom  during  the  reign  of  Charles 
V.  terminated  in  the  favor  of  the  Reformation  ;  but  the  Romish  church 
was  far  from  being  subdued,  and  it  derived  most  efficient  support  from 
the  institution  of  the  Jesuits,  a  political  rather  than  religious  societ}^ 
admirably  organized  for  the  support  of  the  highest  and  most  unyielding 
assumptions  of  papal  authority.  This  body  became  formidable  from  its 
unity  and  the  secrecy  of  its  operations,  but  it  at  length  excited  the  alarm 
of  catholic  princes,  and  was  suppressed  in  the  last  century. 

In  the  course  of  the  wars  between  Charles  and  Francis,  the  republic 
of  Venice,  which,  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  had  ap- 
peared so  formidable  that  almost  all  the  potentates  of  Europe  united  in 
a  confederacy  for  its  destruction,  declined  from  its  ancient  power  and 
splendor.  The  Venetians  not  only  lost  a  great  part  of  their  territory  in 
the  war  excited  by  the  league  of  Cambray,  but  the  revenues  as  well  as 
vigor  of  the  state  were  exhausted  by  their  extraordinary  and  long-con- 
tinued efforts  in  their  own  defence,  and  that  commerce  by  which  they 
had  acquired  their  wealth  and  power  began  to  decay  without  any  hopes 
of  its  reviving.  All  the  fatal  consequences  to  their  republic,  which  the 
sagacity  of  the  Venetian  senate  foresaw  on  the  first  discovery  of  a  pas 
sage  to  the  East  Indies,  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  actually  took  place 
Their  endeavors  to  prevent  the  Portuguese  from  establishing  thcmselve.s 
in  the  East  Indies,  not  only  by  exciting  the  Mameluke  sultans  Oi  Egypt 
and  the  Ottoman  raonarchs  to  turn  their  arms  against  such  dangerous 
Intruders,  but  by  affording  secret  aid  to  the  infidels  in  order  to  ensure 
their  success,  proved  ineffectual.  The  activity  and  valor  of  the  Portu- 
guese surmounted  every  obstacle,  and  obtained  such  a  firm  footing  in 
that  fertile  country,  as  secured  to  them  large  possessions  with  an  influ- 
ence still  more  extensive.  Lisbon  instead  of  Venice  became  the  staple 
for  the  precious  commodities  of  the  east.  The  Venetians,  after  having 
possessed  for  many  years  the  monopoly  of  that  beneficial  commerce, 
had  the  mortification  to  be  excluded  from  almost  any  share  in  it.  The 
discoveries  of  the  Spaniards  in  the  western  world  proved  no  less  fatal 
lo  inferior  blanches  ol  commerce.     When  the  sources  from  which  the 


524  MODERN  HISTORY 

cilate  derived  its  txtraordinniy  riches  and  power  were  dried  up,  its  ii.'e- 
rior  vigor  declined,  and  of  course  its  external  operations  became  less 
formidable.  Long  before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Venice 
ceased  to  be  one  of  the  principal  powers  in  Europe,  and  dwindled  into 
a  secondary  and  subaltern  state.  But  as  the  senate  had  the  addiess  to 
conceal  the  diminution  of  its  power  '^nder  the  veil  of  moderation  and 
caution  ;  as  it  made  no  rash  effort  that  could  discover  its  weakness ;  as 
the  symptoms  of  political  decay  in  states  are  not  soon  observed,  and  are 
seldom  so  apparent  to  their  neighbors  as  to  occasion  any  sudden  alter- 
ation in  their  conduc  .oward  them,  Venice  continued  long  to  be  con- 
sidered and  respected.  She  was  treated,  not  according  to  her  present 
condition,  but  according  to  the  rank  which  she  had  formerly  held, 
Charles  V.,  as  well  as  the  kings  of  France,  his  rivals,  courted  her  assis- 
tance with  emulation  and  solicitude  in  all  the'r  enterprises.  Even  down 
♦o  the  close  of  the  century,  Venice  remained,  not  only  an  object  of  at- 
tention, but  a  considerable  seat  of  political  negotiation  and  intrigue. 

That  authority  which  the  first  Cosmo  de  Medici  and  Lorenzo  his 
grandson  had  acquired  in  the  republic  of  Florence  by  their  beneficence 
and  abilities,  inspired  their  descendants  with  the  ambition  of  usurping 
the  sovereignty  in  their  country  and  paving  their  way  toward  it. 
Charles  V.  placed  Alexander  de  Medici  at  the  head  of  the  republic 
(a.  d.  1530),  and  to  the  natural  interest  and  power  of  the  family  added 
the  weight  as  well  as  the  credit  of  the  imperial  protection.  Of  these 
his  successor  Cosmo,  surnamed  the  Great,  availed  himself;  and  es- 
tablishing his  supreme  authority  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  republican 
constitution,  he  transmitted  that,  together  with  the  title  of  grand  duke  of 
Tuscany,  to  his  descendants.  Their  dominions  were  composed  of  the 
territories  which  had  belonged  to  the  three  commonwealths  of  Florence, 
Pisa,  and  Sienna,  and  formed  one  of  the  most  respectable  of  the  Italian 
states. 

Section  VIIL — The -A ge  of  Elizabeth. 

The  accession  of  Elizabeth  was  the  crisis  of  the  Reformation  in 
Great  Britain ;  as  she  was  the  daughter  of  Anne  Boleyn,  whose  mar- 
riage with  Henry  VIIL  had  not  been  sanctioned  by  the  Romish  church, 
her  tide  was  not  recognised  by  the  catholics,  and  the  king  of  France 
permiited  his  daughter-in-law,  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  to  assume  th^ 
arms  and  title  of  England.  Elizabeth  secured  herself  by  entering  inio 
secret  alliance  with  the  heads  of  the  protestant  party  in  Scotland,  who 
succeeded  in  withdrawing  that  kingdom  from  its  allegiance  to  the  pope 
and  so  fettering  the  royal  authority,  that  the  queen  dowager,  who  acted 
as  regent  for  her  daughter,  was  too  much  harassed  at  home  to  make 
any  hostile  attempt  on  England.  Connected  with  the  cause  of  the 
Reformation  by  her  own  interests,  Elizabeth  was  naturally  regarded  as 
the  head  of  the  protestants  in  Europe,  while  Philip  11.  was  the  cham- 
pion of  the  catholics.  Hence  England  became  the  counterpoise  to 
Spain  in  this  age,  as  France  had  been  in  the  preceding.  But  the  an- 
cient rivalry  between  France  and  Spain  was  of  the  highest  importance 
to  England  ;  it  prevented  a  cordial  union  between  the  catholic  powers 
of  Europe  for  checking  the  progress  of  the  Reformation,  and  it  secured 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  525 

support  for  her  doubtful  title,  ere  her  noble  qualities  beconiing  known, 
earned  for  her  the  best  of  all  securities,  the  affections  of  the  English 
nation. 

Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  was  the  niece  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  next  heir 
vO  his  crown  if  the  illegitimacy  of  Elizabeth  were  established  ;  she  was 
wedded  to  the  heir-apparent  of  the  French  monarchy ;  her  maternal 
uncles,  the  princes  of  Lorraine,  were  remarkable  for  capacity,  valor, 
and  daring  ambition,  and  she  had  reasonable  prospects  of  success  at  a 
time  when  Scotland  was  divided  between  the  contending  communions, 
Ireland  altogether  catholic,  and  while  catholics  predominated  in  the 
north  of  England.  The  death  of  Henry  II.,  by  a  mortal  wound  in  a 
ournament,  raised  Mary's  husband,  the  feeble  Francis  II.,  to  Jie  French 
ihrone,  and  through  the  young  queen's  influence  transferred  the  powei 
ol  the  monarchy  to  the  princes  of  Lorraine.  The  bigoted  Philip  II. 
was  so  alarmed  at  the  probable  accession  of  power  to  his  great,  rivals, 
(hat  he  not  only  acknowledged  Elizabeth's  title,  but  proffered  h»,  mar- 
riage. She  declined  the  offer,  and  Philip  gave  his  hand  to  the  princess 
Elizabeth  of  France,  and  concluded  a  treaty  with  that  power  at  Chateau 
Cambresis.  Though  no  express  stipulations  were  made,  it  was  well 
known  that  the  extirpation  of  heresy  formed  a  part  of  this  alliance  be- 
tween the  two  great  catholic  powers  ;  it  led  to  a  furious  war  of  religion, 
which  ended  in  the  establ.'shment  of  a  new  European  state. 

Before  entering  on  the  history  of  the  religious  wars  in  France  and 
the  Netherlands,  it  is  of  importance  to  examine  the  state  of  England 
and  Scotland  during  the  early  part  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  On  the  death 
of  Francis  II.  (Dec,  1560),  Mary  was  compelled  to  return  to  her  native 
dominions  by  the  jealousy  of  her  mother-in-law,  Catherine  de  Medicis. 
who  secretly  envied  the  power  of  the  princess  of  Lorraine.  She  left 
France  with  a  heavy  heart,  and  from  the  very  first  moment  of  her  land- 
ing had  to  endure  indignities  the  most  mortifying  to  her  proud  spirit. 
Popery  had  been  overthrown  in  Scotland,  but  the  protestantism  erected 
in  its  stead  was  just  as  bigoted  and  as  intolerant  as  the  ancient  creed 
had  been  in  the  worst  of  times.  Still,  the  winning  manners  of  ine 
queen,  and  the  weakness  of  her  party,  prevented  any  immediate  out- 
break ;  and  the  confidence  of  the  protestants  in  the  earl  of  Moray  re- 
strained the  violence  of  their  fanaticism.  The  marriage  of  Mary  to  the 
young  Lord  Darnle'>%  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  both  of  Elizabeth 
and  Lord  Moray  (a  T).  1565),  led  to  the  first  open  breach  between  the 
queen  and  her  subj^ct^.  Several  lords,  indignant  at  the  refusal  of  security 
to  the  protejitant  religion  sought  safety  in  England,  and  they  soon  gain- 
ed Darnley  himself  to  join  their  association.  An  Italian,of  mean  birth, 
David  H.izzio,  having  been  appointed  private  secretary  to  the  queen, 
gained  such  an  ascendency  over  her,  that  Darnley's  jealousy  was  roused; 
he  entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  the  exiled  lords,  introiluced  an  armed 
band  secretly  into  the  palace,  arrested  Rizzio  in  the  queen's  presence, 
and  murdered  him  at  the  door  of  her  (  haniber.  The  birth  of  a  son  led 
to  an  apparent  reconciliation  between  Mary  and  her  husband  ;  but  its 
hollowness  was  proved  by  Darnley's  being  excluded  from  witnessing 
the  l)aptisrn  of  his  own  child.  The  appearance  of  renewed  affection 
was  maintained  notwithstanding  this  insult ;  Darnley  fell  sick,  Mary 
u.-si.ed  him  with  apparent  anxiety,  and,  under  the  pretence  that  quio' 


526  MODERN  HISTORY. 

was  necessary  to  an  invalid,  removed  him  to  a  solitary  h  mse  called  tlit 
Kirk  of  Field.  On  the  9th  of  Feliruary,  15G7,  this  hous'i  was  blown 
up  with  gunpowder,  and  the  unfortunate  Darnle/'s  lifeless  body  carried 
to  some  distance,  where  it  was  found  without  any  external  mark  of 
violence.  The  measures  taken  by  Mary  to  screen  Bothwell,  univei* 
tally  regarded  as  the  author  of  this  crime,  and  her  subsequent  marriage 
to  that  nobleman,  seemed  conclusive  evidence  that  she  had  countenanced 
her  husband's  murder.  The  Scottish  lords  flew  to  arms  ;  Mary  was 
forced  to  yield  herself  a  prisoner  to  her  irritated  subjects,  and  Bothwell 
fled  into  e.\ile. 

The  unfortunate  queen,  confined  in  Lochleven  castle,  was  forced  to 
abdicate  in  favor  of  her  son,  who  was  crowned  with  the  title  of  Ja/.ies 
VI.  She  escaped  from  her  prison,  and  soon  found  herself  at  the  head 
of  a  numerous  army,  but  within  eleven  days  from  her  deliverance  she 
was  completely  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Langside,  and  forced  to  c<.ek 
refuge  in  England  (a.  d.  1568).  Elizabeth  placed  the  fugitive  in  close 
custody,  a  measure  which  her  safety  perhaps  demanded,  but  which  was 
scarcely  consistent  with  her  honor.  The  insurrections  of  the  catholic 
lords  in  the  northern  counties,  and  Mary's  intrigues  with  the  duke  of 
Norfolk,  combined  with  the  open  attempts  of  the  catholic  states  against 
Elizabeth,  rendered  the  unfortunate  queen's  detention  a  matter  of  pru- 
dent expediency,  if  not  of  prime  necessity. 

The  imbecile  Francis  II.  succeeded  his  father  Henry  on  the  throne 
of  France  ;  during  his  brief  reign  he  was  the  mere  tool  of  the  Guises, 
whose  great  anxiety  was  to  establish  the  inquisition  in  France.  Philip 
II.  was  engaged  in  a  similar  attempt  in  the  Netherlands,  and  both  pro- 
voked a  desperate  resistance.  Like  his  father  Charles  V.,  Philip  was 
ambitious  of  universal  monarchy,  but  he  used  different  means  ;  he  hoped 
to  gain  the  clergy  by  his  zeal,  to  win  the  nobles  by  the  bribes  which 
the  wealth  of  Spanish  America  enabled  him  to  offer,  and  to  subdue  the 
people  by  the  united  efforts  of  ecclesiastical  and  aristocratic  influence. 
But  in  the  Netherlands,  as  in  France,  the  proposal  to  establish  the  in- 
quisition w^as  a  fatal  error  of  despotism  ;  it  provoked  the  fierce  resistance 
of  all  who  were  worthy  of  their  country,  it  identified  the  papacy  with 
cruelty  and  slavery,  it  gave  to  the  reformed  leaders  the  proud  title  of 
deliverers  of  their  coi  ntry.  The  election  of  Pius  IV.  to  the  chair  oi 
St.  Peter  precipitated  the  civil  war  in  France  (a.  d.  1560).  A  con- 
spiracy was  formed  for  removing  the  Guises,  in  which  many  ardcn. 
catholics  join  -d :  it  was  discovered  and  defeated,  but  the  sanguinar} 
cruelty  of  th*^  Lorraine  princes  rendered  their  victory  injurious  to  theii 
cause  ;  the  memory  of  the  martyrs  they  slaughtered  won  proselytes 
and  (;onfirmed  opposition.  So  powerful  were  the  Huguenots,  that  lib 
erty  of  conscience  was  sanctioned  in  an  assembly  of  the  Notables  a 
Fontainebleau  ;  and  it  was  proposed  to  convoke  a  national  council  foi 
regulating  the  affairs  of  the  Galilean  church.  Had  France  been  rulec 
by  an  energetic  sovereign,  acquainted  with  the  interests  of  his  crovvr 
and  the  wishes  of  the  nation,  the  French  church  at  this  moment  might 
have  been  rendered  as  independent  of  Rome  as  the  English  :  the  pop€ 
saw  the  danger,  and  he  iiiduced  Francis  to  abandon  the  national  .synod, 
by  promising  the.  speedy  convocation  of  a  general  council.  Botli  tne 
emperor  and  the  king  of  France  ol)jected  to  reassembling  the  bishops 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  UF  EUROPE.  527 

Id  Trent,  declaring  that  its  name  was  odious  to  tlie  protests  nts  ;  but  the 
ill  health  of  Francis  II.,  who  was  fast  sinking  into  the  grave,  induced 
Pius  to  quicken  his  proceedings,  and  bulls  for  the  continuation  of  the 
coimcil  wore  issued.  In  the  meantime  the  states-general  assembled  in 
France.  The  prince  of  Conde  and  the  king  of  Navarre,  the  great 
leaders  of  the  Huguenot  parly,  were  arrested  when  they  appeared  at 
court,  and  the  former  received  sentence  of  death.  But  the  queen- 
.Tiother,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  dreading  tnat  the  regency  would  be 
seized  by  the  Guises  when  the  king  died,  secretly  intrigued  with  the 
Huguenots  to  secure  their  support,  and  the  life  of  Conde  was  the  pledge 
and  the  reward  of  their  assistance.  But  while  she  thus  courted  the 
alliance  of  the  protestants,  she  secretly  informed- Philip  II.  that  her 
hatred  of  the  Reformation  was  unabated,  and  that  she  only  waited  a  fa- 
vorable opportunity  to  imitate  his  example  of  merciless  butchery  and 
persecution.  She  intrigued  with  both  parties,  a  fatal  error  ;  for  had 
she  frankly  embraced  one,  she  would  have  stamped  the  other  with  the 
character  of  revolt ;  her  Italian  cunning  only  served  to  render  civil  war 
inevitable. 

The  duke  of  Guise  saw  clearly  that,  to  sustain  the  pait  he  designed 
to  act,  it  was  necessary  to  attempt  something  of  more  then  ordinary 
magnitude  ;  he  raised  the  cry  "  the  church  is  in  danger ;"  ignorance 
and  bigotry  responded  to  the  summons  ;  he  placed  himself  at  the  head 
of  the  zealous  supporters  of  papal  infallibility,  hoping  to  destroy,  by  one 
blow,  the  queen-regent,  who  was  suspected  of  culpable  indiflerence  to 
the  interests  of  the  faith,  the  government,  which  seemed  ready  to  rec- 
ognise the  principles  of  toleration,  and  the  Huguenots.  Like  his  op- 
ponents, he  appealed  to  the  people,  and  attempted  to  guide  public  opin- 
ion ;  like  them,  too,  he  declared  himself  the  steadfast  friend  of  the 
monarchy :  thus  the  struggle  between  the  two  parties  had  for  its  prize 
the  throne  of  France,  and  for  its  pretext  the  defence  of  royalty. 

In  the  meantime,  the  council  of  Trent  continued  its  deliberations, 
without  showing  any  symptom  of  a  desire  to  conciliate  the  spirit  of  the 
age,  by  improving  either  the  doctrine  or  the  discipline  of  the  church. 
The  bishops  wasted  their  time  in  scholastic  disputations,  and  proved 
how  delusive  were  their  professions  of  a  desire  for  peace,  by  celebra- 
ting the  victory  obtained  over  the  Huguenots  at  Dreux,  by  a  public 
thanksgiving.  In  fact,  the  council  territied  nobody  but  Pius  IV.,  who 
saw  his  power  attacked  on  every  side.  Maximilian,  the  son  of  the 
emperor  Ferdinand,  having  been  elected  king  of  the  Romans,  refused 
for  a  long  time  to  receive  the  sanction  of  his  election  from  the  pontiff, 
and  finally  accepted  it  as  a  mere  ceremony,  venerable  on  account  of  its 
antiquity  J  it  would  have  bten  better  for  the  holy  see  to  have  abjured 
such  a  privilege,  than  to  have  it  preserved  as  a  subiect  of  ridicule  and 
mockery. 

But  though  the  pul)lic  proceedings  at  Trent  were  far  from  injuring 
the  progress  of  the  Reformation,  there  were  secret  plans  devised  fraught 
with  imminent  peril  to  the  protestants.  One  of  these  was  revealed, 
by  the  imprudence  of  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine.  On  the  10th  of  May, 
156.3,  he  read  a  letter  from  his  niece,  Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  "  submit- 
ting herself  to  the  council,  and  promising  that  when  she  succeeded  to 
the   throne  of  England,  she  would    subject  both   her  kingdoms  to  the 


528  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Obedience  due  to  the  apostolic  see."  He  addcrl,  verbally,  that  the 
would  haA'e  sent  prelates,  as  representatives  of  Scotland,  to  the  council; 
had  she  not  been  restrained  by  the  necessity  of  keeping  terms  with  her 
heretical  councillors.  The  Italians  were  engaged  everywhere  alarming 
monarchs  with  the  republican  tendency  of  the  Refonnation  ;  a  charge 
which  seemed  to  derive  some  support  from  the  revolts  of  the  peasants 
in  Germany,  the  troubles  in  Flanders,  and  the  confusion  of  France 
Philip  II.  was  not  the  only  sovereign  who  regarded  heretics  as  rebels, 
and  believed  that  the  papacy  would  be  found  an  efficient  aid  to  despo- 
tism in  crushing  civil  as  well  as  religious  liberty. 

At  length  the  council  of  Trent  terminated  its  sittings;  eighteen 
years  of  debate  had  produced  no  plan  of  reform  for  ecclesiastical 
morals,  discipline,  or  doctrine  (a.  d.  1564).  One  of  the  last  acts  of  the 
assembled  fathers  was  to  issue  an  anathema  against  heretics,  which 
justified  the  protestants  in  their  refusal  to  recognise  the  acts  of  the 
council.  But  we  should  commit  a  great  error  if  we  supposed  that  this 
last  of  the  general  councils  produced  no  change  in  the  constitution  of 
the  papacy,  it  organized  the  spiritual  despotism  of  the  popes,  clearly  per- 
ceiving that  the  temporal  empire  was  irrecoverably  lost,  and  it  placed 
the  holy  see  in  the  position  of  an  ally  to  the  monarchs  who  were  eager 
to  maintain  despotic  power.  From  the  time  of  this  council  to  the  pres^ 
ent  day,  every  sovereign  of  France  and  Spain,  remarkable  for  hostility 
to  constitutional  freedom,  has  been  equally  conspicuous  for  his  attach- 
ment to  the  holy  see,  and  the  articles  of  faith  ratified  by  the  council  of 
Trent.  It  was  by  this  assembly  that  the  marriage  of  priests  was 
definitely  prohibited.  We  have  already  shown  how  necessary  an 
element  this  law  has  been  to  the  spiritual  despotism  possessed,  and 
temporal  supremacy  claimed,  by  the  pope.  Family  and  country  had  no 
ties  on  the  bishops  of  the  catholic  church  ;  Rome  enjoyed  exclusive 
pos.3ession  of  every  feeling  that  can  render  man  a  good  subject  or  a 
good  citizen  ;  the  infallibility  and  omnipotence  of  the  pope  were  made 
articles  of  faith,  by  prelates  whose  whole  heart  was  engaged  in  sup- 
porting the  supremacy  of  the  holy  see  ;  the  popes  could  rouse  nations 
to  revolt,  and  trouble  empires,  because  they  had  obedient  emissaries  in 
every  parish  ;  the  doctrine  of  implicit  submission  to  the  successors 
of  St.  Peter  was  taught  by  priests,  when  it  could  not  be  enforced  by 
armies,  and  it  was  found  sufficiently  efficacious  to  harass  Europe  with 
a  century  of  war.  Pius  IV.  comprehended  the  immense  value  of  an 
unmarried  clergy ;  though  he  bad  violently  condemned  the  administra- 
tion of  the  eucharist  in  both  kinds,  he  relaxed  the  prohibition  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  permitted  the  cup  to  be  given  to 
the  laity  in  Germany;  but  on  the  point  of  celibacy  he  was  infiexible, 
for  he  was  justly  convinced  that  it  was  the  great  bond  by  wbich  all  the 
portions  of  papal  domination  were  united,  and  that  if  it  should  be  relaxed, 
tlie  entire  edifice  would  fall  in  sunder. 

After  the  dissolution  of  the  council,  a  general  suspicion  was  difl^used 
through  the  protestants  of  Europe,  that  a  league  for  their  destruction 
had  been  formed  by  some  of  the  leading  catholic  powers.  It  is  now 
sufficiently  notorious  that  these  suspicions  were  not  groundless,  and 
that  Pius  IV.  was  weary  of  the  slow  steps  by  which  the  members  of 
this  preteiulcd  holy  alliance  advanced  to  the  verge  of  d.n  exterminaiing 


THE  STATES  SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  5'i9 

A  ar.  He  earnestly  urged  a  personal  interview  between  Catherine  de 
Medicis  and  Philip  II. ;  it  was  declined  by  the  latter  on  account  of  hi? 
ill  health,  but  he  sent  a  worthy  representative,  the  duke  of  Alva,  to  hold 
a  conference  with  the  queen-regent  and  her  son,  Charles  IX.,  at 
Bayonne.  The  pretext  for  the  meeting  was  an  interview  between  tb*' 
young  queen  of  Spain  and  her  mother,  Catherine  de  Medicis  ;  but  thf 
presence  of  the  duke  of  Alva,  the  avowed  enemy  of  the  protestants 
whose  extirpation  he  openly  proclaimed  to  be  his  most  solemn  duty  to 
God  or  man,  was  a  clear  proof  that  more  important  designs  were  con 
templated.  The  days  were  spent  in  all  the  sports  and  festivities  that 
are  to  be  found  in  a  luxurious  and  licentious  court.  But  at  the  dead 
hour  of  midnight,  when  the  courtiers,  exhausted  by  the  toumament,  the 
table,  and  the  dance,  retired  to  repose,  Catherine  held  secret  conferen 
ces  with  Alva  in  the  apartments  of  her  probably  uiiconsi.,'ous  daughter, 
Elizabeth.  They  agreed  in  their  object,  the  destruction  of  the  Hugue- 
nots, and  all  the  parties  disposed  to  place  restrictions  on  the  royal  au- 
thority in  the  French  and  Spanish  dominions,  but  they  differed  very 
widely  as  to  the  means  by  which  this  might  be  most  effectiiady  accom- 
plished. Alva  recommended  the  most  violent  measures,  edicts  of  ex- 
termination supported  by  powerful  armies,  military  execution  of  all  who 
ventured  to  offer  any  opposition,  and  a  general  massacre  of  tlie  Hugue- 
not congregations.  But  though  Catherine  would  not  have  shown  any 
scruple  in  adopting  these,  or  even  more  atrocious  plans,  she  was  well 
aware  that  Alva's  projects  could  not  be  executed  without  the  aid  of  a 
Spanish  army,  and  she  was  too  jealous  of  her  own  authority  to  allow  a 
foreign  court  to  exercise  any  influence  in  the  kingdom  which  she  gov- 
erned as  regent.  She  relied  on  her  own  craft  and  cunning  to  retain 
power,  for  her  zeal  for  religion  was  always  made  subservient  to  hex 
ambition,  and  she  was  infinitely  more  afraid  of  any  combination  of  the 
nobles  of  France  to  restrain  the  royal  authority,  than  of  the  real  or  sup- 
posed progress  of  heretical  opinions.  She  hated  the  Huguenots  rather 
as  a  political  than  as  a  religious  body,  for  the  aristocratic  leaders  of  the 
sect  were  more  bent  on  rendering  the  nobles  independent  of  the  crown, 
than  of  delivering  the  Galilean  church  from  the  power  of  the  pope,  and 
it  was  the  aristocratic  character  thus  imprinted  on  the  principles  of  the 
reformation  in  France,  which  prevented  the  protestant  movement  from 
evei  becoming  popular  with  the  great  body  of  the  middle  and  the  lowei 
ranks  in  France.  In  their  minds  it  wl.?  associated  with  feudalism, 
which  had  become  so  odious  to  the  French  people  that  they  would 
have  accepted  the  worst  form  of  oriental  despotism  in  preference. 

Philip  began  to  execute  his  part  of  the  agreement  by  a  vigorous  effort 
'.0  establish  the  Inquisition  in  Flanders  ;  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  insur- 
rection which  such  a  measure  provoked,  he  appointed  the  duke  of  Alva 
lord  lieutenant  of  the  Netherlands,  with  almost  absolute  authority. 
Many  of  the  Flemish  merchants  and  manufacturers  left  their  country , 
hey  brought  their  industry  and  their  capital  to  England ;  a  circum- 
stance which  had  no  small  share  in  the  rapid  growth  of  England's  com- 
mercial prosperity.  The  cruelties  of  Alva,  the  noble  resistance  of  the 
prince  of  Orange,  long  the  head  and  hope  of  the  protestant  party  in 
Europe,  and  the  final  establishment  of  the  independence  of  the  Seven 
United   Provinces,  belong  to  general  history  ;  but  in  this  narrative  wt 

31 


5,'JO  MODERN  HISTORY 

must  r.oi  omit  to  mention,  that  Philip's  brutal  obstinacy  was  frequent'} 
blamed  by  the  coun  of  Rome  ;  the  crafty  Italians  would  have  preferred 
fraud  to  violence,  and  assassination  to  the  perils  of  open  war  (a.  h. 
1572).  It  must  also  be  mentioned,  that  the  Turks  joined  in  the  contest 
as  the  protectors  of  the  Flemings,  and  that  their  defeat  by  Don  John  of 
Austria,  at  Lepanto,  fma-lly  delivered  Europe  from  the  perils  with 
which  it  was  menaced  by  Mohammedan  barbarism.  Pius  V.,  who  aa- 
cended  the  papal  throne  (a.  d.  1566),  was  disposed  to  take  advantage 
of  the  victory  at  Lepanto,  and  organize  a  league  against  the  Turks  ;  but 
Philip  was  jealous  of  the  glory  acquired  by  his  brother,  and  he  declared 
that  nothing  should  divert  him  from  the  prosecution  of  the  war  in  Flan- 
ders. This  pontiff,  who  was  afterward  canonized  as  a  saint,  was  in- 
flexible in  his  hatred  of  the  protestant?  but  he  made  some  efforts  to 
remedy  the  evils  of  the  church  by  founding  schools  and  colleges,  and 
excluding  persons  of  immoral  life  from  ecclesiastical  dignities.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Gregory  XIII. 

In  the  spring  of  1560,  the  French  protestants  were  detected  in  a 
conspiracy  for  taking  the  infant  king  out  of  the  hands  of  the  persecu- 
ting Guises,  and  expelling  the  entire  Lorraine  family  from  France. 
The  massacres  with  which  this  crime  was  punished,  produced  retalia- 
tion ;  a  civil  war  ensued,  which,  interrupted  by  short  and  unsteady 
truces,  lasted  to  1570,  when  a  treaty,  favorable  to  the  Huguenots,  waa 
concluded  at  St.  Germains.  To  cement  this  peace,  a  marriage  was 
proposed  between  the  young  king  of  Navarre,  the  hereditary  leader  of 
the  French  protestants,  and  the  princess  Margaret,  the  beautiful  sister 
of  the  king  of  France.  The  proposal  diffused  such  universal  joy,  that 
even  the  more  violent  of  the  catholic  party  were  forced  to  acquiesce, 
and  preparations  were  made  for  celebrating  the  nuptials  at  Paris  with 
extraordinary  magnificence.  Admiral  Coligni  and  the  other  protestant 
leaders  were  invited  to  witness  the  festivities,  and  the  chief  catholic 
lords,  headed  by  the  duke  of  Guise,  came  to  share  in  the  general 
reconciliation. 

The  events  which  led  to  the  fearful  tragedy  that  accompanied  this 
marriage,  have  been  so  misrepresented  by  party  writers  on  every  side, 
that  it  is  desirable  to  state  the  facts  at  some  length,  as  they  have  been 
narrated  by  the  principal  actors  themselves.  At  this  period  the  popu- 
lace of  Paris  was  the  most  bigoted  and  sanguinary  mob  to  be  found  in 
Europe.  They  went  beyond  the  most  cruel  edicts  of  their  rulers  in 
porse  uiting  all  who  were  suspected  of  heretical  opinions,  and  not  un- 
froquently  took  the  law  into  their  own  hands,  against  the  wishes  of  the 
court  and  the  clergy.  The  presence  of  Coligni  and  the  protestant 
lords,  was,  therefore,  a  source  of  indignant  grief  to  the  fanatical  multi- 
ludn,  and  nothing  but  the  presence  of  the  royal  guards  prevented  out- 
burst of  popular  violence.  Guise  and  his  friends,  opposed  to  the  Hu- 
guenots as  heretics,  and  to  their  leaders  as  rivals,  fostered  this  general 
discontent,  while  the  queen-mother,  Catherine,  negotiated  with  both 
parties,  believing  that  she  could  only  retain  power  by  balancing  one 
against  the  oth  ^r. 

Charles  IX.,  feeble  in  body,  and  weak  in  intellect,  had  just  attained 
fiis  legal  majority,  but  the  real  power  of  the  state  was  wielded  by  Cath- 
prine  and  her  favorite  son,  Henry,  for  whom  she  always  showed  herself 


THE  STATES  SVSTEM  OF  EUROPE  531 

willing  to  sacrifice  the  rest  of  her  children.  In  som^3  of  liis  conversa- 
tions with  the  protestant  lords,  Charles  complained  very  bitterly  of  the 
state  of  thraldom  in  which  he  was  held,  and  Coligni,  commiserating 
the  unhappy  monarch,  promised  to  aid  in  his  deliverance.  The  king 
soon  began  to  vaunt  of  his  design  to  assume  the  reins  of  power,  and  to 
remove  his  mother  and  brother  from  the  court.  They  took  the  alarm, 
and  easily  discovering  by  whose  counsels  the  king  was  inliuenced, 
resolved  to  assassinate  the  admiral  Coligni.  Henry  hired  a  man  lor 
the  purpose,  and  lent  him  his  own  gun ;  but  in  order  to  avert  suspicion, 
he  stationed  the  assassin  in  the  lodgings  of  a  retainer  of  the  duke  of 
Guise.  Coligni  was  shot  as  he  passed  the  house,  but  the  wound  was 
not  mortal ;  before  his  friends  could  break  open  the  door,  the  assassin 
had  escaped,  leaving  his  gun  behind  him.  At  first,  the  suspicions  of 
the  protestants  were  directed  against  the  duke  of  Guise,  but  the  gun, 
and  some  other  circumstances,  soon  led  them  to  discover  the  real 
instigators  of  the  plot,  and  they  very  imprudently  proclaimed  their 
intention  to  e.xact  heaA'^y  vengeance  upon  Catherine  and  her  favorite 
son. 

In  this  emergency,  Catherine  convoked  a  secret  council  of  her 
friends,  and  there  it  was  resolved  to  massacre  all  the  Huguenots  on  the 
eve  of  St.  Bartholomew  (a.  d.  1572),  and  thus  crush  the  entire  party  at 
one  blow.  The  conspirators,  seven  in  number,  were  well  aware  that 
they  could  rely  on  the  royal  guards,  who  were  still  animated  by  all  the 
passions  of  the  late  religious  wars,  and  they  also  knew  that  the  Parisian 
populace  waited  but  a  signal  to  indulge  in  the  excesses  of  savage 
bigotry.  It  was  further  resolved  that  the  atrocious  plot  should  be  kept 
secret  from  the  king  until  it  was  on  the  eve  of  execution,  but  that  all  ar- 
rangements for  effectually  accomplishing  the  general  slaughter  should 
be  made,  and  everything  kept  in  readiness  to  begin,  the  moment  that  his 
consent  had  been  obtained. 

It  was  late  in  the  evening  when  Catherine  went  to  Charles,  accom- 
panied by  her  chosen  advisers,  and  told  him  that  the  protestants  had 
formed  a  plan  for  the  extermination  of  the  royal  family,  which  could 
only  be  frustrated  by  the  most  immediate  and  decisive  measures.  The 
feeble  monarch,  who  was  not  many  degrees  removed  from  idiotcy 
exhibited  (svery  sign  of  helpless  alarm.  While  in  this  condition,  his 
mother  placed  before  him  the  dreadful  decree  of  extermination,  and 
demanded  his  signature  ;  Charles  at  first  refused,  and  for  some  time 
it  was  doubtful  whether  his  consent  could  be  obtained.  At  length, 
in  a  paroxysm  of  rage  mingled  with  insanity,  he  exclaimed,  "  I  con- 
sent, provided  that  you  kill  them  all,  and  leave  no  survivor  to  reproach 
me." 

It  was  about  midnight  that  the  sounding  of  the  tocsin  summoned  the 
bands  of  murderers  to  commence  the  work  of  destruction.  Most  of  the 
unsuspecting  Huguenots  were  massacred  in  their  beds,  or  shot  on  the 
roofs  of  their  houses  while  attempting  to  escape.  Charles  himself, 
armed  with  a  gun,  stationed  himself  in  a  tower,  from  which  he  fired 
upon  Such  fugitives  as  attempted  to  escape  across  the  Seine  ;  the  palace 
itself  was  not  respected  ;  several  of  the  attendants  of  the  young  king  of 
Navarre  were  murdered  in  the  royal  apartments,  and  he  was  himself 
exposed  to  considerable  danger 


5^*-^  MODERN  HISTORY. 

The  massacre  lasted  for  eight  days  and  nights  without  any  apparen 
diminution  of  the  fury  of  the  murderers.  Several  catholics  perished 
the  victims  of  mistake  or  of  private  animosit}'';  and  similar  atrocities 
were  perpetrated  in  the  princij)al  cities  of  the  kingdom.  At  first,  the 
court  seemed  disposed  to  throw  the  hlame  of  this  fearful  atrocity  on  the 
diike  of  Guise  and  his  faction,  but  finding  that  the  guilt  could  not  be 
concealed,  it  was  openly  avowed,  and  a  royal  manifesto  issued  in  its 
justification.  The  wish  of  Charles  that  none  should  survive  to  reproach 
him  was  not  fulfilled  :  nearly  two  millions  of  Huguenots  still  survived  to 
avenge  the  fate  of  their  nmrdered  brethren.  The  civil  war  was  re- 
newed with  greater  fury  than  ever  ;  the  protestants  felt  themselves 
strengthened  by  the  sympathy  of  all  whom  bigotry  had  not  rendered 
callous  to  every  feeling  of  humanity  ;  and  the  authors  of  this  unparalleled 
crime  had  the  mortification  to  discover  that  it  had  been  perpetrated  in 
vain. 

While  public  rejoicings  were  made  at  Rome  and  Madrid,  for  the  sup- 
posed overthrow  of  heresy  in  France,  the  horror  and  indignation  excited 
by  the  massacre  in  northern  Europe,  not  only  among  protestant,  but 
even  catholic  princes,  proved  a  serious  injury  to  the  catholic  cause. 
The  prince  of  Orange  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  revolters  in  the 
Netherlands — the  Gueux,  or  Beggars,  as  they  were  contemptuously 
called  l)y  their  oppressors.  Though  at  first  unsuccessful,  he  gave  the 
insurrection  a  determinate  character  by  the  capture  of  Brille  (a.  d.  1572), 
a  conquest  which  secured  him  a  naval  station  for  his  daring  cruisers, 
and  encouraged  the  cities  of  Holland  and  Zealand  to  reject  the  Spanish 
yoke.  The  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  weakened  the  insurgents,  by 
depriving  them  of  the  aid  of  the  French  Huguenots  ;  but  instead  of 
quelling  their  courage,  it  only  stimulated  them  to  perseverance.  De- 
feated by  land,  and  deprived  of  their  strongest  cjties,  they  attacked  the 
Spaniards  on  sea,  and  captured  several  rich  freights.  At  length  Alva 
retired  in  despair,  and  was  succeeded  by  Zunega  y  Requesens  (Decem- 
ber, 1573). 

In  the  very  commencement  of  his  administration,  Requesens  gained 
a  decisive  victory  over  the  insurgents  at  Monher  Moor,  near  Nimeguen. 
The  three  brothers  of  the  prince  of  Orange  fell  in  this  fatal  battle,  which 
would  |)robably  have  terminated  the  war,  but  for  a  mutiny  of  the  Span- 
ish soldiers.  The  turbulencie  of  the  royal  army,  the  insolence  and 
licentiousness  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  pillage  of  Antwerp  by  the  muti- 
neers, excited  the  indignation  of  catholics  and  protestants.  Five  of  the 
Batavian  and  six  of  the  Belgic  provinces  entered  into  the  pacification 
of  Ghent,  which  provided  for  the  expulsion  of  foreigners,  the  repeal  of 
Alva's  sanguinary  edicts,  and  restoration  of  the  ancient  power  of  the 
states-general  (a.  d.  1576).  Don  John  of  Austria,  who  had  succeeded 
Requesens  in  the  goveriunent,  disarmed  suspicion  by  acceding  to  the 
league  of  Ghent ;  but  this  confederacy  soon  fell  to  pieces,  owing  to  the 
jealousy  l)etween  the  protestant  and  catholic  states.  It  now  became 
manifest  that  freedom  could  only  be  attained  by  a  close  union  of  the 
northern  provinces,  and  a  final  rupture  with  Spain.  Acting  on  this  be- 
iief,  the  j)rince  of  Orange  organized  the  confederacy  of  Utrecht,  the 
Dasis  of  tint  commonwealth  so  renowned  under  the  name  of  the  KepitK 
lie  of  the  United  Provinces  (\.  u.  157^^). 


THE  STATES  SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  533 

But,  notwithstanding  these  precautions,  the  nomination  of  the  Julie 
of  Parma  to  the  regency  threatened  to  ruin  all  the  projects  of  the  prince 
of  Orange.     The  southern  provinces,  inspired  with  a  jealousy  of  the 
protestant  designs  on  the  catholic  religion,  entered  into  an  alliance  with 
the  regent,  and  levied  an  army  against  the  insurgents  of  the  north.     Jiui 
the  Hollanders,  thus  deserted,  did  not  lose  courage  ;  they  formally  re- 
nounced their  allegiance  to  the  Spanish  crown,  and  chose  the  duke  of 
Anjou,  brother  to  the  king  of  France,  for  their  sovereign  (a.  d.  1581). 
But  this  choice  did  not  produce  the  expected  advantages  ;  and  the  duke 
of  Anjou,  after  a  brief  struggle,  abandoned  all  hopes  of  competing  with 
the  duke  of  Parma,  and  returned  to  Francs,     It  is  probable  that  the 
states  would  have  chosen  the  prince  of  Orange  for  their  constitutional 
sovereign,  but  that  hero  was  stabbed  by  a  fanatic,  whether  instigated 
wholly  by  bigotry,  or  partly  seduced  by  Spanish  gold,  it  is  now  difiicult 
to  determine  (a.  d.  1584).     Amid  the  general  gloom  spread  over  the 
protestant  confederates  by  the  loss  of  their  illustrious  leader,  the  Hol- 
landers and  Zealanders  chose  Maurice,  his  son,  a  young  man  of  eigh- 
teen, their  stadtholder  and  captain-general  by  sea  and  land.     The  war 
still  continued  ;  but  though  the  duke  of  Parma  prevailed  in  the  field,  and 
finally  captured  the  important  city  of  Antwerp  (a.  d.  1585),  the  confed- 
erates never  dreamed  of  submission.     They  offered  the  sovereignty  of 
their  republic  to  Queen  Elizabeth  on  certain  conditions  ;  and  though  she 
rejected  the  proffer,  she  sent  the  earl  of  Leicester  to  their  aid  with  a 
considerable  army.     The  misconduct  of  Leicester  prevented  tlie  Hol- 
landers from  gaining  all  the  advantages  from  the  English  auxiliaries  that 
might  have  been  expected  ;  but  the  breaking  out  of  war  between  Eng- 
land and  Spain,  the  death  of  tlie  duke  of  Parma  in  the  civil  wars  of 
France,  and  the  heroism  of  Prince  Maurice,  gave  them  such  a  decided 
superiority  by  sea  and  land,  that  their  independence  was  secured  and 
finally  recognised  by  Spain  (a.  d.  1609). 

Before  entering  on  the  history  of  the  war  between  England  and  Spam, 
it  is  necessary  to  take  a  retrospective  view  of  the  state  of  France.  On 
the  death  of  Charles  IX.,  his  brother  Henry  HI.,  resigned  the  throne  of 
Poland  for  that  of  France  (a.  d.  1574).  This  prince,  on  his  return,  be- 
gan a  war  of  persecution,  and  concluded  by  an  ignominious  peace  with 
his  own  subjects,  in  less  than  a  year.  He  then  abandoned  himself  to 
the  lowest  debaucheries,  strangely  combined  with  the  practice  of  the 
most  degrading  superstitions.  Opposed  to  the  king,  were  the  princes 
of  Lorraine,  who^e  chief,  Henry,  duke  of  Guise,  was  deservedly  re- 
garded as  the  leader  of  the  violent  catholic  party  in  France.  Noble  in 
person,  polished  in  demeanor,  endowed  with  superior  talents,  and  ani- 
mated by  grasping  ambition,  he  seemed  formed  by  nature  to  become  the 
leader  of  a  faction,  and  art  had  lent  its  aid  to  improve  all  these  advan- 
tages. The  utter  contempt  into  which  Henry  III.  had  fallen,  and  the 
rage  of  the  catholics  at  the  tolerance  granted  to  the  protestauts  by  the 
late  pacification,  encouraged  the  duke  of  Guise  to  raise  the  cry  of  re- 
ligion, and  the  fanatic  populace,  roused  by  this  hypocritical  pretext,  oe- 
gan  to  take  arms  to  defend  their  church.  The  Holy  League,  drawn  up 
by  Guise's  uncle,  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  for  the  defence  of  the  cath- 
jlic  religion,  was  signed  and  sworn  to  by  catholics  of  all  ranks  and 
conditions  in  Paris  and  <-he  provinces.     The  duke  of  Guise  was  ap- 


534  MODERN  HISTORY. 

pointed  head  of  the  league  ;  the  pope  and  the  king  of  Spain  declare  J 
themselves  its  protectors,  and  the  wretched  Ilcny  was  forced  lu 
yield  to  the  faction,  assemble  the  states  at  Blois,  and  revoke  the 
freedom  of  conscience  granted  to  the  Huguenots.  The  consequence 
was  a  civil  war,  the  ninth  which  afflicted  France  since  the  death  of 
Francis  II. 

The  fate  of  the  unhappy  queen  of  Scots,  which  had  been  determined 
ever  since  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  was  precipitated  by  the 
formation  of  the  Holy  League.  Some  enthusiastic  English  catholics 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  for  assassinating  Elizabeth  ;  Mary  was  cog- 
nizant of  their  plans,  but  her  participation  in  the  plot  is  very  doubtful 
However,  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed  authorizing  her  trial  ;  com- 
missioners were  sent  "for  the  purpose  to  Fotheringay  castle,  the  place 
of  her  confinement,  and  after  an  investigation,  in  which  the  forms  of 
law  and  the  principles  of  justice  were  little  regarded,  she  was  con- 
demned to  death.  Elizabeth,  with  much  apparent,  and  some  real  reluc- 
tance, signed  the  warrant  of  execution,  and  placed  it  in  the  hands  of 
Davison,  her  private  secretary,  enjoining  him  not  to  use  it  without  fur- 
ther oiders  (a.  d.  1587).  DaA^son,  however,  showed  the  warrant  to 
the  members  of  the  council,  and  they,  without  further  consulting  Eliza- 
beth, had  the  unhappy  Mary  beheaded.  Henry  III.  of  France,  soon 
afterward,  had  his  capital  enemies,  the  duke  and  cardinal  of  Guise, 
assassinated  ;  but  this  atrocious  crime  only  roused  the  leaguers  to 
more  vigorous  measures.  They  assembled  a  parliament,  deposed  the 
king,  and  created  the  duke  of  Mayenne  lieutenant-general  of  the  king- 
dom. 

Philip  II.,  in  the  meantime,  prepared  an  expedition  which  he  fondly 
hoped  would  conquer  England,  and  thus  destroy  the  great  stay  of  prot- 
estantism in  Europe.  Ships  were  prepared  in  all  the  ports  throughout 
his  extensive  dominions ;  Spain,  Portugal,  Naples,  and  those  parts  of 
the  low  countries  which  still  recognised  his  authority.  An  army  of 
30,000  picked  men  was  assembled  under  the  most  experienced  officers 
of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Germany,  and  the  chief  command  was  intrusted  to 
the  celebrated  duke  of  Parma.  The  pope  blessed  an  expedition  that 
seemed  destined  once  more  to  restore  the  supremacy  of  the  holy  see  ; 
and  the  catholics  throughout  Europe  were  so  confident  of  success,  that 
ihey  named  the  armament  "  The  Invincible  Armada."  Elizabeth  un- 
dauntedly prepared  to  meet  the  danger.  She  intrusted  the  command  of 
her  fleet  to  a  catholic  nobleman.  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  while 
the  land  army  was  placed  under  the  command  of  the  earl  of  Leicester. 
Nothing  could  exceed  the  enthusiastic  determination  of  the  English 
people  to  defend  their  religion  and  liberties,  though  the  queen  had  but 
one  ally  on  whose  assistance  she  could  reckon,  James,  king  of  Scot- 
land ;  she  trusted  to  the  attachment  of  her  people,  and  found  that  the 
love  of  her  subjects  Avas  the  best  security  of  her  throne. 

On  the  thirtieth  of  May,  1588,  the  armada  sailed  from  Lisbon:  but 
having  been  shattered  by  a  storm,  it  was  forced  to  stop  at  Corunna,  and 
it  did  not  reach  the  English  channel  imtil  the  nineteenth  of  July.  Here 
the  Spanish  admiral,  the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  was  surprised  to 
find  that  the  duke  of  Parma  was  not  prepared  to  join  him  with  a  fleet 
ind  army.     Whilb  he  hesitated,  the  light  English  stjuadrons  assailec' 


THK  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  535 

his  heavy  vessels  on  all  sides,  and  after  seven  days,  three  of  whif.Ii 
only  passed  writhout  warm  actions,  though  there  was  no  decisive  en- 
gagement, the  armada  was  so  shattered  by  English  skill  and  bravery, 
that  it  was  forced  to  take  shelter  in  the  roads  of  Calais.  The  earl  of 
Effingham,  following  up  his  advantage,  sent  in  fireships  during  the  night, 
which  destroyed  several  vessels,  and  threw  the  others  into  such  confu- 
sion, that  the  Spaniards  no  longer  thought  of  victory,  but  escape.  The 
duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  dreading  again  to  encounter  the  English  fleet, 
attempted  to  return  home  by  sailing  round  the  north  of  Scotland ;  but 
dreadful  storms  overtook  the  armada,  many  of  the  ships  were  driven  on 
the  shores  of  Norway,  Ireland,  and  the  north  of  Scotland,  and  out  of 
the  triumphant  navy  that  sailed  from  Lisbon,  only  a  few  shattered  ves- 
sels returned  to  bring  intelligence  of  the  calamity  that  had  overwhelmed 
.he  rest. 

This  glorious  success  was  deservedly  regarded,  not  so  much  as  the 
■  .riumph  of  England,  as  of  the  protestant  cause  throughout  Europe  ;  it 
virtually  established  the  independence  of  the  Dutch,  and  it  raised  the 
courage  of  the  Huguenots  in  France.  It  completely  destroyed  the  de- 
cisive influence  that  Spain  had  acquired  in  the  aff'airs  of  Europe  ;  ever 
since  the  snipwreck  of  the  armada,  the  Spanish  state  and  people  seem 
to  have  lost  all  energy,  and  sunk  into  ahflost  hopeless  decay. 

Henry  HI.  of  France,  obliged  by  the  violence  of  the  league  to  seek 
the  aid  of  his  protestant  subjects,  was  murdered  by  a  fanatic  monk, 
just  as  he  was  upon  the  point  of  driving  his  enemies  from  Paris.  By 
his  death,  the  house  of  Valois  became  extinct,  and  the  right  of  inheri- 
tance passed  to  the  Bourbon  family,  descended  from  Robert,  the  sixth 
son  of  St.  Louis.  Its  representative  was  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  now 
claimed  to  be  Henry  IV.  of  France,  a  warlike,  chivalrous  prince,  en- 
dowed with  many  amiable  qualities,  but  disliked  by  his  new  subjects 
on  account  of  his  attachment  to  the  protestant  religion.  After  a  long 
struggle,  Henry  found  it  necessary  to  abjure  his  faith,  in  order  to  se- 
cure his  crown ;  but  he  atoned  to  the  Huguenots  for  his  compulsory 
desertion,  by  issuing  the  celebrated  edict  of  Nantes.  Still  he  had  to 
make  good  his  rights  by  the  sword ;  for  his  abjuration  could  not  induce 
either  the  pope  or  Philip  II.  to  give  up  their  plans.  He  received  some 
aid  from  Elizabeth,  but  his  final  success  was  mainly  due  to  his  own 
eminent  abilities ;  his  triumph  was  virtually  completed  by  the  capture 
of  Paris  (a.  n.  1594),  but  Spain  persevered  in  its  hostility  until  tht- 
peace  of  Vervins  (a.  d.  1598). 

The  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign  was  clouded  by  sanguinary  wars 
against  her  Irish  subjects,  whose  insurrections  were  too  often  provoked 
by  the  injustice  of  their  rulers,  and  by  the  execution  of  her  ill-fated  fa- 
vorite, the  earl  of  Essex.  But  notwithstanding  these  domestic  calami- 
ties, she  maintained  the  war  against  Spain  with  great  vigor,  and  en- 
couraged her  subjects  to  undermine  the  strength  of  that  kingdom  by 
enterprises  against  its  commerce.  The  annexation  of  Portugal  to  the 
crown  of  Spain,  apparently  gave  the  subjects  of  Philip  II.  complete 
command  of  the  Indian,  as  well  as  the  South  American  trade  ;  but  the 
wars  of  that  monarch  with  England  and  Holland,  raised  both  countries 
to  a  rivalry  that  terminated  to  the  disadvantage,  if  not  to  the  ruin  of  tho 
Spanish  commerce.    In  1591,  the  English,  for  the  first  time,  performed 


536  MODERN  HISTORY. 

liie  voyage  to  Iiiclia ;  and  in  1600,  the  year  in  Avhich  the  East  Indii 
compary  was  founded,  they  took  possession  of  the  island  of  St.  Hele- 
na. The  Ilanseatic  league,  now  fast  sinking  into  decay,  complained 
loudly  of  the  encouragement  given  by  the  English  government  to  ith 
native  merchants,  and  prohibited  the  English  from  trading  in  Germany  , 
but  this  imwise  atten  pt  to  enforce  monopoly  produced  mensures  of 
retaliation  that  speedily  proved  fatal  to  their  privileges  and  their  power. 
During  Elizabeth's  reign,  England  attained  the  highest  rank  among 
European  states,  and  may  be  said  to  have  held  the  balance  of  power  in 
Christendom ;  that  this  was  owing,  in  no  small  degree,  to  the  personal 
character  of  the  sovereign,  is  manifest  from  the  rapid  decline  of  British 
influence,  when  the  sceptre  passed  to  the  feeble  house  of  Stuart. 

SkctioiN  IX. —  Tlte  Age  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

From  the  death  of  Charles  V.  to  the  accession  of  Ferdinand  II.," 
there  were  few  events  in  German  history  that  produced  any  important 
result  in  the  general  politics  of  Europe.  Ferdinand  I.  and  his  son 
Maximilian  II.  were  sincerely  attached  to  peace,  and  Rudolph  II.  was 
willing  to  leave  the  world  in  quiet,  if  the  world  would  have  jeft  him 
undisturbed.  From  the  time  of  his  accession  (a.  d.  1576),  Rudolph's 
great  anxiety  was  to  unite  the  Germanic  princes  in  a  firm  league  against 
the  Turks  ;  but  theological  discussions,  united  with  political  ambition, 
eerved  to  prepare  the  way  for  fresh  convulsions.  The  influence  of  the 
Jesuits  in  the  imperial  court  so  alarmed  the  protestants,  that  they 
formed  a  new  alliance,  called  "  The  Evangelical  Union,"  of  which  the 
elector-palatine  was  declared  the  chief  (a.  d.  1609),  and  this  was  op- 
posed by  a  catholic  league,  in  which  foreign  as  well  as  German  prin- 
ces were  joined.  In  this  unsettled  state  of  afl^airs,  the  competition  for 
succession  to  a  small  principality  had  nearly  involved  Europe  in  a  gen- 
eral war.  Henry  IV.  of  France,  after  having  secured  himself  on  the 
throne,  intrusted  the  chief  management  of  his  affairs  to  the  duke  of 
Sully,  under  whose  wise  administration  the  finances  were  so  improved, 
and  the  strength  of  the  kingdom  so  consolidated,  that  France  began  to 
take  the  lead  in  European  policy.  Henry  had  formed  a  great  scheme 
for  making  all  Christendom  a  federate  republic,  in  which  flie  rights  and 
independence  of  the  several  states  should  be  firmly  secured.  A  more 
immediate  project  was  the  humiliation  of  the  house  of  Austria,  whose 
increasing  power  in  Germany  and  Spain  was  deemed  d;uigerous  to  ali 
the  surrounding  countries.  The  vacancy  in  the  dutchies  of  Cleves 
and  Juliers,  which,  on  the  death  of  the  duke  without  male  heirs,  had 
been  seized  by  the  emperor  as  lapsed  fiefs,  gave  Henry  a  pretext  for 
interfering  in  the  aflfairs  of  Germany ;  he  formed  alliances  with  several 
of  his  neighbors,  and  especially  with  the  king  of  England  and  the  Ital- 
ian princes.  But  while  preparing  to  assist  at  the  coronation  of  his 
queen,  Mary  de  Medicis,  he  was  stabbed  by  a  fanatic,  named  Ravaillac 
(a  d.  1610),  and  the  disturbances  that  ensued  prevented  the  French 
from  making  further  exertions  in  Germany.  The  dissensions  in  the 
Austrian  family  contributed  to  avert  a  general  war.  Rudolph  was  grad- 
ually driven  from  his  whole  dominions  by  his  brother  Matthias  ;  deserted 
bvliis  ancient  partisans,  he  became  melancholy  and  distrustful,  shutting 


THE  dTATES  SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  537 

himself  up  in  his  ])alace,  where  grief  and  want  of  exercise  soon  pro- 
3uced  a  mortal  disease,  which  brought  him  prematurely  to  the  grave 
(a.  d.  1611). 

Matthias  succeeded  to  the  imperial  crown,  and  though  he  had  beer, 
previously  befriended  by  the  protestants,  he  threw  himself  into  the 
arms  of  the  catholic  party,  and  thus  increased  the  dissatisfaction  which 
had  led  to  the  evangelical  union ;  he  procured  the  crown  of  Bohemia 
for  his  cousin  Ferdinand,  archduke  of  Gratz,  and  this  bigoted  monarch 
soon  forced  his  protestant  subjects  to  revolt.  While  the  war  was  yet 
in  progress,  Matthias  died,  and  Ferdinand,  to  the  great  alarm  of  the 
protestant  party,  was  elected  emperor  (a.  d.  1619).  Ferdinand  entered 
into  close  alliance  with  the  Spanish  branch  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burgh,  but  this  family  compact  was  not  so  "ormidable  as  it  had  been 
heretofore.  The  union  of  the  crown  of  Portugal  to  that  of  Spain  had 
not  added  much  real  strength  to  Philip  II. ;  the  Portuguese  hated  the 
Spaniards,  especially  as  they  were  compelled  to  abandon  their  lucrative 
commerce  with  the  revolted  Hollanders,  and  were  finally  deprived  of 
the  greater  part  of  their  Indian  colonies  by  the  successful  republicans. 
The  defeat  of  the  armada,  followed  by  these  colonial  losses,  rendered 
the  reign  of  Philip  II.  calamitous  to  the  peninsula;  but  on  his  death 
(a.  d.  1598)  it  was  destined  to  suffer  still  greater  losses  from  the  bigotry 
of  his  successor.  Philip  III.  expelled  the  Moriscoes  or  Moors,  who 
had  remained  in  the  peninsula  after  the  overthrow  of  the  last  Moham- 
medan dynasty,  and  thus  deprived  himself  of  the  services  of  more  than 
a  million  of  his  most  industrious  subjects  (a.  d.  1610).  He  intrusted 
the  administration  of  the  kingdom  to  favorites,  chosen  without  discrim- 
ination, and  made  the  custom  of  governing  by  ministers  a  maxim  of 
state.  On  his  death  (a.  d.  1621),  Spain,  though  still  respected  and 
even  feared,  was  in  reality  deplorably  weak ;  but  the  reign  of  Philip 
IV.  almost  completed  its  ruin  ;  the  Catalans  revolted,  and  placed  them- 
selves under  the  protection  of  France ;  the  Portuguese,  choosing  for 
their  monarch  the  duke  of  Braganza,  achieved  their  independence 
(a.  d.  1640),  and  the  Neapolitans,  harassed  by  the  premier,  the  count- 
duke  of  Olivarez,  attempted  to  form  a  republic. 

These  events  were  not  foreseen  when  Ferdinand  became  emperor. 
The  Bohemian  protestants,  dreading  his  bigotry,  chose  Frederic,  the 
elector-palatine,  son-in-law  of  the  British  monarch,  for  their  sovereign, 
and  in  an  evil  hour  for  himself,  Frederic  assumed  the  royal  title. 
James  I.  was  a  monarch  of  much  learning  and  little  wisdom  ;  the  nat- 
ural timulity  of  his  disposition,  and  his  anxiety  to  secure  the  hand  of  a 
Spanish  princess  for  his  son,  induced  him  to  observe  a  neutrahty  in 
this  dispute,  contrary  to  the  ardent  wishes  of  his  subjects.  Duped  by 
vanity,  he  believed  himself  a  consummate  master  of  diplomacy,  and 
entered  into  a  series  of  negotiations,  which  only  showed  his  weakness, 
and  rendered  him  contemptible  in  the  eyes  of  Europe.  Deserted  by 
his  father-in-law,  and  by  many  of  the  protestant  princes,  on  whose  as- 
sistance he  relied,  the  elector-palatine  lost  not  oidy  Bohemia,  but  his 
hereditary  dominions,  which  were  shared  by  his  enemies  (a.  d    1623). 

Circumstances,  in  the  meantime,  had  occurred  to  chjnge  ihe  neutral 
Dolicy  of  England.  The  yoi  ng  prince  Charles,  accompanied  by 
nis  favorite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  had  made  a  romantic  journey  Vj 


538  MODERN   HISTORY. 

Madrid,  Avhich,  contrary  to  general  expectation,  ltd  to  the  breaking  off 
of  the  Spanish  nia'ch.  'i'he  discovery  of  a  conspiracy  for  blowing  uj; 
the  British  king  and  parliament  with  gunpowder  (a.  d.  IGOo),  inflamed 
the  English  nation  against  the  catholics,  because  the  plot  had  been 
devised  by  some  fanatics  of  that  religion,  who  hoped  in  the  confusion 
that  must  have  ensued,  to  restore  the  supremacy  of  their  church.  J'inal- 
ly.  Count  Mansfell,  the  ablest  of  the  protestant  leaders,  succeeded  in 
convincing  James  that  he- had  been  egregiously  duped  by  the  Spaniards. 
A  new  protestant  union  was  formed,  of  which  Christian  IV.,  king  of 
Denmark,  ivas  chosen  the  head,  and  the  war  burst  forth  with  fresh 
violence.  The  imperial  generals,  Tilly  and  Wallenstein,  were  far 
superior  to  their  protestant  adversaries.  Wallenstein,  having  been 
created  duke  of  Friedland  and  chief  connnander  of  the  imperial  army 
raised  by  himself,  acted  with  so  much  vigor,  that  Christian,  threatened 
with  the  loss  of  his  own  dominions,  was  forced  to  purchase  peace  by 
renouncing  all  right  to  interfere  in  the  aflairs  of  Germany,  and  abandon- 
ing his  allies,  especially  the  dukes  of  Mecklenburg  (a.  d.  1629). 
Wallenstein  obtained  the  investilute  of  Mecklenburg,  and  claimed  hence- 
forth a  rank  among  the  princes  of  the  empire. 

England  had  borne  little  share  in  this  arduous  contest.  On  the  death 
of  James  (a.  d.  1625),  his  son  Charles  I.  ascended  the  British  throne, 
and  was  almost  immediately  involved  in  a  contest  with  his  parliament, 
which  effectually  diverted  his  attentioH  from  foreign  affairs.  The 
principal  causes  of  this  were  the  growing  love  of  liberty  in  ihe  English 
people  ;  the  suspicions  of  danger  to  religion  from  the  king's  marriage 
with  so  bigoted  a  catholic  as  the  princess  Henrietta  Maria,  of  France  ; 
the  unpopularity  of  Buckingham,  the  royal  favorite  ;  and  the  increasing 
hostility  of  the  puritans  to  the  episcopal  form  of  church  government. 
The  troubles  and  distractions  by  which  France  was  weakened  during 
the  minority  and  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  began  to  dis- 
appear when  Cardinal  Richelieu  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  admin- 
istration. His  great  talents  and  singular  firmness  acquired  for  his 
country  a  new  and  vigorous  influence  in  the  political  system  of  Europe, 
at  the  very  moment  when  a  counterpoise  was  most  wanting  to  the  over- 
grown power  of  the  house  of  Austria. 

Richelieu's  first  operations  were  directed  against  the  Huguenots, 
whom  he  completely  subdued  and  rendered  utterly  helpless  by  the 
capture  of  Rochelle.  Scarcely  had  the  reduction  of  this  important  city 
been  efi'ected,  when  the  cardinal  commenced  his  war  against  Austria 
by  endeavoring  to  secure  the  dutchy  of  Mantua  for  the  duke  of  Nevers, 
hi  opposition  to  the  emperor,  the  king  of  Spain,  and  the  duke  of  Savoy. 
The  war  was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Chierasio  (a.  d.  1631),  which 
destroyed  the  Spanish  supremacy  in  Italy,  restored  the  old  influence  of 
France,  and  gave  that  power  possession  of  several  of  the  most  important 
fortresses  on  the  frontiers.  But  far  more  important  Avas  the  share  which 
Richelieu  had  in  renewing  the  war  in  Germany,  and  bringing  forward 
a  protestant  leader,  able  and  willing  to  cope  with  the  imperial  generals 

During  che  war  of  the  Mantuan  succession,  the  emperor  Ferdinand 
pubhshed  an  edict  at  Vienna,  commanding  thf  protestanls  to  restore 
bll  the  ecclesiastical  benefices  of  which  they  had  taken  possession  since 
tlie  treaty  of  Passau.     Some  submitted,  others  remonstrated  ;    imueriaJ 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  539 

commissioners  were  sent  to  decide  on  the  claims  of  the  bishops  and 
monks  to  restitution  ;  tlie  execution  of  the  decree  was  intrusted  to 
Wallenstein,  who  acted  with  so  much  ri<^or  that  the  protestants  were 
Inflamed  with  just  rage,  and  even  the  catholics  joined  in  demanding 
justice  against  him  from  the  emperor.  So  great  was  the  clamor,  that 
the  emperor  was  forced  to  dismiss  his  general,  and  confer  the  command 
of  the  imperial  army  upon  Count  Tilly.  Scarcely  had  this  important 
step  been  taken,  when  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  secretly 
urged  by  some  of  the  discontented  protestant  princes,  published  a  dec- 
laration of  war  against  the  emperor,  and  after  having  captured  the  im- 
portant island  of  Rugen,  landed  in  Germany  (June  24,  1630).  An 
alliance  was  formed  between  the  king  and  the  leading  protestant  prince.s 
of  Pomerania,  Brandenburg,  and  Hesse  ;  Saxony,  after  some  efforts  to 
preserve  neutrality,  was  forced  to  accede  to  the  league  ;  and  Richelieu, 
who  had  no  small  share  in  forming  the  original  plan,  secured  for  the 
confederates  the  active  co-operation  of  France.  The  early  successes 
of  Gustavus  would  have  been  more  decisive  but  for  the  jealousy  of  the 
Saxon  princes,  who  prevented  his  passage  through  their  dominions,  and 
ihus  hindered  him  from  relieving  the  city  of  Magdeburg,  hard  pressed 
by  Count  Tilly  and  the  imperial  forces.  The  unfortimate  city  was 
finally  taken  by  assault;  the  cruel  Tilly  would  show  no  mercy,  thirty 
thousand  of  the  inhabitants  perished  by  water,  fire,  and  sword  ;  and  of 
this  once  flourishing  city  nothing  was  left  standing  except  the  cathedral 
and  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  fishing  huts  on  the  banks  of  the  Elbe. 

This  atrocious  cruelty  cemented  the  alliance  between  Gustavus  and 
the  protestant  princes  ;  the  elector  of  Saxony,  justly  alarmed  by  the 
fate  of  his  neighbors,  and  irritated  by  the  menaces  of  Tilly,  whom  his 
lecent  success  had  filled  with  presumptuous  pride,  joined  the  king  with 
all  his  forces  at  Wittemburg.  A  resolution  to  try  the  chances  of  battle 
was  taken  ;  and  at  Leipsic  the  imperialists  were  so  decisively  over- 
thrown, that  if  Gustavus  had  marched  immediately  to  Vienna,  that  city 
would  probably  have  fallen.  All  the  members  of  the  evangelical  imion 
joined  the  king  of  Sweden  ;  the  measures  of  the  catholic  confederates 
were  disconcerted,  and  the  whole  country  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
Rhine  was  occupied  by  the  protestant  forces.  Early  in  the  following 
year  Count  Tilly  was  killed  in  disputing  with  the  Swedes  the  passage 
of  the  Lech,  and  Gustavus  overrun  Bavaria. 

The  emperor,  in  his  distress,  had  recourse  to  Wallenstein,  who  was 
restored  to  command  with  unlimited  powers.  Gustavus  attacked  the 
imperialists  in  their  intrenchments  at  Nuremberg,  and  was  defeated 
with  some  loss  ;  but,  anxious  to  retrieve  his  fame,  he  sought  an  early 
opportunity  of  bringing  his  rival  to  a  second  engagement.  Tre  armies 
met  at  Lutzen  (Nov.  16,  1632),  the  confederates  attacked  the  impe- 
rialists in  their  intrenchments,  and  after  a  dreadful  contest,  that  lasted 
nine  hours,  put  them  completely  to  the  rout.  But  the  victors  had  littk- 
cause  to  triumph  ;  Gustavus  fell,  mortally  wounded,  in  the  middle  of  the 
engagement,  and  died  before  the  fortime  of  the  day  was  decided.  Hi? 
death  produced  great  changes  in  the  political  state  of  Europe.  The 
elector-palatine,  believing  all  his  hopes  of  restoration  blighted,  died  of 
a  broken  heart ;  the  protestant  confederates,  deprived  of  a  head,  were 
.livided  into  factions  ;  while   the   Swedes,  overwhelmed  with  sorrow 


540  MODERN  HISTORY 

S3.W  the  throne  of  their  heroic  prince  occupied  by  a  girl  or.ly  sever, 
years  old.  But  the  council  of  regency,  appointed  to  prittct  the  minori- 
fj--  of  the  young  queen  Christina,  intrusted  the  management  f^^  the  Ger- 
man war  to  the  Chanceller  Oxenstiern,  a  statesman  of  the  highest 
order  ;  under  his  guidance,  the  protestant  alliance  again  assumed  a 
formidable  aspect,  and  hostilities  were  prosecuted  with  vigor  and  suc- 
cess by  the  duke  of  Saxe  Weimar  and  the  generals  Banier  and  Horn. 
An  unexpected  event  added  to  their  confidence  ;  Ferdinand  became 
jealous  of  Wajlenstein,  and  suspected  him,  not  without  cause,  of  aiming 
at  sovereign  power.  The  emperor  was  too  timid  to  bring  this  powerful 
leader  to  a  legal  trial ;  he,  therefore,  had  recourse  to  the  dishonorable 
expedient  of  assassination  (a.  d.  1634),  and  Wallenstein  was  murdered 
in  his  own  camp. 

The  confederates  did  not  gain  all  the  advantages  they  anticipated 
from  the  fall  of  the  duke  of  Friedland  ;  the  emperor's  eldest  son,  the 
king  of  Hungary,  having  succeeded  to  the  command,  gained  several 
advantages,  and  twenty  thousand  Spaniards  arrived  in  Germany  to  the 
aid  of  the  imperialists,  under  the  duke  of  Feria.  The  protestant  leaders, 
anxious  to  slop  the  progress  of  the  king  of  Hungary,  attacked  him  at 
Nordlingen.  The  battle  was  one  of  the  most  obstinate  recorded  in  his- 
tory ;  it  ended  in  the  complete  rout  of  the  confederates,  notwithstanding 
the  most  vigorous  efforts  of  the  Swedes.  The  emperor  improved  his 
victory  by  negotiation  ;  he  concluded  a  treaty  with  all  the  protestant 
princes,  except  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  at  Prague  (a.  d.  1635),  and 
thus  the  w^hole  weight  of  the  war  was  thrown  on  the  French  and  the 
Swedes. 

Section     X. — Adminisiralion  of  the  Cardinals  Richelieu  and  Mazarine. 

Richelieu  ruled  France  with  a  rod  of  iron  ;  hated  alike  by  the  nobili 
ty  and  the  people,  he  continued  to  hold  the  reins  of  government,  and  all 
conspiracies  formed  against  him  ended  in  the  ruin  of  the  contrivers. 
Jealousy  of  Gustavus  prevented  him  from  cordially  co-operating  with 
that  prince,  and  Oxenstiern  afterward  was  unwilling  to  give  the  trench 
any  influence  in  Germany.  But  the  battle  of  Nordlingen  rendered  a 
change  of  policy  necessary,  and  the  Swedish  chancellor  offered  to  put 
the  French  in  immediate  possession  of  Philipsburg  and  the  province 
of  Alsace,  ru  condition  of  their  taking  an  active  share  in  the  war  against 
the  empeior.  Richelieu  readily  entered  into  a  treaty  so  favorable  to 
his  projects  for  humbling  the  house  of  Austria.  He  concluded  treaties 
with  the  Dutch  republic  and  the  duke  of  Savoy,  proclaimed  war  against 
Spain,  and  in  a  very  short  space  equipped  five  armies  to  act  at  once  in 
Italy,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands.  The  balance  now  turned  against 
ihe  imperialists  ;  the  duke  of  Saxe  Weimar  proved  a  worthy  successor 
;o  the  king  of  Sweden,  and  Banier  restored  the  lustre  of  the  Swedish 
arms  by  Jie  victory  he  gained  over  the  elector  of  Saxony  at  Wislock. 
The  death  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  H.  (a.  d.  16J7),and  the  accessior 
of  his  son  Ferdinand  III.,  made  little  alteration  in  the  state  of  the  war, 
the  victorious  leaders  of  the  confederates  invaded  the  hereditary  do- 
minions of  Austria,  but  in  the  midst  of  their  triumphant  career,  the  duke 
of  Saxe  Weimar  fell  a  victim  to  poison  (a.  d.  1639),  said  to  have  been 
administered  by  an  emissary  of  Richelieu,  for  the  cardinal  had  reasor 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  ECROrE.  541 

ti)  Icar  that  the  prince's  patriotism  would  prove  a  serious  ohstacle  to  tlie 
aggrandizement  of  the  French  power. 

The  war  was  still  continued,  but  though  the  imperialists  were  gener- 
ally worsted,  disunion  crept  into  the  councils  of  the  confederates,  and 
prevented  them  from  improving  their  advantages.  Banier's  death  mighi 
have  proved  their  ruin,  had  he  not  been  succeeded  by  Torstenson,  a 
general  of  scarcely  inferior  abilities.  While  the  Swedes,  under  their 
new  leader,  maintained  their  former  eminence  in  Germany,  and  gained 
a  complete  victory  at  Leipsic,  almost  on  the  very  ground  where  Gus- 
tavus  had  triumphed,  the  French  were  equally  successful  in  Spain, 
having  reduced  Colioure  and  Perpignan.*  The  death  of  Richelieu, 
and  his  master,  Louis  XIII.,  the  accession  of  the  infant  Louis  XIV, 
(a.  d.  1643),  and  some  changes  in  Germany,  for  a  time  inclined  the 
Swedes  to  peace  ;  but  when  it  was  found  that  Cardinal  Mazarine  had 
resolved  to  pursue  Richelieu's  plans,  and  that  France  possessed  such 
generals  as  Conde  and  Turenne,  the  hopes  of  the  confederates  were 
once  more  revived,  and  the  Swedes  had  even  the  courage  to  provoke  a 
fresh  enemy  by  invading  the  dominions  of  Denmark.  Aftel"  several 
vicissitudes,  the  triumph  of  the  confederates  was  so  decided,  that  the 
emperor  found  it  necessary  to  solicit  terms  of  peace.  Afte-r  long  and 
tedious  negotiations,  which  varied  according  to  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
war,  the  celebrated  peace  of  Westphalia  was  signed  at  Munster  (a.  d 
1648),  and  became  a  fundamental  law  of  the  empire. 

While  the  protestant  cause  was  thus  triumphant  in  Germany,  Eng- 
land was  convulsed  by  civil  war.  The  failure  of  the  expedition  to  re- 
lieve Rochelle,  and  the  complete  overthrow  of  the  Huguenots  in  France, 
had  caused  great  discontent  in  England,  and  embittered  the  dispute  be- 
tween the  king  and  his  parliament  respecting  the  extent  of  the  royal 
prerogative.  The  Petition  of  Right,  extorted  from  Charles  I.,  might 
have  laid  the  foundation  of  a  constitutional  monarchy,  had  the  king  ad- 
hered strictly  to  its  spirit  ;  but  he  continued  to  levy  taxes  by  his  own 
authority,  and  when  the  remonstrances  of  the  commons  became  too  en- 
ergetic, he  dissolved  the  parliament  (a.  d.  1629),  with  a  fixed  resolution 
never  to  call  another  until  he  should  see  signs  of  a  more  compliaru  dis- 
position ir  the  nation.  Religious  disputes  aggravated  theise  political 
animositie-5.  When  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  was  wrested  from  the 
see  of  Rome,  the  people  of  England  had  submitted  to  a  jurisdiction  no 
leaS  arbitrary  in  the  prince,  and  the  sovereign  obtained  absolute  power 
in  all  artliirs  relative  to  the  government  of  the  church  and  the  con- 
sciences of  the  people.  An  ecclesiastical  trilmnal,  called  the  high  com- 
mission court,  was  established  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
crown.  Its  judges  enforced  conformity  with  esta.l)lislied  ceremonies  l)y 
fines  and  imprisonment.  There  were  many  who  thought  the  English 
reformation  incomplete  ;  they  deemed  that  the  chnrch  had  not  been  suf- 
rtcienlly  |)urified  from  Romish  errors,  and  they  wished  for  the  simpler 
forms  of  worship  that  had  been  estabished  in  Scotland  and  Germany. 
Many  of  the  puritans,  as  these  reformers  were  called,  had  more  justi- 
fiable reason  for  discontent ;  they  regarded  the  ecclesiastical  so>'ereign- 

•  Hichclieu  had  just  delected  and  punished  a  eonsiiiracy,  when  Perin^nan  was 
taken  He  sent  intelliarence  of  both  events  to  Louis  XIIF.,  in  the  following  laconic 
.fitter:  "  bir,  ytur  erenr. 'esare  dead,  and  your  troops  in  possession  of  Perpignan  ' 


542  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ly  of  the  monarch  as  dangerous  to  general  liberty,  and  they  were  aiix 
ious  to  transfer  a  portion  of  the  authority  to  parliament.  About  thi.'- 
time,  a  sect,  called  from  their  founder,  the  Arniinians,  had  rejected  tlit 
strict  doctrines  of  predestination  and  absolute  decrees,  maintained  by 
the  first  reformers.  Their  number,  in  England,  was  yet  small,  but  by 
the  favor  of  James  and  Charles,  some  who  held  the  Arminian  doctiines 
were  advanced  to  the  highest  dignities  of  the  church,  and  formed  the 
majority  of  the  bench  of  bishops.  They,  in  return  for  this  couutenauce, 
inculcated  the  doctrines  of  passive  obedience  and  unconditional  sub- 
mission to  princes.  Hence  Arminianism  was  regarded  by  the  patriots 
in  the  house  of  commons  with  as  much  horror  as  popery,  and  the 
preacher  of  either  doctrine  was  voted  a  capital  enemy  to  the  state. 

The  success  of  Charles  I.  in  his  struggle  with  the  commons  de- 
pended very  much  upon  the  character  of  his  ministers.  The  chief  of 
these  were  Wentworth,  earl  of  Strafford,  a  deserter  from  the  popular 
party,  and  Laud,  archl)ishop  of  Canterbury  ;  they  were  both  men  of 
arbitrary  principles,  and  Strafford,  especially,  was  very  unscrupulous  in 
the  use  of  means  to  gain  a  favorite  end.  Without  any  regard  to  the 
petition  of  right,  which  was  directly  opposed  to  such  measures,  *on- 
liage,  poundage,  and  other  taxes  were  levied  ;  the  penal  laws  against 
catholics  were  suspended  on  the  payment  of  stipulated  sums ;  and 
riuch  extensive  jurisdiction  given  to  those  arbitrary  tribunals,  the  courts 
L>f  star-cliaml:)er  and  high  connnission,  that  the  ordinary  constitutional 
administration  of  justice  almost  entirely  ceased. 

While  these  innovations  spread  secret  discontent  throughout  England, 
Laud's  efforts  to  model  the  Scottish  church  after  the  English  form  pro- 
duced a  dangerous  outbreak  in  Scotland.  The  attempt  to  introduce  a 
liturgy,  similar  to  that  used  in  the  English  church,  provoked  a  formida- 
ble riot ;  and  finally,  "  The  solemn  League  and  Covenant,"  a  bond  of 
confederation  for  the  preservation  of  the  national  religion,  was  signed 
by  a  vast  ninnber  of  the  higher  and  lower  classes  (a.  d.  1638).  Car- 
dinal Richeheu,  fearing  that  the  English  government  might  oppose  his 
designs  on  the  Low  Countries,  and  aware  that  he  was  disliked  by  the 
Eriglish  queen,  Henrietta,  secretly  encouraged  the  Scottish  covenant- 
ers, and  supplied  their  leaders  with  money,  which,  in  spite  of  their 
exaggerated  pretensions  to  patriotism  and  sanctity,  they  did  not  scruple 
to  accept.  Armies  were  levied,  but  neither  party  wished  to  merit  the 
imputation  o  commencing  civil  war.  A  treaty  was  concluded  at  Ber- 
wick (a.  d.  1639),  by  which  Charles  djspleased  his  friends,  who 
thought  that  he  made  concessions  imworlhy  of  a  prince,  and  did  noi 
conciliate  his  opponents,  who  were  resolved  to  be  satisfied  with  nothinu 
Itjss  than  his  full  acceptance  of  the  covenant. 

As  might  have  been  foreseen,  the  treaty  of  Berwick  proved  to  be 
merely  a  suspension  of  arms.  Strafford  and  Laud  considered  the  re- 
bellioii  of  the  Scots  to  be  so  manifest,  that  they  deemed  the  people  of 
England  could  not  entertain  a  doubt  on  the  subject,  and  that  the  king 
would  be  supported  in  its  suppression  l)v  a  parliament.  Charles  adopt 
ed  the  same  opinions,  and  called  a  parliament,  hoping  to  obtain  a  sufR 
cieiU  grant  for  carrying  on  tbe  war  (a.  d.  1640);  but  the  house  of 
conmions,  j)ostponing  all  consideration  of  taxes,  applied  itself  directly 
to  Jheiedrcss  of  grievances,  and  an  examination  of  the  recent  measurer 


THE  STATES  SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  543 

jl'  the  goA^ernment.  Incensed  by  this  conduct,  Charles  dissolved  the 
parliament,  and  attempted  to  raise  money  by  new  and  unconstitutional 
expedients.  The  Scotch,  not  waiting  to  be  attacked,  crossed  the  bor- 
ders, defeated  the  earl  of  Northumberland  at  Newburn,  and  occupied 
Newcastle  and  Durham.  The  king  was  unable  to  cope  with  them  in 
the  field,  and  he  therefore  entered  into  a  treaty  by  which  he  agreed  to 
provide  subsistence  for  the  hostile  army,  until  terms  of  pacification 
could  be  arranged.  A  new  parliament  was  convoked,  and,  on  the  very 
first  day  of  its  meeting,  the  house  of  commons  manifested  its  uncom- 
plying disposition,  by  choosing  as  its  speaker  a  vehement  opponent  of 
the  court.  A  more  important  and  decisive  step,  was  the  impeachment 
of  the  earl  of  Strafford  and  Archbishop  Laud  on  a  charge  of  high  trea- 
son ;  after  which,  the  armistice  with  the  Scottish  army  was  prolonged, 
and  the  Scots  described  not  as  enemies  or  rebels,  but  brethren  !  Straf- 
ford's trial  soon  engrossed  public  attention  ;  he  was  condemned  to  death 
bv  an  act  of  attainder,  and  Charles,  after  a  long  delay,  was  forced  to 
consent  to  the  public  execution  of  his  favorite  minister.  An  attemp 
was  next  made  to  exclude  the  bishops  from  parliament ;  a  bill  for  the 
purpose  passed  the  commons,  but  was  rejected  by  the  lords  ;  as,  how- 
ever, the  public  excitement  continued,  the  bishops  resolved  to  abstain 
from  further  attending  their  duty  in  parliament,  and  twelve  of  them 
published  a  protest,  declaring  everything  null  and  void  that  should  be 
determined  during  their  absence.  For  this  ill-advised  proceeding  they 
were  accused  of  high  treason,  and  committed  to  the  Tower  (a.  d 
1641). 

Charles,  dismayed  by  the  hostility  of  the  English,  resolved  to  seek  a 
reconciliation  with  his  Scottish  subjects,  and  for  this  purpose  undertook 
a  journey  to  Edinburgh.  His  measures  were  not  well  suited  to  effect 
his  object,  and  before  anything  satisfactory  could  be  done,  the  insurrec- 
tion of  the  Irish  catholics  produced  a  change  in  the  position  of  parties 
most  fatal  to  the  royal  interests.  Few  events  have  been  so  much  mis- 
represented as  the  Irish  civil  war,  and  in  order  to  view  it  correctly,  we 
must  go  back  to  an  earlier  period  of  history. 

The  Norman  settlers  in  Ireland  paid  but  a  nominal  allegiance  to  the 
English  crown,  the  most  powerful  of  them  acted  as  independent  prin- 
ces, an'l  adopte^  the  customs  of  the  native  Irish.  The  Tudor  monarchs 
were  anxious  to  break  the  power  of  this  aristocracy,  which  was  as  in- 
"irious  to  the  national  happiness,  as  it  was  opposed  to  the  royal  power ; 
but  unfortunately,  they  combined  this  object  with  the  reform  of  religion, 
and  with  a  system  of  confiscation  equally  impolitic  and  unjust.  The 
Irish  lords  took  up  arms,  to  defend  at  once  their  rtligion  and  their  pow- 
er ;  they  were  defeated  by  Elizabeth's  generals,  and  many  of  tjiem 
were  deprived  of  their  estates,  which  were  shared  among  English  col- 
onists. James  I.,  under  the  pretence  of  a  meditated  rebellion,  confis- 
cated the  greater  part  of  the  province  o'f  Ulster,  and  deprived  all  the 
innocent  vassals  of  their  property,  for  the  unproved  guilt  of  their  chiefs. 
Property  was  rendered  still  more  insecure  by  an  inquisition  into  titles, 
on  the  legal  pretence  that  the  right  to  land  belongs  primarily  to  the 
king,  and  consequently,  that  every  estate  ought  to  be  forfeited  for  which 
a  royal  grant  could  not  be  produced.  The  effect  of  this  principle  would 
be,  not  only  to  strip  all  the  native  Irish  of  their  estates,  but  also  to  cou- 


544  MODERN  HISTORY. 

fiscale  the  lands  belonsring  to  tiie  greater  part  of  the  lords  descended 
from  the  companions  of  Sirongbow  and  Henry  II.  When  Strafford  t)e- 
came  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  he  began  to  enforce  the  system  of  coii- 
tiscation  with  a  rigor  which  exceeded  all  former  precedent.  Every  le- 
gal pretext  was  employed  to  expel  the  Irish  from  their  possessions,  and 
transfer  them  to  strangers  ;  judges  were  bribed,  juries  threatened,  and 
witnesses  suborned  with  the  most  shameless  efirontery.  The  English 
nation  was  induced  to  countenance  this  injustice  by  the  belief  that  it 
would  be  useful  to  substitute  a  more  noble  and  civilized  race  of  men 
for  the  barbarous  Irish  ;  though,  in  fact,  the  new  settlers  were  for  the 
most  part  rapacious  adventurers,  or  indigent  rabble.  Religious  intoler 
ance  was  united  to  political  wrongs ;  catholics  were  excluded  from  all 
public  offices  and  the  acquisition  of  landed  property  ;  their  churches 
and  chapels  were  violently  closed,  their  clergy  expelled,  and  their  chil 
dren  given  to  protestant  guardians.  They  applied  to  the  king  for  pro 
tection,  and  gave  a  large  sum  for  a  charter  of  graces,  which  would  se 
cure  their  persons,  property,  and  religion.  Charles  took  the  money,  but 
refused  the  graces  ;  instigated  by  Strafford,  who  had  devised  a  plan  for 
rendering  his  master  absolutely  despotic  in  Ireland,  as  a  preparatory 
step  to  his  becoming  supreme  in  England. 

The  success  of  the  Scots  in  securing  their  national  religion,  and 
placing  restrictions  on  the  royal  power,  induced  many  of  the  Irish 
lords  to  devise  a  plan  for  obtaining  similar  advantages.  Accident  pre- 
cipitated an  outbreak  ;  the  Ulster  Irish,  who  had  been  expelled  from 
their  lands,  hastened  to  attack  the  settlers  that  occupied  them  as  intru- 
ders, and  they  sullied  their  cause  by  many  acts  of  violence,  which  were 
easily  exaggerated  by  persons  who  had  derived  much  profit,  and  ex- 
pected more,  from  the  trade  of  confiscation.  The  English  house  of 
commons  regarded  the  Irish  as  a  degraded  and  conquered  people  ;  they 
deemed  their  efforts  acts  of  treason,  not  so  much  against  royal  powei 
as  English  supremacy,  while  the  difference  of  religion  embittered  this 
feeling  of  national  pride,  and  rendered  a  peaceful  termination  of  the 
contest  hopeless.  It  was  studiously  reported  that  Charles  himself  had 
instigated  this  revolt  in  order  to  obtain  unlimited  power  by  aid  of  the 
catholics ;  to  refute  this  suspicion,  he  intrusted  the  conduct  of  Irish 
affairs  to  the  English  parliament ;  and  that  body,  with  inconceivable 
precipitation,  resolved  that  the  catholic  religion  should  no  longer  be 
tolerated  in  Ireland ;  that  two  millions  and  a  half  of  acres  should  be 
confiscated  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war  ;  and  that  no  quarter  should 
be  given  to  the  insurgents  or  their  adherents.  These  ordinances  led 
to  a  civil  war,  whose  history  may  be  told  in  a  few  words :  the  Irish 
catholics,  after  having  gained  possession  of  nearly  the  entire  kingdom, 
were  broken  into  parties  more  opposed  to  each  other  than  to  the  com- 
mon enemy :  in  the  midst  of  this  disunion,  Cromwell,  with  a  mere 
handful  of  men,  conquered  them  in  detail,  and  gave  their  estates  to  his 
victorious  followers.  The  new  settlers  were  confirmed  in  their  pos- 
session after  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
ancient  Irish  landowners  were  reduced  to  beggary. 

Charles  gained  little  by  sacrificing  the  Irish  to  the  parliament  ;  find- 
ing that  his  concessions  only  provoked  fresh  demands,  he  attempted  to 
arrest  five  of  the  leading  members  for  high  treason,  but  the  popular  in 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM   OF  EUROPE.  545 

Jignation  compelled  him  to  abandon  the  charge,  and  soon  after  to  quit  the 
capital.  Negotiations  were  tried  to  avert  the  horrors  of  civil  war,  but  the 
requisitions  of  the  commons,  if  granted,  would  have  destroyed  all  royal 
authority,  and  Charles,  on  the  25th  of  August,  1642,  caused  the  royal 
standard  to  be  raised  at  Nottingham.  War  immediately  commenced  ; 
it  was  conducted  with  spirit,  and  was  at  first  favorable  to  the  king. 
The  English  parliament,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  Charles,  entered 
into  an  alliance  with  the  Scottish  covenanters,  and  on  the  ISthof  Janu- 
arj'  1644,  a  Scotch  auxiliary  army,  commanded  by  General  Leslie, 
entered  England.  Fairfax,  the  parliamentary  leader  in  the  north,  united 
his  forces  to  those  of  Leslie,  and  both  generals  immediately  laid  siege 
to  York.  Prince  Rupert,  the  son  of  the  unfortunate  elector-palatine, 
hasted  to  the  relief  of  this  important  city,  and  effected  a  junction  with 
ifie  army  of  the  marquis  of  Newcastle.  Fairfax  aaJ  Leslie  retired  to 
Marston  Moor,  whither  they  were  followed  by  the  royalists,  who  were 
urged  to  this  rash  proceeding  by  the  fiery  Rupert.  Fifty  thousand 
British  combatants  engaged  on  this  occasion  in  mutual  slaughter  ;  the 
victory  was  long  undecided;  but,  finally,  the  skill  of  Lieutenant-Gen- 
eral  Cromwell  prevailed  over  the  rash  valor  of  Rupert,  and  the  royalists 
were  signally  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  all  their  baggage  and  artillciy. 
A  second  defeat,  at  Newbury,  so  weakened  the  royal  cause,  that  the 
king  must  have  been  forced  to  immediate  submission,  but  for  the  divis- 
ions that  arose  among  his  adversaries. 

The  presbyterians  and  the  independents  had  combined  against  the 
church  of  England  as  their  common  enemy  ;  but  when  episcopacy  was 
abolished,  the  latter  saw  with  great  indignation  the  presbyterian  efforts 
'.o  establish  a  system  of  ecclesiastical  tyranny,  differing  from  the  papal 
only  in  form,  the  power  being  lodged  in  the  general  assembly  of  the 
clergy  instead  of  a  single  head.  The  presbyterians  had  the  majority 
in  parliament,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  army  favored  the  views  of  the 
mdependents,  which  were  also  supported  by  some  of  the  most  active 
members  of  the  house  of  commons.  A  law,  called  the  Self-denying 
Ordinance,  prohibiting  members  of  parliament  from  holding  military 
commissions,  gave  the  greater  part  of  the  army  into  the  hands  of  the 
independerits,  especially  as  an  exception  was  made  in  favor  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,  their  principal  leader.  The  battle  of  Naseby  was  decided 
m  favor  of  the  parliamentarians,  principally  by  Cromwell's  prudence 
and  valor,  an  event  which  gave  so  much  strength  to  his  party,  that  thf 
presbyterian  majority  in  the  house  of  commons  feared  to  accept  the 
king's  proposals  for  an  accommodation,  contrary  to  their  open  profes- 
sions and  secret  wishes.  Meanwhile  Charles,  being  unable  to  keep 
the  field,  threw  himself  on  the  mercy  of  his  Scottish  subjects  ;  and 
having  opened  negotiations  with  their  leader,  through  the  Frendi  am 
bassador,  ventured  on  the  faith  of  uncertain  promises  to  present  him- 
self in  their  camp.  He  had  the  mortification  to  find  himself  treated  aa 
'I  prisoner,  while  all  the  towns  and  fortresses  that  had  hitherto  support- 
ed his  cause  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  parliament. 

The  war  was  at  an  end,  but  civil  dissensions  raged  with  more  fury 
than  ever.  The  presbyterians  and  independents  were  each  anxious  to 
gain  the  king  over  to  their  side  :  and  the  former,  by  a  treaty  with  the 
Scots,  gained  possession  of  his  person.     Scarcely  had  they  acquired 

36 


546  MODERN  HISTORY. 

this  advantage,  wlien  tho  discontent  of  the  army  threatpned  them  Avil!- 
unexpected  danger  Cromwell  enconraged  the  soldiers  to  resist  the 
orders  of  the  parliament,  and  by  a  bold  measure  gave  fresh  confidence 
to  his  party.  Cornet  Joyce,  acting  under  his  orders,  removed  the  king 
from  Holmby  house,  and  brought  him  to  the  army.  Cromwell  and  his 
friends  made  such  a  judicious  use  of  the  advantage  thus  obtained,  that 
the  presbyterian  party  soon  lost  all  their  influence.  The  behavior  of 
Charles  at  this  crisis  was  very  injudicious  ;  he  negotiated  with  both 
parties,  and,  by  his  obvious  insincerity,  displeased  all.  Finally,  he  at- 
tempted to  escape  ;  but  seeking  shelter  in  the  isle  of  Wight,  he  was 
seized  by  its  governor,  Hammond,  and  from  that  moment  Cromwell  be- 
came the  master  of  his  fate.  Another  opportunity  of  escaping  from  the 
perils  that  surrounded  him  was  offered  to  the  king ;  the  Scotch  took 
up  arms  in  his  favor,  but  they  were  routed  by  Cromwell  with  ?reat 
slaughter,  and  all  hopes  from  their  assistance  destroyed.  But  the  j  ar- 
liament  having  reason  to  dread  Cromwell's  ambition,  opened  negotia- 
tions with  the  king  on  receiving  the  news  of  this  victory,  and  the  wisest 
of  the  royal  counsellors  entreated  their  master  to  seize  this  opportunity 
of  concluding  a  treaty.  Unfortunately  he  hesitated  and  delayed  the 
arrangements  for  more  than  three  months,  mitil  the  army  once  more 
took  possession  of  his  person,  and  conveyed  him  to  Hurst.  The  two 
houses,  indeed,  voted  that  the  royal  concessions  were  sufficient  grounds 
for  settling  the  peace  of  the  kingdom ;  but  two  days  afterward  the 
avenues  to  the  house  of  commons  were  beset  with  soldiers,  and  all  the 
members  supposed  favorable  to  the  king  forcibly  prevented  from  taking 
their  seats.  In  this  diminished  house  the  resolutions  leading  to  a  rec- 
onciliation with  the  king  were  revoked,  and  proposals  were  made  for 
bringing  him  to  a  public  trial.  The  final  resolution  for  impeaching  the 
king  of  high  treason  before  a  court  of  justice  constituted  for  the  purpose, 
was  adopted  by  the  house  of  commons  (January  2,  1649)  :  it  was  at 
once  rejected  by  the  lords  ;  but  their  opposition  was  disregarded,  and 
the  court  regularly  constituted.  The  form  of  trial  was  but  a  solemn 
mockery  ;  Charles  with  great  spirit  refused  to  acknowledge  the  juris- 
diction of  the  court,  upon  which  some  witnesses  were  called  to  prove 
what  everybody  knew,  that  he  had  appeared  at  the  head  of  his  army, 
which  his  judges  declared  to  be  treason  against  the  people,  and  a  crime 
worthy  of  death.  Sentence  was  pronounced  on  the  27th  of  January  • 
and,  on  the  30th  of  the  same  month,  the  misguided  and  unhappy  Charles 
was  beheaded  in  front  of  Whitehall,  amid  the  unaffected  sympathy  of 
crowds  of  spectators. 

The  death  of  Charles  was  followed  by  the  usurpation  of  Cromwell, 
and  Great  Britain  was  subjected  to  a  despotism  more  galling  and  severe 
tlian  that  of  any  monarch  who  ever  swayed  its  sceptre. 

Section       XI. — Formation  of  the  States-system  in  the  Northern  Kingdoms 

of  Europe. 

The  revolutions  in  the  northern  kingdoms  during  the  progress  of  the 
Reformation  were  scarcely  less  important  than  those  in  central  Europe. 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  united  by  the  treaty  o-f  Calmar,  were 
never  blended  iiiio  a  uniform  goverment:  the  Swedish  nobles  keot  theii 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EJRCl'E.  541 

country  in  covicinued  agitation  ;  without  severing  the  union,  they  chose 
administrators  of  tlie  kingdom  whose  allegiance  to  the  crown  of  Denmaik 
was  merely  nominal.  Christian  II.,  atyraimical  prince,  resolved  to  de- 
stroy the  Swedish  independence,  he  overthrew  the  administrator  at  the 
battle  of  Bagesund,  and  had  the  ceremony  of  his  coronation  performed 
at  Stockholm  (a.  d.  1520).  A  few  days  after  this  solemnity.  Christian 
periidiously  violated  the  amnesty  he  had  published  ;  and  to  gratify  the 
vengeance  of  the  archbishop  of  Upsal,  whom  the  Swedes  had  deposed, 
caused  ninety-four  of  the  principal  nobles  to  be  publicly  executed. 
This  massacre  was  the  signal  for  a  revolution  •  Gustavus  Vasa,  son  of 
one  of  the  murdered  nobles,  escaped  to  the  mountains  of  Dalecarlia, 
and  supported  by  the  hardy  peasants  of  that  province,  proclaimed  the 
freedom  of  his  country.  Victory  crowned  his  efforts,  and  he  finally 
became  king  of  Sweden  (a.  d.  1523).  Christian  II.  was  deposed  by 
the  Danes,  and  the  crown  conferred  on  his  uncle  Frederic ;  he  wan- 
dered about  for  some  years,  vainly  seeking  support,  but  was  finally 
seizwd  by  his  subjects,  and  thrown  into  a  prison,  where  he  ended  his 
days,  'fhe  Danish  monarchs,  for  nearly  half  a  century,  renewed  their 
pretensions  to  the  Swedish  throne  ;  but  finding  that  their  efforts  only 
exhausted  their  own  resources,  they  recognised  the  independence  of 
Sweden  by  the  treaty  of  Stettin  (a.  d.  1570). 

Denmark  thus  lost  the  ascendency  which  it  had  long  maintained,  and 
it  was  further  injured  by  a  disastrous  change  in  its  internal  constitution. 
The  aristocracy  established  a  vicious  supremacy  over  the  prerogatives 
of  the  crown  and  the  rights  of  the  people.  The  senate,  composed  en- 
tirely of  nobles,  seized  on  all  the  authority  of  the  state ;  the  national 
assemblies  ceased  to  be  convoked  ;  the  elections  of  the  kings  were 
confined  to  tlie  aristocratic  order,  and  the  royal  power  was  restrict- 
ed by  capitulations,  which  the  senate  prescribed  to  the  kings  on  their 
accession  to  the  throne. 

It  was  in  the  reign  of  Frederic  I.,  the  uncle  and  successor  of  the 
tyrannical  Christian,  that  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  were  first 
established  in  Denmark.  The  king  invited  several  of  Luther's  disci- 
ples ro  preach  the  new  doctrines  in  his  kingdom  ;  he  openly  professed 
them  himself,  granted  liberty  of  conscience  to  all  his  subjects,  and 
sanctioned  the  marriages  of  priests  throughout  his  dominions.  Chris 
tian  111.  completed  the  religious  revolution  ;  in  a  general  assembly  of 
the  staces  he  procured  tire  abrogation  of  episcopacy,  and  the  suppression 
of  the  Romish  worship  (a.  d  1536).  The  castles,  fortresses,  and  vast 
domains  of  the  bishops,  were  reunited  to  the  crown  ;  and  the  rest  of 
their  revenues  applied  to  the  mamt'^nance  of  protestant  ministers,  thr 
purposes  oi'  general  education,  and  the  relief  oi'  the  poor.  From  Den- 
mark the  revolution  extended  to  No-'Aay;  and  al)out  the  same  time 
this  kingdom,  having  supported  the  deposed  Christian  II.,  was  deprived 
of  its  independence,  and  reduced  to  a  Damsh  province. 

Christian  IV.  was  distinguished  among  the  ncnthern  sovereigns  by 
the  superiority  of  his  talents,  and  the  zeal  that  he  showed  in  relormina 
the  different  branches  of  the  administration.  In  his  reign  the  Danes 
first  directed  their  attention  to  Asiatic  trade,  and  lounded  an  East  In- 
dia company  ;  a  commercial  establishment  was  lormed  at  Tranquebar, 
on  the  coast  oi'  Coromandel,  which  was  ceded  to  the  company  l)v   tlif; 


548 


MODERN  H1ST0R\ 


rajah  of  Tanjore.  Severnl  large  manufactories  were  estabLs'heil>  diid 
many  cities  founded  by  this  wise  monarch,  who  was  also  a  judicious 
patron  of  science  and  literature.  He  was  less  successful  in  his  wars 
against  Austria  and  Sweden,  but  this  was  owing  rather  to  the  restric 
tions  which  the  nobles  had  placed  on  his  power,  than  to  any  want  ol 
talent. 

Sweden,  from  having  been  subject  to  Denmark,  rose  to  be  its  suc- 
cessful rival,  and  even  menaced  its  total  overthrow.  It  owed  this  pre- 
ponderance to  two  of  the  greatest  men  of  the  period,  Gustavus  Vasa  and 
Gustavus  Adolphus.  After  Vasa  had  liberated  his  country,  he  was 
raised  to  the  throne,  and  by  his  v/ise  government  justified  the  choice 
of  the  nation.  He  directed  his  attention  both  to  the  political  and  reli- 
gious reformation  of  the  country ;  instead  of  the  aristocratic  senate,  he 
introduced  a  diet,  composed  of  the  different  orders  of  the  state,  and  by 
his  influence  with  the  commons,  introduced  Lutheranism,  though  op- 
posed by  the  bishops  and  nobles.  He  also  established  the  hereditary 
succession  of  the  crown,  which  was  extended  to  females  in  the  reign 
of  his  son  Charles  IX. 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  the  grandson  of.  Vasa,  raised  Sweden  to  the  sum- 
mit of  its  greatness.  Involved  in  wars  at  his  accession  (a.  d.  1611),  he 
gained  signal  advantages  over  the  Russians  and  Poles,  which  so  ex- 
tended his  fame,  that  he  was  chosen,  as  we  have  seen,  to  be  the 
leader  of  the  protestant  confederacy  against  the  house  of  Austria 
After  a  glorious  career  of  two  years  and  a  half,  he  fell  in  the  battle  of 
Lutzen  :  but  the  victory  which  the  Swedes  won  after  his  dea.h  was 
chiefly  owing  to  his  skilful  arrangements.  The  war  was  continued 
under  the  minority  of  Christina,  and  brought  to  a  successful  issue,  as 
was  also  the  war  waged  at  tl:e  same  time  against  Derunark.  By  the 
peace  of  Bromsebro  (a.  d.  1G45),  Sweden  obtained  the  free  navigation 
of  the  Sound,  and  the  cession  of  several  important  islands  in  the  Baltic. 

Prussia,  under  the  electors  of  Brandenburg,  gradually  increaseil  in 
strength  and  power,  especially  during  the  administration  of  Frederic 
William,  the  true  founder  of  the  greatness  of  his  house.  His  abilities 
were  particularly  conspicuous  ivi  the  protestant  wars  of  Germany  ;  and 
he  obtained  such  an  accession  of  territory  by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia 
that  his  son  Frederic  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Prussia. 

The  dismemberment  of  Livonia  led  to  a  fierce  struggle  between  the 
northern  powers,  each  of  which  sought  a  portion  of  the  spoil.  Russia, 
which  had  slowly  acquired  consistency,  obtained  a  considerable  portion, 
which,  however,  it  was  forced  to  yield  to  Poland.  After  having  lony 
submitted  to  the  degrading  yoke  of  the  Mongols,  the  grand-dukes  of 
Moscow,  strengthened  by  the  union  of  several  small  principalities,  began 
lo  aspire  after  independenre,  which  was  achieved  by  Iwan  111.  This 
able  ruler,  having  refused  to  pay  tlie  cu.itoinary  tribute  to  the  barbarians, 
was  attacked  by  the  khan  of  the  Golden  Horde,  as  the  leading  sect  of 
the  Mongols  was  denominated.  Instead  of  acting  on  the  defensive, 
Iwan  sent  a  body  (jf  troops  into  the  very  centre  of  the  horde,  and 
niiiied  all  their  establishments  on  the  Volga.  So  great  were  the  losses 
nf  the  Mongols,  that  tlie  GijhUm  Horde  disappeared,  and  left  no  traces 
hut  a  few  feeble  tribes.  Iwan  IV.  lahored  to  civilize  the  empire 
acquired  by  the  valor  of   his  predece^sors  :    he   invited  artisans  fruit 


THE  STATESSYSTEM  OF  EUROPE  549 

England  and  Germany,  established  a  printing-press  at  Moscow,  and 
raised  tlie  standing  army  of  the  Strelitzes  to  curb  his  turbulent  no- 
bles. It  was  in  his  reign  thit  Siberia  was  discovered  and  annexed  tn 
the  Russian  dominions,  but  the  complete  reduction  of  that  country  be- 
lons;s  to  the  reign  of  his  son  Fedor  (a.  d.  1587),  who  founded  the  city 
of  Tobolsk. 

On  the  death  of  Fedor,  without  any  issue  (a.  d.  1598),  Russia  was 
involved  in  a  series  of  calamitous  civil  wars,  which  ended  in  the  eleva- 
tion of  Michael  Fedrowetsch  to  the  crown.  He  found  his  dominions 
exliausted  by  the  late  commotions,  and  could  only  procure  peace  from 
Sweden  and  Poland  by  the  cession  of  many  valuable  provinces  (a.  d. 
1634). 

During  the  reigns  of  the  Jagellons,  Poland  was  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing northern  powers.  The  reforms  tion  was  favored  by  Sigismond 
Augustus  II.,  the  last  of  this  dynasty;  but  the  v/ant  of  a  middle  order 
of  society,  which  has  ever  been  the  cause  of  Polish  misery,  prevented 
evangelical  principles  from  taking  deep  root  in  the  coi'.ntry,  and  produ- 
cing the  benefits  that  had  resulted  from  them  in  other -states.  When 
the  male  line  of  the  Jagellons  became  extinct  on  the  death  of  Sigismond 
(a.  d.  1572),  the  throne  of  Poland  became  elective  (without  any  restric- 
tion),* and  the  right  of  voting  was  given  to  all  the  nobles,  who  met  in 
arms  to  choose  a  sovereign.  These  elections  were  generally  marked 
with  violence  and  bloodshed  ;  but  though  the  nobles  were  divided  among 
themselves,  they  readily  united  to  restrict  the  royal  authority  ;  every 
sovereign,  on  his  accession,  was  obliged  to  sign  certain  capitulations, 
which  greatly  limited  his  rule,  and  secured  the  chief  powers  of  the 
state  to  the  aristocracy.  Under  its  new  constitution,  Poland  was  inter- 
nally weak  and  miserable,  though  some  of  its  monarchs  still  distin- 
guished themselves  by  foreign  conquests,  especially  Vladislaus  IV., 
who  wrested  the  dutchy  of  Smolensko  from  Russia. 

Skction  XII. — Progress  of  the  Turkish  Poiver  in  JEurope. 

The  successors  of  Mohammed  II.  on  the  throne  of  Constantinople 
imitated  the  vigorous  policy  of  that  conqueror,  and  for  nearly  a  century 
were  the  terror  of  Christendom.  Bayezid  II.  subdued  Bessarabia,  and 
acquired  some  in^iportant  provinces  in  Asia.  He  was  forced  to  resign 
the  throne  by  his  son  Selim  (a.  d.  1510),  and  was  murdered  in  prison. 
Selim  I.,  surnamed  Gavuz,  or  the  Savage,  was  obliged  to  maintain  the 
throne  he  had  so  criminally  gained,  by  a  series  of  sanguinary  wars  with 
the  other  members  of  his  family.  Having  triumphed  over  these  com- 
petitors, he  turned  his  arms  against  the  Persians,  and  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  Ismael  Sofi  at  Tabriz  (a.  d.  1514).  In  consequence  of 
this  and  other  successes,  Diarbekr  and  several  other  provinces  beyond 
the  Tigris  were  annexed  to  the  Turkish  empire.  The  Mameluke  sul- 
tans of  Eg)'pt  having  assisted  the  Persians  in  this  war,  Selim  led  an 
army  into  Syria,  and  encountered  Sultan  Gauri  near  Aleppo.  After  a 
sanguinary  engagement,  the  Mamelukes  were  defeated  and  their  leader 
slain,  upon  vhich  Aleppo  and  Damascus  submitted  to  the  Turks     This 

•  See  page  486. 


550  MODERN  HISTOR  V. 

success  opened  the  M^ay  for  invading  Eg^-pt :  Tiiinan  Bey,  who  had  beer 
elected  sultan  in  pkce  of  Gauri,  assembled  the  remnants  of  the  Mame- 
lukes under  the  walls  of  Cairo,  and  having  procured  some  auxiliary 
forces  from  the  Arabs,  prepared  to  meet  the  enemy.  Selim  advanced 
steadily,  and  attacked  the  hostile  camp.  The  battle  was  obstinate  and 
bloody,  but  the  superior  fire  of  the  Turkish  artillery,  which  was  served 
principally  by  Christian  gunners,  decided  the  fate  of  the  day ;  and  Tu- 
man  Bey,  after  having  done  everything  that  could  be  expected  from  ai« 
able  ofiicer  and  a  brave  warrior,  was  driven  into  Cairo  (a.  d.  1517). 
Selim  stormed  the  city ;  but  Tumiin,  not  yet  disheartened,  fled  across 
the  Nile,  and  by  incredible  exertions  once  more  collected  an  army. 
The  Turks  pursued  him  closely,  and  forced  him  to  a  final  engagement, 
in  which  the  Mamelukes  were  utterly  routed,  and  their  gallant  sultan 
taken  prisoner.  Selim  was  at  first  disposed  to  spare  the  cjptive,  but 
his  oflicers,  who  feared  and  envied  Tunian  persuaded  him  that  such 
clemency  might  inspire  the  Mamelukes  with  the  hope  of  recovering  their 
dominions,  and  the  unfortunate  sultan  was  hanged  at  the  principal  gate 
of  Cairo. 

Soleyman,  usually  surnaraed  the  Magnificent,  succeeded  his  father 
Selim,  and  emulous  of  the  fame  acquired  by  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  re- 
solved to  turn  his  arms  against  the  princes  of  Christendom.  Hungary, 
Juring  the  reign  of  Matthew  Corvinus,  had  become  a  powerful  and  flour 
ishing  kingdom.  Inspired  by  the  example  of  his  father,  the  renowned 
Hunniades,  Corvinus  wrested  Bosnia  from  the  Turks,  and  maintained 
his  supremacy  over  Transylvania,  Wallachia,  and  Moldavia.  But  du- 
ring the  reigns  of  his  indolent  successors,  Uladislaus  II.  and  Louis,  who 
were  also  kings  of  Bohemia,  Hungary  was  distracted  by  factions,  and 
ravaged  by  the  Turks.  Soleyman  took  advantage  of  the  minority  of 
Louis,  and  the  weakness  of  Hungary,  to  invade  the  kingdom.  He 
captured,  with  little  difliculty,  the  important  fortress  of  Belgrade,  justly 
deemed  the  bulwark  of  Christian  Europe  (a.  d.  1521).  Inspired  by  his 
first  success,  he  returned  to  the  attack ;  having  traversed  the  Danube 
and  the  Drave,  without  meeting  any  resistance,  he  encountered  the 
Christians  in  the  field  of  Mohatz,  and  gcwned  over  them  one  of  the  most 
signal  victories  that  the  Turks  ever  won  (a.  d.  1526).  King  Louis,  and 
the  principal  part  of  the  Hungarian  nobility,  fell  in  this  fatal  battle,  the 
entire  country  was  laid  at  the  mercy  of  the  invaders ;  but  Soleyman, 
instead  of  securing  a  permanent  conquest,  laid  waste  the  land  with  fire 
and  sword,  and  carried  myriads  of  the  inhabitants  as  slaves  to  Constan- 
tinople. 

A  trium])h  of  even  greater  importance  was  gained  by  the  Turks  du- 
ring the  Hungarian  war.  Rhodes,  the  seat  of  the  heroic  knights  of  St. 
John,  was  besieged  by  Soleyman's  vizier.  All  the  arts  of  assault  and 
defence  that  had  yet  been  devised  by  human  ingenuity  were  used  in 
this  siege ^  which  lasted  more  than  five  months.  The  assailants  and  the 
garrison  fought  with  such  fury  that  it  seemed  a  contest  rather  for  the 
empire  of  the  world  than  the  possession  of  a  single  city.  The  sultan 
himself  came  in  person  to  superintend  the  operations  of  his  army,  while 
the  knights  were  not  only  neglected  by  the  Christian  powers,  but  ex- 
posed to  the  open  hostilities  of  the  Venetians.  They  protracted  theii 
recislance  until  every  wall  and  bulwark  had  crumbled  beneath  the  over 


THE  STATES-SYSTEM  OF  EUROPE.  55] 

whelming  fire  of  the  Turkish  batteries,  when  they  surrendered  on  hon 
orable  conditions  ;  and  on  Christmas  day  (a.  d.  1522),  Soleyman  made 
his  triumphant  entry  into  what  had  been  a  city,  but  was  now  a  shapeless 
mass  of  ruins. 

On  the  death  of  Louis,  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  who  had  married  thfo 
sister  of  the  unfortunate  monarch,  claimed  the  crowns  of  Hungary  and 
Bohemia.  He  received  quiet  possession  of  the  latter  kmgdom  ;  but  the 
Hungarians  chose  for  their  sovereign  John  Zapolya,  prince  palatine  of 
Transylvania.  Zapolya,  finding  himself  unable  to  resist  the  power  of 
Ferdinand,  claimed  the  protection  of  the  Turks.  Soleyman  marched  ir 
person  to  his  aid,  and,  not  satisfied  with  expelling  the  Austrians  froir. 
Hungary,  pursued  them  into  their  own  country,  and  laid  siege  to  Vicnnci 
(a.  d.  1529).  He  failed  in  this  enterprise,  and  was  compelled  to  retreat 
after  having  lost  eighty  thousand  men.    ■ 

The  emperor  Charles  V.,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  the  Turks,  tried 
to  form  a  general  confederation  of  the  German  princes  against  them,  but 
found  that  the  troubles  occasioned  by  the  progress  of  the  Reformation 
would  prevent  any  cordial  union.  He  resolved,  however,  to  check  the 
growth  of  their  naval  power  in  the  Mediterrenean,  where  Khair-ed-din,* 
or  Barbarossa,  a  pirate  whom  Soleyman  had  taken  into  his  service, 
captured  Tunis  and  Algiers,  and  was  collecting  a  formidable  naval  force. 
Charles  took  advantage  of  Soleyman's  being  engaged  in  conquering  the 
pachalic  of  Bagdad  from  the  Persians,  to  invade  Africa,  where  he  made 
himself  master  of  Tunis.  Soleyman,  returning  victorious  from  Asia, 
was  so  enraged  at  his  losses  in  Africa,  that  he  resolved  to  attempt  the 
conquest  of  Italy.  The  imprudence  of  a  Venetian  captain  turned  the 
wrath  of  the  sultan  upon  the  republic  of  Venice  ;  he  attacked  two  Turk- 
ish galleys  in  the  Adriatic,  for  some  mistake  about  their  signals,  and 
satisfaction  being  refused,  Soleyman  proclaimed  war. 

But  while  thus  engaged  in  the  west,  Soleyman  did  not  neglect  the. 
enlargement  of  his  eastern  dominions.  His  generals  conquered  the 
whole  of  Arabia,  and  his  admirals  issuing  from  the  Red  sea,  attacked 
but  without  success,  the  Portuguese  dominions  in  India.  In  the  mean^ 
time  the  Venetian  senate  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  and  the  pope,  Paul  HI.  ;  their  united  navies  were  placed 
jnder  the  command  of  the  celebrated  Doria,  but  his  success  was  fai 
"rom  according  with  the  expect-ruons  that  the  allies  had  formed.  The 
war,  however,  led  to  no  decisive  result ;  it  was  suspended  by  occa 
sional  truces,  during  which  Soleyman  took  the  opportunity  of  enlarging 
his  Asiatic  dominions  at  the  expense  of  Persia. 

The  knights  of  St.  John,  expelled  from  Rhodes,  obtained  a  settlement 
in  the  island  of  Malta  ;  they  directed  their  attention  to  naval  affairs,  and 
inflicted  severe  damages  on  the  Turks  by  sea.  Soleyman,  roused  by 
the  complaints  of  his  subjects,  resolved  that  Malta  should  share  the  fate 
of  Rhodes,  and  collected  all  his  forces  for  the  siege  (a.  d.  1565).  The 
knights  maintained  their  character  for  obstinate  valor  with  more  success 
than  on  the  former  occasion  :  at^ter  a  sanguinary  contest  for  five  months, 
the  Turks  were  forced  to  retire,  with  the  loss  of  twenty-four  thousand 
men  and  all  their  artillery.     Soleyman  prepared  to  take  revenge  by  cora- 

•  Khair-ed-din  signifies  "tht  goodness  of  the  faith."  This  terror  of  the  Chris- 
tians was  named  Barbarossa,  on  account  of  his  "  red  beard." 


552  MODERN  HIdTORY. 

pleting  the  conquest  of  Hungary  ;  but  while  besieging  Sigeth,  he  fell  a 
victim  to  disease,  produced  by  old  age  and  fatigue  (a.  d.  15G6),  aftei 
having  raised  the  Turkish  empire  to  the  highest  pitch  of  its  greatness, 
Selim  II.,  soon  after  his  accession,  made  peace  with  the  Germans 
and  Persians,  but  renewed  war  with  the  Venetians,  from  whom  he  took 
the  important  island  of  Cyprus  (a.  d.  1571).  But  while  the  Turkish 
army  was  thus  engaged,  their  fleet  was  utterly  destroyed  in  the  battle 
of  Lepanto,  by  the  allied  Venetian,  imperial,  and  papal  navy.  The  allies 
neflected  to  improve  their  victory,  and  Selim  soon  repaired  his  losses. 
But  this  sultan  sank  into  the  usual  indolence  of  oriental  sovereigns,  his 
successors  followed  his  example,  and  the  Ottoman  power  began  rapidly 
to  decline.  The  Austrian  rulers  became  convinced  of  the  impolicy  of 
narsh  measures,  and  conceded  to  the  Hungarians  full  security  for  their 
political  and  religious  liberties,,  at  the  diet  of  Presburg.  Hungary  was 
thenceforth  united  to  Austria,  and  the  last  v.ar,  directly  resulthig  from 
the  Reformation,  happily  tentiinated 


AtlGUSIAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCK  553 


CHAPTER,  VII. 

THE  AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND 
FRANCE. 

Sbction  I. — State  of  the  Continental  Kingdoms  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia^ 

Though  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  restored  tranquilUty  to  northern 
Europe  and  Germany,  France  and  Spain  continued  the  war  in  which 
they  had  originally  but  a  secondary  share,  with  all  the  obstinacy  of 
principals.  At  the  same  time,  France  was  distracted  by  civil  broils 
less  fatal  than  those  of  England,  but  scarcely  less  sanguinary.  The 
prime  mover  in  t'lese  disturbances  was  the  coadjutor-archbishop  of 
Paris,  afterward  Known  as  the  Cardinal  de  Retz  ;  he  wished  to  gain 
the  post  of  prime  minister  from  Cardinal  Mazarine,  and  he  induced 
several  princes  of  the  blood,  with  a  large  portion  of  the  nobility,  to 
espouse  his  quarrel.  The  parliaments  of  France  resembled  those  of 
England  only  in  name  ;  they  were  colleges  of  justice,  not  legislative 
assemblies,  and  the  members  purchased  their  seats.  This  was  the 
body  with  which  Retz  commenced  his  operations ;  instigated  by  the 
ambitious  prelate,  the  parliament  of  Paris  thwarted  all  the  measures  oi" 
the  queen-regent  and  her  minister,  until  Anne  of  Austria,  irritated  by 
such  factious  opposition,  ordered  the  president  and  one  of  the  most  vio- 
lent councillors  to  be  arrested.  Her  orders  were  scarcely  executed 
when  the  populace  arose,  barricaded  the  streets,  threatened  the  cardi- 
nal and  the  regent,  and  procured  the  release  of  the  prisoners.  Alarmed 
by  the  repetition  of  similar  outrages,  the  queen,  attended  by  her  chil- 
Iren  and  her  minister,  retired  from  Paris  to  St.  Germains,  where  their 
distress  was  so  great  that  they  were  obliged  to  pawn  the  crown  jewels 
to  procure  the  common  necessaries  of  lii'e.  These  intrigues  led  to  a 
desultory  civil  war,  which  began  to  assume  a  serious  aspect  after  the 
arrest  of  the  ambitious  duke  of  Conde,  who  had  repeatedly  insulted  the 
queen  and  the  cardinal ;  the  factious  took  up  arms  in  all  the  provinces, 
and  the  duke  of  Orleans,  uncle  to  the  young  king,  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  malcontents  (a.  d.  1650).  Mazarine  was  unable  to  resist 
the  confederacy ;  he  liberated  Conde  and  his  associates,  in  the  vain 
hope  of  conciliating  their  favor,  but  was  obliged  to  fly  to  Cologne, 
where  he  continued  to  govern  the  queen-regent  as  if  he  had  never  quit- 
ted Paris.  By  his  intrigues,  which  were  now  seconded  by  de  Retz, 
the  duke  of  Bouillon,  and  bis  brother  Turenne,  were  detached  from  the 
confederates,  and  by  tlieir  aid  Mazarine  was  enabled  to  enter  the  king- 
dom at  the  head  of  an  army,  and  resume  his  former  authority.  Conde, 
proclaimed  a  traitor  by  the  parliament  of  Paris,  threw  himself  upon  the 


554 


MODERN  HISTORr. 


protection  of  Spain,  and  obtained  from  that  powei  a  body  ol  troops,  witli 
which  he  pursued  the  court  from  province  to  province,  and  finally  en- 
tered Paris.  Turenne,  who  commanded  the  royal  forces,  brought  ihe 
young  king  within  sight  of  his  capital ;  and  Louis  witnessed  a  tierce 
conflic:  in  the  suburb  of  St.  Antoine,  which  terminated  in  the  aefeat  of 
his  army. 

Encouraged  by  this  success,  the  parliament  of  Paris  proclaimed  the 
duke  of  Orleans  "  lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom,"  and  the  prince 
of  Conde,  "  commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  France."  But  the 
danger  with  which  these  appointments  threatened  the  monarchy,  was 
averted  equally  by  the  rashness  of  Conde  and  the  prudence  of  the  king. 
Conde  instigated  a  tumult,  in  which  several  citizens  lost  their  lives ; 
Louis  conciliated  his  subjects  by  sending  the  cardinal  into  temporary 
exile,  and  was  received  into  his  capital  with  the  loudest  acclamations. 
No  sooner  was  the  royal  authority  re-established,  than  Mazarine  was 
recalled  and  invested  with  more  than  his  former  power. 

During  these  commotions,  the  Spaniards  had  recovered  many  of  tho 
places  which  they  had  previously  lost  to  the  French,  and  Louis  de 
Haro,  who  governed  Spain  and  Philip  IV.  as  absolutely  as  Mazarine 
did  France  and  its  youthful  sovereign,  hoped  by  means  of  Conde's 
great  military  talents  to  bring  the  war  to  a  triumphant  issue.  But  the 
French  found  a  general  in  Marshal  Turenne,  who  was  more  than  a 
rival  for  Conde  ;  he  compelled  the  Spaniards  to  raise  the  siege  of  Arras, 
and  seized  all  their  baggage,  artillery,  and  ammunition  (a.  d.  1656) 
He  was  himself  soon  after  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  of  Valenciennes, 
but  he  made  a  masterly  retreat  as  honorable  as  a  victory,  and  even  took 
the  town  of  Capelle  in  the  presence  of  his  enemies.  Still  the  fortune 
of  the  war  was  doubtful,  when  Mazarine,  by  flattering  the  passions  of 
the  usurper  Cromwell,  engaged  England  to  take  a  share  in  the  contest. 
Dunkirk,  the  strongest  town  in  Flanders,  first  engaged  the  attention  of 
the  allies  ;  the  English  blockaded  it  by  sea  ;  Turenne,  with  an  auxiliary 
British  force  united  the  French  army,  besieged  it  by  land  (a.  d.  1656) 
The  Spaniards  sent  an  army  to  its  relief;  Turenne  did  not  decline  an 
engagement ;  the  obstinate  valor  of  the  English,  combined  with  the 
impetuosity  of  the  French  troops,  procured  him  a  decided  victory  ;  Dun- 
kirk surrendered  in  a  few  days,  and  was  given  to  the  English  according 
to  treaty,  while  France  obtained  possession  of  the  strongest  towns  in 
Flanders. 

Peace  was  now  necessary  to  Spain,  and  it  was  also  essential  to  the 
success  of  Mazarine's  favorite  policy  ;  the  procuring  for  the  house  of 
Bourbon  the  eventual  succession  to  the  Spanish  monarchy,  by  uniting 
King  Louis  to  tlie  hifanta,  Maria  Theresa.  The  preliminaries  were 
adjusted  by  Mazarine  and  Louis  de  Haro,  in  person,  at  a  conference  in 
jhe  Pyrenees,  and  France  obtained  an  exten  of  territory  and  the  pros 
pect  of  an  inheritance,  which  soon  made  it  formidable  to  the  rest  of 
Europe.  About  a  year  after  the  conclusion  of  this  treaty.  Mazarine 
died  (a.  d.  1661) ,  and  Louis,  who  had  borne  the  ministerial  yoke  with 
secret  impatience,  took  the  reins  of  government  into  his  own  hands. 

Germany,  exhausted  by  tedious  wars,  remained  undisturbed  afiej 
the  peace  of  Westphalia  until  the  death  of  Ferdinand  HL  (a.  d.  1657) 
when  the  diet  was  agitated  by  fierce  debates  respecting  the  cho^**^  oi 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.       555 

a  successor.  Recent  events  had  shown  how  dangerous  was  the  amli' 
don  of  the  house  of  Austria  to  the  independence  of  the  minor  states, 
and  several  of  the  electors  wished  to  have  as  their  head  some  monarch 
whose  hereditary  dominicns  would  not  be  of  sufficient  importance  to 
raise  him  above  the  control  of  the  Diet.  But  these  conssiderations  were 
forced  to  yield  to  more  pressing  circumstances  ;  the  presence  of  the 
Turks  in  I3uda,  of  the  French  in  Alsace,  and  of  the  Swedes  in  Porae- 
'■ania,  required  a  powerful  sovereign  to  prevent  further  encroachmenty  ; 
and  Leopold,  the  son  of  the  late  emperor,  was  unanimously  chosen. 
His  first  measure  was  to  form  an  alliince  with  Poland  and  Denmark 
against  Sweden,  a  power  which,  ever  since  the  victorious  career  of 
Gustavus  Adolphus,  menaced  the  independence  of  the  neighboring 
states. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  the  renowned  Gustavus  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  daughter  Christina.  She  was  fondly  attached  to  study, 
and  assembled  in  her  court  the  most  distinguished  professors  of  science, 
literature,  and  the  fine  arts.  Her  favorite  pursuits  were,  however,  too 
antiquated  and  abstruse  for  practical  life  ;  she  was  pedantic  rather  than 
wise,  and  her  great  learning  was  never  applied  to  a  useful  end.  She 
consented  to  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  not  from  any  regard  for  the 
.Tanquillity  of  Europe  or  her  own  kingdom,  but  simply  to  indulge  *her 
passion  for  study,  with  which  the  cares  of  state  interfered.  The 
Swedish  senate  felt  little  sympathy  in  the  learned  pursuits  of  theii 
sovereign  ;  they  pressed  her  to  marry  her  cousin,  Charles  Gustavus 
for  whom  she  had  been  designed  in  her  infancy,  but  Christina  dreaded 
to  give  herself  a  master,  and  she  only  nominated  this  prince  her  suc- 
cessor. The  states  renewed  their  importunity,  and  Christina  offered  to 
resign  the  crown  to  her  cousin  ;  after  some  delay,  occasioned  by  rea 
sonable  suspicions  of  her  sincerity,  she  carried  her  design  into  execution, 
and  abdicated  in  favor  of  Charles  Gustavus,  who  ascended  the  throne 
under  the  title  of  Charles  X.  (a.  d.  1654).  The  remainder  of  Chris- 
tina's life  was  disgraceful  to  her  character.  Designing  to  fix  her  resi- 
dence at  Rome,  she  renounced  Lutheranism,  and  embraced  the  catholic 
faith  at  Innspruck,  not  because  she  deemed  it  the  preferable  religion, 
but  because  she  thought  it  convenient  to  conform  to  the  tenets  of  the 
people  with  whom  she  intended  to  reside.  Her  profligate  life,  her 
want  of  any  valuable  information,  and  her  loss  of  power,  soon  rendered 
her  contemptible  in  Italy ;  she  made  two  journeys  into  France,  where 
she  was  received  with  much  respect,  until  her  infamous  conduct  excited 
general  abhorrence.  In  a  fit  of  jealousy,  she  commanded  one  of  her 
paramours  to  be  assa^ssinated  in  the  great  gallery  of  Fontainebieau,  and 
almost  in  her  very  presence  (a.  d.  1657).  This  atrocious  violation  of 
the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nations,  perpetrated  in  the  midst  of  a  civilized 
kingdom,  and  a  court  that  piqued  itself  on  refinement,  was  allowed  to 
pass  without  judicial  inquiry ;  but  it  excited  such  universal  detestation, 
that  Christina  was  forced  to  quit  France  and  seek  refuge  in  Italy 
There  the  remainder  of  her  life  was  spent  in  sensual  indulgence  and 
literary  con\  ersation,  if  such  a  term  can  be  applied  to  the  language  of 
a  capricious  woman,  admiring  many  things  for  which  she  had  no  taste, 
ind  talking  about  others  which  she  did  not  understand. 

While  Christina  was  thus  disgracing  her  sex  and  country,  Charles 


fi58  MODERN  HISTORY. 

X.  indulged  the  martial  spirit  of  his  people  by  declaring  war  against 
Poland.  After  the  death  of  Sigismond  III.  (a.  d.  1632),  his  son 
Ladislaus  was  elected  to  the  throne,  and  proved  to  be  a  prince  of  great 
courage  and  capacity.  He  gained  several  victories  over  the  Russians 
md  the  Turks  ;  he  forced  the  Swedes  to  resign  the  places  which  Gus- 
avus  Adolphus  had  seized  in  Prussia  ;  but  unfortunately  he  combined 
R'ith  his  nobles  in  oppressing  the  Cossacks,  and  thus  drove  those  un- 
iivilized  tribes  to  a  general  revolt.  In  the  midst  of  this  war  Ladislaus 
iied  (a.  d.  1648) ;  he  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  John  Casimir,  who 
would  gladly  have  entered  into  terms  with  the  injured  Cossacks,  but 
was  fovjed  to  continue  the  war  by  his  turbulent  nobles.  Alexis,  czar 
of  Russia,  took  advantage  of  these  commotions  to  capture  Sinolensko 
and  ravage  Lithuania,  while  Poland  itself  was  invaded  by  Charles  X. 
The  progress  of  the  Swedes  was  rapid,  they  obtained  two  brilliant  vic- 
tories in  the  field,  captured  Cracow,  and  compelled  the  terrified  Casimir 
to  seek  "efuge  in  Silesia.  But  the  insulting  demeanor  of  the  Swedes, 
and  the  cruel  massacre  perpetrated  at  the  capture  of  Warsaw,  confirmed 
the  Poles  in  the  determined  spirit  of  resistance,  of  which  the  burghers 
of  Dantzic  set  them  a  noble  example  ;  while  the  chief  powers  of  the 
north  combined  to  check  the  dangerous  ambition  of  Sweden.  Attacked 
at  dnce  by  the  czar  of  Ru&sia,  the  emperor  of  Germany,  and  the  kir.g 
of  Denmark,  Charles,  though  deserted  by  his  ally  the  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, did  not  lose  courage.  He  led  an  army  over  the  ice  to  Funen, 
subdued  that  and  several  other  Danish  islands,  and  laid  siege  to  Copen- 
hagen. The  city  was  saved  by  an  insincere  peace,  which  proved  to 
be  only  a  suspension  of  arms ;  but  when  Charles  renewed  his  exer- 
tions, he  was  opposed  by  the  republics  of  Holland  and  England.  Ne- 
gotiations for  peace  were  commenced  under  the  auspices  of  these  great 
naval  powers  ;  but  ere  they  were  brought  to  a  conclusion,  Charles  died 
of  an  epidemic  fever  (a.  d.  1660).  The  Swedes,  deprived  of  their 
active  and  ambitious  monarch,  were  easily  brought  to  resign  their  pre- 
tensions to  Poland  of  the  treaty  of  Oliva  ;  and  the  general  desire  of 
preventing  the  minority  of  Charles  XI.  being  disturbed  by  foreign  wars 
induced  the  regency  to  adjust  a  pacification  with  Denmark  and  tiie  other 
powers. 

Section  II. — History  of  England  under  the  Cotnmonweallh. 

The  civil  and  religious  constitution  of  England  was  dissolved  by  the 
execution  of  Charles  I. ;  the  great  body  of  the  nation  was  dissatisfied 
with  the  result  of  the  civil  war,  but  it  was  overawed  by  an  army  of  fifty 
thousand  men,  entirely  devoted  to  the  service  of  Cromwell ;  and  tlio 
commonwealth  parliament,  as  the  inconsiderable  remnant  of  the  house 
of  commons  was  called,  found  itseli  in  possession  of  the  supreme 
authority.  The  state  of  affairs  m  Ireland  and  Scotland  soon  engaged 
ihe  attention  of  the  new  government,  and  they  were  especially  interest- 
ed to  maintain  the  dominion  that  England  claimed  over  the  formel 
country.  The  revolt  of  the  Irish,  like  the  revolt  of  the  Americans  in 
later  days,  was  regarded  as  treason  against  the  English  people  rather 
than  rebellion  against  their  joint  sovereign  ;  the  partial  successes  of  the 
insurgents  were  viewed  as  national  wrongs,  and  the  use  of  the  phrase 
"  our  kingdom  of  Ireland"  made   every  Englishman  imagine  that  he 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  ^57 

ATOuld  be  robbed  of  some  portion  of  his  hereditary  rights,  w  ere  that 
island  to  establish  its  independence.  Cromwell,  aware  of  the  great 
celebrity  which  might  be  gained  in  a  war  so  populai  as  that  undet taken 
for  the  recovery  of  Ireland,  successfully  intrigued  to  have  himself  ap- 
pointed lord-lieutenant  and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 

The  state  of  Ireland  could  not  be  more  favorable  to  the  purposes  of 
an  invader.  When  Charles  I.  entered  into  a  treaty  with  his  revolted 
Irish  subjects,  he  disgusted  one  party  without  conciliating  the  other; 
for  he  gave  both  reason  to  suspect  his  sincerity.  He  appointed  the 
marquis  of  Ormond  lord-lieutenant,  a  nobleman  possessed  of  many  high 
qualities,  but  who  had  imbibed  the  principles  of  the  unfoitunate  earl  of 
Strafford,  and  was  bigotedly  attached  to  the  support  of  the  royal  author- 
ity and  the  episcopal  church.  Ormond  conciliated  Inchiquin  and  st^nie 
other  protestant  leaders  who  had  refused  to  acku  vvledge  the  cessation 
of  arms  which  Charles  had  granted  to  the  insurgents,  but  he  protracted 
the  negotiations  with  the  catholic  confederates  until  their  aid  was  use- 
less to  the  royal  cause.  Alarmed  at  length  by  the  progress  of  the  par- 
liament, while  the  confederates  were  at  the  same  time  incensed  by  the 
intolerant  ordinances  of  the  English  commons,  he  concluded  a  treaty 
with  the  catholic  deputies  at  Kilkenny  (a.  d.  1646),  on  the  basis  of  a 
general  pardon  and  full  toleration.  The  native  Irish  were  dissatisfied 
with  this  pacification,  which  did  not  restore  to  them  lands  of  which 
they  deemed  themselves  unjustly  deprived  ;  the  bigoted  catholics  sought 
the  supremacy,  not  the  toleration  of  their  religion,  and  many  of  the 
more  moderate  entertained  suspicions  of  Ormond's  good  faith.  Under 
such  circumstances  they  were  influenced  by  Riiuiccini,  the  papal  nuncio, 
to  rejec  the  treaty  of  Kilkenny,  and  Ormond  at  once  was  deprived  of 
all  authority.  As  the  king  was  unable  to  assist  him,  he  delivered  up 
the  fortified  towns  to  an  officer  of  the  English  parliament,  a  fatal  meas 
ure,  which  rendered  the  restoration  of  the  royal  power  impossible. 

The  Irish  soon  grew  weary  of  Rinuccini's  pride,  bigotry,  and  inca- 
pacity ;  a  powerful  body  of  the  catholic  nobles,  headed  by  the  earl  of 
Clanricarde,  expelled  the  nuncio,  and  invited  Ormond  to  resume  the 
government.  The  lord-lieutenant  returned,  and  found  the  royal  author- 
ity escablished  everywhere  except  in  the  towns  which  he  had  liimseK 
surrendered  to  the  parliament.  His  first  care  was  to  remedy  tliis  blun- 
der ;  he  subdued  several  important  garrisons,  but  he  allowed  himself  to 
be  surprised  near  Dublin  by  an  ini'erior  force,  and  was  routed  with 
great  loss.  At  this  crisis  Cromwell  landed  with  an  army  of  enthusias- 
tic soldiers  trained  to  arms,  and  flushed  by  recent  victories.  He  be- 
sieged Drogheda,  took  it  by  storm,  and  put  all  the  garrison  to  the 
sword.  The  town  of  Wexford  was  next  assailed,  and  its  dci'enderg 
similarly  butchered  ;  and  this  cruelty  produced  such  alarm,  that  thence- 
forth every  town,  before  which  Cromwell  presented  himself,  surrendered 
at  the  first  summons.  The  declining  season,  a  iVilure  of  jiro visions, 
and  epidemic  disease,  soon  reduced  the  invaders  to  great  distress  ;  bu' 
they  were  relieved  by  a  revolution  as  sudden  as  it  was  uriexpccted 
The  protestant  royalists  in  Munster,  always  jealous  of  their  Irish  al 
lies,  revolted  to  the  parlidment  al  the  instigation  of  the  lords  Hroyhill 
and  Inchi([uin,  and  the  gates  of  all  the  important  garrisons  in  the  south 
of  Ireland  were  opened  to  Cromwell's  sickly  troops.     The  Irisli  could 


558  MODERN  HISTOKV. 

no  longer  be  brought  to  pay  obedience  to  a  protestant  governor,  Ormonii 
quitted  the  country  in  despair,  and  the  confederates,  having  no  longei 
any  bond  of  union,  were  overpowered  in  detail.  Cromwell  freed  him 
self  from  all  future  opposition,  by  permitting  the  Irish  officers  and  sol 
diers  to  engage  in  foreign  service.  About  forty  thousand  catliolics  weni 
on  this  occasion  into  voluntary  exile. 

The  young  king,  Charles  II.,  had  intended  to  place  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Irish  royalists  ;  but  when  their  cause  was  ruined,  he  en- 
tered into  negotiations  with  the  Scottish  covenaii.ers,  and  submitted  to 
terms  the  most  ignominious  that  ever  a  people  imposed  upon  its  prince 
He  was  forced  to  publish  a  proclamation,  i  anishing  all  malignants 
excommunicated  persons  from  his  court — that  is,  the  royalists  who  had 
perilled  their  lives  and  fortunes  in  the  service  of  his  ramily ;  to  pledge 
his  word  that  he  would  take  the  covenant  and  support  the  presbyterian 
fonn  of  government ;  and  promise,  that  in  all  civil  aflairs,  he  would 
conform  to  the  direction  of  the  parliament,  and  submit  all  ecclesiasti- 
cal matters  to  the  general  assembly  of  the  kirk.  Charles  did  not  con- 
sent to  these  disgraceful  conditions,  until  the  royal  cause  in  Scotland 
was  rendered  desperate  by  the  overthrow  of  its  greatest  supporter,  the 
marquis  of  Montrose.  This  gallant  nobleman,  immediately  after  the 
execution  of  Charles  I.,  renewed  the  war  in  Scotland,  but  was  made 
prisoner  b)^  the  covenanters,  and  ignominiously  put  to  death  as  a  traitor 
(a.  d.  1650). 

Soon  after  this  tragical  event,  Charles  landed  in  Scotland,  and  found 
himself  a  mere  pageant  of  state  in  the  hands  of  Argyle  and  the  rigid 
covenanters,  at  whose  mercy  lay  his  life  and  liberty.  The  intolerance 
of  these  bigots  was  not  assuaged  by  the  approach  of  an  English  army 
under  the  command  of  Cromwell,  whom  the  parliament  of  England  had 
recalled  from  the  Irish  war,  so  soon  as  the  treaty  between  Charles  and 
the  covenanters  was  published.  Cromwell  entered  Scotland,  but  f(jund 
a  formidable  competitor  in  General  Leslie,  the  head  of  the  covenanters. 
The  English  were  soon  reduced  to  great  distress,  and  their  post,  at 
Dunbar,  was  blockaded  by  a  Scottish  army  on  the  heights  that  overlook 
tha  'nwn.  Cromwell  was  saved  by  the  fanatical  and  ignorant  preach- 
ers in  the  hostile  camp  ;  they  pretended  that  a  revelation  had  descended 
to  them,  promising  a  victory  over  the  sectarian  host  of  the  English,  and 
forced  Leslie,  in  despite  of  his  urgent  remonstrances,  to  quit  his  advan- 
t'l.gcous  position.  Cromwell  took  advantage  of  their  delusion  ;  he  at- 
tacked the  Scotch,  disordered  by  their  descent  from  the  hills,  before 
they  could  form  their  lines,  and  in  a  brief  space  gained  a  decided  vie 
lory.  Edinburgh  and  Leith  were  abandoned  to  the  conquerors^  while 
the  remnant  of  the  Scottish  army  fled  to  Stirling. 

This  defeat  was  by  no  means  disagreeable  to  Charles ;  it  so  fai 
diminished  the  pride  of  the  bigoted  party,  that  he  was  permitted  to 
accept  the  aid  of  the  episcopal  royalists,  the  hereditary  friends  of  his 
family.  Still  the  king  felt  very  bitterly  the  bondage  in  which  he  was 
held,  and  when  Cromwell  crossed  the  Forth,  he  embraced  a  resolution 
worltiy  of  his  birth  and  cause,  and  disconcerting  that  general  by  a  hasty 
march  be  boldly  entered  England  at  the  head  of  fourteen  thousand 
men.  lint  the  result  disappointed  his  expectations  ;  the  English  roy- 
ali.sls  d'sliked  the  Scotch, and  detested  the  covenant;  the  presbytoriaus 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND    &.ND  FRANCE.  559 

were  not  prepared  to  join  him,  and  both  were  overawed  by  the  militia 
which  the  parhament  raised  in  the  severa^  counties.  At  Worcester  the 
kinof  was  overtaken  by  Cromwell  with  thirty  thousand  men  (Sept.  3 
1651).  The  place  was  attacked  on  all  sides:  Charles,  after  giving 
many  proofs  of  personal  valor,  saw  his  cause  totally  ruined,  and  sought 
safety  in  ilight;  the  Scots  were  all  killed  or  taken,  and  the  prisoners, 
eight  thousand  in  number,  were  sold  as  slaves  to  the  American  planta- 
tions. Charles  wandered  about  for  forty-five  days  in  various  disguises 
'ind  amid  the  greatest  dangers :  more  than  fifty  persons  were  intrusted 
with  his  secret,  but  they  all  preserved  it  faithfully,  and  he  finally  escaped 
10  France.  In  Scotland  the  presbyterian  clergy,  formerly  all-power- 
ful, found  themselves  treated  with  scorn  by  the  English  army.  Their 
assembly  at  Aberdeen  was  dispersed  by  a  military  force,  their  persons 
were  paraded  throigh  the  town  in  insulting  mockery,  and  they  were 
forbidden  to  assemble  in  greater  numbers  than  three  at  a  time. 

In  the  meantime,  the  English  republic  was  engaged  in  a  foreign  war. 
The  increase  of  the  naval  and  commercial  power  of  the  Dutch  had 
been  viewed  with  great  jealousy  by  the  English  nation  ;  but  the  com- 
mon interests  of  religion,  and  afterward  the  alliance  between  the  Stuart 
family  and  the  house  of  Orange,  had  prevented  a  rupture.  After  the 
death  of  William  II.,  prince  of  Orange,  the  Dutch  abolished  the  office 
of  stadtholder ;  and  this  advance  toward  a  purely  republican  constitu- 
tion induced  the  English  parliament  to  seek  a  closer  alliance  with  Hol- 
land. Their  ambassador,  however,  met  but  an  indifferent  reception  at 
the  Hague,*  and  on  his  return  to  London  it  became  obvious  that  the 
mutual  jealousies  of  the  two  commonwealths  would  soon  lead  to  open 
hostilities. 

The  English  parliament  passed  the  celebrated  Aci  of  Navigation, 
which  enacted  that  no  goods  from  Asia,  Africa,  or  America,  should  be 
imported  into  England,  except  in  English  vessels  ;  and  the  prohibition 
was  extended  to  European  commodities  not  brought  by  ships  belonging 
to  the  country  of  which  the  goods  were  the  growth  or  maruifacture. 
This,  though  apparently  general,  particularly  affected  the  Dutch,  whose 
commerce  consisted  chiefly  in  the  carrying  trade,  their  own  country 
producing  but  few  commodities.  The  war  commenced  in  a  dispute  on 
a  point  of  naval  etiquette  :  the  English  required  that  all  foreign  vessels 
in  the  British  seas  should  strike  their  flags  to  English  ships-of-war ; 
Van  Tromp,  a  Dutch  admiral,  with  a  fleet  of  forty  sail,  met  lilake,  the 
cAnnnander  of  the  British  fleet,  in  Dover  road.  Conscious  of  his  supe- 
rior force,  he  refused  to  conform  to  the  degrading  ceremony,  and  an- 
swered the  demand  by  a  broadside.  Though  Blake  had  oidy  lilteen 
ships,  he  immediately  commenced  an  engagement,  and  being  reinforced 
during  the  battle  by  eight  more,  he  gained  a  glorious,  though  not  a  very 
valuable  victory.     A  fierce  naval  war  ensued  between  the  two  repub- 

•  Mr.  St.  John,  the  English  plenipotentiary,  wns  a  stern  republicnn,  and  a 
haughty  man.  He  had  the  presumption  to  take  precedency  of  the  duke  of  York 
who  was  then  at  the  Hague,  in  a  public  walk.  Tlie  prince-pahitine,  happening 
to  be  present,  struck  off  the  ambassador's  hat,  and  bade  tiiin  respect  the  son  and 
brother  of  his  king.  St.  John  put  his  hand  to  iiis  sword,  refusing  to  recognise 
either  the  king  or  the  duke  of  York;  but  the  populace,  coiniiassionating  faileu 
royalty,  took  part  witli  the  prince,  and  forced  the  stern  republican  to  sie\  refiis't 
n  hi:',  lodgings. 


5G0  MODERN   HISTORY. 

lies ;  it.  was,  on  the  Avhole,  disadvantageous  to  the  Dutch,  though  they 
were  comn-'anded  by  such  excellent  admirals  as  De  Ruyter  and  Van 
Tronip.  'i'he  death  of  the  latter  in  an  engagement  that  lasted  three 
days  (a.  d.  1G5  t),  decided  the  contest,  and  the  Hollanders  were  forced 
to  beg  peace  from  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  had,  in  the  meantime,  dis- 
solved the  parliament  and  usurped  the  government  of  England. 

When  Scotland  and  Ireland  were  subdued,  the  parliament  became 
jealous  of  Cromwell's  power,  and  resolved  to  diminish  it  by  disbanding 
a  portion  of  the  army.  But  the  parliament,  if  such  a  name  could  fairly 
be  given  to  a  minority  of  the  house  of  commons,  had  lost  its  sole 
sirength,  the  confidence  of  the  people,  by  its  obstinacy  in  retaining  the 
power  with  which  it  had  been  invested  by  circumstances  ;  it  would  not 
dissolve  itself,  but  seemed  determined  to  perpetuate  its  sovereignty.* 
An  angry  remonstrance  from  the  army  was  rejected,  and  the  soldiers 
reproved  for  interfering  in  public  affairs.  This  brought  affairs  to  a  cri- 
sis :  on  the  nineteenth  of  April,  1653,  Cromwell  turned  out  the  mem- 
bers with  military  force,  locked  the  doors,  put  the  key  in  his  pocket, 
and  retired  to  his  lodgings  at  Whitehall.  The  council  of  state  was 
similarly  dismissed,  and  so  weary  were  the  people  of  their  late  rulerS; 
that  addresses  were  sent  to  Cromwell  from  almost  every  part  of  Eng 
land,  thanking  him  for  his  boldness  and  courage. 

It  was  necessary  still  to  preserve  the  forms  of  the  constitution,  but 
Cromwell  could  not  venture  on  an  appeal  to  the  people,  and  allow  them 
their  ancient  liberty  of  election,  much  less  a  more  extended  franchise : 
he  therefore  adopted  a  middle  course,  and  by  the  advice  of  his  oincers, 
nominated  one  hundred  and  sixty  persons  on  his  own  authority,  to  form 
a  new  parliament.  This  extraordinary  body  was  named  the  Barebones 
parliament,  from  one  of  its  fanatic  members,  named  Praise-God  Bare- 
bones,  who  reridered  himself  conspicuous  by  his  affectation  of  superior 
sanctity.  Cromwell,  finding  this  convention  not  so  pliant  as  had 
been  expected,  contrived,  by  his  creatures,  that  a  majority  should  vote 
for  an  immediate  dissolution,  and  when  about  thirty  members  con- 
tinued to  meet,  they  were  unceremoniously  ejected  by  a  file  of  mus- 
queteers. 

A  new  constitution  was  formed,  by  which  the  legislative  power  waa 
granted  to  a  lord  protector  and  parliament,  and  the  executive  to  the 
protector  and  a  council  of  state.  On  the  16th  of  December,  1653, 
Cromwell  took  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  new  form  of  government,  and 
was  invested  with  the  dignity  of  lord  protector.  On  the  3d  of  the  fol- 
lowing September,  the  new  parliament  assembled,  but  though  the 
strictest  regulations  consistent  with  the  forms  of  elsction  had  been  de 
vised  to  exclude  all  but  partisans  of  the  government,  the  protector's  au 
thority  was  menaced  on  the  ver}'  first  day  of  debate,  and  it  was  resolved, 
by  a  majority  of  five,  to  refer  the  examination  of  the  new  constitution 
to  a  select  committee.  Cromwell  first  excluded  half  the  members  for 
refusing  to  take  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  protector,  and  finding  that 
the  house,  even  after  this  mutilation,  continued  refractory,  he  dissolved 

*  Ludlow  asserts,  without  a  shadow  of  proof,  that  the  parliament  was  aboat  to 
dissolve  itself,  and  ?ive  the  nation  a  free  general  election  on  a  reformed  plan, 
when  Cromwell  interfered.  Such  a  project,  indeed,  was  discussed,  but  there  ap- 
pear no  proofs  of  its  being  intended  to  put  it  into  execution. 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE  5  61 

the  parliament  before  it  had  sat  the  five  months  required  by    he  consti- 
tution, which  he  had  himself  framed  and  sworn  to  support. 

A  new  parliament  was  summoned,  but  notwithstanding  the  inter- 
ference of  Cromwell  and  the  major-generals  that  ruled  the  twelve  dis- 
Iricts  into  which  England  was  divided,  so  many  opponer*  ^  oi  the  gov* 
ernment  were  returned,  that  Cromwell  posted  soldiers  at  the  door  to 
exclude  those  members  to  whom  he  had  not  granted  tickets  of  admis- 
sion. The  parliament,  thus  modified,  proved  sufficiently  subservient, 
and  on  the  26th  of  March,  1656,  it  gratified  Cromwell's  secret  am- 
bition, by  offering  him  the  title  of  king.  But  Fleetwood,  the  protec 
tor's  son-in-law,  and  Desborough,  his  brother-in-law,  disconcerted  tlu* 
entire  plan  by  joining  the  republicans  in  the  army,  and  procuring  a  pe- 
tition from  the  officers  against  royalty,  which  it  would  have  been  dan- 
gerous to  disregard.*  Cromwell  was  forced  to  resign  his  darling  ob- 
ject at  the  moment  it  seemed  within  his  grasp,  and  to  content  himself 
with  the  protectorate  for  life,  and  the  power  of  nominating  his  suc- 
cessor. 

To  divert  the  attention  of  the  nation  from  its  internal  airuirs,  Crom- 
well resolved  to  engage  in  some  foreign  war,  but  was  at  first  undecided 
whelher  he  shoidd  attack  France  or  Spain. f  Mazarine's  cunning  de- 
cided tlic  question  ;  he  conciliated  the  protector  by  banishing  the  Eng- 
lish princes  from  France,  and  thus  obtained  auxiliaries  at  a  critical 
momont,  whose  support,  as  we  have  already  seen,  he  paid  by  the  ces- 
sion of  D'inkirk.  Two  formidable  fleets  were  prepared  in  England ; 
one,  under  the  command  of  Blake,  was  sent  to  cruise  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  the  other,  intrusted  to  admirals  Penn.  and  Venables,  proceeded 
to  the  West  Indies.  To  justify  hostilities,  Cromwell  demanded  of  the 
8L'aui;-.h  ambassador,  that  his  master  should  abolish  the  Inquisition, 
and  Ojien  the  trade  of  South  America  to  the  English.  The  ambassador 
replied,  that  this  was  askmg  for  his  master's  two  eyes ;  indeed,  neitlier 
demand,  under  the  circumstances,  was  reasonable.  The  Spanish  In- 
quisition certainly  exercised  an  unjust  tyranny  toward  protestants,  bu-t 
Cromw  oil  did  not  treat  the  Irish  catholics  with  greater  mildness  ;  and 
when  England  had  just  given  an  example  of  monopoly  by  passing  the 
aaviga'.ion  act,  it  showed  little  regard  Cor  consistency  to  demand  free 
trade  from  Spain.  But  both  proposals  were  in  accordance  with  th« 
spirit  of  the  times,  and  the  knowledge  of  their  having  been  made, 
brought  back  to  Cromwell  a  considerable  share  of  the  popularity  ho 
had  forfeited. 

Admiral  Blake  first  sailed  to  Leghorn,  and  having  cast  anchor  be- 
fore the  town,  demanded  and  obtained  satisfaction  for  the  injuries 
which  the  duke  of  Tuscany  had  done  to  English  commerce.  Repair- 
ing thence  to  Algiers,  he  compelled  the  dey  to  restrain  his  piratical  sub- 

•  "  Certain  persons,"  said  the  petition,  "  are  endeavoring  to  reduce  the  natioii 
to  the  old  slate  of  slavery,  and  urge  the  protector  to  assume  the  royal  title,  wish- 
ing by  this  means  to  ruin  him.  We,  therefore,  petition  the  parliament  to  oppf~3e 
such  intrigues,  and  to  aoide  by  the  old  cause,  for  which  we  are  ready  to  hazard 
our  lives." 

t "  In  order  to  maintain  himself,  he,  in  common  with  Lambert,  and  some  of  the 
tcuncil,  wishes  for  war,  and  is  only  revolving  whether  it  were  better  for  him  tc 
riiise  it  against  France  or  Spain." — Report  of  the  French  Embassador,  jipril  2U 
1654. 

36 


562  MODERN  HISTORY. 

jects  from  further  lepredations  on  the  English.  Failing  to  obtain  sim 
ilar  satisfaction  at  Tunis,  he  battered  its  fortifications  with  his  artiller\' 
and  burned  every  ship  in  the  harbor.  His  fame  spread  through  the 
entire  Mediterranean,  and  no  power  dared  to  provoke  his  vengeance. 
Penn  and  Venables  attempted  to  take  Hispaniola,  then  considered  the 
most  valuable  island  in  the  West  Indies,  but  failing  in  this  effort,  ihey 
conquered  Jamaica,  which  has  ever  since  been  annexed  to  the  domin- 
ions of  England.  Cromwell,  however,  was  so  little  satisfied  with  the 
conduct  of  the  two  admirals,  that  on  their  retu  n,  he  committed  them  to 
the  Tower.  The  English,  through  the  entire  war,  maintained  their 
supremacy  by  sea ;  several  of  the  galleons,  laden  with  the  precious 
metals  from  South  America,  were  taken  or  destroyed,  and  an  entire  fleet 
burned  by  the  heroic  Blake  in  the  bay  of  Santa  Cruz.* 

These  conquests  silenced  many  opponents  for  a  time,  but  secret  dis- 
satisfaction pervaded  the  nation,  and  pamphleteers  bitterly  assailed  the 
protector,  both  in  verse  and  prose. t  Public  attention  was  roused  by 
the  assembling  of  parliament  on  the  20th  of  January,  1658;  tlu  house 
of  commons  showed  its  hostility  to  the  govennnent,  by  admitting  the 
members  who  had  been  previously  excluded  by  the  privy  council,  and 
still  more  by  severely  scrutinizing  the  coustitution  of  the  upper  house. 
After  a  vain  effort  to  conciliate  his  opponents,  Cromwell  dis.solved  the 
parliament  on  the  4th  of  February,  and  resolved  to  hazard  the  perilous 
experiment  of  governing  alone.  But  he  encountered  violent  opposition, 
even  in  his  own  family ;  Elizabeth,  his  second  daughter,  keenly  re- 
proached him  on  her  dying  bed,  and  the  father,  who  loved  her  fondly, 
felt  his  grief  for  her  loss  sharpened  by  the  pangs  of  conscience.  A 
pamphlet  was  published,  and  widely  circulated,  in  which  the  assassina- 
tion of  the  protector  was  recommended  as  an  act  of  justice  and  patriot- 
ism ;  Cromwell  read  it,  and  never  smiled  again.  He  lived  in  continual 
fear,  always  wore  a  coat  of  mail,  never  slept  two  successive  nights  in 
the  same  chamber,  had  guards  posted  everywhere,  and  secret  avenues 
contrived,  by  which  he  might  escape  on  the  least  alarm.  In  sucn  a 
condition,  his  death  must  be  considered  a  happy  release  ;  it  took  piace 
on  the  3d  of  September,  1658,  the  anniversary  of  his  great  victories  at 
Worcester  and  Dunbar.  He  was  interred  with  great  pomp  in  West- 
minster Abbey,  but  the  conduct  of  the  populace  evinced  anything  but 
sorrow  for  the  loss  of  their  ruler. J 

•  April  2]  St,  1657. — "  This  was  the  last  and  greatest  action  of  this  gallant  navdi 
commander,  who  died  in  his  way  home.     He  was,  by  principle,  an   inflexible  re- 
publican, and  only  his  zeal  for  the  interests  of  his  country  induced  liiin  to  serve 
under  the  usurper.     Though  he  was  above  forty-four  years  of  age  before  he  en- 
tered into  the  military  service,  and  fifty-one  before  he  acted  in  llie  navy,  he  raised 
tue  maritime  glory  of  England  to  a  greater  height  than  it  had  ever  attained  in  any 
furmer  period.     Cromwell,  fully  sensible  of  his  merits,  ordered   him  a  pompous 
liineral  at  the  public  expense ;  and  people  of  all  parties,  by  their  tears,  bore  te.s- 
tiinony  to  his  valor,  generosity,  and  public  spirit." — Dr.  JuIivsoh's  Life  of  Blake, 
i  Satirical  poems  were  published,  in  one  of  which  is  the  following  passage  •• 
'•  A  protector !  what's  that?     Mis  a  stately  thiug 
That  confesses  iiimsell  but  the  ape  uf  a  king  , 
A  tragica.  Ccesar,  the  actor  a  clown, 
Or  a  brass  fai  thing,  stamped  v  ith  r,  kini!  of  o  ci  >«:,," 

J  Evelyn  says,  "This  was  the  roerrie>t  funeral  that  I  ever  saw,  for  no  one 
howled  but  the  dogs,  with  whii'i  the  soldiers  made  sport,  amid  barbarous  noise, 
puruding  through  the  streets,  drinKing  and  smoking."     Ludlow  add.s,  "  The  fol^ 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENJLAND  AND  FKANCE  56c1 

Richard  Cromwell  had  hitherto  lived  a  thoughtless   and  rather   ex- 
travagant life,  but  on  his   father's  death  he  was  acknowledged  as  pro- 
jector both  at  home  and  abroad,  without  opposition.     He  had,  however 
soon  to  contend  against  a  powerful  republican  minority  in  parliament 
while  still  greater  dangers  menaced  him  from  the  discontent  of  the 
■irmy,  which  was  equally  dissatisfied  with  the  protector  and  the  parlia 
ment.*     The   officers    urged  Richard  to  dissolve  the  refractory  com- 
mons, and  when  he  had  taken  this  imprudent  step,  seized  the  reins  of 
government  into  their  own  hands.     Having  deliberated  on  several  proj- 
ects, the  military  junta  came   to  the   resolution  of  re-assembling   the 
Long  parliament.     About  'ninety  members  were  hastily  collected,  bul 
those  who  displeased  the  new  rulers  were  excluded,  and  the  delibera- 
tions of  the  rest  were  fettered,  by  what  was  called  "  an  humble  petition 
and  address  from  the  officers  to  the  parliament  of  the  commonwealth  of 
England."     Richard,  weary  of  his  situation,  resigned  the  protecto-rate, 
and  the  chief  power  of  the  state  passed  to  the  cabal  of  officers,  at  whose 
head  were  Lambert,  Fleetwood,  and  Desborough.     In  the  congests  that 
followed  between  the  parliament  and  the  council  of  officers,  the  nation 
generally  took  no  interest.     It  was  a  period  of  complete  anarchy  ;  prin- 
ciple was   forgotten,  every  one  was  guided  by  his  caprice,  or  by  some 
prospect  of  private  advantage.     All   true  friends  of  tneir  country  were 
heartily  tired  of  this  confusion,  and  the  illusion  of  the  republicans  had 
so  completely  vanished,  that  if  we  except  those  who  wished  for  a  pro- 
tector, or  expected  the   personal  reign  of  Christ,  not  more  than  a  few 
hundreds  could  be  found  anxious   to  restore  the  commonwealth.     In 
this   state   of   affairs,  George  Monk,  afterward  duke  of  Albemarle,  re- 
solved to  act  a  decided   part.      He  had    been    intrusted  by  Cromwell 
with  the  government  of  Scotland,  and  the  command  of  the  army  :  though 
suspected  of  a  secret  attachment  to  the  royal  cause,!  he  continued   to 
hold  his  place  during  the  protectorates  of  Oliver  and  Richard.     On  the 
abdication  of  the  latter,  he  professed  the  utmost  anxiety  for  a  reconcilia- 
tion between  the  parliament  and  the  English  army  ;  but  if  that  could 
not  be  effected,  he  declared  that  he  would  support  the  former,  because 
the  establishment  of  a  commonwealth  was  dear  to  his   heart.     Thia 
declaration  gave  so  much  conlidence  to  the  opponents  of  the  officers, 
that  Fleetwood  found  it  necessary  to  permit  the  parliament  to  assemble  ; 
and  the  Rump  parliament,  as  the  house  of  commons  so  often  mutilated 
was  ignominiously  termed,  met  amid  the  loudest  acclamations   of  the 
soldiers,    who  only  two    months   before    had  dispersed   it   by  military 
violence.     The  house  promptly  made  use  of  the  power  which  it  had 

und  ])rofusion  (of  the  lying  in  state)  so  far  provoked  the  people,  that  they  threw 
dirt  in  the  night  on  his  escutclieon  tliat  was  placed  over  the  great  gate  of  Somer- 
set house." 

•  Richard  derided  the  fanatical  pretensions  of  his  father's  officers ;  when  a  re- 
monstrance was  made  against  his  granting  comiTiissions  to  "the  ungodly,"  he  re- 
plied, "  Here  is  Dick  Ingoldsby,  wlio  can  neither  pray  nor  preach,  and  yet  I  will 
trust  hi[n  before  ye  all."  "  Tliese  imprudent,  as  well  as  irreligious  words,"  say:: 
Ludlow,  "  so  clearly  discovering  the  frame  and  temper  of  his  mind,  were  soon 
published  in  the  army  and  city  of  London,  to  his  sreat  prejudice." 

t  Cromwell  once  wrote  to  him,  "  I  have  been  informed  that  there  is  in  Scotland, 
a  certain  cunning  fellow,  George  Monk  by  name,  who  has  a  scheme  lor  restoring 
Charles  Stuart ;   endeavor  to  catch  him,  and  send  him  hither." 


664  MODERN   HISTORY. 

rogaiurd  ;  the  members  and  officers  of  whom  it  did  not  approve  wt-n 
removed  ;  Desboroiioh,  with  some  othprs,  fled  to  Lambert.  Fleetwood 
was  overwhelmed  with  consternation. 

On  the  1st  of  January,  1660,  Monk,  at  the  head  of  six  thousand  men. 
commenced  his  march  toward  London  ;  he  was  received  everywhert 
with  the  greatest  enthusiasm  ;  in  all  the  towns  on  his  road  the  people 
rang  the  bells,  lighted,  bonfires,  and  declared  their  ardent  wish  for  n 
free  parliament.  Lambert's  army  melted  away  as  he  advanced ;  tnl 
Fleetwood's  soldiers  excited  so  much  alarm,  that  the  speaker  wrote  to 
Monk  to  hasten  his  march.  On  the  6th  of  February  he  af  peared  in 
parliament,  and  first  excited  some  suspicions  of  his  real  designs  by  re- 
fusing to  take  the  oath  of  abjuration  against  the  Stuarts.  The  parlia- 
ment tried  to  embroil  him  with  the  citizens  of  London,  by  sending  him 
to  arrest  some  members  of  the  common  council  for  resolving  that  no 
taxes  snould  be  paid  until  the  parliament  was  filled.  Monk  performed 
this  disagreeable  duty  ;  but  immediately  after  reconciled  himself  to  the 
city,  and  sent  a  letter  to  the  speaker,  demanding  a  dissolution  of  par- . 
liament  and  a  new  election.  While  this  letter  was  fiercely  debated, 
Monk  took  the  decisive  step  of  introducing  the  old  excluded  members, 
bv  which  he  gained  a  triumphant  majority. 

On  the  17th  of  IMarch  the  Long  parliament  concluded  its  sittings,  to 
the  great  joy  of  the  nation,  and  a  new  house  of  commons  met  on  the 
25th  of  April.  In  the  interval,  Lambert  made  a  desperate  effort  to  place 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  new  army,  but  by  Monk's  promptitude  and 
/igor  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  the  Tower. 

When  the  new  parliament,  consisting  both  of  upper  and  lower  house, 
met,  it  was  manifest  that  the  royalists  had  such  a  preponderance  that 
ttie  only  question  remaining  to  be  decided  was,  whether  Charles  IL  should 
be  restored  with  or  without  conditions.  The  latter  course  was  unfor- 
tunately chosen,  perhaps  because  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  frame 
terms,  th^  discussion  of  which  would  not  have  roused  the  slunibering 
feuds  of  hostile  parties. 

On  the  29th  of  May,  the  day  on  which  he  completed  his  thirtieth 
year,  Charles  triumphantly  entered  London.  He  was  accompanied  by 
the  members  of  parliament,  the  clergy,  the  civic  authorities,  and  about 
twenty  th'^-.sand  persons  on  loot  or  horseback.  The  streets  were 
strewed  with  flowers,  the  houses  decorated  with  tapestry,  the  bells  rung 
in  every  church,  the  air  resounded  with  acclamations.  The  monarch, 
so  recently  a  hopeless  exile,  might  well  ask,  as  he  witnessed  the  tuniult 
of  universal  joy,  "  Where  then  are  my  enemies  ?" 

Section   Hi. — History  of  En i^l and.  from  the  Restoration  to  the  Revoluiicn  . 
and  Riae  of  the  Power  of  Louis  XI  y. 

Ffw  monarchs  ever  had  such  an  opportunity  of  rendering  himself 
popular,  and  his  subjects  hapj)y.  jts  Charles  II.  ;  there  is  scarcely  one 
who  failed  more  lamentahl".  His  first  measures  promised  well;  a  few 
3f  the  regicides  and  their  adlierentt  were  imlecd  excejned  from  the  ac( 
")!  indemnity,  and  executed  ;  hut  pardon  was  granted  to  the  chief  par 
lianifMitary  leaders,  and  many  ol  them  received  into  favor.  Ecclesias 
fioal  affDirs,  Iiowerer,  began  to  disturb  the  harmony  of  the  nation,  whei' 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRAISOE.  565 

a  new  parliament  was  assembled,  in  which  the  episcopal  and  royalist 
party  had  a  triumphant  majority.  An  act  was  passed,  requiring  that 
ever}'  clergi'men  should  possess  episcopal  ordination,  declare  his  assent 
:o  everything  contained  in  the  book  of  common  prayer,  take  the  oath 
of  canonical  obedience,  abjure  the  solemn  league  and  covenant,  and  the 
light  of  taking  up  arms  against  the  king  under  any  pretence  whatever. 
About  two  thousand  of  the  clergy  rejected  these  conditions,  and  resign- 
ed their  benefices,  rather  than  do  violence  to  their  religious  opinions. 
The  ejected  clergymen  were  persecuted  with  unwise  rigor ;  severe 
laws  were  enacted  against  conventicles,  and  a  non-conformist  minister 
was  prohibited  from  coming  within  five  miles  of  a  corporation. 

The  marriage  of  the  king  to  Catherine  of  Portugal,  when  his  sub- 
jects hoped  that  he  would  make  a  protestant  princess  his  queen,  and 
the  sale  of  Dunkirk  to  the  French  monarch,  tended  still  further  to 
diminish  the  royal  popularity  ;  and  a  war,  equally  unjust  and  impolit.v , 
undertaken  against  the  Dutch,  completed  the  public  dissatisfaction. 
Hostilities  were  commenced  without  a  formal  declarat'on  of  war  ;  the 
English  seized  several  of  the  Dutch  colonies  in  Africa  and  America, 
especially  the  province  of  Nova  Belgia,  which  Charles,  in  honor  of  his 
brother,  named  the  state  of  New  York.  Holland  was  at  this  time 
ruled  by  the  Louvestein,  or  violent  republican  party ;  its  head,  the 
celebrated  John  de  Witt,  who,  with  the  title  of  pensionary,  enjoyed 
almost  dictatorial  power,  feared  that  Charles  might  make  some  effort 
to  restore  William  III.,  prince  of  Orange,  to  the  office  of  stadtholder, 
which  his  ancestors  had  enjoyed  ;  and  to  avert  this  danger,  entered 
into  close  alliance  with  France.  The  pensionary  found,  however,  that 
he  must  rely  upon  his  own  resources  ;  he  fitted  out  a  powerful  fleet ; 
the  English  exerted  themselves  with  equal  diligence,  and  a  furious 
engagement  took  place  upon  the  coast  of  Holland  (a.  d.  1665).  Vic- 
tory declared  in  favor  of  the  English  ;  more  than  thirty  of  the  enemy's 
ships  were  taken  or  destroyed,  and  the  whole  would  probably  have 
fallen  had  not  the  pursuit  been  stopped  by  the  oversight  or  cowardice 
of  the  diike  of  York,  who  had  been  created  lord  high-admiral  of  England 
by  his  brother. 

The  joy  occasioned  by  this  victory  was  diminished  by  the  ravages 
of  the  great  plague,  which  swept  away  seventy  thousand  citizens  of 
London  in  the  course  of  a  year.  De  Witt,  in  the  meantime,  exerted 
himself  to  restore  the  naval  power  of  the  Dutch  ;  he  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  king  of  Denmark,  procured  aid  from  France,  and  soon  sent 
out  a  more  powerful  fleet  than  that  which  had  been  defeated.  But 
the  English  still  maintained  their  v/onted  superiority ;  and  the  Dutch, 
disheartened  by  repeated  defeats,  began  to  murmur  against  the  govern- 
ment of  the  grand  pensionary.  Scarcely  had  the  plague  ceastd,  when 
London  was  subjected  to  a  second  calamity;  a  dreadful  fire,  which 
raged  for  four  days,  destroyed  four  hundred  streets  and  lanes,  including 
thirteen  thousand  houses  ;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  not  a  single  life 
was  lost  by  the  conflagration.  Great  discontents  were  excited  by  the 
severity  with  which  the  non-conformists  were  treated  in  England  and 
Scotland ;  about  two  thousand  of  the  discontented,  in  the  western 
counties  of  Scotland,  had  recourse  to  arms,  and  renewed  the  covenant 
out  they  were  overpowered  by  the  royal  forces,  and  their  insurrectior. 


566  MODERN  HISTORY 

punished  with  remorseless  crueUy.  One  of  the  first  stipula  ions  ui&iU 
with  Ci'iarles  on  his  accession  was,  that  he  should  not  disturb  the  grants 
which  Cromwell  had  given  to  hia  followers  in  Ireland.  But  as  many 
if  not  most,  of  these  estates  had  been  forfeited  for  the  attachment  o^ 
the  proprietors  to  the  royal  cause,  it  was  necessary  that  some  compen- 
sation should  be  made  to  the  sufferers.  After  a  long  struggle,  the  best 
arrangement  that  was  perhaps  pos.sible,  under  the  circumstances,  was 
effected  by  the  act  of  settlement ;  and  though  many  of  those  who  had 
been  dispossessed  complained  of  injustice,  the  island  was  restored  to 
tranquillity.  It  was  fast  recovering  its  prosperity,  when  the  unwise 
jealousy  of  the  English  parliament  produced  considerable  distress,  by 
prohibiting  the  importation  of  Irish  cattle.*  While  these  circumstances 
embarrassed  the  British  government,  the  pensionary,  De  Witt,  sent  out 
a  new  fleet,  which  destroyed  several  vessels  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Thames,  reduced  Sheerness,  insulted  Portsmouth  and  Plymouth,  and 
for  several  week  rode  triumphant  in  the  channel  (a.  d.  1667).  The 
conclusion  of  a  peace  at  Breda  dissipated  the  alarm,  but  at  tiie  same 
time  increased  the  discontent,  of  the  English  nation  ;  it  was  felt  that 
the  prodigality  of  the  king  had  exhausted  the  treasury  and  left  the  king- 
dom exposed  to  insult  and  disgrace. 

The  ambitious  projects  of  Louis  XIV.  began  now  to  excite  general 
alarm  ;  his  personal  qualities  won  him  the  affections  of  his  people  ;  the 
splendor  of  his  court  dazzled  the  nobility,  and  changed  the  faction? 
lords  of  France  into  a  body  of  the  most  subservient  courtiers  that  had 
ever  been  seen  in  modern  Europe.  On  the  death  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain, 
Louis  claimed  the  Spanish  Netherlands  in  right  of  his  wife,  the  daughter 
of  Philip  by  his  first  marriage,  asserting  that  females  could  inherit 
according  to  the  custom  of  Brabant,  and  that  his  queen  should  have 
precedence  of  her  infant  brother,  the  offspring  of  a  second  marriage. 
Anna  Maria  of  Austria,  queen-regent  of  Spain,  was  a  weak  woman, 
entirely  governed  by  her  confessor,  a  German  Jesuit,  named  Nithard, 
who  was  more  anxious  to  check  the  growth  of  heresy  than  to  protect 
the  monarchy.!  Louis  entered  Flanders  at  the  head  of  a  powerful 
army,  and  found  the  Spaniards  almost  wholly  unpiepared  for  resistance. 
The  principal  towns  surrendered  immediately  ;  Lisle,  though  a  place  of 
considerable  strength,  capitulated  after  a  siege  of  nine  days,  and  Louis 
secured  his  conquests  by  intrusting  the  repair  of  their  fortifications  to 
the  celebrated  Vauban,  and  garrisoning  them  with  his  best  troops. 
The  Dutch  were  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  having  their  frontiers 
exposed  to  such  a  powerful  neighbor ;  they  received  succor  from  an 

•  The  discussion  of  this  act,  in  the  house  of  lords,  gave  rise  to  some  sinsrulai 
debates.  It  was  secretly  opposed  hy  the  king,  vho  felt  its  obvious  impolicy ;  i* 
was  urged  forward  by  the  eccentric  duke  of  Buckingham,  who  hoped  to  force  him 
self  into  power  by  means  of  the  house  of  commons.  The  commons  declared  the 
anportation  of  Irish  cattle  "  a  nuisance."  The  lords  rejected  a  term  so  revolting 
;o  common  sense,  and  substituted  "  a  grievance."  The  duke  of  Buckingham  in 
sisted  on  retaining  the  obnoxious  phrase  ;  another  noblf.  lord  moved  that  the  im- 
portation of  Irish  cattle  should  be  deemed  "  a  felony,"  or  a  "  praemunire  :"  a  third, 
with  more  wit  and  as  much  reason,  proposed  that  it  should  be  accounted 
"  adultery." 

t  His  arrogance  and  igiorance  were  displayed  in  his  reply  to  a  nobleman  whc 
had  addressed  him  in  a  tone  of  disrespect.  "  You  ought,"  said  he,"  to  reveie  the 
r^an  -vho  has  every  day  youi  God  in  his  hands  and  your  queen  at  his  feet  " 


AUGUSTAN  AGKS  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  667 

anexcjpted  quarter.  Charles  II.,  either  jealous  of  Louis,  or  eager  to 
acquire  popularity,  concluded  a  defensive  alliance  between  England 
and  Holland  (a.  d.  1668);  and  Sweden  soon  after  concurred  in  the 
treaty.  Louis  found  it  necessary  to  stop  short  in  his  career  ;  he  made 
peace  with  Spain,  retaining  a  great  portion  of  his  conquests,  which, 
However,  were  not  sufficient  to  console  him  for  the  brilliant  prospects 
0.6  was  compelled  to  resign.  He  had  to  endure  another  mortification  ; 
che  Turks  one  more  became  formidable,  under  the  administration  of  the 
vizier  Kuproeli,  and  compelled  the  German  emperor  to  conclude  peace 
on  terms  highly  favorable  to  their  interests  ;  and  they  wrested  the  im- 
portant island  of  Candia  from  the  Venetians,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  niadf* 
by  the  French  monarch  to  save  the  place. 

Louis  saw  that  his  designs  on  the  Netherlands,  and  hii  revenge 
against  Holland,  could  not  be  accomplished  without  the  active  partici- 
pation of  England.  Knowing  the  profligate  habits  of  Charles,  whose 
court  was  a  scene  of  extravagance  and  dissipation,  he  concluded  a 
secret  treaty  with  that  monarch,  in  which  it  was  agreed  that  Charles 
should  receive  a  large  pension  from  Louis,  in  return  for  which  he 
should  co-operate  in  the  conquest  of  the  Netherlands,  propagate  the 
catholic  faith  in  his  dominions,  and  publicly  announce  his  conversion 
to  that  religion.  France  and  England  commenced  the  war  by  atro- 
ciously outraging  the  laws  of  nations  ;  Louis,  without  the  shadow  of  a 
pretext,  seized  the  dutchy  of  Lorraine ;  Charles  attempted  the  capture 
of  a  rich  Dutch  fleet,  before  he  had  announced  his  dissatisfaction  with 
the  recent  treaty.  The  Dutch  were  wholly  unable  to  resist  this  storm  ; 
at  sea  they  maintained  their  equality,  but  the  armies  of  France  bore 
down  all  opposition  ;  Louis  crossed  the  Rhine,  advanced  to  Utrecht, 
and  had  he  not  delayed  there,  might  have  conquered  Amsterdam.  The 
Dutch  populace  vented  their  rage  on  the  unfortunate  pensionary,  to 
whom  they  unjustly  attributed  all  their  calamities.  John  de  Witt  and 
his  brother  Cornelius  were  arrested,  but  ere  they  could  be  brought  to 
trial,  a  furious  mob  burst  into  their  prison  and  tore  them  to  pieces. 
William  III.,  prince  of  Orange,  was  immediately  chosen  stadtholder  ; 
his  exhortations  revived  the  sinking  spirits  of  the  Dutch  ;  they  resolved, 
that  rather  than  submit  to  disgraceful  terms,  they  would  abandon  their 
country,  seek  their  settlements  in  the  East  Indies,  and  re-establish 
their  republic  in  southern  Asia.*  Louis  soon  found  the  results  of  this 
determined  spirit ;  the  emperor,  thoroughly  alarmed,  sided  with  the 
Dutch,  and  many  of  the  northern  German  states  followed  his  example. 
Indecisive  engagements  were  fought  at  sea  ;  but  the  conquest  of  Cologne 
by  the  Dutch  and  Germans,  intercepted  the  communication  between 
France  and  the  United  Provinces,  in  consequence  of  which  Louis  was 
compelled  to  withdraw  his  forces  and  abandon  his  conquests.  A  more 
important  change  was  the  secession  of  England  ;  Charles,  distressed 
for  want  of  money,  loaded  with  debt,  and  rendered  anxious  by  the 
progress  of  public  discontent,  concluded  peace  with  Holland  on  very 
equitable  conditions  (.\.  d.  1674).  He  then  oflen.,d  his  mediation  to 
the  contending  powers. 

•  Several  efforts  were  made  to  corrupt  the  prince  of  Orange,  but  he  sternly  re- 
jected them.  When  told  that  the  ruin  of  his  country  was  inevitable,  he  replied, 
"  There  is  one  way  by  which  I  can  be  certain  not  to  see  the  ruin  of  my  couutr>' : 
^i\d  that  is,  to  die  disputi'ig  the  last  ditch." 


568  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Louis  surprised  all  Europe  by  the  magnitude  of  his  efToils,  but  ihf.) 
lid  not  produce  any  corresponding  resuU ;  and  the  desolation  of  the 
Palatinate  by  Marshal  Turenne  excited  such  general  indignation,  tha* 
Louis  bribed  Charles  to  dissolve  the  parliament,  lest  it  should  force  its 
sovereign  to  declare  war  against  France.  The  war  was  maintained 
with  great  fury  during  the  ensuing  campaigns  ;  it  was  on  the  whole 
favorable  to  the  French,  but  the  rapid  progress  of  Louis,  in  the  yeai 
1677,  excited  so  much  alarm,  that  the  English  parliament  addressed  tht 
king  to  conclude  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Holland. 
Charles,  however,  had  sold  his  neutrality,  and  would  not  abandon  his 
pension  to  promote  either  the  honor  or  advantage  of  his  kingdom  ;  but 
he  tried  to  conciliate  the  nation  by  giving  his  .nece,  the  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  York,  in  marriage  to  the  prince  of  Orange.  Louis  continued 
his  victorious  career  uninterrupted  by  England,  until  the  Dutch  sought 
peace  on  any  terms,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Nimeguen  (a.,  u. 
1678),  by  which  France  acquired  an  increase  of  power  dangerous  to 
all  the  neighboring  states. 

The  jealousy  of  the  English  nation  at  the  exaltation  of  a  rival,  long 
regarded  as  their  natural  enemy,  the  feeling  that  the  national  honor  had 
been  sacrificed,  and  the  fear  of  the  design  of  the  court  to  establish  the 
Romish  religion  and  arbitrary  power,  spread  a  deep  gloom  over  Eng- 
land, and  disposed  the  people  to  suspicions  that  led  them  to  become  the 
dupes  of  the  vilest  impostors.  Just  as  the  account  of  the  cruelties 
practised  on  the  covenanters  in  Scotland  excited  most  alarm  and  indig- 
nation, the  three  kingdoms  were  roused  to  sudden  phrensy  by  the  an- 
nouncement of  a  popish  plot.  A  wicked  impostor,  named  Titus  Gates, 
framed  a  tale  of  a  conspiracy  by  the  Jesuits  for  the  subversion  of  the 
protestant  religion  and  the  murder  of  the  king  ;  his  narrative  was  ira 
probable,  confused,  and  contradictory,  but  it  suited  the  temper  of  the 
nation,  and  it  was  favorable  to  the  ambition  of  some  designing  men, 
anxious  to  obtain  power  at  any  hazard.  Before  censuring  too  severely 
the  credulity  of  the  nation,  we  must  remember  that  a  plot  for  the  re-es- 
tablishment of  the  Romish  religion  really  existed,  but  it  was  formed  by 
the  king,  not  against  him ;  many  catholics,  aware  of  the  king's  secret 
attachment  to  their  religion,  and  encouraged  by  the  duke  of  York's  open 
profession  of  it,  indulged  hopes  of  the  speedy  reconciliation  of  the 
British  kingdoms  to  the  holy  see,  and  several  enthusiastic  phrases  in 
their  letters  were  capable  of  being  distorted  into  confirmation  of  a  plan 
formed  to  acceleraie  such  a  consummation.*  The  inexplicable  murdei; 
cf  Sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey,  an  active  magistrate  who  had  taken 
Gates's  depositions,  completed  the  delusion  ;  to  deny  the  reality  of  the 
plot  was  now  to  be  reputed  an  accomplice  ;  even  to  doubt  of  it  was 
criminal.  Several  catholics  were  brought  to  trial ;  the  evidence  against 
them  was  a  tissue  of  palpable  falsehoods,  but,  in  the  phrensy  of  the 
moment,  every  absurdity  received  credence  ;  they  were  condenmed  and 
executed.  The  parliament  at  the  same  time  passed  a  law  e.Ycluding 
♦rom  bolh  houses  all  who  would  not  swear  that  "  the  sacrifice  of  the 

•  This  is  especially  the  case  -with  the  letters  of  the  first  victim  to  the  naticna.' 
delusion,  Edward  Coleman,  secretary  to  the  duke  cf  York.  Dryden  has  well  de 
scribed  the  plot  in  a  single  line  : — 

"  Suuie  truth  there  was.  hutdushed  and  brewed  with  lies  " 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLANL-  AJSD  FRANCE  ^''^^ 

mass  was  damnable  and  idolatrous,"  and  it  was  with  great  difficnlty 
.hat  an  exception  was  made  in  favor  of  the  king's  brother,  the  duke  of 
York.  The  covenanters  in  Scotland  were  driven  to  such  desperation 
by  the  severities  of  the  royal  government,  that  they  murdered  Archbish- 
op Sharpe,  and  broke  out  into  open  rebellion.  Their  revolt  was  sup- 
pressed, and  those  who  had  shared  in  it,  or  who  were  suspected  of  fa- 
voring the  views  of  the  cov^enanters,  were  punished  with  remorseless 
cruelty.  It  deserves  to  be  remarked  that,  during  this  turbulent  period, 
Ireland,  to  the  great  discredit  of  the  popish  plot,  continued  perfectly 
tianquil.  Still  its  name  was  dragged  into  the  controversy,  and  it  lent 
a  title  to  a  party.  The  supporters  of  the  court  were  named  Tories, 
from  the  Irish  robbers,  who,  under  that  name,  harassed  the  Cromwelli- 
an  settlers  ;  the  leaders  of  the  opposition  were  denominated  whigs, 
the  appellation  of  the  fiercest  of  the  Scottish  covenanters  (a.  d.  1681). 
A  bill  to  exclude  the  duke  of  York  from  the  succession  passed  the  com- 
mons, but  was  rejected  by  the  lords  ;  Charles  seized  the  moment  wher; 
the  violence  of  his  adversaries  disgusted  the  sound  part  of  the  nation, 
to  dissolve  the  parliament,  and  to  summon  a  new  one  to  assemble  at 
Oxford.  This  second  parliament  proving  refractory,  it  was  suddenly 
dissolved,  and  a  declaration  vindicating  the  king's  proceedings  was  or- 
dered to  be  read  in  all  churches  and  chapels. 

Charles  won  the  support  of  the  clergy  by  vigorously  enforcing  the 
act  of  uniformity  and  persecuting  sectaries,  and  at  the  same  time  chose 
some  of  the  most  pliant  lawyers  to  be  judges.  By  these  means  the 
doctrines  of  passive  obedience  and  non-resistance  were  revived,  and 
the  bench  and  the  pulpit  seemed  to  contend  with  each  other  which 
should  show  most  zeal  for  the  unlimited  power  of  the  crown.  He  next 
assailed  his  opponents  with  their  own  weapons  ;  the  spies,  the  inform- 
ers, and  false  witnesses,  who  had  been  employed  by  the  popular  party 
to  establish  the  reality  of  the  popish  plot,  were  now  enlisted  against 
their  former  patrons,  and  gave  their  perjured  support  to  one  party  as 
freely  as  they  had  done  to  another.  The  spirit  of  independence  still 
reigned  in  the  hearts  of  the  citizens  of  London,  but,  on  the  most  flimsy 
legal  pretexts,  the  cap''al  was  deprived  of  its  charter,  and  the  power 
of  the  corporation  virtually  transferred  to  the  king.  The  popular  lead- 
ers, not  disheartened,  formed  a  plan  of  insurrection  ;  they  were  be- 
trayed by  one  of  their  party  :  Lord  Howard,  who  had  been  a  leader, 
became  a  witness  against  his  associates  ;  several  of  them  were  tried, 
condemned,  and  executed;  but  the  victims  whose  fate  excited  the  most 
sympathy  were  the  popular  Lord  Russell  and  the  virtuous  Algernon 
Sydney.  The  duke  of  York  was  now  placed  at  the  head  of  the  royal 
councils,  but  Charles  soon  became  weary  of  his  brother's  violence  and 
bigotry  ;  he  is  even  said  to  have  meditated  a  change  in  the  government 
and  the  adoption  of  popular  measures,  when  he  died  suddenly  (a.  d 
1685),  not  without  strong  suspicions  of  poison.  It  was  supposed  thai 
some  ot  the  violent  catholics  attached  to  the  duke  of  York  perpetrated 
the  crime  without  that  prince's  knowledge  or  participation. 

While  England  was  thus  convulsed  at  home,  its  foreign  interests 
xere  wholly  neglected  by  its  profligate  sovereign,  who  continued  to  be 
the  pensioner  of  the  French  king.     Louis  XIV.  thus  had  full  scope  to' 
.ir-itify  his  ambition  ;  he  continually  enlarged  his  frontiers  on  th«  nio.s( 


570  MODERN  HISTORY. 

frivolous  pretences,  while  Spain  and  Holland  were  too  weak,  and  lli( 
Germanic  empire  ^.oo  much  harassed  by  other  enemies,  to  check  his 
progress.  The  emperor  Leopold,  by  flagrantly  violating  the  privileges 
of  his  Hungarian  subjects,  provoked  a  formidai)le  revolt  ;  it  was  headed 
by  Count  Tekeli,  a  leader  possessing  great  courage  and  resolution,  and 
he  called  the  Turks  to  the  assistance  of  his  countrymen.  While  these 
allies  were  ravaging  Silesia,  the  sultan  Mohammed  IV.  was  preparing 
one  of  the  most  formidable  armies  that  the  Otti/.nan  empire  had  ever 
sent  against  Chnstendom.  Leopold,  convinced  that  his  own  resources 
were  not  equal  to  the  crisis,  entered  into  close  alliance  with  the  cele- 
orated  John  Sobieski,  who,  in  the  year  1674,  had  been  raised  to  the 
throne  of  Poland. 

Before  the  Polish  levies  could  be  completed,  the  Turkish  army, 
commanded  by  the  grand  vizier,  Kara  Mustapha,  entered  Austria  ;  the 
duke  of  Lorraine,  who  commanded  the  imperialisis,  was  unable  to  re- 
sist the  progress  of  the  invaders  ;  they  advanced  rapidly,  and  at  length 
laid  siege  to  Vienna.  During  several  weeks  the  city  was  vigorously 
defended,  but,  at  length,  its  fortifications  crumbled  under  the  heavy  fire 
of  the  Turkish  artillery  ;  the  suburbs  were  destroyed,  and  the  final  as- 
sault was  expected  every  moment  (a.  d.  1683).  The  garrison,  reduced 
to  despair,  was  about  to  resign  all  thoughts  of  resistance,  when  the 
banners  of  John  Sobieski,  approaching  to  their  relief,  were  seen  on  the 
hill  of  Schellenberg.  Kara  Mustapha  led  the  main  body  of  his  forces 
to  meet  the  Poles,  while  a  body  of  twenty  thousand  men  attempted  to 
storm  the  city.  But  the  courage  of  the  garrison  was  now  revived,  and 
the  confidence  of  their  enemies  abated  ;  the  assailants  were  repelled  ; 
a  panic  seized  the  Turks ;  they  broke  at  the  first  charge  of  the  Polish 
cavalry,  and  fled  in  such  confusion,  that  they  abandoned  their  artillery, 
baggage,  and  treasures.  Even  the  consecrated  banner  of  Mohammed 
became  the  prize  of  the  victors,  and  was  sent  as  a  trophy  to  the  pope. 
Leopold,  in  consequence  of  this  decided  triumph,  recovered  possession 
of  Hungary,  but  his  ingratitude  to  his  deliverers  was  as  signal  as  theiv 
merits. 

Louis  XIV.  had  raised  the  siege  of  Luxemburg  when  he  heard  oi 
the  advance  of  the  Turks,  declaring  that  he  wouid  not  attack  a  Chrib- 
tian  prince  while  Christendom  itself  was  endangered  by  the  invasion 
of  the  infidels.  No  sooner,  however,  had  Sobieski's  valor  crushed  liiu 
Mohammedans,  than  he  renewed  his  aggressions.  Spain  was  tllu^j 
provoked  into  a  war  which  it  had  not  strength  to  support,  and  a  hasty 
peace  confirmed  Louis  in  his  conquests.  His  naval  power  was  steadily 
increased  at  the  same  time  ;  he  humbled  the  Algerines,  compelled  the 
republic  of  Genoa  to  submit  to  the  most  degrading  humiliations,  and  did 
not  even  spare  the  pope.  But  while  his  ambition  was  provoking  the 
resentment  of  Europe,  he  weakened  his  kingdom  by  a  display  of  fero- 
cious bigotry,  at  the  moment  when  all  its  strength  was  required  to  re- 
riist  justly-provoked  hostility.  The  religious  toleration  of  the  Hugue- 
nots had  been  secured  by  the  edict  of  Nantes,  which  was  designed  to 
be  perpetual ;  Louis,  after  the  death  of  his  wisest  minioter,  the  virtuou? 
Colbert,  revoked  this  edict,  and  attempted  to  impose  his  religion  en  his 
Hubjects  by  the  sword.  He  began  by  issuing  an  edict,  authorizing 
Huguenot  children,  above  seven  years  of  age,  to  change  their  religicn 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCJC.  575 

without  the  consent  of  their  parents  ;  this  pernicious  law  introduced 
dissension  into  the  bosom  of  families  ;  children  were  enticed  to  ingrat- 
itude and  disobedience  by  the  arts  of  clerical  kidnappers  who  OA'er- 
spread  the  country.  The  parents  were  next  persecuted  ;  they  were 
excluded  from  all  public  employments  and  the  incorporations  of  the 
wrades.  Bribes  were  offered  on  the  one  hand,  punishments  were  men- 
f\ced  on  the  other ;  apostacy  was  assured  of  reward,  and  the  paymeni 
of  conversions  became  a  heavy  charge  on  the  state.  Finally,  a  brutal 
snd  licentious  soldiery  was  let  loose  on  the  hapless  piotestants  ;  dra- 
goons were  sent  as  missionaries  among  them,  and  the  edict  of  Nantes, 
iheir  last  security,  was  formally  revoked.  Exposed  to  all  the  cruelties 
and  horrors  that  bigotry  could  dictate,  or  brutality  execute,  nearly  four 
hundred  thousand  of  the  Huguenots  abandoned  their  country,  and  car- 
ried into  lands  hostile  to  France,  their  wealth,  their  commercial  intelli- 
gence, their  manufacturing  industry,  and  their  desire  of  vengeance. 
The  accounts  of  their  sufferings  published  by  the  exiled  Huguenots  in 
England,  Holland,  and  Germany,  aggravated  the  hatred  of  France, 
which  was  spreading  through  these  countries,  and  accelerated  a  general 
war.  A  league  was  formed  by  all  the  princes  of  Germany  to  restrain 
the  encroachments  of  Louis  ;  Spain  and  Holland  joined  it  as  princi- 
pals ;  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Savoy,  were  afterward  gained  :  and  a 
.sudden  revolution  in  England  placed  that  country  at  the  head  of  the 
confederacy. 

James  II.  succeeded  to  the  English  crown  on  the  death  of  his  brother 
Charles  ;  he  commenced  his  reign  by  liberal  promises,  which  procured 
him  general  popularity,  notwithstanding  his  open  adhesion  to  the  Ro- 
mish church,  and  his  going  to  mass  with  all  the  ensigns  of  regal  dig- 
nity. But  there  were  many  discontented  spirits  who  lamented  his  ac- 
cession, and  these  secretly  instigated  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  the  natu- 
ral son  of  Charles  II.,  to  assert  his  mother's  marriage,  and  his  own 
consequent  claim  to  the  throne.  Monmouth  was  a  weak,  vain  man  ; 
he  readily  adopted  the  scheme,  and  in  concert  with  the  earl  of  Argyle, 
prepared  for  the  simultaneous  invasion  of  Scotland  and  England.  Ar- 
gyle, who  was  the  first,  readily  effected  a  landing  in  Scotland,  but  soon 
found  that  the  country  was  not  so  ripe  for  revolt  as  he  had  believed. 
Surrounded  by  superior  forces,  he  attempted  to  force  his  way  into  the 
disaffected  part  of  the  western  counties,  but  his  followers  gradually 
abandoned  him ;  he  was  taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  Edinburgh,  where 
he  expiated  his  imprudence  on  the  scaffold.  In  the  meantime,  Mon 
mouth  had  landed  in  the  west  of  England,  where  he  was  received  with 
great  enthusiasm.  Encouraged  by  the  proofs  of  attachment  he  received, 
he  ventured  to  attack  the  royal  army  encamped  at  Sedgemoor,  neai 
Bridgewater  But  the  cowardice  of  Lord  Grey,  who  commanded  the 
horse,  and  the  incapacity  of  Monmouth  himself,  proved  fatal  to  the  in- 
surgents ;  they  were  routed  with  great  slaughter,  and  their  unfortunate 
leader,  after  wandering  about  several  days  in  great  distress,  was  taken 
nrisoner. 

James  II.  induced  the  unhappy  Monmouth  to  degrade  himself  by  a 
mean  supplication  for  life,*  and  th(.n  informed  him  that  his  offence  was 

•  Monmouth  displajed  great  firmness  and  intrepidity  on  the  scaffoU.    The  ezf^ 


&72  MODERN  HISTORY 

too  great  to  be  pardoned.     The  cruelties  exercised  on  a  1  suspected  ol 
having  shared  in  the  insurrection,  by  the  inhuman  Colonel  Kirke,  anu 
the  still  more  infamous  Judge  Jeffries,  were  shocking  to  human  nature  ; 
they  spread  general  consternation  through  the  western  counties,  but  at 
the  same  time  they  excited  a  spirit  of  secret  hostility  to  the  tyrannical 
king.     Encouraged  by  his  success,  James   resolved  to   dispense  with 
ihe  test  acts,  by  which  catholics  were  excluded  from  the  public  ser 
v"ioe,  and,  finding  the   parliament  opposed  to  his  views,  he  dissolved 
that  body.     Eleven  out  of  the  twelve  judges  asserted  that  the  dispens- 
ing power  was  an  essential  part  of  the  royal  prerogative  ;  and  the  king, 
fortified  by  their  opinion,  gave  several  places  of  trust  to  catholic  lords 
and  gentlemen.     The  lord-lieutenancy  of  Ireland  was  intrusted  to  the 
earl  of  Tyrconnell,  a  zealous  adherent  of  the   Romish  church ;  mar.y 
of  the  catholics,  who  felt  that  their  religion  was  the  cause  of  their  be- 
ing deprived  of  their  estates,  began  to  look  forward  to  the  repeal  of  the 
Act  of  Land  Settlement,  and  several  of  the  more  timorous  protestants 
sought  refuge  in  England.     Their  representations,  and  the  tales  of  hor- 
ror related  by  the  exiled   Huguenots,  filled  the   nation  with  a  genera] 
hatred   of  popery  ;  the   king,  however,  unconscious  of  his  increasing 
unpopularity,  unwisely  deprived  himself  of  his  chief  secuuty  by  quar- 
relling Avith  the  church.     Ke  commenced  by  endeavormg  to  open  the 
doors  of  the  universities  to  catholics  ;  more  opposition  was  ofi^ered  than 
had  been  antici])ated,  but  the  king  persevered,  and  a  catholic,  named 
Parker,  was  installed  into  the  presidency  of  Magdalen  college,  Oxford. 
Although  there  was  much  discontent  in  England,  no  project  had  aa 
yet  been  formed  against  the  king  ;  it  was  believed  that  Mary  of  Mode- 
na,  James's  queen,  would  never  have  any  children,  and  the  nation  was 
disposed  to  wait  quietly  for  the  accession  of  one  of  his  daughters  by  his 
former  marriage,  both  of  whom  were  known  to  be  strongly  uttached  to 
the  church  of  England.     Mary,  the  eldest  daughter  of  James  by  Anne 
Hyde,  was  married  to  the  prince  of  Orange,  who  was  engaged  in  sup- 
porting the  liberties  of  Europe,  and  the  protestant  religion  against  the 
ambition  and  bigotry  of  Louis  XIV.  ;  she  was  less  popular  in  England 
than  her  husband,  to  whom  she  was  known  to  be  fondly  attached,  and 
it  was  generally  believed  that  she  would  relax  the  laws  against  prot- 
estant dissenters,  if  ever  she  came  to  the  throne,  in  order  to  gratify 
the  attachment  of  her  husband  to  presbyterian  principles.     She   was, 
however,  childless,  and  the  national  hope  of  a  protestant  successor  to 
the  throne  centred  in  her  sister. 

The  princess  Anne,  afterward  queen,  had  been  educated  in  the  strict- 
est, principles  of  the  Anglican  church  by  her  maternal  grandfather,  thp 
celebrated  earl  of  Clarendon.  She  was  married  to  Prince  George  of 
Denmark,  by  whom  she  had  several  children,  all  of  whom,  except  the 
duke  of  Gloucester,  either  died  in  their  infancy,  or  were  still-born. 
She  was  the  favorite  child  of  her  father,  and  nothing  had  ever  occurred 
to  interrupt  their  aflection,  until  nearly  at  the  same  time  James's  queen 

o.utioner,  touched  with  pity,  or  respect  for  the  victim's  noble  bearing,  struck  Inm 
Jhree  times  without  effect^  and  then  threw  aside  the  ace,  declaring  he  was  unablo 
to  perform  his  otfice.  The  sheriff  compelled  him  to  renew  his  eli'orts,  and  ths 
fitad  of  the  unhappy  duke  was  at  length  severed  from  his  bfidv. 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.        573 

fippeaied  likely  to  give  an  heir  to  the  throne,  and  he  himself  became 
involved  in  a  contest  with  the  church  of  England. 

Anxious  to  relieve  the  catholics  from  the  civil  disabilities  under 
which  they  labored,  as  a  monarch  of  the  same  religion  as  themselves 
must  naturally  have  been,  and  at  the  same  time  desirous  to  obtain  the 
support  of  so  powerful  a  body  as  the  protestant  dissenters,  in  the  new 
course  of  policy  which  he  meditated,  James  published  a  new  declara- 
tion of  indulgence,  suspending  all  the  penal  laws  against  every  species 
of  dissent,  and  soon  after  issued  a  proclamation  commanding  it  to  be 
lead  in  churches.  The  legality  ot  such  a  command  was  questioned  by 
the  prelates,  for  though  royal  declarations  had  been  read  in  churches 
with  their  sanction  dufing  the  preceding  reign,  considerable  doubts 
were  entertained  of  the  king's  power  to  suspend  the  penal  laws,  and  in 
fact,  such  an  exercise  of  the  royal  authority  had  been  pronounced  un- 
constitutional by  the  best  lawyers  of  the  kingdom.  Had  the  dec"  oration 
related  to  a  less  obnoxious  matter  than  the  virtual  abrogation  of  the 
laws  ag^mst  non-conformity,  which  had  been  only  procured  oy  the 
most  vigorous  exertions  of  the  hierarchy,  it  is  probable  that  the  king's 
orders  might  have  been  obeyed :  but  it  was  unwise  to  call  upon  the 
English  prelates  to  undo  their  work,  and  to  proclaim  in  the  churches 
that  they  had  hitherto  pursued  an  erroneous  course  of  policy.  It  was 
also  known  that  the  great  majority  of  the  English  dissenters,  far  from 
being  grateful  for  the  king's  favor,  viewed  his  edict  of  toleration  with 
suspicion,  believing  that  it  was  not  intended  to  serve  them,  but  to  ad 
vance  the  cause  of  popery. 

Under  these  circumstances  six  bishops,  in  concert  with  Sancroft  the 
primate,  prepared  a  remonstrance  in  the  form  of  a  petition  to  the  king, 
v-'hich  stated,  in  firm  but  respectful  language,  their  reasons  for  refusing 
to  comply  with  his  injunctious.  When  this  document  was  presented 
to  James,  he  was  so  violently  enraged,  that  he  ordered  the  prelates  to 
be  arrested  on  the  charge  of  having  uttered  a  seditious  libel,  and  as 
they  all  refused  to  find  bail,  they  were  committed  to  the  Tower. 

At  this  crisis  the  queen  gave  birth  to  a  prince  of  Wales,  and  the  ab- 
sence of  the  archbishop,  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  who  ought  in  virtue 
of  his  ofhce  to  have  been  present  on  the  occasion,  gave  rise  to  a  report 
that  he  had  been  purposely  removed  out  of  the  way,  lest  he  should  de- 
tect the  king  and  queen  in  their  attempts  to  impose  a  spurious  child  on 
the  nation.  This  monstrous  tale  was  studiously  circulated  ;  auil  though 
the  queen's  delivery  had  been  as  public  as  decency  would  [)eruiit,  the 
story  that  the  prince  of  Wales  was  supposititious  was  receivt^d  with 
equal  credulity  in  England  and  Holland.  James  at  first  paid  no  regard 
to  the  reports  which  were  in  circulation,  but  when  he  leanuid  that  the 
prayers  for  the  young  prince  were  discoiitinued  in  his  daughter's  chapel 
at  the  Hague,  he  remonstrated  very  strongly  on  the  subject,  but  was 
forced  to  rest  satisfied  with  excuses  so  disingenuous  that  their  I'allu- 
ciousness  was  transparent. 

As  the  king,  according  to  the  constitution  as  settled  at  the  Rcforma- 
don,  was  the  head  of  the  English  church,  it  was  impossible  to  avoid 
eome  collision  when  the  monarch  professed  a  religion  at  variance  with 
that  of  the  establishment  ;  and  though  such  an  evil  might  be  endured 
for  a  season,  the  members  of  a  protestant  establishment  naturally  shriuik 


B74  MODERN  HISTORY. 

from  the  prospect  of  being-  governed  by  a  continued  succession  of  Uo 
mish  sovereigns.  The  birth  of  a  prince  of  Wales  forced  men  to  take 
into  serious  consideration  the  position  of  the  church  and  the  country, 
especially  as  it  took  place  at  a  time  when  seven  prelates  of  the  church 
were  persecuted  by  its  head  for  defending  what  they  believed  to  be  the 
proper  privileges  of  the  established  religion.  Such  an  anomaly  was 
loo  glaring  to  escape  notice,  and  James  exhibited  extraordinary  weak- 
ness in  forcing  it  on  the  coi  sideration  of  the  country.  There  never, 
perhaps,  was  a  trial  which  excited  such  intere.st  i.s  that  of  the  seven 
bishops  for  the  pretended  libel  contained  in  their  petition  to  the  king. 
The  best  lawyers  in  England  were  engaged  on  each  side,  and  the 
question  between  prerogative  and  privilege  was  never  more  ably  deba- 
ted. The  trial  lasted  during  the  -vhole  of  the  day.  In  the  fc>  ening 
the  jury  were  desired  to  retire  and  consider  their  verdict.  They  re- 
mained together  in  close  consultation  all  night,  without  fire  or  candle : 
great  difference  of  opinion  appears  to  have  prevailed  among  ^hem,  for 
It  was  not  until  ten  o'clock  on  the  following  morning  that  they  pro- 
nounced the  acquittal  of  the  prelates. 

"  The  moment  the  verdict  was  pronounced,"  says  the  earl  of  Claren- 
don, who  was  present,  "  there  was  a  wonderful  shout,  that  one  would 
have  thought  the  hall  had  cracked." — "  The  loud  shouts  and  joyful  ac- 
clamations were,"  as  Sir  John  Rercsby  expresses,  "  a  rebellion  in 
noise,  though  not  in  intention."  From  London  the  tumultuous  sounds 
of  joy  extended  rapidly  into  the  country,  and  a  well-known  expression 
of  James  is  preserved,  on  hearing  acclamations,  even  among  the  soldiers 
in  his  camp  at  Hounslow.  He  was  told  by  his  general,  Lord  Faver- 
sham,  of  whom  he  had  inquired  the  cause  of  the  noise,  that  it  was 
nothing  but  the  rejoicing  of  the  soldiers  for  the  acquittal  of  the  bishops. 
"  Do  you  call  that  nothing  ?"  he  replied,  "  but  so  much  the  worse  for 
them."  Bonlires  were  made,  and  the  bells  of  the  churches  rung  not 
only  in  London,  but  in  the  greater  part  of  the  country  towns,  as  soon  as 
the  news  of  the  acquittal  reached  them,  although  the  strictest  orders 
were  given  to  prevent  such  proceedings.  So  strong  was  the  general 
feeling,  that  though  several  persons  were  indicted  at  the  next  sessions 
for  Middlesex  lor  riotous  behavior,  yet  the  grand  jurj'  would  not  find 
bills  agains'  them,  though  they  were  sent  out  no  less  than  three  times. 
It  is  stated  further,  that  the  churches  of  London  were  crowded  on  that 
forenoon  with  nmltitudes,  eager  to  pour  forth  their  gratitude  to  God  for 
this  great  deliverance.  "  O  what  a  sight  was  that,"  saj'TS  Nichols,  "  to 
behold  the  people  crowding  into  the  churches  to  return  thanks  to  God 
for  so  great  a  blessing,  with  the  greatest  earnestness  and  ecstacy  of 
joy,  lifting  up  their  hands  to  heaven  ;  to  see  illuminations  in  every 
window  and  bonfires  at  every  door,  and  to  hear  the  bells  throughout  ail 
the  city  ringing  out  peals  of  joy  for  the  wonderful  deliverance." 

It  was  ui  the  midst  of  this  popular  excitement,  and  most  probably  in 
consequence  of  it,  that  the  project  of  a  revolution  was  first  forine<l.  In 
order  to  form  a  right  estimate  of  this  great  event,  whicl)  for  nearly  half  a 
century  became  the  great  turning  point  of  European  policy,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  take  a  brief  retrospect,  in  order  to  explain  llie  position  of 
parlies  in  England.  From  ttie  time  of  the  restoration,  a  party,  consisting 
cyf  a  few  nobles  and  a  very  large  body  of  country  genileineii.  labored  t< 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FE  A.NCE.       575 

introduce  so  much  of  the  principles  of  the  old  commonwealth  as  con- 
sisted in  restraining  the  power  of  the  crown,  and  the  ecclesiastical  priv- 
ileges of  the  establidhuient.  They  were  at  first  called  the  puritanical 
nnd  afterward  the  whig  party ;  they  were  animated  by  a  perfect  horror 
of  popery,  or  of  anything  which  seemed  approaching  to  it,  but  they  were 
more  favorable  to  the  protestant  non-conformists  than  to  the  episcopal 
clergy,  and  their  main  strength  rested  on  the  support  of  the  protestant 
rlissenters.  Except  in  hatred  of  popery,  the  English  people  of  that  day 
had  little  community  of  feeling  with  the  whig  leaders ;  the  rigid  rule  of 
the  presbyteries  in  the  time  of  the  commonwealth  and  Cromwell,  wher. 
the  most  innocent  amusements  were  strictly  prohibited,  had  alienated 
the  lower  orders,  and  though  they  were  rallied  round  the  whigs  for  a 
time  when  the  perjuries  of  Titus  Gates  and  his  associates  had  tilled  the 
nation  with  senseless  terror,  the  reaction  against  this  delusion  had  re- 
duced the  party  to  more  than  its  former  weakness,  and  it  had  found 
little  support  out  of  doors  when  an  attempt  was  made  to  exclude  James 
from  succeeding  to  the  throne  on  account  of  his  obnoxious  religion. 
Another  reason  for  the  small  amount  of  popular  favor  enjoyed  by  the 
whig  party  was  the  notorious  fact  that  many  of  the  leaders,  in  spite  of 
their  loud  professions  of  patriotism,  accepted  bribes  from  foreign  pow- 
ers. Some  took,  money  from  Holland,  others  from  France,  and  not  a 
few  from  both  governments,  excusing  such  conduct  to  themselves  by 
the  necessity  of  obtaining  foreign  support  to  resist  the  prerogatives  of 
the  crown,  and  the  many  advantages  of  position  enjoyed  by  the  court 
party.  The  more  ardeut  whigs  had  raised  a  rebellion  against  James,  to 
give  the  crown  to  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  and  the  ease  with  which  that 
rebellion  was  crushed  seemed  to  prove  the  extinction  of  their  power  as 
a  party.  James  certainly  undervalued  them,  and  had  he  not  taken 
measures  which  constrained  a  coalition  between  them  and  their  rivals, 
he  might  have  continued  to  despise  the  English  whigs  with  impunity. 
Matters  were  very  diift  rent  in  Scotland  :  presbyterianism  was  there 
the  favored  religion  of  the  nation,  and  prelacy  was  scarcely  less  hated 
than  popery.  So  far  as  the  important  question  of  church  government 
was  concerned,  the  Scotch  were  whigs  and  something  more,  but  James 
and  his  court  made  little  account  of  Scotland  ;  they  had  taken  no  warn- 
ing from  the  fate  of  Charles  I.,  which  had  been  decided  by  a  Scottish 
army. 

A  far  more  powerful  party  was  known  by  the  names  of  prelatists, 
cavaliers,  or  tories  ;  it  included  the  great  majority  of  the  nobility,  the 
entire  body  of  the  clergy,  a  large  proportion  of  the  country  gentlemen 
and  in  general  the  masses  of  the  agricultural  and  laboring  population, 
so  far  as  the  latter  were  capable  of  forming  any  opinion,  or  selecting  a 
party.  Their  great  principle  of  union  was  to  support  the  exclusive  su- 
premacy o^  th^  cl'ur<  h  cf  England,  and  to  extend  the  inlluence  of  that 
sovereign  m  hit-  capacity  ot  head  of  that  church ;  tneii  rauying  cry  was 
"church  and  knig  "  ui  which  church  came  first  not  only  in  name  but  in 
reality.  From  the  very  moment  of  James's  accession,  ihe  tories  found 
themselves  in  an  awkward  and  false  position.  They  had  long  taught 
the  doctrines  of  the  divine  right  of  kings  and  passive  obedience  to  the 
will  of  tiie  sovereign,  denouncing  all  resistance  as  si^iful  ;  but  when  the 
inouarcb  began  to  exercise  his  prerogatives  as  hesd  of  tl  e  church,  in  r, 


576  MODERN  HISTORY. 

spirit  of  direct  hostility  to  the  principles  on  which  the  church  had  been 
established,  they  found  themselves  involved  in  diihculties  which  ever}' 
day  became  more  embarrassing.  The  trial  of  the  bishops  was  the  crisie 
of  their  loyalty  ;  it  was  not  unjustly  regarded  as  a  kind  of  declaration 
of  war  by  the  monarch  against  the  national  establishment,  and  all  the. 
friends  of  that  establishment  felt  themselves  coerced  to  take  measures 
for  its  defence  and  protection.  It  is  true  that  the  adoption  of  such  meas- 
ures was  a  virtual  abandonment  of  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance,  and 
so  far  a  concession  to  the  principles  of  their  old  adversaries  the  whigs  ; 
hence  the  first  movements  of  the  tories  to  join  in  inviting  the  prince  of 
Orange  to  England  were  slow  and  unsteady,  and  the  most  for  which 
they  looked  was  that  the  prince  might  act  as  mediator  between  the 
king,  the  church,  and  the  nation. 

We  have  next  to  examine  the  connexion  between  the  j.csition  of  the 
':iiig  of  England  in  relation  to  the  general  politics  of  Europe.  At  this 
iu-riod  the  arbitrary  designs  of  Louis  XIV.  had  excited  universal  dis- 
trust, and  alliances  were  secretly  formed  to  resist  his  designs,  whether 
covert  or  avowed,  to  the  different  districts  and  territories  over  which  he 
sought  to  extend  his  sway.  England  was  prevented  from  joining  in 
this  coalition  only  by  the  strict  alliance  between  its  monarch  and  Louis, 
and  hence  the  reign  of  James  was  odious  to  tlie  princes  of  Germany, 
the  houses  of  Spi.in  and  Austria,  and  even  to  the  pope  himself,  who 
had  been  harshly  treated  by  the  French  monarch,  stripped  of  his  terri- 
tory of  Avignon,  and  menaced  with  further  injuries.  Holland  was  still 
more  deeply  interested  in  detaching  England  from  the  French  alliance  : 
Louis  had  openly  avowed  his  intentions  to  destroy  its  independence, 
and  if  he  had  procured  the  promised  support  of  the  naval  power  of 
England,  the  Dutch  would  in  all  probability  have  become  subjects  of 
France.  The  combination  of  parties  by  which  the  prince  of  Orango 
was  invited  into  England,  had  little  unity  in  itself,  and  might  haA'e  beer, 
dissolved  in  a  moment  if  James  had  shown  a  disposition  to  adopt  concil 
iatory  measures  and  regain  the  friendship  of  the  tories  and  churchmen 
William  was  well  aware  of  these  circumstances,  and  made  the  most 
vigorous  exertions  to  take  immediate  advantage  of  the  crisis.  While 
he  was  thus  engaged,  the  invasion  of  western  Germany  by  Louis  XIV. 
without  the  formality  of  a  declaration  of  war,  and  the  fearful  ravages 
perpetrated  by  the  P'rench  in  the  palatinate,  excited  universal  alarni  and 
indignation  throughout  Europe.  The  states  of  Holland  immediately 
placed  their  fleets  and  armies  at  the  disposal  of  William  ;  he  set  sail 
with  a  powerful  armament,  and  on  the  5th  of  November,  1688,  landed 
safely  at  Torbay. 

The  perplexity  into  which  all  parties  were  thrown  by  the  landing  of 
William  was  almost  ludicrous.  At  first  he  was  joined  by  so  few  par- 
fisans,  that  he  began  to  think  of  returning  ;  then  on  a  sudden  the  noblca 
and  leading  men  of  England  flocked  to  him  from  all  quarters  ;  the  favor- 
ite officers  of  James,  those  who  were  solely  indebted  to  him  for  rank 
and  fortune,  even  his  favorite  daugiiter  Anne,  joined  in  the  general  de- 
fection— while  he,  sinking  at  once  into  despondency,  abandoned  his 
army,  and  after  a  brief  delay  in  London,  fled  to  France.  It  is  unfortu 
nately  true  that  the  prince  of  Orange  made  use  of  many  dishonorable 
artifices  to  terrify  the  unfortunatp.  numarch,  and  induce  him  to  seek  safe 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE. 


577 


tV  in  flight  ;  but  James  seems  to  have  adopted  the  fatal  resolution  of 
abandoning  his  kingdom,  in  the  belief  that  the  complicated  embarrass- 
ments of  parties  would  lead  to  his  recall ;  and  that  returning  at  the  head 
of  a  French  army,  he  might  yet  triumph  over  all  his  enemies.  Confi- 
dence in  the  power  of  Louis  XIV.  had  been  his  bane  from  the  begin- 
ning, and  his  connexion  with  that  detested  monarch  was  the  principal 
cause  of  his  dying  in  exile. 

William  assumed  so  much  of  royal  p./weras  to  summon  a  convention 
to  regulate  the  affairs  of  the  nation.  Three  proposals  were  made  to 
this  body :  first,  that  terms  should  be  made  with  James,  and  the  chie^ 
administration  intrusted  to  the  prince  of  Orange  as  lieutenant-general 
of  the  kingdom  ;  secondly,  that  the  flight  of  James  should  be  taken  as 
an  abdication,  and  a  regency  proclaimed,  with  the  prince  of  Orange  at 
its  head  ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  throne  should  be  declared  vacant,  and 
William  and  Mary  declared  king  and  queen  of  England.  The  first  pro- 
posal was  the  most  acceptable  to  the  consistent  tories,  inchida.g  the  wi- 
niate,  Bancroft,  and  several  of  the  bishops  whom  James  had  so  recently 
prosecuted,  but  the  great  majority  felt  the  absurdity  of  turning  a  king 
out  for  the  mere  purpose  of  calling  him  back,  and  it  had  already  passed 
into  a  proverb  that  "the  worst  of  all  revolutions  was  a  restoration." 

In  the  consideration  of  the  second  proposition  was  involved  the  ques- 
tion of  the  legitimacy  of  the  prince  of  Wales,  which  nobody  really  doubt- 
ed, but  almost  everybody  affected  to  deny.  There  were,  however,  great 
practical  difiiculties  in  recognising  the  infant  prince  as  heir  to  the  crown. 
It  was  tolerably  certain  that  James  would  not  consent  to  reside  in 
France,  and  send  his  son  to  be  educated  as  a  protestant  in  England  ;  the 
princesses  Mary  and  Anne  were  naturally  opposed  to  a  plan  wliich 
would  have  deprived  them  of  their  fondly-cherished  hopes  of  wearing  a 
crown,  and  William  had  taken  pains  to  make  it  known  that  if  a  regency 
should  be  determined  upon,  somebody  else  must  be  sought  to  exercise 
the  functions  of  regent. 

In  fact,  the  circumstances  of  the  time  rendered  the  third  plan  the 
only  one  possible  to  be  adopted  ;  but  the  majority  of  those  who  voted 
foi  conferring  the  crown  on  William  and  Mary  did  so  with  undisguised 
reluctance,  as  men  submitting  to  a  painful  necessity.  The  subsequent 
efforts  of  James  to  recover  his  dominions  by  the  aid  of  French  arma- 
ments completed  the  alienation  of  the  English  people  from  his  cause, 
while  the  cowardice  and  incapacity  he  displayed  in  Ireland,  particularly 
at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  led  to  the  utter  ruin  of  his  unfortunate  parti- 
sans in  that  country.  Louis  was  himself  injured  by  his  elibrts  in  favor 
of  the  dethroned  king  :  his  futile  attempts  to  invade  England,  his  in- 
trigues to  provoke  insurrections,  and  his  continued  menaces  of  conquest, 
provoked  and  kept  alive  against  him  the  flame  of  popular  indignation  in 
Great  Britain,  and  induced  the  people  to  bear  the  brunt  of  expensive 
continental  wars,  in  which  England  was  very  remotely  and  indirectly 
concerned,  for  the  me~e  purpose  of  restraining  his  ambition.  It  was  in 
ihe  same  way  at  a  later  period  that  Napoleon's  menace  of  invading 
England,  excited  a  spirit  among  the  people  which  led  them  similarly  U. 
nght  the  battle  of  continental  Europe,  and  pay  its  sovereigns  for  niaic- 
t lining  their  own  independence. 

37 


578  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Skctio.n   IV.- -General  History  of  Europe,  from  the  League  of  Augsburg  ft 
the  Formation  of  the  Grand  Alliance. 

The  domestic  history  of  England,  during  the  reign  of  William  III., 
is  so  remotely  connected  with  the  progress  of  the  war  to  restrain  the 
ambition  of  Louis  XIV.,  that  it  will  be  convenient  to  limit  our  attention 
to  the  former  before  commencing  the  narrative  of  the  latter.  Seveval 
parties,  as  we  ha7e  seen,  joined  in  effecting  the  revolutiun  ;  scarcely 
had  they  succeeded,  when  their  old  jealousies  were  renewed  with  ag- 
gravated fury.  The  Scottish  convention  made  the  establishment  of 
presbyterianism  an  essential  part  of  the  settlement  of  the  crown  ;  thr 
protestant  sectarians  in  England  were  thus  encouraged  to  hope  for  some 
modifications  in  the  discipline  of  the  English  church ;  they  did  obtain  a 
general  toleration,  to  the  great  disgust  of  the  tory  or  high-church  party 
Ireland  remained  faithful  to  James,  though  William  not  only  offered 
wealth  and  dignity  to  the  lord-lieutenant,  Tyrconnbii,  but  promised  to 
secure  the  catholics  in  their  civil  rights,  and  give  them  one  third  of  the 
churches. 

But  the  protestants,  who  had  so  recently  been  secured  in  their  lands 
by  the  acts  of  Settlement  and  Explanation,  conscious  that  the  justice  ot 
their  titles  would  not  bear  a  very  rigid  scrutiny,  and  dreading  that,  under 
a  catholic  monarch  and  a  catholic  parliament,  these  acts  might  be  re- 
pealed, boldly  took  up  arms,  and  atoned  for  their  deficiency  of  number 
by  martial  vigor  and  a  daring  spirit.  They  felt  that  under  Cromwell 
they  had  won  their  possessions  by  the  sword,  and  by  the  sword  they 
were  resolved  to  retain  them.  Some  of  them  formed  guerilla  bands, 
and  scoured  the  country  ;  others  threw  themselves  into  Londonderr)% 
Enniskillen,  and  other  garrison  towns,  resolved  to  hold  out  until  aid 
could  arrive  from  England.  James,  with  a  small  French  force,  pro- 
ceeded to  Ireland,  and  convened  a  parliament  in  Dublin.  The  act  of 
Settlement  was  repealed,  and  all  the  protestants  who  favored,  or  were 
supposed  to  favor,  the  prince  of  Orange,  were  declared  guilty  of  high 
treason.  But  in  the  meantime,  the  adherents  of  the  abdicated  monarch 
had  been  ruined  in  Scotland  by  the  loss  of  their  leader,  the  brave  Vis- 
count Dundee,  who  fell  in  the  arms  of  victory.  The  Highlanders  who 
followed  his  standard  dispersed,  and  the  jacobite  party  had  no  person 
of  sufficient  influence  to  collect  another  army.  James  began  his  opera- 
lions  in  Ireland  by  the  siege  of  Londonderry  ;  it  was  nobly  defended  by 
tlie  inhabitants,  whose  religious  enthusiasm  more  than  supplied  their 
deficiency  in  martial  discipline.  They  were,  however,  on  the  point  of 
sinking  under  the  joint  sufferings  of  fatigue  and  famine,  when  a  rein- 
forcement arrived  from  England,  with  provision  and  ammunition,  upon 
which  the  besiegers  abandoned  their  undertaking. 

Ere  James  could  recover  from  this  disaster,  the  duke  of  Schomberg 
landed  at  Carrickfergus  with  ten  thousand  men  ;  but  as  the  operations 
of  this  general  were  too  slow  for  the  impatience  of  the  ooople  of  Eng- 
land, William  followed  witli  a  considerable  reinforcen. jnt,  and  hasted 
to  meet  liis  father-in-law.  The  hostile  armies  met  on  the  1st  of  July, 
1690,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Boyne  ;  the  skill  of  William  procured 
aim  a  victory,  which  the  cowardice  of  James  rendered  decisive  ;  he 
fled  from  the  field  of  battle,  and  scarcely  halting  in  Dublin  hasted  tc 
take  shipping  at  Waterford  for  France   abandoning  his  faithful  subject.'^ 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.       579 

tj  their  fate.  The  Irish,  tuough  forsaken,  did  not  despair  ;  they  threw 
themselves  into  Limerick,  which  William  immediately  invested,  bu' 
was  finally  forced  to  raise  the  siege.  This  failure  was,  however,  com- 
pensated by  the  success  of  the  earl  of  Marlborough,  in  Munster,  who 
with  five  thousand  men  reduced  Cork,  Kinsale,  and  some  other  places 
of  less  importance.  But  Ireland  was  not  yet  subdued,  and  William 
intrusted  the  completion  of  the  task  to  Baron  Ginckle,  who  took  Ath- 
lone  almost  in  the  presence  of  the  Irish  army,  chiefly  through  the  neg- 
ligence of  St.  Ruth,  whom  Louis  had  sent  over  at  the  request  of  James. 
Stung  with  remorse,  St.  Ruth  hazarded  a  battle  at  Aughrim,  but  he  was 
defeated  and  slain.  The  Irish  a  second  time  sought  shelter  in  Limer- 
ick, which  Gmckie  once  more  besieged.  All  parties  were  now  weary 
of  the  war,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded  at  Limerick,  by  which  it  was 
stipulated  that  the  catholics  shovdd  enjoy  the  same  toleration  as  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II. ;  that  they  should  be  restored  to  the  privileges  of 
subjects,  on  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  ;  and  that  as  many  as  chose 
to  follow  the  fortunes  of  the  late  monarch  should  be  transported  to  the 
continent  at  the  expense  of  the  government.  About  ten  thousand  men 
took  advantage  of  the  last  article,  and,  under  the  name  of  the  Irish 
brigades,  were  taken  into  the  service  of  the  king  of  France. 

W^illiam  had,  in  the  meantime,  become  disgusted  with  the  constitu 
tional  jealousy  of  the  wdiigs,  and  had  sought  the  friendship  of  the  tories, 
who  were  remarkable  for  their  zealous  support  of  the  royal  prerogative. 
But  a  sanguinary  act  of  vengeance,  the  massacre  of  the  Macdonalds  of 
Glencoe,  under  circumstances  of  great  treachery,  brought  so  much  odium 
on  the  new  government,  that  James  began  to  entertain  some  hopes  of 
a  restoration.  The  Macdonalds  had  recognised  the  new  government  a 
day  later  than  that  named  in  the  act  of  parliament,  but  as  their  allegiance 
was  formally  accepted  by  the  authorities,  they  believed  themselves  in 
perfect  security.  A  military  force  was  received  into  their  glens  with- 
out distrjst  or  suspicion.  But  in  the  dead  hour  of  the  night,  the  sol- 
diers, pursuant  to  previous  orders,  rose  upon  their  hosts,  set  fire  to  the 
houses,  and  shot  down  the  wretched  inhabitants  as  they  attempted  to 
escape  from  the  flames. 

This  atrocity  excited  universal  indignation  throughout  Europe  ;  the 
French  king  hoped  that  it  would  enable  him  to  replace  James  on  the 
throne  ;  and  had  he  been  able  immediately  to  transport  his  forces  across 
the  channel,  the  liberties  of  England  and  the  crown  of  William  would 
have  been  exposed  to  serious  danger.  A  camp  was  formed  between 
Cherbourg  -^nd  La  Hogue  ;  twenty  thousand  Irish  and  French  soldiers 
were  prepared  to  invade  England,  and  a  powerful  navy  was  equipped 
to  support  the  expedition.  The  whole  was  irustrated  by  the  valor  of 
the  British  seamen  ;  Admiral  Russell  having  formed  a  junction  with  a 
Dutch  squadron,  attacked  the  French  fleet  ofl'  La  Hogue,  burned  sev- 
eral of  their  men-of-war  and  transports,  and  drove  the  rest  into  their 
harbors.  James  beheld  from  the  shore  this  annihilation  of  his  hopes, 
but  could  not  forbear  expressing  his  admiration  of  the  valor  of  his  former 
subjects.* 

I'he  death  of  Queen  Mary  revived  the  hopes  of  the  Jacobites,  as  the 

•  When  he  saw  the  French  fleet  set  on  fire,  he  exclaimed,  "  Ah  !  none  lut  my 
orave  English  tars  could  have  performed  so  gallant  an  action  !" 


580  MODERN  HISTORY. 

partisans  of  the  Stuarts  were  called  ;  but  instead  c»f  ojier,  rebt-Uiun,  tliev 
resolved  \o  remove  the  king  by  assassination.  The  plot  was  discovered- 
and  the  nation  was  so  disgusted  with  the  intended  treachery,  thai  Wil- 
liam was  restored  to  all  his  former  popularity.  From  this  time  to  the 
accession  of  Queen  Anne,  there  is  little  worthy  of  note  in  the  domestic 
history  of  England.  On  the  death  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  the  las' 
protectant  heir  to  the  crown,  an  act  was  passed  by  which  the  eventual 
succession  was  settled  on  Sophia,  dutchess  dowager  of  Hanover,  and 
her  heirs,  being  protestants  (a.  d.  1701).  She  was  the  grand-daughtei 
of  James  I.,  by  the  princess  Elizabeth,  married  to  the  unfortunate  elec- 
tor-palatine. Party  animosities  between  the  whigs  and  tories  were 
occasionally  violent,  and  William  III.  was  not  always  on  the  best  ol 
terms  with  his  parliament. 

The  emperor  Leopold,  the  head  of  the  league  of  Augsburg,  was  a 
prince  of  great  abilities,  sullied,  however,  too  often,  by  cruelty  and  big- 
otry. Though  the  chief  of  a  confederacy  for  maintaining  the  liberties 
of  Europe,  he  trampled  on  the  privileges  of  his  Hungarian  subjects,  and 
persecuted  the  protestants.  But  the  overthrovv  of  the  Turks  at  Vienna, 
and  the  subsequent  capture  of  Belgrade,  left  the  discontented  without 
un  ally,  and  they  were  forced  to  submit  in  silence.  Louis  was  not 
daunted  by  the  power  of  the  league  ;  he  assembled  two  armies  in  Flan- 
ders, sent  a  third  to  check  the  Spaniards  in  Catalonia,  and,  to  form  a 
barrier  on  the  side  of  Germany,  ravaged  the  Palatinate  with  fire  and 
sword  (a.  d.  1688).  This  barbarous  policy  filled  Europe  with  horror; 
men,  women,  and  children',  driven  from  their  habitations,  in  the  incleii.- 
ent  month  of  February,  wandered  by  the  light  of  their  own  burning 
houses  over  the  frozen  fields,  and  fell  victims  by  thousands  to  cold  and 
hunger.  Nor  did  this  detestable  expedient  produce  the  desired  effect ; 
the  German  armies,  in  the  ensuing  campaign,  gained  several  important 
triumphs.  Louis  sought  to  recover  his  former  superiority  by  nobler 
means  ;  he  intrusted  his  armies  to  new  generals  of  approved  talent,  and 
the  fortune  of  the  war  instantly  changed.  Savoy  was  overrun  by  the 
French  marshal  Catinat ;  Marshal  Luxemburg  gained  a  brilliant  victory 
over  the  allies  in  Flanders  ;  the  united  Dutch  and  English  fleets  were 
defeated  off  Beachy  Head,  and  the  Spaniards  were  scarcely  able  to  de- 
fend Catalonia  (a.  d.  1690).  Little  was  done  on  the  side  of  Germany, 
for  the  emperor  was  once  more  assailed  by  Tekeli  and  the  Turks, 
whose  progress  threatened  the  ruin  of  his  hereditary  dominions.  Had 
this  course  of  fortune  continued,  Louis  must  have  become  the  master  of 
Europe,  but  in  the  following  campaigns,  the  Turks,  deprived  of  all  their 
advantages,  left  the  emperor  at  leisure  to  watch  his  western  frontiers, 
and  Catinat  was  driven  from  Italy  by  the  duke  of  Savoy.  But  in  Flan- 
ders the  French  continued  to  be  eminently  successful.  Mons  and  Na 
mur  were  taken  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts  which  the  united  forces  of  the 
English  and  Dutch  could  make  for  their  relief,  and  the  allies  were  de- 
feated in  two  great  general  engagements  by  the  duke  of  Luxemburg 
But  William  III.  was  never  daunted  by  ill  success,  and  he  adopted 
juch  prudent  measures  that  Luxemburg  was  unal)le  lo  derive  any  im- 
portant advantages  from  his  victories.  Similar  success  attended  the 
armies  of  Louis  in  Savoy,  Spain,  and  Germany  ;  but  the  triumphs  WfM't 
eq'ially  unproductive.     Even  at  sea,  notwitlistanding  the  recent  less  a' 


I 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  5bl 

La  Hojue  the  French  navy  rode  triumphant,  and  gained  a  deindeJ 
superiority  over  the  English  and  Dutch  Heets.  But  France  was  ex- 
hausted bv  these  efforts  ;  a  dreadful  famine  ravaged  the  country,  arising 
partly  from  an  unfavorable  season,  and  partly  from  the  want  of  hands  to 
till  the  ground  ;  and  the  finances  of  the  state  were  fast  falling  into  con- 
fusion. The  allies,  aware  of  these  circumstances,  made  vigorous  effi>r*> 
to  recover  their  losses,  but  they  were  generally  unsuccessful,  except  on 
lh°  side  of  Flanders,  where  William  recaptured  Namur,  and  thus,  in 
some  degree,  retrieved  his  military  reputation.  All  parties  became 
weary  of  a  war  in  which  much  blood  was  shed,  much  treasure  expend- 
ed, and  no  permanent  acquisitions  made.  Negotiaiions  were  com- 
menced under  the  mediation  of  Charles  XL,  of  Sweden,  at  Ryswick 
(a.  d.  1697),  and  a  treaty  concluded,  in  which  Louis  made  many  im- 
portant concessions,  to  purchase  an  interval  of  trail  {uillity  for  his  future 
projects.  The  French  king's  renunciation  of  the  Spanish  succession, 
which  it  had  been  the  main  object  of  the  war  to  enforce,  was  not  even 
mentioned  in  the  articles  of  pacification,  and  several  other  omissions 
left  abundant  grounds  for  a  renewal  of  the  war  at  no  distant  period. 

The  emperor,  though  severely  harassed  by  the  Turks,  consented  to 
the  peace  with  great  reluctance,  and  complained  bitterly  of  the  desertion 
of  his  allies.  But  no  one  of  the  confederates  derived  more  advantage 
from  the  treaty ;  he  was  enabled  to  direct  his  whole  force  against  the 
Ottomans,  who,  under  their  new  sultan,  Mustapha  II.,  became,  for  a 
brief  space,  formidable  to  Europe.  The  danger  was  averted  by  the 
celebrated  Prince  Eugene,  of  Savoy,  who  now  began  to  attract  admira- 
tion. After  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  he  took  the  command  of  the  impe- 
rialists, and  encountered  Mustapha  at  Zenta,  a  small  village  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Theysse,  in  the  kingdom  of  Hungary.  The  battle  was 
brief,  but,  for  its  duration,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  on  record ;  fifteen 
thousand  Turks  were  slain,  and  eight  thousand  more  drowned  in  their 
flight  across  the  river ;  their  artillery,  baggage,  and  ammunition,  the 
sultan's  magnificent  pavilion,  countless  standards,  and  the  great  seal  of 
the  Ottoman  empire,  remained  the  prize  of  the  victors  ;  the  grand  vizier, 
the  aga  of  the  janissaries,  and  twenty-seven  pachas,  were  among  the 
victims  of  this  fatal  field.  Mustapha,  having  vainly  attempted  to  retrieve 
his  losses  in  a  new  campaign,  was  forced  to  consent  to  the  peace  of 
Carlowitz,  by  which  several  provinces  were  resigned  to  the  Austrians, 
Azof  ceded  to  the  Russians,  now  fast  rising  into  importance  under  the 
administration  of  the  Czar  Peter,  and  the  Venetians  gratified  by  the 
cession  of  the  Morea,  anciently  called  the  Peloponnesus. 

The  declining  health  of  the  king  of  Spain,  Charles  II.,  engaged  the 
general  attention  of  Europe  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick :  three  princes 
were  candidates  for  the  succession,  Louis  XIV.,  the  emperor  Leopold, 
and  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  It  is  unnecessary  to  canvass  their  several 
claims,  but  it  is  manifest  tl;  at  the  general  interests  of  Europe  pointed 
to  the  electoral  prince  as  the  most  eligible  of  the  competitors.  A  secret 
treaty  of  partition  was  concluded  between  William  and  Louis,  but 
Charles  II.  received  information  of  the  transaction,  and  enrsged  thai 
liis  dominions  should  be  shared  during  his  life,  proclaimed  the  electoral 
prince  of  Bavaria  sole  heir.  Scarcely,  however,  had  this  arrangement 
been  made,  wlicn  that  prince  died  suddenly,  not  without  strong  suspl 


582  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ciops  of  poison  (a.  0.  1699).  A  new  treaty  of  partition  was  anf.:H^,.(] 
by  Holland,  Frarce,  and  England,  but  the  emperor  Leopold  refustd  his 
concurrence,  expecting  to  obtain  for  his  family  the  inheritance  of  the 
whole  Spanish  monarchy.  During  these  negotiations,  tlie  affections  o;' 
rhe  Scotch  were  alienated  from  William,  by  his  sacrificing  the  settle- 
me  It  Avhich  they  had  established  at  a  great  expense,  on  the  isthmus  of 
Danen,  to  quiet  tlie  fears  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the  commercial  jeal- 
ousy of  the  English.  Could  they  have  found  leaders,  they  would 
probably  have  had  recourse  to  arms,  but  fortunately  they  were  contented 
to  vent  their  rage  in  violent  language,  and  furious  invective.  Charles  11. 
was  long  disposed  to  favor  the  Austrian  claimant  to  his  crown,  but  the 
nrrogance  of  his  queen  and  her  German  fiivurites,  alienated  the  nation 
from  the  court  of  Vienna,  while  the  Spanish  nobility  and  clergy  urged 
the  dving  monarch  to  bestow  the  sovereignty  on  the  house  of  Bourbon. 
Charles  applied  to  the  pope  for  advice ;  Innocent  XII.,  who  then  filled 
the  pontifical  chair,  was  very  jealous  of  the  progress  of  the  Austrian 
power  in  Italy ;  he  therefore  strenuously  recommended  the  choice  of  a 
French  prince ;  a  new  will  was  made,  and  Philip,  duke  of  Anjou,  sec- 
ond son  of  the  dauphin,  was  nominated  heir  to  the  crown  of  Spain. 
Not  long  after  Charles  died  (a.  d.  1701),  and  Louis,  after  some  hesi- 
tation between  the  will  and  the  partition  treaty,  proclaimed  his  grandson 
king  of  Spain  and  the  Indies,  under  the  title  of  Philip  V. 

Though  England  and  Holland  were  equally  alarmed  at  this  proceed- 
ing, both  powers  were  obliged  to  acquiesce  for  a  season  Williaip 
found  his  parliament  reluctant  to  engage  in  a  new  war,  and  Louis,  by 
an  unexpected  movement  against  the  barrier  towns,  had  secured  a  great 
portion  of  the  Dutch  army.  The  emperor,  however,  commenced  a  war, 
claiming  the  dutchy  of  Milan  as  a  fief  of  the  imperial  crown,  and  his 
army,  under  the  command  of  Prince  Eugene,  gained  several  advantages 
over  Marshal  Catinat,  in  Italy.  During  this  campaign,  the  states-gen- 
eral and  William,  having  failed  to  make  any  satisfactory  explanations 
of  his  designs  from  the  French  king,  concluded  a  treaty,  called  the 
Grand  Alliance,  with  the  emperor.  Its  avowed  objects  were  "  to  pro- 
cure satisfaction  to  his  imperial  majesty  in  the  case  of  the  Spanish  sue 
cession  ;  obtain  security  to  the  English  and  Dutch  for  their  dominions 
and  commerce  ;  prevent  the  union  of  the  monarchies  of  France  and 
Spain,  and  hinder  the  French  from  possessing  the  Spanish  dominion? 
in  America."  But  this  treaty  would  probably  have  been  frustrated  by 
the  English  parliament,  but  for  the  imprudence  with  which  Louis  haz- 
arded an  insult  to  the  British  nation  (a.  d.  1701).  On  the  death  of 
James  II.,  he  caused  his  son,  commonly  called  the  Old  Pretender,  to  be 
recognised  king  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  under  the  title  of  James 
III.  The  pirliament  at  once  entered  heartily  into  the  war,  which  they 
had  hitherto  disapproved,  and  their  martial  ardor  was  not  abated  by  the 
death  of  William,  who  fell  a  victim  to  a  fall  from  his  horse,  and  the 
unskilfulness  of  an  inexperienced  surgeon  (a.  d.  1702).  The  intelli- 
gence of  this  event  filled  the  allies  with  consternation ;  but  their  fears 
were  of  short  duration,  for  Queen  Anne,  who  next  ascended  thf 
thrcne,  declared  her  resolution  to  adhere  steadily  to  the  policy  of  hti 
pre lecesscr. 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  •'i* 

Section  V. —  The  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 

The  accession  of  Queen  Anne  gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  English 
people  ;  William  was  disliked  as  a  foreigner,  who  was  more  strongly 
attached  to  Holland  than  to  his  adopted  country,  and  his  coldness  of 
manner  had  greatly  tended  to  increase  his  unpopularity.  He  was  sus- 
pected by  the  tories  of  secret  designs  against  the  '^nurch,  on  account 
of  his  attachment  to  presbyterianism,  and  the  whigs  had  ceased  to 
respect  him,  because  he  had  not  shown  himself  sufficiently  grateful  for 
their  services  in  raising  him  to  the  throne.  Thouijh  his  military  talents 
were  great,  he  had  not  been  a  very  successful  geneial,  and  it  was  stu- 
diously circulated,  that  he  endeavored  as  much  as  possible  to  keep  back 
the  earl  (afterward  duke)  of  Marlborough,  through  envy  of  his  superior 
abilities.  He  had,  at  first,  recognised  the  duke  of  Anjou  to  the  crown 
.if  Spain,  and  therefore  when  he  joined  the  grand  alliance  formed  to 
pie.ent  what  he  had  previously  sanctioned,  he  was  exposed  to  suspi- 
cions of  insincerity,  and  it  was  generally  believed  that  if  Louis  madt 
any  large  sacrifices  to  conciliate  the  Dutch,  the  English  monarch  would 
not  persevere  in  his  resistance.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  it 
was  of  very  little  importance  to  England,  whether  an  Austrian  or  a 
French  prince  became  monarch  of  Spain  ;  the  war  of  the  succession, 
in  which  this  country  bore  the  principal  share,  was  that  in  which  its 
interests  were  the  least  involved ;  and  this  country  lavishly  poured 
forth  its  blood  and  treasure  to  accomplish  objects  which  had  no  connex- 
ion with  its  real  position.  It  was  the  indignation  excited  by  the  at- 
tempt of  Louis  to  impose  upon  the  English  people  a  sovereign  of  his 
choice,  which  induced  the  queen  and  her  people  to  enter  on  a  bloody 
and  expensive  war,  for  no  other  purpose  than  humiliating  the  insolence 
of  a  despot.  They  subsequently  found  out  that  they  had  to  pay  too 
dear  a  price  for  the  luxuries  of  war  and  vengeance. 

Queen  Anne  infused  vigor  into  the  grand  alliance,  not  only  by  the 
prompt  declaration  of  her  adhesion,  but  by  her  judicious  choice  of 
ministers  ;  Lord  Godolphin  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  treasury,  and 
the  earl  of  Marlborough,  who  was  connected  with  the  premier  by  mar- 
riage, was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  English  army  in  Flan 
ders,  and  appomted  ambassador  extraordinary  to  the  states-general. 
War  was  declared  against  France  on  the  same  day,  at  London,  the 
Hague,  and  Vienna ;  anJ  the  campaign  was  simultaneously  opened  in 
Italy,  GermL>.ny,  and  Flanders  (a.  d.  1702).  The  earl  of  Marlborough, 
who  commanded  in  Flanders,  was  the  only  one  of  the  allied  general.'- 
who  obtained  success  ;  he  captured  several  important  towns,  and  would 
probably  have  defeated  the  French  in  the  open  field,  had  not  his  motions 
been  fettered  by  the  presence  of  the  Dutch  field-deputies,  who  were 
too  cautious  or  too  tunorous  to  allow  of  his  hazarding  an  engagement 
At  sect  the  ancient  renown  of  the  English  navy  was  re-established  ; 
Sir  George  Rooke  sailc  J  against  Cadiz  with  a  fleet  of  fifty  sail,  having 
with  him  the  duke  of  Ormond  and  an  army  of  twelve  tliousand  men 
Cadiz  was  too  strong  to  be  taken,  and  Rooke  sailed  to  Vigo,  where  the 
galleons,  laden  with  the  treasures  of  Spanish  America,  lay  protected 
by  a  French  fleet  and  a  formidable  castle  and  batteries.  The  English 
admiral  broke  the  boom  that  protected  the  narrow  entrance  into  the  m 


584  MOUEKN  HISTORY. 

ner  harbor,  OrmonJ  stormed  the  castle,  and  the  Frencli  losins;  all  hope 
set  fire  to  their  -ships.  But  the  EngUsh  and  Dutch  were  at  hand  to  ex 
tinguish  the  flames  ,  six  ships  of  the  line  and  nine  galleons  became  th*. 
trophies  of  the  conquerors. 

These  losses,  end  the  defection  of  the  duke  of  Savoy,  did  not  abatt 
the  courage  of  Louis  ;  and  the  confederates,  though  joined  by  the  king 
of  Portugal,  did  not  imjirove  their  advantages  (a.  d.  1703).  The  electoi 
of  Bavaria,  the  firm  ally  of  France,  being  joined  by  Marshal  Villars, 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  imperialists  at  Hochstet,  by  which  o 
road  was  opened  to  Vienna.  The  armies  of  Louis  retained  their  supe- 
riority in  Italy ;  even  at  sea  the  French  disconcerted  the  plans  of  the 
confederates,  and  these  disasters  weie  poorly  compensated  by  the  ac- 
quisition of  a  hw  fortified  towns  in  Flanders,  which  were  captured  by 
Marlborough.  Even  these  slight  successes  gave  courage  tu  the  allies 
the  English  parliament  voted  liberal  supplies  for  continuing  the  war 
and  the  emperor,  though  menaced  on  one  side  by  the  Hungarian  insur 
gents,  and  on  the  other  by  the  French  and  Bavarians,  ordered  his  sec- 
ond son,  Charles,  to  assume  the  title  of  king  of  Spain,  and  to  proceed 
to  Portugal,  for  the  puipose  of  invading  that  country. 

Marlborough  had  hitherto  been  greatly  impeded  by  the  nmid  caution 
of  his  Dutch  colleagues ;  he  concerted  the  plan  of  his  next  campaign 
with  a  more  congenial  spirit,  Prince  Eugene.  As  his  Flemish  con- 
quests, in  the  preceding  campaigns,  had  secured  a  good  barrier  for  the 
united  provinces,  Marlborough  now  advanced  to  the  title  of  duke, 
leaving  the  defence  of  the  fortresses  to  the  Dutch  garrisons,  concen- 
trated liis  forces,  with  the  professed  design  of  invading  France,  and 
then  suddenly  marched  into  Germany.  A  junction  was  effected  with 
the  imperialists,  the  elector  of  Bavaria's  lines  at  Donawert  were  forced, 
and  the  allies  advanced  to  the  Danube.  The  Bavarian  prince  having 
been  reinforced  by  thirty  thousand  French  under  the  command  of  Mar- 
shal Tallard,  resolved  to  hazard  a  battle,  and  the  duke  having  been 
joined  by  Prince  Eugene,  with  an  equal  number,  eagerly  sought  for  an 
engagement  (August  13,  a.  d.  1704).  The  French  and  Bavarians  were 
advantageously  posted  on  a  hill  between  the  Danube  and  the  village  of 
Blenheim  ;  but  their  line  was  weakened  by  detachments,  and  Marlbor- 
ough, taking  advantaoe  of  their  error,  charged  through,  and  won  a  de- 
cisive  victory.  Thirty  thousand  French  and  Bavarians  were  killed, 
wounded,  or  taken  ;  their  camp-equipage,  baggage,  artillery,  and  stand 
ards,  became  the  prize  of  the  conquerors  ;  Tallard  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  the  Bavarian  prince  narrowly  escaped  the  same  fate.  The  allies, 
however,  sutTered  very  severely ;  their  loss  amounted  to  no  less  than 
five  thousand  killed  and  seven  thousand  wounded. 

The  consequences  of  this  brilliant  but  bloody  victory  were,  the  im- 
mediate liberation  of  the  emperor  from  all  danger ;  the  Hungarian 
insurgents  were  terrified  into  submission,  Bavaria  was  abandoned  by  its 
Hovereign  to  the  ravages  of  the  imperialists,  and  the  shattered  relics 
of  the  French  army  were  driven  to  seek  shelter  wuthin  their  own  fron- 
tiers. The  moral  influence  of  the  victory  was  even  of  more  impor- 
wance  than  the  immediate  results  •  it  not  only  compensated  for  the  ill 
success  of  the  allies  in  Italy  and  Spain,  but  changed  the  whole  com- 
plexion of  the    war      At   sea  the  English  navy   be^an  to  letrieve  it? 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.  5^5 

iame ;  though  Sir  George  Rooke  failed  in  an  attack  on  Barcelona,  he 
stormed  Gibraltar,  a  fortress  hitherto  deemed  impregnable,  and  gained 
a  glorious  but  unprofitable  victory  over  the  French  fleet  off  Malaga. 

Had  all  the  allies  exhibited  the  same  vigor  as  the  English,  Louip 
must  have  been  speedily  ruined  ;  but  the  Germans  were  sluggish ;  thf 
death  of  the  emperor  Leopold,  and  the  accession  of  his  more  enter- 
prising son  Joseph,  made  no  change  in  their  policy  (a.  d.  1705):  the 
prince  of  Baden,  the  general  of  the  impt'rialists,  obstinately  refused  to 
join  Marlborough  on  the  Moselle,  and  the  allies  could  attempt  no  con- 
quest of  importance  in  Flanders.  In  Italy  the  French  obtained  so 
many  advantages  that  the  duke  of  Savoy  was  forced  to  ihut  himself  up 
in  his  capital,  where  he  was  besieged,  with  but  little  prospect  of  relief ; 
but  on  the  side  o*"  Spain  the  allied  arms  were  crowned  with  brilliant 
success.  Sir  John  Leake  defeated  a  French  fleet  ofl*  Gibraltar,  and 
thus  forced  the  marshal  de  Tesse  to  raise  the  siege  of  that  fortress  ;  the 
confederates, 'entering  Spain  on  the  Portuguese  side,  captured  severa) 
places  in  Estremadura,  while  the  earl  of  Peterborough,  having  been 
convoyed  by  Sir  Sir  Cloudesly  Shovel  to  the  coast  of  Catalonia,  took 
the  important  city  of  Barcelona,  and  established  the  authority  of  Charles 
III.  in  the  whole  province  of  Catalonia,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Valencia. 

These  variations  of  success  inflamed  the  courage  and  obstinacy  of 
the  belligcrant  powers.  Louis  was  so  elated  that  he  ordered  Marshal 
Villeroy  to  act  on  the  offensive  in  Flanders,  while  his  Italian  army  'be- 
sieged Turin,  and  the  forces  he  sent  into  Germany  drove  the  prince 
of  Baden  and  the  imperialists  before  them  (a.  d.  1706).  The  English 
parliament,  now  composed  principally  of  whigs,  showed  the  greatest 
eagerness  for  the  prosecution  of  the  war,  and  voted  liberal  supplies  for 
the  ensuing  campaign.  Marlborough  joined  the  united  army  of  Hol- 
land and  England  in  May,  and  soon  after  received  a  subsidiary  Danish 
force.  Villeroy,  relying  on  his  superior  strength,  advanced  to  attack 
the  allies,  and  the  two  armies  met  near  the  village  of  Ramillies.  The 
French  marshal  posted  his  left  wing  behind  a  morass,  where  it  could 
not  be  attacked,  but  where  it  was  equally  incapable  of  advancing  against 
the  enemy.  Marlborough  took  immediate  advantage  of  this  error; 
amusing  the  French  left  wing  by  a  feigned  attack,  he  poured  his  in- 
fanf^ry  in  masses  on  the  centre  ;  they  encountered  a  brave  resistance, 
but  the  duke  bringing  up  the  cavalry  just  as  the  French  lines  began  to 
waver,  broke  through  them  with  a  headstrong  charge,  and  in  an  instant 
Villeroy's  army  was  a  helpless  mass  of  confusion.  Seven  thousand  of 
the  French  were  slain,  six  thousand  taken  prisoners,  and  a  vast  quan- 
tity of  artillery  and  ammunition  abandoned  to  the  victors.  The  loss  of 
the  allies,  in  killed  and  v/ounded,  did  not  exceed  three  thousand  fivt^ 
Hundred  men. 

The  results  of  this  brilliant  victory  were  the  immediate  conquest  of 
Brabant,  and  almost  all  the  Spanish  Netherlands ;  but  its  consequences 
wers  felt  even  in  Italy.  Marshal  Vendome  having  been  recalled  to 
remedy,  if  possible,  Villeroy's  disaster,  Prince  Eugene  resolved  to  raise 
the  siege  of  Turin,  and  baffled  the  efforts  of  the  duke  of  Orleans  to  ob- 
otruct  his  march.  Orleans  therefore  joined  the  besieging  army,  and  a.'- 
a  battle  was  manifestly  inevitable,  the  French  marshals  anxiously  de 


580  MODERN  HIS'IOKY. 

liberated  whether  they  should  wait  for  the  enemy  in  tlu  ir  inirench 
ments.  The  majority  voted  against  the  measure,  but  Marshal  Marsir, 
produced  an  order,  signed  by  the  king,  immediately  after  receiving  the 
account  of  his  defeat  at  Ramillies,  commanding  his  generals  not  tt 
offer,  but  to  wait  for  battle.  This  order  hurt  the  pride  and  confused  the 
measures  of  the  duke  of  Orleans.  While  the  French  generals  were 
angrily  debating  what  arrangements  should  be  made,  Prince  Eugene 
and  the  duke  of  Savoy  fell  upon  their  lines  •  the  French  got  entangled 
in  their  extensive  intrenchments,  the  river  Doria  running  through  their 
camp  prevented  one  part  of  their  army  from  coming  to  the  assistance 
of  the  other;  they  were  speedily  routed,  and  ffed  with  precipitation,  not 
halting  until  they  had  passed  their  own  frontiers.  In  men,  the  loss  of 
the  French  army  was  not  great,  but  they  abandoned  all  their  cannon, 
baggage,  ammunition,  and  military  chest.  By  this  single  blow,  the 
house  of  Bourbon  lost  the  dutchies  of  Milan  and  Mantau,  the  principality 
of  Piedmont,  and  eventually  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 

That  the  success  of  the  allies  was  not  equally  decisive  in  Spain 
must  be  attributed  to  the  want  of  energy  and  Austrian  sluggishness  of 
the  archduke  Charles.  Philip  besieged  his  rival  in  Barcelona,  but  was 
forced  to  retire  by  the  appearance  of  Sir  John  Leake,  with  an  English 
squadron,  before  the  town.  The  retreat  was  made  in  great  disorder 
partly  occasioned  by  an  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which  ihe  superstition-^ 
Spaniards  regarded  as  an  omen  of  their  ruin.  Forty  thousand  English 
an^  Portuguese,  under  the  command  of  the  earl  of  Galvvay  and  the 
marquis  de  las  Minas,  advanced  through  Estremadura  tovvard  Madrid, 
and  Philip  was  forced  to  abandon  his  capital ;  at  the  same  time,  the 
count  de  Santa  Cruz  surrendered  Carthagena  and  the  galleys  to  the 
allied  powers.  Had  the  archduke  gone  immediately  to  Madrid,  and 
closely  pressed  his  rival,  the  crown  of  Spain  would  probably  have  been 
lost  to  the  house  of  Bourbon  ;  but  he  lingered  unaccountably  in  the 
neighborhood  o^  Barcelona,  until  Philip  and  the  duke  of  Berwick,*  hav- 
ing collected  a  superior  army,  compelled  the  English  and  Portuguese 
to  abandon  Madrid.  Carthagena  was  soon  after  recovered,  but  this 
was  more  than  compensated  by  the  loss  of  the  islands  of  Majorca  and 
Ivica,  which  surrendered  to  the  English  fleet  under  Sir  John  Leake. 
Louis  was  so  disheartened  by  his  losses,  that  he  sought  for  peace  on 
very  humble  conditions,  but  the  allies,  intoxicated  with  success,  de- 
manded such  humiliating  terms,  that  he  resolved  to  try  the  hazards  of 
another  campaign. 

While  the  English  ministers  were  lavishing  blood  and  treasure  to 
support  foreign  wars,  they  did  not  neglect  the  internal  aflairs  of  the  na- 
tion. A  treaty  for  uniting  England  and  Scotland  under  one  legislature, 
was  ratified  by  the  parliaments  of  both  countries  ;  but  the  Scottish  na- 
tion generally  was  opposed  to  a  union  that  galled  their  national  pride, 
and  the  advantages  of  which  time  alone  lould  develop  (a.  d.  1707) 
Louis  derived  one  advantage  from  his  recent  misfortunes  ;  the  expulsion 
of  his  force  from  Italy  enabled  him  to  send  powerful  succors  into  Spain, 
wdxere  the  allies  were  acting  with  the  greatest  negligence  and  miscon- 
duct.    The  earl  of  Galway  and  the  marquis  de  las  Minas,  having  ex- 

•  The  duke  of  Berwick  was  the  natural  son  of  James  II.,  and  one  of  the  abli'si 
generals  in  the  service  of  France. 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENOLAND  AND  FRANCE. 


587 


hausted  all  their  provisions  in  Valencia,  attempted  to  pass  into  New 
Castile ;  the  duke  of  Berwick,  having  received  large  reinforcements, 
and  aware  that  the  allies  had  been  weakened  by  the  departure  of  the 
archduke,  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  them  at  Almanza,  and  won  a  vic- 
tory as  complete  as  any  that  had  been  obtained  during  the  war.  This 
great  triumph  restored  the  cause  of  tne  Bourbons  in  Spain,  and  sim- 
ilar success  attended  the  French  array  in  Germany,  where  Marshal 
Villars  penetrated  to  the  Danube,  and  laid  the  dutchy  of  Wirtemberg 
under  contribution.  Nothing  of  importance  occurred  in  Flanders,  and 
die  only  naval  enterprise  was  the  siege  of  Toulon.  Prince  Eugene, 
and  the  duke  of  Savoy,  marched  through  France  to  besiege  this  great 
port,  while  Sir  Cloudesly  Shovel  appeared  off  the  coast  to  second  their 
operations.  But  unfortunately,  the  garrison  of  Toulon  had  been  re- 
inforce I  two  hours  before  the  appearance  of  the  allies  ;  they  retreated 
through  Provence,  wasting  the  country  as  they  passed,  and  diffusing 
consternation  almost  to  the  gates  of  Paris.  Nor  was  this  the  only  evil 
that  Louis  suffered  from  the  invasion  ;  the  detachments  withdrawn 
from  the  army  of  Marshal  Villars  so  weakened  that  general,  that  he 
was  forced  to  relinquish  his  high  projects  in  Germany,  and  repass  the 
Rhine,  instead  of  advancing  beyond  the  Danube. 

Great  expectations  had  been  formed  in  England,  which  the  results 
of  the  campaign  miserably  disappointed  ;  Godolphin  and  Marlborough 
lost  a  considerable  share  of  their  popidarity ;  they  were  opposed  even 
by  the  members  of  the  cabinet,  and  though  they  persuaded  the  queen 
to  dismiss  Mr.  Secretary  Harley,  and  Mr.  St.  John,  they  saw  that  their 
influence  with  her  majesty,  and  their  power  in  parliament,  had  been 
considerably  diminished  (a.  d.  1708).  Marlborough  felt  that  a  vigorous 
campaign  was  essential  to  his  future  interests,  especially  as  the  duke 
de  Vendome  had,  by  treachery,  gained  possession  of  Ghent  and  Bruges  ; 
he  therefore  resolved  to  risk  a  general  battle,  and  crossing  the  Scheldt, 
came  up  with  the  French  army  strongly  posted  at  Oudenarde.  The 
British  cavalry  broke  their  opponents  at  the  first  charge,  the  French 
hues  fell  into  confusion,  and  though  the  approach  of  darkness  prevented 
the  allies  from  completing  their  victory,  the  enemy  fled  in  such  disoider, 
that  nine  thousand  were  taken  prisoners,  and  nearly  six  thousand  de- 
hierted.  Marlborough,  being  reinforced  by  Prince  Eugene,  undertook 
the  siege  of  Lisle,  the  principal  city  in  French  Flanders,  and  though  it 
was  vigorously  defended  by  Marshal  Boufflers,  it  was  forced  to  surren- 
der after  a  siege  of  two  months,  while  Ghent  and  Bruges  were  re- 
covered ere  the  close  of  the  campaign.  Nothing  of  importance  occur- 
icd  in  Italy,  Germany,  or  Spain;  but  the  English  fleet  conquered  the 
island  of  Sardinia,  and  terrified  the  pope  into  the  acknowledgment  of 
tlie  archduke  Charles  as  lawful  king  of  Spain. 

The  confidence  of  the  allies  now  rose  to  the  highest  pitch ;  Godol- 
phin and  M-irlborough  found  the  English  parliament  ready  to  grant 
additional  supplies  ;  the  Dutch  agreed  to  augment  their  troops,  and  tho 
imperialists  promised  to  lay  aside  their  inactivity.  Louis,  on  the  con- 
trary, disheartened  by  defeat,  his  treasury  exhausted,  his  councils  dis- 
tracted, and  his  kingdom  suffering  from  famine,  offered  to  purchase 
peice  oy  every  concession  that  could  reasonably  be  demanded  (a.  d. 
1709).     Once  more  his  proffers  were  rejected,  except  upon  conditions 


588  MODERN  HISTORY. 

hjconssistent  with  his  personal  honor  and  the  safely  of  his  kinjjJnni,  and 
jnce  more  he  appeahnl  to  the  hazards  of  war.  The  confederates  iii 
Flanders,  finding  that  Marshal  Villars  had  taken  a  position  from  which 
he  could  not  be  di&lodge^l,  laid  siege  to  Tournay,  and  on  the  surrender 
of  that  place  invested  Mons.  Villars,  unable  to  relieve  the  place,  took 
possession  of  a  strong  camp  at  Malplaquet,  whence  he  trusted  that  ho 
could  harass  the  besiegers.  The  confederates,  elated  with  past  suc- 
cess, resolved  to  attack  the  French  in  thei^  intrenchments.  Few  bat- 
tles, since  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  have  been  more  obstinate  and 
bloody ;  victory  finally  declared  in  favor  of  the  allies,  but  it  was  dearly 
purchased  by  the  loss  of  fifteen  th(;usanu  men  ;  while  the  French,  whi^ 
had  fought  under  cover,  lost  only  ten  thousand.  Mons  was  now  closely 
invested,  and  the  surrender  of  that  important  place  closed  the  campaign 
Nothing  of  importance  occurred  in  Germany,  Italy,  or  Spain  ;  but  Louis, 
finding  his  resources  exhausted,  once  again  made  an  unsuccessful  effort 
to  obtain  peace. 

Conferences  were  opened  at  Gertruydenberg  (a.  d.  1710),  but  the 
allies,  influenced  by  Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene,  rejected  the 
propositions  of  the  French  king ;  he  was,  howcA'er,  unwilling  to  break 
off  the  negotiations,  and  the  conferences  were  continued  even  tifter  the 
hostile  armies  had  actually  taken  the  field.  The  duke  of  Marlborough 
took  several  fortified  places  in  Flanders  ;  but  nothing  of  importance 
was  done  in  Germany  or  Piedmont ;  and  the  misfortunes  of  the  allies 
in  Spain  more  than  counterbalanced  their  other  successes.  The  arch- 
duke Charles,  aided  by  the  English  general.  Stanhope,  twice  defeated 
his  rival,  and  a  second  time  gained  possession  of  Madrid ;  instead  of 
improving  these  advantages,  he  loitered  in  the  capital  until  forced  to 
retire  by  the  united  forces  of  the  French  and  Spaniards,  under  the 
duke  of  Vendome.  The  allies  retired  toward  Catalonia,  and  marched, 
for  the  sake  of  subsistence,  in  two  bodies.  Stanhope,  who  commanded 
the  rear  division,  allowed  himself  to  be  surrounded  at  Brihuega,  and 
was  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion.  Staremberg,  who  led  the  prin- 
cipal division,  was  soon  after  forced  to  engage  at  a  disadvantage,  but 
he  made  such  able  dispositions,  that  Vendome  was  compelled  to  retreat^ 
and  the  imperialists  continued  their  march  in  safety.  They  were, 
however,  so  weakened  and  dispirited  by  Stanhope's  misfortune,  that 
ihey  could  not  check  the  victorious  progress  of  Philip. 

A  revolution  in  the  English  cabinet  proved  of  more  cor/sequence  to 
Louis  than  even  the  success  of  his  arms  in  Spain.  The  queen,  a  wo- 
man of  feeble  mind,  had  long  been  under  the  influence  of  the  dutchess 
of  Marlborough,  who  did  not  always  use  her  power  with  discretion.  A 
new  favorite,  Mrs.  Masham,  supplanted  the  dutchess,  and  was  gained 
over,  by  Harley  and  St.  John,  to  induce  the  queen  to  make  a  total 
change  in  the  administration.  This  would  have  been  impossible  if  the 
whigs  had  continued  to  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the  nation  ;  but  many 
circumstances  contributed  to  diminish  their  popularity.  The  weighi 
of  taxes,  occasioned  by  the  expenses  of  the  war,  began  to  be  felt  as  .•> 
burden,  when  victories,  from  their  very  frequency,  ceased  to  excite  joy 
the  conduct  of  the  allies,  who  contrived  that  "  England  should  fight  foi 
all  and  pay  for  all."  gave  just  dissatisfaction  ;  and  the  rejection  of  the 
French  king's  offers  at  Gertruydenberg  was  justly  regarded  as  the  tri 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.        5S0 

ainph  of  private  ambition  over  public  policy.  In  addition  to  *hese 
grounds  of  discontent,  the  lories  raised  the  cry  that  the  "  church  Avas  in 
danger,"  on  account  of  the  favor  shown  to  the  dissenters  ;  and  the  whigs, 
instead  of  allowing  the  imputation  to  refute  itself,  unwisely  attempted 
to  silence  the  clamor  by  force.  Dr.  Henry  Sachftverell  preached  a  ser- 
mon before  the  lord  mayor,  in  which  he  bitterly  attacked  the  dissenters, 
and  advocated  the  exploded  doctrines  of  passive  obedience  and  non-re- 
sistance. Though  it  was  but  a  poor  contemptible  production,  such  is 
the  violence  of  party,  that  it  was  printed,  and  forty  thousand  copies  are 
said  to  have  been  sold  in  a  week.  In  another  .veek,  it  would  probably 
have  been  forgotten,  had  not  Godolpuln,  who  was  personally  attacked  in 
the  commons,  persuaded  his  friends  to  make  it  the  subject  of  a  parlia- 
mentary impeachment.  Common  sense  revolted  from  such  an  absurdi- 
y ;  the  generous  feelings  of  the  nation  were  enlisted  on  the  side  of  the 
preacher,  and  this  sympathy  was  soon  transferred  to  his  cause.  During 
his  trial,  the  populace  showed  the  liveliest  zeal  in  his  behalf;  and  when 
he  was  found  guilty,  the  house  of  lords,  dreading  popular  tumults,  passed 
d  sentence  so  lenient,  that  it  was  hailed  by  the  tories  as  a  triumph. 

The  persecution  of  Sacheverell  was  the  ruin  of  the  whigs  ;  the  queen, 
aware  of  their  unpopularity,  dismissed  all  her  ministers  except  the  duke 
of  Marlborough  ;  and  a  new  cabinet  was  formed  under  the  auspices  of 
Mr.  Harley,  who  was  soon  after  created  earl  of  Oxford.  A  new  parlia- 
ment was  summoned,  in  which  the  tories  had  an  overwhelming  majority 
(a.  d.  1711),  but  the  ministers  did  not  abandon  the  foreign  policy  of 
their  predecessors,  and  copious  supplies  were  voted  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  war. 

At  this  crisis  an  unexpected  event  changed  the  situations  and  views 
of  all  parties.  The  emperor  Joseph  died  without  issue  ;  his  brothei 
Charles,  the  claimant  of  the  Spanish  crown,  succeeded  to  the  empire 
and  the  liberties  of  Europe  were  thus  exposed  to  as  much  danger  from 
the  aggrandizement  of  the  house  of  Austria,  as  from  that  of  the  Bourbon 
family.  The  campaign  was  languidly  conducted  in  every  quater,  and 
ere  its  conclusion,  the  English  ministers  were  secretly  negotiating  with 
France. 

After  many  disgraceful  intrigues,  in  which  all  the  actors  sacriilcet. 
the  interests  of  the  nation  to  party  purposes,  the  duke  of  Marlborough 
was  stripped  of  all  his  employments,  and  conferences  foi  a  general 
peace  commenced  at  Utrecht.  The  successive  deaths  of  the  dauphin 
of  France,  his  son  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  and  his  grandson  the  duke 
of  Bretagne,  left  only  the  sickly  duke  of  Anjou  between  Philip  and  the 
throne  of  France.  The  union  of  the  French  and  Spanish  monarchies 
filled  the  confederates  with  no  unreasonable  apprehension,  and  the  Eng 
lish  ministers  were  obliged  to  threaten  that  they  would  renew  the  war 
unless  Philip  renounced  his  right  of  succession  to  the  throne  of  France 
(a.  d.  1712).  When  this  important  point  was  obtained,  the  Englisli 
and  French  agreed  upon  a  cessation  of  arms  ;  the  Dutch  and  the  impe- 
rialists continued  the  campaign,  but  with  such  ill  success,  that  they 
w^ere  induced  to  renew  the  conferences  for  peace.  On  the  31st  of 
March,  1713,  the  treaties  between  the  different  powers  were  signed  at 
Utrecht  by  the  plenipotentiaries  of  France,  England,  Prussia  (recently 
Bxalted  into  a  kingdom).  Savoy,  and  the  United  Provinces      The  em- 


590  MODERN  HISTORY. 

peror  held  out  until  the  followinj^  year,  when  he  sij^ned  a  treaty  it  Rud 
Etadt,  less  favorable  than  lliat  which  had  been  offered  at  Utrecht ;  and 
the  king  of  Spain,  with  more  reluctance,  gave  his  adhesion  to  the  general 
arrangements. 

Few  subjects  haveljeen  more  fiercely  contested  than  the  conduct  ol 
the  English  ministers  in  relation  to  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  The  reasor, 
is  perfectly  obvious  :  both  the  political  parties  that  divided  the  nation 
had  acted  wrong ;  the  whigs  continued  the  war  after  all  its  reasonable 
objects  had  been  gained ;  the  torios  concluded  a  peace  in  which  the  ad- 
vantages that  England  might  have  claim 'id,  from  the  success  of  her 
arras,  were  wantonly  sacrificed.  The  people  of  England  generally  dis- 
liked he  peace,  and  the  commercial  treaty  with  France  was  rejected 
by  a  majority  of  nine  votes  in  the  house  of  commons.  The  "higs  row 
began  to  pretend  that  the  protestant  succession  was  in  danger,  and  the 
alarm  spreading  rapidly,  brought  back  to  their  party  a  large  share  of  its 
former  popularity.  Nor  were  these  ap})rehensions  groundless  ;  through 
the  influence  of  the  Jacobites,  the  earl  of  Oxford  was  removed  from  hi?< 
olfice,  and  a  new  administration,  more  favorable  to  the  house  of  Stuart, 
formed  under  the  auspices  of  St.  John,  Lord  Bolingbroke.  But  before 
tliQ  court  of  St.  Germains  could  derive  any  advantage  from  this  change, 
the  queen,  harassed  by  the  intrigues  and  quarrels  of  her  servants,  sank 
into  a  lethargy,  and  her  death  disappointed  the  hopes  of  the  Pretender 
and  his  adherents  (August  1, 1714).  Several  whig  lords,  without  being 
summoned,  attended  the  council,  which  was  of  course  held  at  the  de- 
mise of  the  crown  ;  and  the  tories,  overawed,  concurred  in  issuing  an 
order  for  the  proclamation  of  the  elector  of  Hanover,  as  George  1.,  kiny 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Section  VI. — Peter  (he  Great  of  Russia. — Charles  XII.  of  iSweden. 

In  the  last  two  sections,  Ave  have  confined  our  attention  to  the  wari* 
which  the  ambition  of  Louis  XIV.  excited  in  the  south  and  west  of 
Europe.  During  this  period,  the  northern  and  eastern  divisions  of 
Christendom  were  occupied  by  the  rivalry  of  two  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary men  that  ever  appeared  on  the  stage  of  human  life — Peter  the 
Great  of  Russia,  and  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  Before  entering  ox\ 
their  history,  we  must  take  a  brief  retrospect  of  the  affairs  of  the  north 
after  the  accession  of  the  Czar  Alexis  and  the  resignation  of  Queen 
Christina. 

Under  the  administration  of  Alexis,  Russia  began  rapidly  to  cmerg*'' 
from  the  barbarism  into  which  it  had  been  plunged  by  the  Mongolian 
invasion  and  subsequent  civil  wars.  He  reformed  the  laws,  encouraged 
commerce,  and  patronised  the  arts  ;  he  recovered  Smolensko  from  the 
Poles,  and  prevented  the  Turks  from  establishing  their  dominion  over 
he  Cossack  tribes.  His  son  Theodore,  though  of  a  weak  constitution, 
steadily  pursued  the  same  course  of  vigorous  policy.  "  He  lived,"  says 
a  native  Russian  1  istorian,  "  the  joy  ai.d  delight  of  his  people,  and  died 
amid  their  siglis  and  tears.  On  the  Jay  of  his  decease,  Moscow  waa 
in  the  same  sta>e  of  distress  which  Rome  felt  at  the  death  of  Titub.'" 
John,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Theodore,  was  a  prince  of  weak  in 
(ellect ;  his  ain!)itious  sister,  Sophia,  seized  for  a  time  on  the  sovereign 


AUGUSTAN  AOES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE  591 

y,  excluding  her  young  brother  Peter,  tc  whom  Theodore  had  Fjequeathed 
the  crown.  During  seven  years  of  boyhood  Peter  endured  Sophia'si 
galling  yoke  ;  but  when  he  reached  his  seventeenth  year,  he  took  advan- 
tage of  the  general  indignation  excited  by  the  misconduct  of  the  govern- 
ment, to  shut  that  princess  up  in  a  nunnery,  and  banish  her  favorite  into 
a  distant  part  of  the  empire. 

Denmark  was  the  scene  of  an  extraordinary  revolution  (a.  d.  1661). 
The  tyranny  of  the  aristocracy  arose  to  such  a  height,  that  the  clergy 
and  commons  voted  for  the  surrender  of  tlieir  liberties  to  the  king,  and 
Ferdinand  III.,  almost  without  any  ellbrt  of  his  own,  was  thus  invested 
with  absolute  power.  On  his  death  (a.  d.  1670),  his  successor,  Chris- 
tian v.,  commenced  war  against  Charles  XL,  king  of  Sweden,  who, 
though  assailed  by  a  powerful  league,  defended  himself  with  great  abili- 
ty and  success.  Charles  XL,  after  the  lestoration  of  peace,  tried  tu 
make  himself  as  absolute  as  the  kings  of  Denmark,  but  he  died  prema 
turely  (a.  d.  1697),  leaving  his  crown  to  his  son  Charles  XIL,  who  has 
been  deservedly  styled  the  Alexander  of  the  North. 

Peter  the  Great  commenced  his  reign  by  defeating  the  Turks,  from 
whom  he  wrested  the  advantageous  port  of  Azof,  which  opened  to  his 
subjects  the  commerce  of  the  Black  sea.  This  acquisition  enlarged  his 
views  ;  he  resolved  to  make  Russia  the  centre  of  trade  between  Europe 
and  Asia,  to  connect  the  Dwina,  the  Volga,  and  the  Don.  by  canals,  thus 
opening  a  water  communication  between  the  northern  seas  and  the 
Black  and  the  Caspian  seas.  To  complete  this  magnificent  plan,  he  de- 
termined to  build  a  city  on  the  Baltic  sea,  which  should  be  the  empori- 
um of  northern  commerce,  and  the  capital  of  his  dominions.  A  still 
greater  proof  of  his  wisdom,  and  of  his  anxiety  to  secure  the  prosperity 
of  his  subjects,  was  his  undertaking  a  tour  through  Europe,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  acquiring  instruction,  and  bringing  back  to  his  subjects  the  im- 
provements of  more  civilized  nations.  In  169S,  having  established  a 
regency  to  direct  the  government  during  his  absence,  he  departed  from 
his  dominions  as  a  private  gentleman,  in  the  train  of  the  ambassadors 
that  he  had  sent  to  the  principal  courts  of  Europe.  Amsterdam,  at  that 
time  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cvommercial  cities  in  Europe,  was  the 
first  place  that  arrested  his  attention  ;  he  entered  himself  as  a  common 
carpenter  in  one  of  the  principal  dockyards,  laboring  and  living  exactly 
like  the  other  workmen.  Thence  he  went  to  England,  where  he  ex- 
amined and  studied  *he  principal  naval  arsenals.  King  William  present- 
ed the  czar  with  a  beautiful  yacht,  and  permitted  him  to  engage  several 
ingenious  artificers  in  his  service.  After  a  year's  absence,  Peter  re- 
turned home,  greatly  improved  himself,  and  accompanied  by  a  train  of 
men  well  qualified  to  instruct  his  subjects. 

Anxious  to  extend  his  dominions  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Baltic,  he 
entered  into  an  alliance  against  Sweden  with  Frederick  Augustus,  elec- 
tor of  Saxony,  who  had  succeeded  John  Sobieski  on  the  throne  of 
Poland,  and  Frederick  IV.,  king  of  Denmark  (a.  d.  1700).  The  Danes 
commenced  the  war  by  invading  the  territories  of  the  duke  of  Ilolstein- 
Gottorp,  brother-in-law  and  ally  of  the  king  of  Sweden.  Their  progress 
was  slower  than  they  expected,  and,  in  tiie  midst  of  their  career,  they 
were  arrested  by  intelligence  of  the  dangers  wliich  menaced  their  own 
"lapital.     Charles  XIL,  undaunted  by  the  power  of  the  league,  resolve;! 


59'-^  MODERN  HISTOK!f. 

io  carry  the  war  into  the  dominions  of  Denuiark.  Whih^  his  fleet 
strengthened  by  an  English  squadron,  bloclvaded  Copenhagen,  he  sud 
denly  embarked  his  troops  at  Carlscrona,  and  having  easily  elTected  u 
passage,  laid  siege  to  the  city,  by  land.  Frederic,  cut  ofT  from  his  do- 
minions by  the  Swedish  cruisers,  and  alarmed  by  the  imminent  dangei 
of  his  fleet  and  capital,  concluded  a  peace  highly  honorable  to  the 
Swedes,  leaving  his  Russian  and  Polish  allies  to  continue  the  contest. 

No  sooner  had  Charles  concluded  the  treaty,  than  he  resolved  to  turn 
his  arms  against  the  Russians,  who  were  besieging  Narva  with  a  force 
of  eighty  thousand  men ;  though  his  own  army  did  not  exceed  ten 
thousand,  the  heroic  king  of  Sweden  boldly  resolved  to  attack  his  ene- 
mies in  their  intrenchments.  As  soon  as  his  artillery  had  opened  a 
small  breach,  he  commanded  his  men  to  advance  to  the  charge  witli 
fixed  bayonets.  A  storm  of  snow,  that  blew  full  in  their  faces,  added 
to  the  confusion  into  which  the  undisciplined  Russians  were  thrown  by 
this  daring  assault ;  the  very  superiority  of  their  numbers  added  to 
their  confusion ;  after  a  contest  of  three  hours'  duration  they  were  to- 
t;illy  routed;  eighteen  thousand  of  the  besiegers  fell  in  the  battle  or 
flight,  thirty  thousand  remained  prisoners,  all  their  artillery,  baggage, 
and  ammunition,  became  the  prey  of  the  conquerors.  The  czar  was 
not  disheartened  by  this  defeat,  which  he  attributed  to  the  right  cause, 
the  ignorance  and  barbarism  of  his  subjects  ;  "  I  knew,"  he  said,  "  thai 
the  Swedes  would  beat  us,  but  they  will  teach  us  to  become  conquer- 
ors in  our  turn."  Though  at- the  head  of  forty  thousand  men,  he  did 
not  venture  to  encounter  his  rival,  but  evacuated  the  provinces  that  ho 
had  invaded. 

Having  wintered  at  Narva,  Charles  marched  against  the  Poles  and 
Saxons,  who  were  encamped  in  the  neighborhood  of  Riga  ;  he  forced 
a  passage  across  the  Duna,  and  gained  a  complete  victory.  Thence  he 
entered  as  a  conqueror  into  Courland  and  Lithuania,  scarcely  encoun- 
tering any  opposition.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  he  formed  the  pro- 
ject of  dethroning  King  Augustus,  who  had  lost  the  affection  of  the 
Poles  by  the  undisguised  preference  which  he  showed  for  his  Saxon 
subjects.  With  this  design  he  entered  into  a  secret  correspondence 
with  Radzrewiski,  the  cardinal  primate,  by  whose  means  such  a  spirit 
of  opposition  was  raised  in  the  diet  and  senate,  that  Augustus  sought, 
peace  as  his  only  means  of  safety.  Charles  refused  to  treat  unless  the 
Poles  elected  a  new  king  ;  and  Augustus,  convinced  that  he  could  only 
protect  his  crown  by  the  sword,  led  his  army  to  meet  the  Swedes,  in  a 
spacious  plain  near  Clissau  (a.  d.  1702).  The  Polish  monarch  had 
with  him  about  twenty-four  thousand  men,  the  forces  of  Charles  did 
not  exceed  half  that  number  ;  but  the  Swedes,  flushed  by  recent  con- 
quests, gained  a  complete  vtctory  ;  and  Augustus,  after  having  made  in 
vain  the  most  heroic  efforts  to  rally  his  troops,  was  forced  tolly,  leaving 
the  enemy  in  possession  of  all  his  artillery  and  baggage.  A  second 
triumph  at  Pultusk,  in  the  following  campaign,  gave  such  encourage- 
ment to  the  enemies  of  Augustus,  that  he  was  formally  deposed  by  the 
diet  (a.  d.  1701),  and  the  vacant  crown  given  to  Stanislaus  Lcczinski, 
who  had  been  nominated  by  the  king  of  Sweden. 

Peter  had  not  been  in  the  meantiuie  inactive  ;  though  he  had  nor 
f^veu  much  assistance  to  his  ally  Augustus,  he  had  made  a  powerful 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.       593 

Jivc-ryion  by  invading  Ingria,  and  taking  Narva,  so  recently  the  scene 
ui'  his  misfortunes,  by  storm.  At  the  same  time  he  founded  his  pro- 
jected capital  in  the  heart  of  his  new  conquests,  and  by  his  judiciou'^ 
measures  protected  the  rising  city  from  the  attacks  of  the  Swedish  gen 
•-■rals.  St.  Petersburgh,  founded  on  a  marshy  island  in  the  river  Neva, 
during  a  destructive  war,  and  surrounded  by  countries  recently  subdut-d 
ov  still  hostile,  rose  rapidly  into  importance,  and  remained  in  perfect  se- 
curity while  all  around  was  in  confusion.  Augustus  had  not  yet  ic^ 
signed  all  hopes  of  recovering  his  crown ;  he  concerted  a  scheme  of 
operations  with  Peter,  and  sixty  thousand  Russiaiis  entered  Poland  to 
drive  the  Swedes  from  their  recent  acquisitions.  Charles  was  not 
daunted  by  the  numbers  of  his  enemies ;  he  routed  the  Russian  divis- 
ions successively,  and  inspired  such  terror  by  the  rapidity  of  his  move- 
ments, which  seemed  almost  miraculous,  that  the  Russians  retreated  to 
their  own  country  (a.  d.  1706).  In  the  meantime  a  victory  obtained 
by  a  division  of  the  Swedish  army  over  the  Saxons,  opened  to  Charles 
a  passage  into  the  hereditary  dominions  of  his  rival,  and  crossing  the 
Oder,  he  appeared  in  Saxony  at  the  head  of  twenty-four  thousand  men. 
Augustus  was  forced  to  conclude  peace  on  the  most  humiliating  condi- 
tions. Charles  wintered  in  Germany,  where  his  presence  created  con- 
siderable alarm.  He  demanded  from  the  emperor  toleration  for  the 
protestants  of  Silesia,  and  the  relinquishment  of  the  quota  which  Swe- 
den was  bound  to  furnish  for  its  German  provinces.  Involved  in  the 
war  of  the  succession,  Joseph  submitted,*  and  the  fears  with  which  the 
presence  of  Charles  filled  the  allied  powers  were  soon  dispersed  by 
his  departure  in  quest  of  ntw  adventures. f 

From  Saxony  Charles  n.arched  back  inro  Poland,  where  Peter  waa 
making  some  ineffectual  efforts  to  re/ive  the  pariy  of  Augustus.  Pe- 
ter retired  before  his  rival,  who  had,  however,  the  satisfaction  of  de- 
feating an  army  of  twenty  thousand  Russians,  strongly  intrenched.  In- 
toxicated by  success,  he  rejected  the  czar's  offers  of  peace,  declaring 
that  he  would  treat  at  Moscow  ;|  and  without  forming  any  systematic 
plan  of  operations,  he  crossed  the  frontiers,  resolved  on  the  destruction 
of  that  ancient  city.  Peter  prevented  the  advance  of  the  Swedes,  on 
the  direct  line,  by  destroying  the  roads  ar^d  desolating  the  countiy  ; 
Charles,  after  having  endured  great  privations,  turned  off  toward  the 

*  The  pope  was  greatly  displeased  by  the  einperor's  restoring  the  Silesia  a  church- 
es to  the  prjtestan's;  Joseph  far-etiously  rejjlied  to  his  reinonstryaces :  ''Had  Ihe 
king  of  Sweden  demanded  that  I  should  become  a  Lutheran  myseif,  I  do  not  km. "w 
wha    might  have  b-een  the  conse'iuen're." 

t  The  duive  of  Marlborough  went  into  Saxony  to  dissuac'e  the  Swedish  mona.x'h 
from  accepting  the  offers  of  Louis  XIV.  Marlborough  was  too  cautious  a  poli- 
tician to  enter  immediately  on  the  object  of  his  mission.  He  complimented  Chailes 
3n  his  victories,  anJ  even  expressed  his  anxiety  to  derive  instruction  in  the  art  of 
war  from  so  eminent  a  commander.  In  tlie  course  of  the  conversation,  Marlbo- 
rough perceived  that  Charles  liad  a  rooti-d  aversion  to,  and  was  not,  therefore, 
likely  to  form  an  alliance  with  Louis.  A  map  of  Russia  lyin-?  open  before  the 
king,  and  the  anger  with  which  Chailes  sjioke  of  Peter,  revealed  to  the  duke  the 
real  intentions  of  the  Swedish  monarch.  He,  therefore,  took  his  leave  without 
making  any  proposals,  convinced  that  the  disputes  of  Charles  with  the  emperor 
might  easily  be  accommodated,  as  all  his  demands  would  be  granted. 

t  When  Peter  was  inlbrmed  of  this  haughty  answer,  he  coolly  replied,  "  Mv 
brother  Charles  affects  to  play  the  part  of  Alexander,  l;ut  I  hope  he  will  not  fi.i;'' 
in  me  a  Darius." 


594  MODERN  HISTORY. 

[Ikraine,  whither  he  had  been  invited  by  Mazeppa,  the  chief  of  ihc 
Cossacks,  who,  disgusted  by  the  conduct  of  the  czar,  had  resolved  to 
throw  ofi'  his  allegiance.  In  spite  of  all  the  obstacles  that  nature  and 
*he  enemy  could  throw  in  his  way,  Charles  reached  the  place  of  ren- 
dezvous ;  but  he  had  ihe  mortification  to  find  Mazeppa  appear  in  his 
camp  as  a  fugitive  rather  than  an  ally,  for  the  czar  had  discovered  his 
treason,  and  disconcerted  his  schemes  by  the  punishment  of  his  asso- 
ciates. 

A  still  greater  misfortune  to  the  Swedes'  was  the  loss  of  the  convoy 
and  the  ruin  of  the  reinforcement  they  had  expected  from  Livonia. 
General  Lewenhaupt,  to  whose  care  it  was  intrusted,  had  been  forced 
into  three  general  engagements  by  the  Russians  ;  and  though  he  had 
eminently  distinguished  himself  by  his  courage  and  conduct,  he  was 
forced  to  set  fire  to  his  wagons  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  enemy.  Undaunted  by  these  misfortunes,  Charles  continued  the 
campaign  even  in  the  depth  of  a  winter*  so  severe  that  two  thousand 
men  were  at  once  frozen  to  death  almost  in  his  presence.  At  length 
he  laid  siege  to  Pultowa,  a  fortified  city  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Ukraine, 
which  contained  one  of  the  czar's  principal  magazines.  The  garrison 
was  numerous  and  the  resistance  obstinate  ;  Charles  himself  was  dan- 
gerously wounded  in  the  heel  while  viewing  the  works  ;  and  while  he 
was  still  confined  to  his  tent  he  learned  that  Peter  was  advancing  with 
a  numerous  army  to  raise  the  siege.  Leaving  seven  thousand  men  to 
guard  the  works,  Charles  ordered  his  soldiers  to  march  and  meet  the 
enemy,  while  he  accompanied  them  in  a  litter  (July  8,  1709).  The 
desperate  charge  of  the  Swedes  broke  the  Russian  cavalry,  but  the  in- 
fantry stood  firm,  and  gave  the  horse  an  opportunity  of  rallying  in  the 
rear.  In  the  meantime,  the  czar's  artillery  made  dreadful  havoc  in  the 
Swedish  line  ;  and  Charles,  who  had  been  forced  to  abandon  his  can 
non  in  his  forced  marches,  in  vain  contended  against  this  formidable 
disadvantag(!.  After  a  dreadful  combat  of  more  than  two  hours'  dura 
tion,  the  Swedish  army  was  irretrievably  ruined  ;  eight  thousand  of 
iheir  best  troops  were  left  dead  on  the  field,  six  thousand  were  take/i 
prisoners,  and  about  twelve  thousand  of  the  fugitives  were  soon  aftei 
forced  to  surrender  on  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper,  from  want  of  boats  to 
cross  the  river.  Charles,  accompanied  by  about  three  hundred  of  hi? 
guards,  esciped  to  Bender,  a  Turkish  town  in  Bessarabia,  abandoning 
all  his  treasures  to  his  rival,  including  the  rich  spoils  of  Poland  and 
Saxony. 
•  Tuifl  calustrophe  is  powerfully  described  by  Campbell : — 

"  Oh  !  learn  the  fate  that  bleedinu;  thousands  bore, 

Led  by  their  Charles  to  Dnieper's  sandy  shore. 

Faint  from  his  wounds,  and  shivering  in  the  blast, 

The  Swedish  soldier  sank  and  groaned  his  last ; 

File  after  tile  the  stormy  showers  benumb, 

Freeze  every  standard  sheet  and  hush  the  drum; 

Horseman  and  horse  confessed  the  bitter  pang, 

And  arms  and  warrior  fell  with  hollow  clang. 

Yet,  ere  he  sank  in  Nature's  last  repose, 

Ere  life's  warm  current  to  the  fountain  froze. 

The  dying  man  to  Sweden  turned  his  eye. 

Thought  of  his  home,  and  closed  it  with  n  sigh. 

Imperial  pride  looke  !  ■snllen  on  his  plight. 

And  Charles  beheld   nor  sliuddered  at  the  eight.''" 


i 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.        595 

Few  victories  have  ever  had  such  rmportant  consequencus  as  that 
which  the  czar  won  at  Pultowa  ;  in  one  fatal  day  Charles  lost  the 
i'ruits  of  nine  years'  victories ;  the  veteran  army  that  had  been  the  ter- 
ror of  Europe  was  completely  ruined  ;  those  who  escaped  from  the 
fatal  field  were  taken  prisoners,  but  they  found  a  fate  scarcely  better 
than  death,  for  they  were  transported  by  the  czar  to  colonize  the  wilds 
of  Siberia  ;  the  elector  of  Saxony  re-entered  Poland,  and  drove  Stan- 
islaus from  the  throne  ;  the  kings  of  Denmark*  and  Prussia  revived 
old  claims  on  the  Swedish  provinces,  while  the  victorious  Peter  invaded 
not  only  Livonia  and  Ingria,  but  a  great  part  of  Finland.  Indeed,  bul 
for  the  interference  of  the  German  emperor  and  the  maritime  powers, 
the  Swedish  monarchy  would  have  been  rent  in  pieces. 

Charles,  in  his  exile,  formed  a  new  plan  for  the  destruction  of  his 
hated  rival ;  he  instigated  the  Turks  to  attempt  the  conquest  of  Russia, 
and  flattered  himself  ihat  he  might  yet  enter  Moscow  at  the  head  of  a 
Mohammedan  army.  The  bribes  which  Peter  lavishly  bestowed  en 
the  counsellors  of  thf*  sultans,  for  a  time  frustrated  these  intrigues  ; 
but  Charles,  through  h'^s  friend  Poniafowski,  informed  the  sultan  of  his 
vizier's  corruption,  and  procured  the  deposition  of  that  minister.  Pu- 
pruli,  who  succeeded  t'*  the  office  of  nzier,  was  averse  to  a  Russian 
war,  but  he  was  removed  at  the  end  of  two  months,  and  the  sealb 
of  office  given  to  the  pucha  of  Syria,  who  commenced  his  administra- 
tion by  sending  the  Russian  ambassador  to  the  prison  of  the  Seven 
Towers. 

The  czar  made  the  n»ost  vigorous  preparations  for  the  new  war  by 
which  he  was  menaced  (x.  d.  1711 ).  The  Turkish  vizier,  on  the  other 
hand,  assembled  all  the  lorces  of  the  Ottoman  empire  in  the  plains  of 
Adrianople.  Demetrius  Cantemir,  the  hospodar  of  Moldavia,  believing 
that  a  favorable  opportunity  presented  itself  for  delivering  his  country 
from  the  Mohammedan  yoke,  invited  the  czar  to  his  aid ;  and  the  Rus- 
sians, rapidly  advancmp-,  reached  the  northern  banks  of  the  Pruth,  near 
Yassi,  the  Moldavian  capital.  Here  the  Russians  found  that  the  prom- 
ises of  Prince  Cantemir  were  illusory ;  the  Moldavians,  happy  under 
the  Turkish  sway,  treated  the  invaders  as  enemies,  and  refused  to 
supply  them  with  pronsions  ;  in  the  meantime,  the  vizier  arriving, 
formed  a  fortified  camp  in  their  front,  while  his  vast  host  of  light  c;iv- 
alry  swept  round  their  lines  and  cut  oflT  all  foraging  pirties.  The  R  is- 
sians  defeated  three  successive  attempts  to  storm  their  intrenchments ; 
but  they  must  have  yielded  to  the  effects  of  fatigue  and  famine,  had  not 
the  emperess  Catherine, t  who  accompanied  her  husband  during  the 
campaign,  sent  a  private  message  to  the  vizier,  which  induced  him  to 
open  negotiations.  A  treaty  was  concluded  on  terms  which,  though 
severe,  were  more  favorable  than  Peter,  under  the  circumstances,  cculd 
reasonably  have  hoped  ;  the  Russians  retired  in   safety,  and  Charles 

•  The  Dpxihh  monarch  invaded  Schoncn,  but  his  troops  were  defeated  by  the 
Swedish  militia,  and  a  few  regiments  of  the  line,  commanded  by  General  Steen- 
bock.  V/hen  intelligence  of  this  victory  was  conveyed  to  Charles,  he  exclaimed, 
•'  My  brave  Swedes !  should  God  permit  me  to  join  you  once  more,  we  will  beat 
Uipm  alJ." 

t  Catherine  was  a  Livonian  captive,  of  low  condition,  whom  the  empernr  first 
paw  wailing  at  table.  Her  abilities  and  modesty  won  his  heart,  he  raised  her  tc 
his  throne,  and  never  had  reason  to  repent  of  his  choice. 


59b  MODERN  HISTORY. 

reached  Uit-  Tarkish  camp,  only  to  learn  the  downfall  (jf  all  liis  txpet. 
aliens. 

A  new  series  of  intrigues  in  the  court  of  Constantinople  led  to  the 
appointment  of  a  new  vizier  ;  but  this  minister  was  little  inclined  to 
gratify  the  king  of  Sweden  ;  on  the  contrary,  warned  by  the  fate  of  hia 
predecessors,  he  resolved  to  remove  him  from  the  Ottoman  empire  (a.  d. 
1713).  Charles  continued  to  linger;  even  after  he  had  received  a  let 
ter  of  dismissal  from  the  sultan's  own  hand,  he  resolved  to  remain,  and 
when  a  resolution  was  taken  to  send  him  away  by  force,  he  determined, 
with  his  few  attendants,  to  dare  the  whole  strength  of  the  Turkish 
empire.  After  a  fierce  resistance,  he  was  captured  and  conveyed  a 
prisoner  to  Adrianople  ;  on  his  road,  he  learned  that  Stanislaus,  whom 
he  had  raised  to  the  throne  of  Poland,  was  likewise  a  Turkish  cajiuve  ; 
but,  buoyed  up  by  ardent  hopes,  he  sent  a  message  to  his  fellow-suffer- 
er, never  to  make  peace  with  Augustus.  Another  revolution  in  the 
divan  revived  the  hopes  of  Charles,  and  induced  him  to  remain  in 
Turkey,  when  his  return  to  the  North  would  probably  have  restored 
him  to  his  former  eminence.  The  Swedes,  under  General  Steenbock, 
oained  one  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  that  had  been  obtained  during 
the  war,  over  the  united  forces  of  the  Danes  and  Saxons,  at  Gadebusch, 
in  the  dutchy  of  Mecklenburg  ;  but  the  conqueror  sullied  his  fame  by 
burning  the  defenceless  town  of  Altona,  an  outrage  which  excited  the 
indignation  of  all  Europe.  This,  however,  was  the  last  service  that 
Steenbock  could  perform  to  his  absent  master  ;  unable  to  prevent  the 
junction  of  the  Russians  with  the  Danes  and  Saxons,  he  retreated  be- 
fore superior  numbers,  and,  by  the  artifices  of  Baron  Goertz,  obtained 
temporary  refuge  in  a  fortress  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Holstein.  The 
allies,  however,  pursued  their  advantages  so  vigorously  that  Steenbock 
and  his  followers  were  forced  to  yield  themselves  prisoners  of  war. 
Goertz,  however,  in  some  degree  averted  the  consequences  of  this 
calamity  by  a  series  of  political  intrigues,  which  excited  various  jeal- 
ousies and  discordant  interests  between  the  several  enemies  of  Sweden 

The  czar  in  the  meantime  pushed  forward  his  conquests  on  the 
side  of  Finland  ;  and  the  glory  of  his  reign  appeared  to  be  consumma- 
ted by  a  naval  victory  obtained  over  the  Swedes  near  the  island  of 
Oeland  (a.  d.  1714).  This  unusual  success  was  celebrated  by  a 
triumphal  entry  into  St.  Peterburgh,  at  which  Peter  addressed  his 
suDjects  on  the  magnitude  of  the  advantages  they  had  derived  from  his 
government.  Charles  heard  of  his  rival's  progress  unmo^-'«d  ;  but  when 
he  learned  that  the  Swedish  senate  intended  to  make  his  s>.ster  regent, 
and  to  make  peace  with  Russia  and  Denmark,  he  announced  his 
intention  of  returning  home.  lie  was  honorably  escorted  to  the 
Turkish  frontiers  ;  but  though  orders  had  been  given  that  he  should  be 
received  with  all  due  honor  in  the  imperial  dominions,  he  traversed 
Germany  incognito,  and  toward  the  close  of  the  year  reached  Stralsund, 
the  capital  of  Swedish  Ponierania. 

Charles,  at  the  opening  of  the  next  campaign,  found  himself  sur- 
rounded with  enemies  (a.  d.  1715).  Stralsund  itself  was  besieged 
by  the  united  armies  of  the  Prussians,  Danes,  and  Saxons,  while  the 
Russian  fleet,  which  now  rode  triumphant  in  the  Baltic,  threatened  a 
descent   upon    Sweden.       After   an  obstinate   defence,  in  which  the 


AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE.        597 

Swedish  monarch  displayed  all  his  accustomed  bravery,  Stralsund  was 
'breed  to  capitulate,  Charles  having  previously  escaped  in  a  small 
vessel  to  his  native  shores.  All  Europe  believed  the  Swedish  mon- 
arch undone ;  it  was  supposed  that  he  could  no  longer  defend  his  own 
dominions,  when  to  the  inexpressible  astonishment  of  every  one,  it  was 
announced  that  he  had  invaded  Norway.  His  attention,  however, 
was  less  engaged  by  the  war  than  by  the  gigantic  intrigues  of  his  new 
favoiHe  Goertz,  who,  taking  advantage  of  a  coolness  between  the 
Russians  and  the  other  enemies  of  Sweden,  proposed  that  Peter  and 
Charles  should  unite  in  strict  amity,  and  dictate  the  law  to  Europe.  A 
part  of  this  daring  plan  was  the  removal  of  the  elector  of  Hanover  from 
the  English  throne,  and  the  restoration  of  the  exiled  Stuarts.  But  while 
the  negotiations  were  yet  in  progress,  Charles  invaded  Norway  a  second 
time,  and  invested  the  castle  of  Frederickshall  in  the  very  depth  of 
winter.  But  while  engaged  in  viewing  the  works,  he  was  struck  bv  a 
cannon-ball,  and  was  dead  before  any  of  his  attendants  came  to  his 
assistance  (a.  d.  1718).*  The  Swedish  senate  showed  little  grief  for 
the  loss  of  the  warlike  king  ;  on  the  first  news  of  his  death,  his 
favorite,  Baron  Goertz,  was  arrested,  brought  to  trial,  and  put  to  death 
on  a  ridiculous  charge  of  treason.  The  crown  was  conferred  upon  the 
late  king's  sister,  but  she  soon  resigned  it  to  her  husband,  the  prince 
of  Hesse,  both  being  compelled  to  swear  that  they  never  would  attempt 

•  Dr.  Johnson's  character  of  Charles  XII.  is  the  best  comment  on  the  life  of  tJial 
aJventuroua  warrior : — 

"  On  what  foundation  stands  the  warrior's  priae, 
How  just  his  hopes,  let  Swedish  Charles  decide  ; 
A  frame  of  adamant,  a  soul  of  fire. 
No  dangers  fright  him,  and  no  labors  tire ; 
O'er  love,  o'er  fear,  extends  his  wide  domain, 
Unconquered  lord  of  pleasure  and  of  pain ; 
No  joys  to  him  pacific  sceptres  yield, 
War  sounds  the  trump,  he  rushes  to  the  field ; 
Behold  surrounded  kings  their  powers  combine. 
And  one  capitulate,  and  one  resign  ; 
Peace  courts  his  hand,  but  spreads  her  charms  in  vaia 
'  Think  nothing  gained,'  he  cries,  *  till  naught  remain 
On  Moscow's  walls,  till  Gothic  standards  fly, 
And  all  be  mine  beneath  the  polar  sky.' 
The  march  begins  in  military  state, 
And  nations  on  his  eye  suspended  wait ; 
Stern  famine  guards  the  solitary  coast, 
And  winter  barricades  the  realms  of  frost ; 
He  comes,  nor  want,  nor  cold,  his  course  delay  ; 
Hide,  blushing  Glory,  hide  Pultowa's  day : 
The  vanquished  hero  leaves  his  broken  bands, 
And  shows  his  miseries  in  distant  lands ; 
Condemned  a  needly  supplicant  to  wait 
While  ladies  interpose,  and  slaves  debate. 
But  did  not  chance  at  length  her  error  mend  ? 
Did  no  subverted  empire  mark  his  end  ? 
Did  rival  monarchs  give  the  fatal  wound  ? 
Or  hostile  millions  press  him  to  the  ground  ? 
His  fall  was  destined  to  a  barren  strand, 
A  petty  fortress,  and  a  dubious  hand ; 
He  left  the  name,  at  which  the  world  grew  puie 
To  point  a  moral,  or  adorn  a  tale." 


698 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


the  re-establishment  of  arbitrary  power.  Negotiations  for  peace  were 
commenced  with  all  the  hostile  powers,  and  treaties  concluded  with  all 
but  Russia  (a.  d.  1720).  The  appearance  of  an  English  fleet  in  the 
Baltic,  coming  to  aid  the  Swedish  squadron,  however,  finally  disposed 
the  czar  to  pacific  measures  ;  and  he  consented  to  grant  peace,  on  con- 
dition of  being  permitted  to  retain  Ingria,  Livonia,  and  part  of  FirJanJ 
(a.  d.  1721).  Thus  the  great  northren  war  terminated,  just  as  it  wij) 
iibout  to  be  connected  with  the  politics  of  southern  Europe 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAL  SYSTEM  59!) 


CHAPTER  VIII, 

GROWTH  OF  THE   MERCANTH^E   AND   COLONIAL 

SYSTEM. 

Section  I. — Estabiiskmeiit  ofUie  Hanoverian  Siiccession  in  Eri^lo.7U.L 

During  the  wars  that  had  been  waged  against  Louis  XIV.,  the  funding 
system  was  established  in  England  ;  it  commenced  by  the  founding  of 
a  national  bank  (a.  d.  1694),  which  lent  its  capital  to  the  government 
at  a  lower  rate  of  interest  than  was  then  usual.  Further  loans  were 
contracted  to  support  the  exigences  of  the  wars  ;  parliament  guarantied 
he  payment  of  the  interest,  without  entering  into  any  obligation  td 
restore  the  capital,  which  was  transferable  to  any  one.  The  gradual 
extension  of  the  wealth  of  the  nation  facilitated  the  growth  of  this 
system,  which  soon  gave  England  commanding  influence  on  the  con- 
tinent. The  facilities  of  raising  money  possessed  by  the  English 
government  enabled  it  to  conclude  subsidiary  treaties,  and  set  the 
armies  of  allied  states  in  motion.  Internally  the  funding  system 
wrought  a  still  greater  change  ;  a  great  portion  of  the  political  influ- 
ence previously  possessed  by  the  landed  aristocracy  was  transferred  to 
large  capitalists  and  manufacturers  ;  the  banking  and  funding  systems 
afforded  great  facilities  for  accumulating  the  profits  of  industry,  and 
thus  fostered  the  growth  of  an  intelligent  and  opulent  middle  class, 
whose  strength  was  soon  displayed  in  the  increasing  importance  of  the 
house  of  commons.  Even  at  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the  mercantile 
system  began  to  manifest  itself  in  all  its  strength.  Grants  of  com- 
mercial privileges  were  made  the  conditions  of  peace  with  the 
maritime  powers,  and  territorial  concessions  were  made  with  a  regard 
to  the  interests  of  trade  rather  than  power.  Justly  as  the  British 
aegotiators  at  Utrecht  may  be  blamed  for  not  taking  sufficient  advan- 
tage of  the  position  in  which  tn«.ir  country  was  placed  by  the  victories 
of  Marlborough,  it  is  undeniable  that  the  treaty  they  concluded  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  commercial  superiority  of  England  ;  it  also  contained 
ibe  germes  of  two  future  wars,  but  these  consequences  were  slowly 
developed ;  avid  at  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
"epublic  of  Holland  was  still  the  first  commercial  state  in  Europe. 

The  accession  of  George  I.  produced  a  complete  change  in  the 
Knglish  administration ;  the  tories  were  dismissed  with  harshness,  the 
wl)igs  were  the  sole  possessors  of  office,  and  on  the  new  election  con- 
sequent on  the  demise  of  the  crown,  they  obtained  a  decided  majority 
■j\  parhament.      Unfortunately  they  used  their  power  to  crush  iheii 


BOO  MODERN  HISTORY. 

political  adversaries  ;  the  chiefs  of  the  late  ministry  were  impeached 
lor  high  treason,  and  their  prosecution  was  hurried  forward  so  vindic- 
tively, that  Lords  BoHngbroke  and  Ormond  fled  to  the  continent. 
This  seemed  a  favorable  moment  to  make  an  effort  in  favor  of  the 
exiled  Stuarts,  but  Louis  XIV.,  broken  down  by  age,  infirmities,  and 
misfortune,  was  unwilling  to  hazard  a  new  war,  which  might  disturb 
the  minority  of  his  great-grandsou,  *br  in  consequence  of  the  mortaHty 
in  the  royal  family,  this  remote  descendant  was  destined  to  be  hit 
successor.  The  death  of  Louis  (Sept.  1,  1715)  further  disconcerted  the 
project?  of  the  Pretender  and  his  adherents  ;  the  duke  of  Orleans,  who 
was  chosen  regent  by  "he  parliament  of  Paris  during  the  minority  o^ 
Louis  XV.,  adopted  every  suggestion  of  the  English  ambassador,  the 
earl  of  Stair,  for  counteracting  the  designs  of  the  Jacobites ;  and  he 
did  them  irreparable  injury  by  seizing  some  ships  laden  with  arms  and 
ammunition,  at  a  time  when  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  purchase  any 
'resh  supply.  The  Jacobites,  however,  persevered,  and  a  plan  was 
"ormed  for  a  general  insurrection  ;  but  this  was  defeated  by  the  Pit- 
ender's  imprudence,  who  prematurely  gave  the  earl  of  Mar  a  commis- 
sion to  raise  his  standard  in  Scotland.  The  earl  of  Mar  possessed 
considerable  influence  in  the  highland  counties  ;  no  sooner  had  he  pro- 
claimed the  Pretender,  under  the  title  of  James  III.,  than  the  clans 
crowded  to  his  standard,  and  he  was  soon  at  the  head  of  nine  thousand 
men,  including  several  noblemen  and  persons  of  distinction.  Thus 
supported,  he  made  himself  master  of  Perth,  and  established  his  authori- 
ty in  almost  all  that  part  of  Scotland  which  lies  north  of  the  Frith  of 
Forth.  In  the  meantime  the  government  M'as  alarmed ;  the  Jacobite 
leaders  who  had  agreed  to  raise  the  west  of  England  were  taken  into 
custody,  and  the  duke  of  Argyle  was  sent  against  Mar  with  till  the  forces 
of  North  Britain.  An  ill-contrived  and  worse  executed  insurrection  of 
the  Jacobites  exploded  in  the  north  of  England  ;  its  leaders,  the  earl  of 
Derwentwater,  Lord  Widdrington,  and  Mr.  Foster,  a  Northumbrian 
gentleman  of  great  influence,  were  joined  by  several  Scottish  lords  and 
a  body  of  Highland  infantry.  But  being  unable  to  agree  upon  any 
rational  pl?n  of  operations,  they  were  surrounded  by  the  royal  forces  in 
the  town  oi  Preston,  and  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion.  It  would 
have  been  better  for  the  character  of  the  government  had  lenity  been 
shown  to  these  unhappy  men,  but  unfortunately  most  of  the  leaders 
were  doomed  to  suffer  the  penalties  of  high  treason. 

In  the  meantime  the  earl  of  Mar  had  fought  an  indecisive  battle  with 
the  duke  of  Argyle,  which  proved  nevertheless  ruinous  to  the  Pretend- 
er's cause.  Many  who  had  been  previously  in  doubt,  declared  for  the 
royal  cause,  and  several  of  the  insurgent  leaders  returned  to  their  alle- 
giance. In  this  desperate  state  of  his  aflairs,  the  Pretender  landed 
with  a  small  train  in  Scotland  ;  but  finding  his  cause  hopeless,  he  re- 
lurned  to  France  with  such  of  the  leaders  as  did  not  expect  pardon 
and  the  whole  country  quietly  submitted  to  the  duke  of  Argyle. 

Before  entering  on  the  singular  changes  wrought  by  the  policy  of 
;lie  duke  of  Orleans  in  Europe,  it  will  be  convenient  to  cast  a  brief 
glance  at  the  aff'airs  of  Russia  and  Turkey.  No  sooner  had  Peter  the 
Great  concluded  peace  with  Sweden  than  he  assumed  the  title  of  em- 
peror, with  the  consent  of  all  the  European  powers.     Bv  sending  ar. 


MERCANTILE  AND  CULONIAi.  SYSTEM  601 

feuxiliaiy  force  to  aid  the  lawful  sovereign  of  Persia  against  an  Afgltar, 
usurper,  ha  obtained  the  cession  of  the  provinces  on  the  south  and  west 
of  the  Caspian  sea  ;  and,  while  he  thus  extended  his  dominions,  he  did 
not  neglect  their  internal  improvement,  but  constructed  canals,  planned 
roads,  and  established  manufactories.  But  Peter's  own  character  re- 
tained many  traces  of  barbarism,  and  his  treatment  of  his  eldest  son, 
Alexis,  excited  general  horror.  This  unfortunate  prince  is  said  to  have 
been  induced  by  some  of  the  Russian  priests  and  boyars  to  promise 
that  in  the  event  of  his  accession,  he  would  restore  the  old  state  of 
things,  and  abolish  the  new  institutions  of  his  father.  He  was  arrested 
and  forced  to  sign  an  abdication  of  the  crown ;  soon  after  this,  he  died 
in  prison,  but  whether  violent  means  were  used  to  accelerate  his  end, 
has  never  been  satisfactorily  ascertained.  The  second  son  of  the 
Russian  emperor  died  in  infancy,  and  Peter  chose  hi?  emperess  as  his 
successor.  He  assisted  at  her  coronation  after  his  return  from  the 
Persian  war;  and  on  his  death  (a.  d.  1725)  she  became  emperess  of  all 
the  Russias,  and  by  the  excellence  of  her  administration  justified  the 
choice  of  her  illustrious  husband. 

The  Turks  were  enraged  at  the  diminution  of  their  national  glory  in 
the  war  that  was  terminated  by  the  treaty  of  Carlowitz,  and  eagerly 
longed  for  an  opportunity  of  retrieving  their  lost  honor.  Ahmed  III., 
the  most  warlike  sultan  that  had  recently  filled  the  throne,  was  far  from 
being  displeased  by  their  martial  zeal,  and  he  took  the  earliest  opportu- 
nity of  declaring  war  against  the  Venetians,  whom  he  expelled  from 
the  Morea  in  a  single  campaign  (a.  d.  1715).  The  emperor,  Charles 
VI.,  was  solicited  by  the  pope  to  check  the  progress  of  the  Mohamme- 
dans ;  he  therefore  interfered,  as  protector  of  the  treaty  of  Carlowitz  ;  but 
finding  his  remonstrances  disregarded,  he  assembled  a  powerful  army, 
and  published  a  declaration  of  war  (a.  d.  1716).  Prince  Eugene,  at 
the  head  of  the  imperialists,  crossed  the  Danube,  and  attacked  the 
forces  of  the  grand  vizier,  near  Peterwaradin.  He  gained  a  complete 
victory,  twenty-five  thousand  of  the  Turks  were  either  killed  or  drown- 
ed, while  the  loss  of  the  Austrians  did  not  exceed  one  fifth  of  that  num- 
ber. In  the  ensuing  campaign,  the  prince  laid  siege  to  Belgrade,  and 
having  defeated  with  great  slaughter  the  vast  Turkish  army  that  march- 
ed to  its  relief,  became  master  of  that  important  fortress.  The  conse- 
quence of  these  victories  was  the  p?>ace  of  Passarowitz  (a.  d.  1718)  by 
which  Austria  and  Russia  gained  considerable  acquisitions ;  but  the 
republic  of  Venice,  for  whose  sake  the  war  was  ostensibly  undertaken 
did  not  recover  its  possessions  in  Greece,  and  found  its  interests  neg 
lected  by  its  more  potent  allies. 

These  wars  were  very  remotedly  connected  with  the  political  con 
iition  of  southern  Europe,  which  now  depended  entirely  on  the  main 
tenance  of  the  terms  of  ihe  peace  of  Utrecht.  Several  powers  were 
interested  in  their  preservation;  England's  flourishing  commerce  de- 
pended in  many  essential  particulars  on  the  articles  of  the  treaty  ;  they 
wore  the  best  security  to  Austria,  for  the  provinces  lately  ceded  in 
Italy;  and  the  Dutch,  unable  or  unwilling  to  garrison  the  barrier  towns, 
"elt  that  peace  was  necessary  to  their  security.  But  above  all,  the  re- 
gent of  France  believed  that  this  treaty  was  the  sole  support  of  his 
power,  since  it  involved  the  Spanish  king's  renunciation  of  his  claims 


60*2  MODERN   HISTORY. 

lo  the  French  crown.  Altogether  opposed  to  these  views  were  the  do 
signs  of  the  court  of  Spain  ;  the  marriage  of  PhiUp  to  Elizabeth  Fur 
nese,  heiress  to  the  d'itchies  of  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Tuscany,  inspired 
him  with  the  hope  of  recovering  the  provinces  that  had  been  severed 
from  the  Spanish  monarchy  ;  his  prime  minister,  Cardinal  Alberoni, 
flattered  him  with  hopes  of  success,  and  at  the  same  time  diligently  la- 
bored to  improve  the  financial  condition  of  the  country.  Alberoni's 
projects  included  an  entire  change  in  the  political  system  of  Europe ; 
he  designed  to  reconquer  Sardinia  and  Sicily  for  Spain  ;  to  place 
James  III.  on  the  throne  of  England  by  the  aid  of  the  Russian  emperor 
and  the  king  of  Sweden  ;  to  prevent  the  interference  of  tb^^  (^mperor,  by 
engaging  the  Turks  to  assail  his  dominions.  Pope  Clement  XL,  a 
weak  and  stupid  pontifT,  could  not  comprehend  the  merits  of  Alberoni's 
schemes  ;  he  refused  to  pay  the  ecclesiastical  subsidies  to  Philip  V., 
and  before  the  ambitious  cardinal  could  further  develop  his  schemes, 
the  Quadruple  Alliance  was  formed  by  the  alarmed  potentates  of  Eu- 
rope, and  Philip  V.,  was  forced  to  dismiss  his  intriguing  minister. 
The  pope  had  the  mortification  to  find  that  his  interests  were  totally 
disregarded  in  the  new  arrangements  made  for  preserving  the  tranquilli- 
ty of  Europe  ;  his  superiorities  in  Parma  and  Placentia  formed  part  of 
the  bribe  tendered  to  the  court  of  Spain  by  the  rulers  of  France  and 
Germany  ;  he  remonstrated  loudly,  but,  in  spite  of  his  efTorts,  they  were 
accepted  and  retained. 

On  the  death  of  Clement  XL,  Alberoni  became  a  candidate  for  the 
papacy,  and  was  very  near  being  elected.  Fortunately  for  the  per- 
manency of  Romish  power,  this  violent  prelate  was  excluded  from  the 
chair  of  St.  Peter,  and  Innocent  XIIL  was  chosen.  During  his  pontifi- 
cate the  society  of  freemasons  began  to  be  regarded  with  suspicion  by 
the  heads  of  the  church,  especially  as  several  other  secret  associations 
were  formed  in  Germany  and  Italy  for  the  propagation  of  what  were 
called  philosophical  tenets  ;  but  these  doctrines  were,  in  reality,  not 
only  hostile  to  popery,  but  subversive  of  all  religion  and  morality. 
Though  Austria,  France,  England,  and  Holland,  united  against  the 
dangerous  schemes  of  Alberoni,  and  formed  the  Quadruple  Alliance 
(a.  d.  1716),  yet  the  cardinal  steadily  pursued  Lis  course,  and  war  wa-3 
proclaimed  against  Spain  by  France  and  England. 

The  strength  of  Spain,  exhausted  by  the  war  of  the  succession,  could 
not  resist  this  powerful  combination  ;  the  English  fleet  rode  triumphant 
in  the  Mediterranean  ;  a  German  army  expelled  the  Spaniards  from 
Sicily  ;  the  French,  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of  Berwick,  inva- 
ded Spain,  and  captured  several  important  fortresses  ;  the  duke  of  Or- 
luond  failed  in  his  attempt  to  land  a  Spanish  army  in  Great  Britain  : 
and  Philip,  completely  subdued,  dismissed  Alberoni  (a.  d.  1720),  and 
acceded  to  the  terms  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance. 

During  this  war,  France  and  England  were  involved  in  great 
financial  difficulties,  by  the  Mississippi  scheme  in  one  country,  and  the 
South  sea  speculation  in  the  other.  A  Scotch  adventurer,  named  Law 
proposed  a  plan  to  the  regent  of  France  for  speedily  paying  off'  the  vast 
national  debt,  and  delivering  the  revenue  from  the  enormous  interest  by 
which  it  was  overwhelmed.  He  effected  this  by  an  extraordinary  issue 
of  paper,  on  the  security  of  the  Mississippi  company,  from  whose  com 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAL  SYSTEM.  602 

r.iercial  speculations  tho  most  extravagant  results  were  expected.  So 
raoid  was  his  success,  that  in  1719,  the  nominal  value  of  the  funds  was 
eighty  times  greater  than  the  real  value  of  all  the  current  coin  of  the 
realm.  This  immense  disproportion  soon  excited  alarm  ;  when  the 
nolders  of  the  notes  tried  to  convert  them  into  money,  there  was  no 
specie  to  meet  the  demands,  and  the  result  was  a  general  bankruptcy. 
Some  efforts  were  made  by  the  government  to  remedy  this  calamity, 
but  the  evil  admitted  only  of  slight  palliation,  and  thousands  were  com- 
pletely ruined. 

The  South  sea  scheme,  projected  by  Sir  John  Blount,  in  England, 
-vas  a  close  imitation  of  Law's  plan.  He  proposed  that  the  South  sea 
company,  to  which  great  commercial  advantages  had  been  secured  by 
the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  should  become  the  sole  creditor  of  the  nation  ; 
and  facilities  were  offered  to  the  owners  of  stock  to  exchange  the  se- 
curity of  the  crown  for  that  of  the  South  sea  company.  Never  did  so 
wild  a  scheme  meet  such  sudden  success  ;  South  sea  stock  in  a  short 
time  rose  to  ten  times  its  original  value  ;  new  speculations  were  started, 
and  for  a  time  had  similar  popularity  ;  but  when  suspicion  was  excited 
and  some  cautious  holders  of  stock  began  to  sell,  a  universal  panic  suc- 
ceeded to  the  general  delusion.  By  the  prompt  interference  of  parlia- 
ment a  general  bankruptcy  was  averted,  and  the  chief  contrivers  of  the 
fraud,  including  many  individuals  of  rank  and  station,  were  punished, 
and  their  estates  sequestrated  for  the  benefit  of  the  sufferers 

The  confusion  occasioned  by  the  South  sea  scheme  encouraged  the 
Jacobites  to  make  another  effort  in  favor  of  the  Stuarts  (a.  d.  1722). 
But  their  plans  were  discovered,  a  gentleman  named  Layer  was  capi- 
tally punished  for  enlisting  men  in  the  service  of  the  Pretender,  and 
Dr.  Atterbury,  bishop  of  Rochester,  the  soul  of  his  party,  was  exiled. 

Fortunately  for  the  repose  of  Europe,  the  prime  ministers  of  France 
and  England,  Cardinal  Fleury,  who  succeeded  tr  power  soon  after  the 
death  of  the  duke  of  Orleans,  and  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  were  both  bent 
on  the  preservation  of  peace,  and  for  nearly  twenty  years  they  prevent- 
ed any  active  hostilities.  Walpole's  administration,  however,  began  to 
lose  its  popularity,  on  account  of  his  not  gratifying  the  national  hatred 
against  Spain.  A  powerful  opposition  was  formed  against  him,  com- 
posed of  the  old  tories,  and  some  disappointed  courtiers,  which  he  con- 
tended against  by  unbounded  parliamentary  corruption.  The  death  of 
George  L  (a.  d.  1727)  made  no  change  in  the  position  of  parties,  foi 
George  IL  intrusted  Walpole  with  the  same  power  he  had  enjoyed 
under  his  father. 

The  emperor  Charles,  having  no  prospect  of  male  issue,  was  natu- 
rally anxious  to  secure  the  peaceful  succession  of  his  daughter,  Maria 
Theresa,  to  his  hereditary,  dominions  ;  and  for  this  purpose  he  prepared 
a  solemn  law,  called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  procured  its  coniirma- 
tion  by  the  principal  states  of  Europe.  The  guarantee  of  France  was 
not  obtained  without  war.  Stanislaus  Leczinski,  father-in-law  to  the 
French  moudrch,  was  elected  king  of  Poland,  but  was  dethroned  by  the 
influence  of  the  German  powers  (a.  d.  1733).  To  avenge  this  insult, 
the  French  king  formed  a  league  with  the  courts  of  Spain  and  Sardinia 
against  the  emperor ;  and,  after  a  brief  struggle,  the  court  of  Vienna 
was  forced  to  purchase  peace  bv  considerable  sacrifices.     The  succeat 


604 


MODERN  H18T0HV. 


of  the  Russians  unJer  the  reign  of  the  eniperess  Anie,  niece  tc  Petei 
the  Great,  against  the  Turks,  induced  the  German  emperor  to  commence 
a  second  unfortunate  war.  Scarcely  was  it  concluded,  when  the  death 
of  Charles  (a.  d.  1740)  involved  Europe  in  the  contentions  of  a  new 
disputed  succession. 

Sir  Robert  Walpole  had  long  preserved  England  at  peace  ;  but  the 
hiterested  clamors  of  some  nierchants  engaged  in  a  contraband  trade 
M'ith  the  Spanish  colonies,  compelled  him  to  commence  hostilities  (a.  d. 
1739).  Admiral  Vernon,  with  a  small  force,  captured  the  important 
city  of  Porto  Bello,  on  the  American  isthmus.  This  success  induced 
the  minister  to  send  out  large  armaments  against  the  Spanish  colonies 
Vernon  with  a  fleet,  and  Lord  Cathcart  with  a  numerous  army,  under 
Uiok  to  assail  Spanish  America  on  the  side  of  the  Atlantic,  while  Com- 
mjdore  Anson  sailed  round  Cape  Horn  to  ravage  the  coasts  of  Chili 
and  Peru.  The  death  of  Lord  Cathcart  frustrated  these  arrangement-:> , 
he  was  succeeded  by  General  Wentworth,  an  oflicer  of  little  experience, 
and  very  jealous  of  Vernon's  popularity.  An  attack  was  made  on 
Carthagena,  but  it  failed  lamentably,  owing  to  the  disputes  between  the 
naval  and  military  commanders.  Both  were  reinforced  from  England, 
but  they  effected  nothing  of  any  importance,  and  returned  home  after 
more  than  fifteen  thousand  of  their  men  had  fallen  victims  to  the 
climate.  Anson,  in  the  meantime,  encountered  such  a  severe  storm  in 
rounding  Cape  Horn,  that  two  of  his  ships  were  forced  to  return,  and 
one  was  lost.  His  diminished  squadron,  however,  took  several  prizes 
off  the  coast  of  Chili,  and  plundered  the  town  of  Paita,  in  Peru.  His 
^orce  was  finally  reduced  to  one  ship,  but  with  this  he  captured  the 
Spanish  galleon,  laden  with  treasure,  that  sailed  annually  from  Acapul- 
co  to  Manilla.  He  then  returned  to  England  trimnphant ;  but  the  losa 
at  Carthagena  was  so  severely  felt,  that  the  English  would  not  venture 
to  renew  their  enterprises  against  Spanish  America. 

Scarcely  had  Maria  Theresa  succeeded  her  father,  the  emperor 
Charles,  when  she  found  herself  surrounded  by  a  host  of  enemies. 
The  elector  of  Bavaria  laid  claim  to  Bohemia  ;  the  king  of  Sardinia 
revived  some  obsolete  pretensions  to  the  dutchy  of  Milan ;  while  the 
kings  of  Poland,  Spain,  and  France,  exhibited  claims  to  the  whole 
Austrian  succession.  An  unexpected  claimant  gave  the  first  signal  for 
war.  Frederic  HL,  who  had  just  ascended  the  Prussian  throne,  in- 
herited from  his  father  a  rich  treasury  and  a  well-appointed  army. 
Relying  on  the  goodness  of  his  troops  rather  than  the  goodness  of  his 
cause,  he  entered  Silesia,  and  soon  conquered  that  fine  province  (a.  d. 
1741).  At  the  same  time  he  offered  to  support  Maria  Theresa  against 
all  competitors,  on  the  condition  of  being  permitted  to  retain  his  acquis- 
itna.  The  princess  steadily  refused,  though  she  knew  that  France 
was  arming  against  her,  and  that  her  enemies  had  resolved  to  elevate 
Charles  Albert,  elector  of  Bavaria,  to  the  empire.  The  forces  of  the 
king  of  France  entered  Germany,  and  being  joined  by  the  Bavariac 
army,  made  sev'eral  important  conquests,  and  even  threatened  Vienna 
but  Maria  Theresa,  repairing  to  Presburg,  convened  the  states  of  Hun 
gary,  and  appearing  before  them  with  her  infant  son  in  her  arms,  madr 
such  an  eloquent  appeal,  that  the  nobles  with  one  accord  exclaimed 
*  We  will  die  for  our  Kixg,  Marin  Theresa."     Nor  was  this  a  moment 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAL  SYSTEM.  005 

aiy  burst  of  passion  ;  they  raised  a  powerful  army  for  the  defence  ol 
their  young  and  beautiful  princess,  and  a  subsidy  was  at  the  same  time 
voted  to  her  by  the  British  parliament.  So  great  was  the  attachment 
of  the  English  people  to  her  cause,  that  the  pacific  S'r  Robert  Walpole 
was  forced  V)  resigTi,  and  a  new  administration  was  formed  by  his  politi- 
cal rivals. 

The  new  ministers  had  been  raised  to  power  by  a  sudden  burst  of 
popular  enthusiasm,  but  they  sooi?  showed  themselves  unworthy  of  the 
nation's  confidence.  They  took  the  lead  in  suppressing  the  measures 
which  they  had  themselves  declared  necessary  to  the  security  of  the 
constitution,  and  they  far  outstripped  their  predecessors  in  supporting 
German  subsidies,  standing  armies,  and  continental  connexions,  which 
had  been  so  long  the  theme  of  their  severest  censure.  They  augmented 
the  army,  sent  a  large  body  of  troops  into  the  Netherlands  under  the 
command  of  the  earl  of  Stair,  and  granted  subsidies  to  the  Danes,  the 
Hessians,  and  the  Austrians.  The  French  had  some  hopes  of  gaining 
the  support  of  the  Russians,  who  were  now  ruled  by  the  emperess  Eliz- 
abeth. On  the  death  of  the  emperess  Anne,  her  niece,  the  princess  of 
Mecklcnburgh,  assumed  the  government,  as  guardian  of  her  son  John. 
But  the  partiality  that  the  regent  showed  for  her  German  countrymen 
displeased  the  Russian  nobles  ;  their  discontents  were  artfully  increased 
by  a  French  physician  named  Lestocq  ;  a  bloodless  insurrection  led  to 
the  deposition  of  the  Alecklenburgh  princess,  and  Elizabeth,  the  daugh- 
ter of  Peter  the  Great,  was  raised  to  the  throne.  She  found  the  country 
involved  in  a  war  with  Sweden,  which  she  brought  to  a  successful  is- 
sue, and  secured  the  inheritance  to  the  Swedish  crown  for  her  favorite, 
Adolphus,  bishop  of  Lubeck.  Though  the  czarina  owed  her  elevation 
in  a  great  degree  to  French  intrigue,  she  was  inclined  to  support  the 
Austrian  cause  ;  but  she  did  not  interfere  in  the  contest  until  she  had 
completed  all  her  arrangements. 

The  republic  of  Holland  showed  still  more  reluctance  to  engage  in 
the  war ;  and  the  English  army  in  the  Netherlands,  deprived  of  the  ex- 
pected Dutch  aid,  remained  inactive.  In  Germany,  the  Bavarian  elec- 
tor was  driven  not  only  from  his  conquests,  but  from  his  hereditary  do- 
minions,* while  the  king  of  Prussia  took  advantage  of  a  brilliant  victory 
to  conclude  a  treaty  with  Maria  Theresa,  by  which  he  was  secured  in 
tlie  possession  of  Silesia.     The  French  army,  thus  deprived  of  its  moat 

'  Dr.  Johnson  has  powerfully  described  the  fate  of  this  unfortunate  prince  ;  — 

"■  The  bold  Bavarian,  in  a  luckless  hour, 

Fries  the  dread  summits  of  Coesarean  power, 

Wit'i  unexpected  legions  bursts  away, 

And  sees  defenceless  realms  receive  his  sway  : 

Short  sway  !  fair  Austria  spreads  her  mournful  charm.?. 

The  '[ueen,  the  beauty,  sjts  tiie  world  in  arms; 

From  hill  to  hill  tlie  beacons'  rousins  bia/e 

Spreads  wide  the  hope  of  plunder  and  of  praise; 

The  fierce  Cioatian  and  the  wild  hussar, 

With  all  the  sons  of  ravage,  crowd  the  war; 

The  baffled  prince,  in  honor's  flattering  bloom, 

Of  hasty  greatness  finds  the  fatal  doom; 

His  foes'  derision,  anil  his  subjects'  blame, 

And  steals  to  death,  from  ^jiguish  and  from  sh^iao.'' 


606  MODERN   HIST0R7 

poweriul  ally,  must  have  been  ruined  but  for  the  abilities  of  its  t  eneral,  tht 
count  de  Bellisle,  who  effected  one  of  the  most  masterly  retreats  record 
ed  in  history,  from  the  centre  of  Bohemia  to  the  frontiers  of  Alsace. 
The  Spaniards  failed  in  their  attacks  on  the  imperial  territories  in  Italy, 
chiefly  owing  to  the  activity  of  the  English  fleets  in  the  Mediterranean; 
and  the  court  of  Versailles,  disheartened  by  these  repeated  failures, 
made  proposals  of  peace.  Maria  Theresa,  intoxicated  Jivith  success,  re- 
jected all  the  proffered  eonditions  (a.  d.  1743).  She  urged  forward  her 
armaments  with  such  vigor,  that  the  French  were  driven  to  the  Rhine, 
and  the  unfortunate  elector  of  Bavaria,  abandoned  by  his  allies,  and 
stripped  of  his  dominions,  sought  refuge  in  Frankfort,  where  he  lived  in 
indigence  and  obscurity.  The  errors  of  the  French  in  inlanders  led  to 
their  defeat  at  Dettingen,  just  when  a  little  caution  wouU  have  insured 
the  ruin  of  the  English  and  Austrians.  But  the  allies  made  no  use  of 
their  victory,  owing  to  the  irresolution  of  George  II.,  who  took  the  man- 
agement of  tlie  campaign  into  his  own  hands,  and  superseded  the  earl  of 
Stair.  The  war  lingered  in  Italy,  but  the  haughtiness  and  ambition  of 
the  emperess  began  to  excite  the  secret  jealousy  of  the  German  princes  ; 
and  the  French  and  Spanish  courts,  alarmed  by  her  treaty  with  the 
king  of  Sardinia,  drew  their  alliance  closer  by  the  celebrated  Family 
Compact,  which  bound  them  to  maintain  the  integrity  of  each  other's 
dominions. 

England  had  now  become  a  principal  in  the  war,  and  the  monarchs 
of  France  and  Spain  resolved  to  invade  that  country,  and  remove  the 
Hanoverian  dynasty.  A  powerful  army  was  assembled,  and  a  fleet  pre- 
pared to  protect  the  transports ;  but  the  French  ships  were  shattered  in 
a  storm,  and  forced  to  take  refuge  in  Brest  from  a  superior  English  force 
(a.  d.  1744).  The  English  navy  w^as  less  successful  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean :  tiie  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain  were  met  by  the  British 
admirals,  INIatthews  and  Lestock  ;  but  owing  to  the  misconduct  of  some 
captains,  and  Lestock's  remaining  aloof  with  his  whole  division,  the  re 
suit  of  the  engagement  was  indecisive.  It  is  a  sad  proof  of  the  violence 
and  injustice  of  faction,  that  when  these  officers  were  brought  to  trial, 
Matthews,  who  had  fought  like  a  hero,  was  condemned,  and  Lestock 
acquitted.  The  war  in  Italy  was  sanguinary,  but  indecisive.  In  Ger- 
many, however,  the  king  of  Prussia  once  more  took  up  arms  against 
Maria  Theresa,  and  invaded  Bohemia.  He  was  defeated  with  great 
loss,  and  forced  to  retire  precipitately  into  Silesia.  Soon  afterward, 
the  death  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria  removed  all  reasonable  grounds  for 
tliO  continuance  of  hostilities  ;  his  son,  who  had  no  pretensions  to  the 
empire,  concluded  a  treaty  with  Maria  Theresa,  and  promised  to  sup- 
jiort  the  election  of  her  husband,  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  to  the  im- 
perial dignity. 

But  the  national  animosity  between  the  French  ai>i  English  prevent- 
ed the  restoration  of  peace  (a.  d.  1745).  The  Austrians  were  completely 
vanquished  in  Italy  by  the  united  forces  of  the  French  and  Spaniards, 
vrhose  vast  superiority  of  numbers  could  not  be  insisted  ;  and  on  tire 
side  of  the  Netherlands,  the  misconduct  of  the  allies  gave  a  signal  tri- 
umph to  the  Bourbons.  The  French  army  under  Marshal  Saxe  was 
strongly  posted  at  Fontenoy,  but  was,  notwithstanding,  attacked  by  the 
Enelish,  Dutch,  and  Germans       In   few  battles  hass  the  valor  of  the 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAL  SVST^M.  607 

Bntish  infantry  been  displayed  more  signally  or  more  uselessly  Form- 
ing themselves  into  a  column,  they  bore  down  everything  before  them, 
until,  deserted  by  their  Dutch  and  German  auxiliaries,  they  were  out- 
flanked and  driven  back  by  the  entire  force  of  the  French  army.  The, 
loss  on  both  sides  was  nearly  equal  ;  but  though  the  victory  was  not 
decisive,  it  enabled  Marshal  Saxe  to  reduce  some  of  the  most  consider- 
able towns  in  the  Netherlands.  Tranquillity  was  restored  to  Germany 
by  the  election  of  the  grand  duke  of  Tuscany  to  the  empire,  under  the 
name  of  Francis  I. ;  and  about  the  same  time  Maria  Theresa,  as  queen 
of  Hungary,  concluded  the  treaty  of  Breslau  with  the  king  of  Prussia, 
and  thus  quieted  her  most  dangerous  enemy. 

The  discontent  occasioned  by  the  loss  at  Fontenoy  iiiduced  the  grand- 
son of  James  II.,  commonly  called  the  Yoimg  Pretender,  to  attempt  the 
restoration  of  his  family.  He  landed  in  Scotland  with  a  small  train,  but 
being  soon  joined  by  the  enthusiastic  Highland  clans,  he  descended  from 
the  mountains  and  marched  toward  Edinburgh.  The  city  surrendered 
without  any  attempt  at  resistance,  but  the  castle  still  held  out.  Sir 
John  Cope,  the  royal  commander  in  Scotland,  had  marched  northward 
to  raise  the  loyal  clans  ;  having  collected  some  reinforcements,  he  pro- 
ceeded from  Aberdeen  to  Dunbar  by  sea,  and  hearing  that  the  insurgents 
were  resolved,  to  hazard  a  battle,  he  encamped  at  Preston  Pans.  Here 
he  was  unexpectedly  attacked  by  the  Young  Pretender,  at  the  head  of 
about  three  thousand  undisciplined  and  half-armed  soldiers.  A  panic 
seized  the  royal  troops  ;  they  fled  with  the  most  disgraceful  precipita- 
tion, abandoning  all  their  baggage,  cannon,  and  camp-equipage,  to  their 
enemies. 

The  reduction  of  the  French  colony  of  Cape  Breton,  in  North  Amer- 
ica, had  revived  the  spirit  of  the  English  ;  and  the  time  that  the  Pre- 
tender wasted  in  idle  pageantry  at  Edinburgh  afforded  the  ministers  ai 
opportunity  of  bringing  over  some  regiments  from  Flanders.  Notwith- 
standing the  formidable  preparations  thus  made,  the  Pretender,  probably 
relying  on  promised  aid  from  France,  crossed  the  western  borders,  and 
took  Carlisle.  But  the  vigilance  of  Admiral  Vernon  prevented  the 
French  fleet  from  venturing  out ;  and  the  Pretender  having  failed  to 
raise  recruits  in  Lancashire,  and  unable  to  force  a  passage  into  Wales, 
baffled  the  royal  armies  by  an  unexpected  turn,  and  suddenly  marched 
to  Derby.  Had  he  continued  to  advance  boldly,  London  itself  might 
have  fallen  ;  but  he  delayed  at  Derby  until  he  was  nearly  enclosed  be- 
tween two  powerful  armies,  and  was  forced  either  to  retreat  or  to  hazard 
a  battle  on  very  disadvantageous  terms.  It  was  finally  determined  that 
tliey  should  return  to  Scotland,  and  this  retrograde  movement  was  efTect- 
cd  by  the  Highlanders  with  extraordinary  courage  and  expedition. 

This  retreat  did  not  produce  the  dispiriting  effect  on  the  insurgents 
that  had  been  anticipated.  The  Pretender's  forces  were  greatly  aug- 
mented after  his  return  to  Scotland  ;  but  finding  that  Edinburgh  had 
been  secured  by  the  royal  army  during  his  al)sence,  he  marched  to  Stir- 
ling, captured  the  town,  and  besieged  the  castle.  General  Hawley  was 
sent  with  a  strong  force  to  raise  the  siege,  but  despising  the  undisci- 
plined Highlanders,  he  acted  so  imprudently  that  he  suffered  a  complete 
defeat  near  Falkirk  (a.  d.  1746).  'Ihe  Pretender,  instead  of  foUowiny 
up  his  advantage,  returned  to  the  &iegeof  Stirling  castle,  while  the  royal 


608 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


army,  reinforced  by  fresh  troops,  was  placed  under  the  command  of  the 
duke  of  Cumberhmd,  a  prince  of  the  blood,  who,  though  by  no  means  u 
skilful  general,  was  a  great  favorite  with  the  soldi-ery.  The  insurgent 
army  retired  before  the  royal  troops  until  they  reached  CuUoden  Moor, 
where  they  resolved  to  make  a  stand.  Warned  by  the  errors  of  Cope 
and  Ilawley,  the  duke  of  Cumberland  took  the  most  prudent  precautions 
to  meet  the  desperate  charge  of  the  Highlanders  ;  they  rushed  on  with 
their  usual  impetuosity,  but  being  received  by  a  close  and  galling  fire 
()t  musketry,  while  their  ranks  were  torn  by  artillery,  they  wavered, 
broke,  and  in  less  than  thirty  minutes  were  a  helpless  mass  of  confu- 
sion. The  victors  gave  no  quarter :  many  of  the  insurgents  were  mur- 
dered in  cold  blood,  and  their  unfortunate  prince  was  only  saved  from 
capture  by  the  generous  devotion  of  one  of  his  adherents,  who  assured 
the  pursuers  that  he  was  himself  the  object  of  their  search. 

The  cruelties  of  the  royalists  after  their  victory  were  perfectly  dis- 
graceful ;  the  country  of  the  insurgent  clans  was  laid  waste  with  fir*^ 
and  sword  ;  the  men  were  hunted  like  wild  beasts  on  the  mountains,  the 
women  and  children,  driven  from  their  burned  huts,  perished  by  thou- 
sands on  the  barren  heaths.  When  all  traces  of  rebellion,  and  almost 
of  population,  had  disappeared,  the  duke  of  Cumberland  returned  to 
London,  leaving  a  large  body  of  troops  to  continue  the  pursuit  of  the 
surviving  fugitives.  During  five  months  the  young  Pretender  remained 
concealed  in  the  Highlands  and  Western  isles  of  Scotland,  though  a  re- 
ward of  thirty  thousand  pounds  was  set  on  his  head,  and  more  than  fifty 
persons  were  intrusted  with  his  secret.  At  length  he  escaped  on 
board  a  French  privateer,  and,  after  enduring  incredible  hardships, 
arrived  safely  in  Brittany.  I'he  vengeance  of  the  government  fell 
heavily  on  his  adherents  :  numbers  of  the  leaders  were  tried  and  exe- 
cuted, and  though  they  died  with  heroic  firmness,  their  fate  excited  little 
commiseration. 

In  the  meantime  the  French,  under  Marshal  Saxe,  had  overrun  the 
greater  part  of  the  Netherlands  ;  Brussels,  Antwerp,  and  Namur,  were 
captured,  while  the  confederate  army  was  defeated  in  a  sanguinary  but 
indecisive  engagement  at  Raucoux.  In  Italy,  the  allies  were  more  suc- 
cessful ;  taking  advantage  of  the  mutual  jealousies  between  the  French 
and  Spaniards,  the  Auslrians,  reinforced  by  the  king  of  Sardinia,  drove 
their  enemies  from  Italy,  and  pursued  them  into  France.  The  death 
of  their  monarch  had  abated  the  vigor  of  the  Spaniards,  for  the  design.s 
of  Ferdinand  VI.,  Philip's  son  and  successor,  were  for  some  time  un- 
known ;  but  when  he  declared  Ids  resolution  to  adhere  *o  the  Family 
Compact,  the  hopes  of  the  partisans  of  the  house  of  Bourbon  were  re- 
vived. About  the  same  time  the  imperialists  were  compelled  to  evacu- 
ate the  south  of  France  by  the  judicious  measures  of  the  marshal  do 
Bellisle  ;  and  the  Genoese,  irritated  by  the  severity  with  which  they 
were  treated,  expelled  the  Austrian  garrison,  and  baiiled  every  attempt 
that  their  oppressors  made  to  recover  the  city.  The  national  animosity 
between  the  French  and  English  was  aggravated  by  commercial  jeal- 
ousy ;  they  mutually  fitted  out  armaments  against  each  other's  colonies ; 
but  these  expeditions,  badly  contrived  and  worse  executed,  led  to  no 
decisive  results,  and  all  parties  began  to  grow  weary  of  a  war  which 
produced  no   consequence  hut  a  lavish  waste  of  blood   and  treasure 


I 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAL  SYSTEM.  <309 

Conferences  were  commenced  at  Breda,  but  the  demands  of  the  French 
appeared  so  exorbitant  to  the  allies,  that  the  negotiations  were  abruptly 
terminated,  and  the  hostile  powers  made  the  most  vigorous  preparations 
for  a  decisive  struggle  (a.  d.  1747).  The  exertions  of  the  allies  were 
long  paralyzed  by  the  indecision  of  the  Dutch  rulers  ;  even  when  theii 
own  country  was  invaded,  they  could  not  be  induced  to  adopt  more  vig- 
orous councils,  until  a  popular  revolt  compelled  them  to  revive  the  oilict 
jf  stadtholder,  and  confer  that  dignity  on  the  prince  of  Orange. 

Though  this  revolution  gave  more  vigor  to  the  operations  of  the  allies, 
the  whole  weight  of  the  war  was  ungenerously  thrown  upon  the  Eng- 
lish. The  obstinate  and  bloody  battle  of  Val  would  have  been  won  by 
Britis-l  valor,  but  for  the  timidity  and  slowness  of  the  Dutch  and  Aus- 
trians ;  in  consequence  of  their  misconduct  it  terminated  to  the  disaa 
vantage  of  the  confederates.  Soon  after,  the  fortress  of  Bergen  op- 
Zoom,  generally  believed  to  be  impregnable,  was  captured  by  the  French,^ 
who  thus  became  masters  of  the  whole  navigation  of  the  Scheldt.  Tji 
Italy,  the  allies,  though  forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Genoa,  were  gener- 
ally successful,  while  the  British  navy  gained  several  important  triumphs 
at  sea.  A  valuable  French  convoy  was  attacked  by  Admirals  Anson  and 
Warren,  off  Cape  Finisterre,  and,  after  an  obstinate  engagement,  six 
ships-of-the-line  and  several  armed  Indiamen  were  taken.  Seven  weeks 
after,  a  fleet  laden  with  the  rich  produce  of  St.  Domingo  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Commodore  Fox;  and  at  a  later  period  of  the  year,  Admiral 
Hawke,  after  a  sharp  battle,  took  six  ships-of-the-line  in  the  latitude  of 
Bellisle.  These  reverses,  and  the  sailing  of  a  powerful  British  arma- 
ment to  the  East  Indies,  so  alarmed  the  court  of  Versailles,  that  nego- 
tiations for  peace  were  once  more  commenced. 

While  conferences  were  opened  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  (a.  d.  1748),  Mar- 
shal Saxe  continued  to  carry  on  the  war  with  great  vigor :  he  laid  siege 
io  Maastricht,  which  was  obstinately  defended,  but  before  the  contest 
could  be  decided,  intelligence  was  received  that  the  preliminaries  of 
peace  had  been  signed.  The  basis  of  the  treaty  was  a  restitution  of  all 
conquests  made  during  the  war,  and  a  mutual  release  of  prisoners  with- 
out ransom.*  It  left  unsettled  the  clashing  claims  of  the  Spaniards  and 
British  to  the  trade  of  the  American  seas,  and  made  no  mention  of  the 
right  of  search  which  had  been  the  original  cause  of  the  war  ;  the  only 
advantage,  indeed,  that  England  gained,  was  the  recognition  of  the  Han- 
overian succession,  and  the  general  abandonment  of  the  Pretender, 
whose  cause  was  henceforth  regarded  as  hopeless.  This  result,  from 
80  expensive  a  contest,  gave  general  dissatisfaction  ;  but  the  blame 
should  fall  on  the  authors  of  the  war,  not  of  the  peace  ;  England  had  no 
interest  in  the  contests  for  the  Austrian  succession  ;  under  the  peaceful 
administration  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  her  commerce  and  manufactures 
had  rapidly  increased  ;  but  through  an  idle  ambition  for  military  glory, 
and  a  perverse  love  of  meddling  in  continental  affairs,  the  prosperity  cl 
the  country  received  a  severe  check,  and  an  enormous  addition  was 
made  to  the  national  debt. 

Skction  II. —  The  Colonial  Struggle  helwecn  France  and  Great  Britain. 

The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  soon  discovered  to  be  little  bettei 
.han  a  suspension  of  arms.     Two  causes   of  a  very  dirterent  nature 


610  MODERN  HISTORY. 

jnited  to  pioduce  a  r.^w  and  fiercer  struggle,  which  no  arts  of  diplomu 
cy  could  long  avert.  The  first  of  these  was  the  jealousy  with  which  tht- 
court  of  Austria  regarded  the  great  increase  of  the  Prussian  monarchy , 
the  extorted  renunciation  of  Silesia  could  neither  be  forgiven  nor  forgot 
ten,  and  its  recovery  had  long  been  the  favorite  object  of  the  court  ol 
Vienna.  The  Prussian  monarch  was  not  popular  with  his  neighbors- 
all  new  powers  are  naturally  objects  of  jealousy — and  the  selfish  policv 
which  Frederic  displayed,  both  in  contracting  and  dissolving  alliances- 
prevented  him  from  gaining  any  permanent  friend  ;  he  was  the  personal 
ciiemy  of  Elizabeth,  emperess  of  Russia,  and  of  Count  Bruhl,  the  lead- 
ing minister  in  the  court  of  Saxony,  and  both  readily  joined  in  the  plans 
formed  for  his  destruction. 

But  with  these  confederates,  the  Austrian  cabinet  was  reluctant  to 
engage  in  hostilities,  while  France  might  at  any  time  turn  the  balance, 
by  renewing  its  former  relations  with  Prussia.  Prince  Kaunitz,  the 
real  guide  of  the  court  of  Vienna,  and,  during  four  reigns,  the  soul  of  the 
Austrian  councils,  resolved  to  unite  the  empire  and  France  in  )ne  com- 
mon project  for  sharing  the  rule  of  Europe.  Louis  XV.,  who  had  sunk 
into  being  the  slave  of  his  mistresses,  was  induced,  by  this  able  diplom- 
atist, to  depart  from  the  course  of  policy  which  for  two  centuries  had 
maintained  the  high  rank  of  France  among  the  continental  powers  ;  from 
being  the  rivals  and  opponents  of  the  Austrian  dynasty,  the  house  of 
Bourbon  sank  into  the  humble  character  of  assistants  to  that  power — a 
change  which  eventually  brought  the  greatest  calamities  on  themselves 
and  their  country. 

The  commercial  jealousy  with  which  the  English  regarded  the  French, 
wds  the  second  cause  for  the  renewal  of  the  war.  During  the  late  war, 
the  French  navy  had  been  all  but  annihilated,  and  the  exertions  made 
for  its  restoration  were  viewed  vi'ith  secret  anger.  Owing  to  incapacity 
or  defective  information,  the  negotiators  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  had  left  most 
of  the  colonial  questions  at  issue  between  England  and  France  wholly 
undecided.  The  chief  subjects  contested  were,  the  limits  of  the  Eng- 
lish colony  of  Nova  Scotia,  the  right  claimed  by  the  French  to  erect 
forts  along  the  Ohio,  for  the  purpose  of  connecting  the  Canadas  with 
Louisiana,  the  occupation  of  some  neutral  islands  in  the  West  Indies  by 
the  French,  and,  finally,  the  efforts  of  both  nations  to  acquire  political 
supremacy  in  Hindustan. 

The  maritime  war  between  England  and  France  had  no  immediate 
connexion  with  the  struggle  between  Prussia  and  Austria.  But  when 
the  French  king,  at  the  commencement  of  the  contest,  menaced  Han- 
over, George  H.,  who  preferred  the  interests  of  this  petty  principality 
to  those  of  the  British  empire,  entered  into  a  treaty  with  Frederic  foi 
its  defence.  Thus  these  two  wars,  so  distinct  in  their  origin  and  na- 
ture, were  blended  into  one  ;  but  before  their  termination,  they  were 
Hgain  separated  and  concluded  by  distinct  treaties  of  peace. 

The  empire  which  the  descendants  of  Baber  had  established  in  Hin 
dustan,  touched  the  summit  of  its  greatness  in  the  reign  of  Aurungzebe  , 
under  bis  feeble  successors  the  imperial  power  rapidly  declined,  and 
•tfter  the  successful  eruption  of  Nadir  Shah  (a.  d.  1738),  it  was  almost 
annihiir^ted.  The  governors  of  provinces  and  districts  became  virtually 
independent  sovereigns,  and  the  allegiance  they  paid   to  the   court  of 


MERCANTILE  AND  CC  LONIAL  SYSTKM.  611 

Delhi  was  merely  nominal.  Both  the  French  and  the  English  Eaal 
India  companies  took  advantage  of  this  state  of  things  to  extend  thcii 
influence  and  enlarge  their  territories.  Dupleix,  the  French  governor 
of  Pondicherry,  had  long  sought  an  opportunity  of  interfering  in  the 
Troubled  politics  of  India  ;  it  was  afforded  him  by  the  contests  which 
arose  on  the  vacancies  in  the  souhbadary  of  the  Deccan,  and  the  nabob- 
ship  of  the  Carnatic.  He  supported  the  claims  of  Chundah  Saheb  to 
the  latter  post,  and  endeavored  to  make  Murzafa  .Ting  souhbadar,  or 
viceroy  of  the  Deccan.  He  succeeded  in  these  objects,  but  his  favor- 
ites did  not  long  retain  their  elevation  ;  still,  however,  a  precedent  was 
established  for  the  interference  of  the  French  in  the  contests  between 
the  native  powers,  and  their  aid  was  purchased  by  fresh  concessions  in 
every  revolution.  The  rapid  progress  of  their  rivals  rouscJ  the  Eng- 
lish from  their  supineness,  and,  fortunately,  they  found  a  leader  whose 
abilities,  both  as  a  general  and  statesman,  have  scarcely  been  surpassed 
by  any  European  that  ever  visited  the  east.  IMr.  Clive,  the  son  of  a 
private  gentleman,  had  been  originally  employed  in  the  civil  service  of 
the  East  India  company  ;  but  war  no  sooner  broke  out  than  he  exchanged 
the  pen  for  the  sword,  and  the  union  of  courage  and  skill  which  he 
displayed  at  the  very  commencement  of  his  career,  excited  just  expect- 
ations of  the  glory  which  marked  its  progress.  He  gained  several 
brilliant  advantages  over  the  allies  of  the  French,  and  greatly  strength- 
ened the  English  interest  in  the  Deccan  or  southern  division  of  Hin- 
dustan. But  the  French  East  India  company  had  begun  to  distrust  the 
flattering  promises  of  Dupleix ;  they  found  that  his  plans  of  territorial 
aggrandizement  involved  them  in  expensive  wars,  and  were,  at  the 
same  time,  destructive  of  their  commerce.  A  similar  feeling,  though 
to  a  less  extent,  prevailed  in  England,  and  the  rival  companies  prepared 
to  adjust  their  differences  by  the  sacrifice  of  Dupleix.  No  regard  was 
paid  by  his  countrymen  to  his  defence  ;  he  was  loaded  with  obloquy, 
as  a  selfish  and  ambitious  man,  though  it  was  notorious  that  he  had 
sacrificed  his  entire  private  fortune  to  the  support  of  what  he  believed 
to  be  the  true  interests  of  France. 

The  successor  of  Dupleix  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  English  au- 
thorities, in  which  all  the  objects  of  that  able  governor  were  abandoned. 
Mohammed  Ali,  the  friend  of  the  English,  was  recognised  as  the  nabob 
of  the  Ca'natic  ;  the  claims  of  the  French  upon  the  northern  Circar» 
were  relit  quished,  and  it  was  agreed  that  the  colonists  from  each  na- 
tion should,  for  the  future,  abstain  from  all  interference  with  the  afl'airs 
of  the  native  princes.  It  was  scarcely  possible  that  these  stipulations 
could  be  strictly  observed  ;  indeed,  the  treaty  had  scarcely  been  signed, 
when  mutual  complaints  were  made  of  infractions ;  but,  in  the  mean- 
time, events  had  occurred  in  another  part  of  the  globe,  which  frustrated 
it  altogether. 

After  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  British  ministry,  anxious  to 
secure  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia,  as  a  barrier  for  the  other  American 
colonies,  induced  many  disbanded  soldiers  and  sailors  to  settle  in  that 
country.  The  town  of  Halifax  was  built  and  its  harbor  fortified,  and 
Nova  Scotia  began  to  rise  rapidly  in  importance.  The  French,  whc 
had  hitherto  viewed  the  province  as  little  better  than  a  barren  waste 
began  now.  to  raise  disputes  concerning  its  limits  ;  and  the  settlera 


^•I'-i  ^    MODERN  HISTORY. 

from  Ijoth  countries,  did  not  always  arrange  tlieir  controversies  bs 
peaceful  discussion.  Still  more  important  were  the  differences  which 
arose  in  the  interioi  of  North  America.  The  French  were  naturally 
anxious  to  form  a  communication  between  the  Canadas  in  the  north  and 
Louisiana  in  the  south.  This  could  only  be  effected  by  depriving  the 
English  of  their  settlements  west  of  the  Allegany  mountains,  and 
seizing  the  posts  which  the  British  settlers  in  Virginia  and  the  Caroli 
nas  had  established  beyond  that  chain  for  the  convenience  of  trade  with 
the  Indians.  Hostilities  were  commenced  by  the  colonial  authorities^ 
without  the  formality  of  a  declaration  of  war ;  the  Virginian  post  of 
Logs'  town  was  surprised  by  a  French  detachment,  and  all  its  inhab- 
itants but  two  inhumanly  murdered ;  the  North  American  Indians  were 
stimulated  to  attack  the  British  colonists,  and  large  supplies  of  arms 
and  ammunition  were  imported  from  France  (a.  d.  1755).  The  British 
ministers  immediately  prepared  for  hostilities ;  all  the  French  forts 
within  the  limits  of  Nova  Scotia  were  reduced  by  Colonel  iNIonckton ; 
but  an  expedition  against  the  French  forts  on  the  Ohio  was  defeated, 
owing  to  the  rashness  of  General  Braddock,  who  refused  to  profit  by 
the  local  knowledge  of  the  provincial  officers.  He  fell  into  an  ambus- 
cade of  French  and  Indians,  and  instead  of  endeavoring  to  extricate 
himself,  attempted  to  make  a  stand.  At  length  he  was  slain,  while 
vainly  striving  to  rally  his  troops,  and  the  regular  soldiers  fled  with  dis- 
graceful precipitation.  It  deserves  to  be  remarked,  that  the  provincial 
militia,  commanded  by  Major  Washington,  did  not  share  the  panic  of 
the  royal  army,  but  displayed  great  coolness,  courage,  and  conduct. 

Two  other  expeditions,  against  the  forts  of  Niagara  and  Crown  Point, 
failed,  though  General  .Johnson,  who  commanded  the  latter,  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  the  hostile  army.  But  at  sea  the  British  strength  was  more 
efl'ectually  displayed  ;  two  sail-of-the-line  were  captured  by  Admiral  Bos- 
cawen,  off  Newfoundland  ;  and  more  than  three  hundred  merchant-ships 
v/ere  brought  as  prizes  into  the  ports  of  Great  Britain.  Notwithstanding 
these  hostilities,  a  formal  declaration  of  war  was  delayed  ;  its  publica- 
tion was  the  signal  for  one  of  the  fiercest  struggles  in  which  modern 
Europe  had  been  involved.  Before,  however,  we  enter  on  this  part  of 
our  history,  we  must  briefly  notice  the  important  events  that  for  a  time 
threatened  the  total  ruin  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  but  whose  final  ro 
suits  made  their  power  paramount  in  northern  India. 

The  privileges  which  the  emperor  of  Delhi  had  granted  to  the  Eng- 
lish settlers  in  Calcutta  excited  great  jealousy  among  the  provincial 
governors,  and  were  violently  opposed  by  Jaffier  Khan,  the  souhbadar 
of  Bengal.  Means  were  taken,  however,  to  conciliate  this  powerful 
feudatory,  and  peace  was  preserved  until  the  accession  of  the  ferocious 
Suraja  Dowla,  who  was  enraged  at  the  shelter  which  the  English  af- 
.*brded  to  some  of  his  destined  victims  (a.  d.  1756).  He  advanced 
against  Calcutta,  when  most  of  the  local  authorities  were  seized  with 
a  scandalous  panic  ;  the  governor  and  the  militar}^  commanders  escaped 
in  boats,  leaving  Mr.  Hohvell,  Mr.  Perks,  and  about  one  hundred  and 
ninety  more,  to  provide  for  their  own  safety  as  they  best  might. 

After  endeavoring  vainlv  to  bring  back  even  one  vessel  to  aid  theii 
removal,  this  handfid  of  men  after  a  vigorous  defence,  fell  into  tlu 
^Miwer  of  the  ferocious  Suraja.     They  were  all  thrust  into  a  jroom  twer. 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAZ-  SYSTEM.  ^1<^ 

y  feet  square,  where,  from  the  heat  and  foulness  of  the  a  mosphere, 
all  but  twenty-three  died  before  the  morning.  The  news  of  this  catas- 
trophe reached  Madras  just  when  Colonel  Olive  and  Admiral  Watson, 
flushed  by  their  recent  victory  over  the  celebrated  pirate  Angria,  had 
arrived  at  Madras  to  aid  in  the  destruction  of  the  French  influence  in 
the  Deccan.  The  troops  assembled  for  that  purpose  were  now  sent  to 
recover  Calcutta,  and  this  object  was  effected  by  the  mere  appearance 
of  the  fleet  before  the  city.  Several  of  the  Suraja's  own  places  were 
taken  and  plundered,  and  the  French  fort  of  Chandernagore  reduced ; 
conspiracies  were  formed  against  Suraja  Dowla,  and  that  haughty 
chieftain  felt  that  the  sovereignty  of  Bengal  must  be  decided  by  a  battle. 
Contrary  to  the  opinion  of  all  his  ofKcers,  Clive  resolved  to  hazard  an 
engagement,  and  took  up  a  position  in  the  grove  of  Plassy  (June  23, 
1757).  The  British  force  consisted  of  three  thousand  two  hundred, 
not  more  than  nine  himdred  of  whom  were  Europeans  ;  their  artillery 
consisted  of  eight  six-pounders,  and  two  howitzers.  On  the  other 
hand,  Suraja  Dowla  had  with  him  fifty  thousand  foot,  eighteen  thousand 
horse,  and  fifty  pieces  of  cannon.  Though  the  engagement  continued 
the  greater  part  of  the  day,  the  British  did  not  lose  more  than  seventy 
in  killed  and  wounded ;  they  owed  the  victory,  indeed,  more  to  the 
errors  of  their  adversaries  than  to  their  own  merits ;  for  the  contest 
seems  to  have  been  little  better  than  an  irregular  cannonade,  occasion- 
ally relieved  by  ineffectual  charges  of  cavalry.  Its  consequences  were 
not  the  less  decisive  from  the  ease  with  which  it  was  won ;  Suraja 
Dowla,  after  wandering  for  some  time  as  a  fugitive,  was  murdered  by 
one  of  his  personal  enemies  ;  and  the  viceroyalty  of  Bengal  was  given 
to  Jaffler  Khan,  who  purchased  the  favor  of  the  British  by  large  public 
grants  and  larger  private  bribes.  This  brief  campaign  established  the 
supremacy  of  the  English  in  northern  India,  where  their  power  has 
never  since  been  shaken. 

Sectiojh  III. —  The  Seven  Years'  War. 

When  the  French  government  received  intelligence  of  the  events 
that  had  taken  place  in  India  and  America,  vigorous  preparations  for 
war  were  made  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  England  itself  wati 
menaced  with  invasion  (a.  d.  1756).  Never  was  the  national  character 
of  the  British  nation  so  tarnished  as  it  was  by  the  panic  which  these 
futile  threats  diffused  ;  Hessians  and  Hanoverians  were  hired  to  protect 
the  kingdom,  while  the  presence  of  these  mercenaries  was  justly  re- 
garded as  dangerous  to  public  liberty.  It  is  more  honorable  to  Britain 
to  relate,  that  when  Lisbon,  on  the  very  eve  of  this  war,  was  almost 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  parliament  voted  one  hundred  thousand 
pounds  for  the  relief  of  the  sufferers.  But  the  French  government 
menaced  an  invasion  onl/to  conceal  its  project  for  the  reduction  of 
Minorca ;  a  formidable  force  was  landed  on  the  island,  and  close  siegb 
laid  to  Fort  St.  Philip,  which  commands  the  principal  town  and  harbor. 
Admiral  Byng,  who  had  been  intrusted  with  the  charge  of  the  English 
fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  was  ordered  to  attempt  the  relief  of  the 
place  ;  he  encountered  a  French  squadron,  of  equal  force,  but  instead 
of  seeking  an  engagement,  he  would  not  even  support  Admiral  West, 
•vho  had  thrown  the  French  line  into  confusion.     After  this  indecisive 


614  MODERN  HISTOK-i 

skirmish,  he  returned  to  Gibraltar,  abamloning  Minorca  to  its  fate. 
General  Blakeney,  the  governor  of  Fort  St.  Philip,  made  a  vigorous  de 
fence,  though  his  garrison  was  too  small  by  one  third ;  but  findiiig  that 
he  had  no  prospect  of  relief  from  England,  he  capitulated.  But  hit 
conduct  was  so  far  from  being  disapproved  of,  that  he  v/as  raised  tc 
*lie  peerage  by  his  sovereign,  and  welcomed  as  a  hero  by  the  people. 

The  rage  of  the  people  at  the  loss  of  Minorca  was  directed  again?! 
'he  unfortunate  Byng ;  popular  discontent  was  still  further  aggravated 
by  the  ill-success  of  the  campaign  in  America,  where  a  second  serie'J 
fif  expeditions  against  the  French  forts  signally  failed  ;  while  the  mar- 
quis de  Montcalm,  the  governor  of  Canada,  captured  Oswego,  where 
the  British  had  deposited  the  greater  part  of  their  artfUery  and  military 
stores.  Our  ally,  the  king  of  Prussia,  displayed  more  vigor ;  unable  to 
obtain  any  satisfactory  explanation  from  the  court  of  Vienna,  he  resolved 
to  anticipate  the  designs  of  the  Austrians,  and  invade  Bohemia.  Foj 
this  purpose  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  secure  the  neutrality  of 
Saxony,  but  the  elector  was  secretly  in  league  with  Frederic's  enemies  , 
and  the  Prussian  monarch,  finding  pacific  measures  ineffectual,  advanced 
against  Dresden.  The  elector  Augustus,  who  was  also  king  of  Poland, 
fortified  himself  in  a  strong  camp  at  Pima,  where  he  resolved  to  wait 
for  the  junction  of  the  Austrian  forces.  Frederic  blockaded  the  Saxon 
army  and  cut  off  its  supplies ;  the  imperialists,  who  marched  to  the 
relief  of  their  allies,  were  defeated  at  Lowositz,  and  the  Saxons,  thus 
left  to  their  own  resources,  were  forced  to  lay  down  their  arms,  Au- 
gustus fled  to  his  kingdom  of  Poland,  abandoning  his  hereditary  domin- 
ions to  the  Prussians,  who  did  not  use  their  success  with  extraordinary 
moderation. 

But  the  victories  of  their  ally  only  exasperated  the  rage  of  the  Eng- 
lish people  against  their  rulers ;  the  king  was  forced  to  yield  to  the 
storm,  and  dismiss  his  ministers.  William  Pitt  (afterward  earl  of 
Chatham),  the  most  popular  man  in  the  kingdom,  was  appointed  head 
of  the  new  administration,  though  the  duke  of  Devonshire  was  nomi- 
nally premier ;  a  spirit  of  confidence  was  spread  abroad,  and  abundant 
supplies  voted  for  the  war.  Unfortunately,  as  a  concession  to  popular 
clamor,  the  unhappy  BjTig,  whose  worst  fault  appears  to  have  been  an 
error  of  judgment  and  the  dread  of  the  fate  of  Admiral  Matthews,*  was 
brought  to  trial,  found  guilty  of  a  breach  of  the  articles  of  war,  and  sen- 
tenced to  death.  Great  exertions  were  made  to  save  the  life  of  the 
unhappy  admiral,  but  all  in  vain  ;  he  was  ordered  to  be  shot  on  board 
the  Monarque,  and  he  met  his  fate  with  an  intrepidity  which  effectually 
clears  his  memory  from  the  stain  of  cowardice  (a.  d.  1757).  In  France, 
the  attention  of  the  court  was  engaged  by  an  attempt  on  the  king's  life. 
A  maniac,  named  Damien,  stabbed  Louis  with  a  penknife  as  he  was 
entering  his  carriage ;  the  wound  was  not  dangerous,  but  it  was  sup- 
posed that  the  assassin  might  have  accomplices  in  his  treason.  Every 
refinement  of  cruelty  that  scientific  ingenuity  could  devise  was  exhaust- 
ed in  the  tortures  of  this  unhappy  wretch,  whose  manifest  lunacy  madt' 
him  an  object  of  compassion  rather  than  punishment. 

The  danger  to  which  Louis  had  been  exposed  did  not  prevent  him 
irom  makmg  vigorous   exertions  to  continue  the  war.     Two  armiea 

*  See  page  606. 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAL  SYSTEM.  010 

w'ere  seut  into  Germany,  one  destined  to  invade  Hanover,  the  other  tc 
join  the  imperial  forces  against  Prussia.  George  II.,  anxious  to  save 
Hanover,  wished  to  send  over  a  body  of  British  troops  for  the  defence 
of  the  electorate,  but  being  opposed  by  the  Pitt  administration,  he 
dismissed  his  ministers,  and  tried  to  form  a  new  cabinet.  The 
burst  of  national  indignation  at  the  removal,  of  the  popular  favorite 
was,  however,  so  great,  that  Pitt  was  soon  recalled  to  power,  but  not 
until  he  had  evinced  a  desire  to  make  some  concession  to  the  royal 
inclinations. 

At  the  commenceuient  of  the  campaign,  the  prospects  of  the  king  of 
Prussia  were  very  gloomy  ;  the  Russians  were  advancing  through 
Lithuania,  the  Sv/edes  threatened  him  in  Pomerania,  the  united  forces 
of  the  French  and  imperialists  were  advancing  through  Germany,  and 
the  emperess-queen,  Maria  Theresa,  covered  her  hereditary  dominions 
with  four  armies,  whose  united  strength  amounted  i )  one  hundred  and 
eighty  thousand  men. 

Frederic,  baffling  the  Austrians  by  a  series  of  masterly  movements 
opened  a  passage  into  Bohemia,  where  he  Avas  joined  by  the  prince  of 
Bevem  and  Marshal  Schwerin,  who  had  defeated  the  Austrian  divisions 
that  opposed  their  progress.  Confident  in  the  excellence  of  his  troops 
he  resolved  to  engage  without  delay,  though  his  enemies  were  posted 
in  a  camp  strongly  fortified  by  nature  (May  6).  The  memorable  battle 
of  Prague  was  vigorously  contested,  and  success  continued  doubtful  until 
the  Austrian  right  wing,  advancing  too  rapidly,  was  separated  from  the 
left.  Frederic  poured  his  troops  through  the  gap,  so  that  when  the 
Austrian  right  was  forced  back  by  the  intrepidity  of  Marshal  Schwerin, 
it  suddenly  found  itself  surrounded,  and  fled  in  confusion.  The  centre 
and  left,  thus  abandoned,  could  not  resist  the  successive  charges  of  the 
Prussians,  and  sought  shelter  in  Prague.  Frederic  ventured  to  besiege 
this  city  though  the  numbers  of  the  garrison  nearly  equalled  those  of 
his  own  army;  and  his  delay  before  the  walls  gave  the  Austrians  time 
to  recover  their  courage  and  recruit  their  forces.  Count  Daun  began 
soon  to  menace  the  Prussian  communications  ;  Frederic  sent  the  prince 
of  Bevern  to  drive  him  back  ;  Daun,  though  his  forces  were  superior, 
retreated  before  the  prince,  imtil  he  could  procure  such  additional 
strength  as  to  render  victory  certain.  When  this  was  effected,  he  re- 
sumed the  offensive,  and  Frederic  was  forced  to  hasten  to  the  prince's 
assistance.  A  junction  was  effected  at  Kolin,  and  Frederic  marched 
to  attack  the  imperial  camp  (June  18).  The  Prussians  charged  theij 
enemies  with  their  usual  vigor,  but  they  were  unable  to  force  the  Aua 
trian  lines,  and  were  finally  driven  from  the  field. 

In  consequence  of  this  defeat,  the  Prussians  were  forced,  not  only  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Prague,  but  to  evacuate  Bohemia.  Nor  were  the 
arms  ui"  Frederic  and  his  allies  more  successful  in  other  quarters.  The 
Russians  having  defeated  General  Lehwald,  invaded  the  Prussia;i  do- 
minions on  the  side  of  Germany,  and  committed  the  most  frightful  devas- 
tations ;  the  British  and  Hanoverian  troops,  under  the  duke  of  Cumber- 
land, were  forced  to  accept  the  disgraceful  convention  of  Closterseven, 
Oy  which  thirty-eight  thousand  soldiers  were  reduced  to  a  state  of  inac- 
tivity ;  and  the  French,  thus  released  from  an  eneray  that  might  inter- 
mpt  their  communications,  advanced  to  join  the  Austrians  in  the  invasio!- 


<Bltf  MODERN  HISTORY. 

of  Prussia;  finallv,  an  Austrian  armj',  by  a  rapid  march,  arrived  at  the 
very  gates  of  Berlin,  and  laid  that  citv  under  contribution. 

An  expedition,  planned  by  Mr.  Pitt  soon  after  his  restoration  to 
power,  was  defeated  by  the  weakness  and  indecision  of  the  officers  in- 
trusted with  its  execution.  The  object  of  attack  was  the  French  port 
and  arsenal  of  Rochefort,  which  would  have  fallen  an  easy  prey,  had  it 
been  assailed  when  first  the  fleet  arrived  before  the  place.  But  the 
time  which  ought  to  have  been  employea  .'n  action  was  wasted  in  de- 
liberations, and  the  expedition  returned  ingioriously  home.  The  con- 
duct of  British  affairs  in  America  was  equally  disastrous  ;an  armament 
was  sent  against  Louisbourg,  but  it  returned  without  having  made  an\ 
elfort  to  effect  its  object ;  while  the  French,  under  the  marquis  de  Mont- 
calm, captured  the  strong  fort  William  Henrj',  the  bulwark  of  our  nor- 
thern frontier,  without  meeting  the  slightest  interruption  from  a  British 
force  posted  in  its  immediate  neighborhood. 

These  disasters  would  have  proved  fatal  to  the  new  ministry,  had 
it  not  been  generalh^  understood  that  the  officers,  whose  cowardice  oi 
incapacity  had  led  to  such  inglorious  results,  were  the  choice  of  their 
predecessors,  and  were  maintained  in  their  posts  by  court  favor.  Thi? 
conviction  proved  favorable  to  Mr.  Pitt,  the  kmg  was  compelled  to  grant 
full  powers  to  his  ministers,  and  the  secret  intrigues  by  which  the  cab 
uiet  was  controlled  were  rendered  powerless  for  a  season.  An  unex 
pected  change  of  fortune  on  the  continent  brightened .  the  prospects  of 
the  British  and  Prussians  toward  the  close  of  the  year.  Frederic, 
hough  his  dominions  were  invaded  by  three  hostile  armies,  never  lost 
courage  ;  though  his  army  did  not  exceed  half  the  number  of  his  ene- 
mies, he  resolved  to  give  battle  to  the  united  forces  of  the  French  and 
Auotrians  (Nov.  5).  Frederic,  by  a  series  of  judicious  movements,  led 
his  enemies  to  believe  that  he  dreaded  an  engagement ;  confident  of 
victor}',  they  hasted  to  force  him  to  action,  near  the  village  of  Rosbach 
They  advanced  so  precipitately,  that  their  lines  were  thrown  mto  dis- 
order ;  and  before  they  could  remedy  the  error,  they  were  broken  by 
the  headlong  charge  of  the  Prussian  horse.  Every  effort  made  by 
generals  of  the  combined  army  to  retrieve  the  fortunes  of  the  day  was 
anticipated  by  the  genius  of  Frederic  ;  they  were  forced  to  retreat  in 
great  confusion,  having  lost  nearly  nine  thousand  men  in  killed,  wound- 
ed, and  prisoners,  while  the  total  loss  of  the  Prussians  did  not  exceed 
five  hu  idred. 

From  this  field  Frederic  hasted  to  another  scarcely  less  glorious. 
The  Austrians  and  Hungarians,  under  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine 
entered  Silesia,  captured  the  important  fortress  of  Schweidnitz,  drove 
the  prince  of  Bevern  from  his  intrenchments,  and  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  greater  part  of  the  province.  Frederic,  by  a  rapid  march, 
formed  a  junction  with  the  relics  of  the  prince  of  Bevern's  army,  and  thua 
reinforced,  attacked  the  Austrians  at  Lissa  (Dec.  5).  Pretending  tr 
direct  all  his  force  against  the  Austrian  right,  Frederic  suddenly  poured 
Ills  chief  strength  against  their  left  wing,  which  was  speedily  broken ; 
Prince  Charles  attempted  to  restore  the  courage  of  his  flying  soldiers 
by  sending  reinforcem.ents  from  the  centre  and  right,  but  these  fresh 
tcoops  were  unable  to  form  under  the  heavy  fire  of  the  Prussians,  and 
dms   liie  Austrian  battahous  were  defeated  one  after  another.     Njgbt 


MERCANTILE   AND  COLONIAL  SYSTEM.  617 

altiue  prevented  the  total  ruin  of  the  vanquished  army.  Ahuut  five 
housand  men  were  killed  and  wounded  on  each  side ;  but  within  a 
week  after  tie  battle  the  Prussians  pressing  vigorously  the  pursuit  of 
their  retiring  foes,  captured  twenty  thousand  prisoners,  three  thousand 
wagons,  and  two  hundred  pieces  of  i  annon.  The  Austrians  abandoned 
all  Silesia  except  the  town  of  Schweidnitz,  which  surrendered  in  the 
following  spring.  The  effects  of  the  victories  of  Rosbach  and  Lissu 
were  felt  throughout  Europe  ;  the  French  had  flagrantly  violated  the 
convention  of  Closterseven ;  it  was  now  disavowed  by  the  British  and 
Hanoverians  (a.  d.  1758).  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  was  chosen 
by  George  II.  to  command  his  electoral  forces,  and  this  able  general  in 
a  short  time  not  only  recovered  Hanover,  but  drove  his  adversaries 
across  the  Rhine.  Mr  Pitt  changed  his  policy,  and  consented  to  rein- 
force Prince  Ferdinand  with  a  body  of  British  troops,  while  liberal  sup- 
plies were  voted  to  subsidize  the  German  princes.  The  campaign  was 
honorable  to  Prince  Ferdinand's  abilities,  but  its  most  important  result 
was  the  diversion  it  made  in  favor  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  by  c-jmpelling 
the  French  to  employ  their  chief  force  on  the  Rhine. 

Frederic  in  this  campaign  endured  several  vicissitudes  of  fortune. 
Having  taken  Schweidnitz,  he  unexpectedly  entered  Moravia,  which 
had  hitherto  escaped  from  the  ravages  of  war,  laid  that  fine  province 
under  contribution,  and  even  menaced  Vienna.  He  failed,  however, 
at  the  siege  of  Olmutz,  but  he  effected  a  retreat  as  honorable  as  a  vic- 
tory, and  suddenly  directed  his  march  against  the  Russians,  Avhose  rav- 
ages in  Brandenburgh  were  shocking  to  humanity.  He  gained  a  com- 
plete victory  over  the  invaders  at  Zomdorff,  and  then,  without  resting  a 
moment,  hasted  to  relieve  his  brother  Hen)y,  who  was  almost  surrounded 
with  enemies  in  Saxony.  Count  Daun,  the  commander  of  the  impe- 
rialists, was  a  worthy  rival  of  Frederic  ;  he  surprised  and  routed  the 
Prussian  right  wing  at  Hochkirchen  ;  but  the  judicious  measures  of  the 
king  saved  the  rest  of  his  army,  and  Daun  was  unable  to  pursue  his 
advantages.  Indeed  so  little  was  Frederic  affected  by  the  reverse,  that 
he  drove  the  Austrians  a  second  time  from  Silesia,  and  then  returning, 
compelled  Daun  to  raise  the  sieges  of  Dresden  and  Leipsic,  and  even 
retreat  into  Bohemia. 

The  en'  3rprising  spirit  of  Mr.  Pitt,  freed  from  the  trammels  which 
secret  intrigues  had  formed,  diffused  itself  through  the  British  empire, 
and  particularly  animated  the  officers  of  the  army  and  navy.  Several 
French  ships-c*'-war  were  captured  by  the  British ;  an  armament, 
destined  for  North  America,  was  dispersed  and  driven  on  shore  by  Sir 
Edward  Hawke,  whose  fleet  rode  triumphant  in  the  channel.  From 
apathy  and  despair  the  nation  passed  at  once  to  the  opposite  extreme 
of  overweening  confidence.  It  was  resolved  to  carry  the  v/ar  into 
France  itself,  and  two  successive  expeditions  were  sent  against  the 
French  coast.  As  might  reasonably  have  been  anticipated,  these 
armaments  produced  no  important  result ;  the  only  consequence  arising 
from  such  a  waste  of  blood  and  treasure,  was  the  destruction  of  Cher- 
bourg, a  triumph  dearly  purchased  by  the  subsequent  loss  of  some  of 
th<;  best  of  the  troops  in  the  hurried  embarkation. 

But  in  North  America,  where  the  British  arms  had  been  tarnishe<] 
oy  delay    disaster,  and  disgrace    the  removal  of  the  earl  of  Loudtwi 


618  MODERN  HISTORY. 

from  the  command,  led  to  a  complete  change  in  .he  fortvme  of  tl.o  wui 
His  successor,  General  Abercrombie  planned  three  simultaneous  ex- 
pedition, two  of  which  produced  triumphant  results.  General  Amhersl 
laid  siege  to  Louisbourg,  and  aided  by  the  talents  of  Brigadier  Wolfe, 
who  was  fast  rising  into  eminence,  forced  that  important  garrison  to 
surrender.  This  was  followed  by  the  entire  reduction  of  the  island  of 
Cape  Breton,  and  the  inferior  stations  which  the  French  occupied  in 
the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  Brigadier  Forbes  was  sent  against  Fort  du 
Quesne,  which  the  Trench  abandoned  at  his  approach,  and  fled  down 
the  Mississippi.  Abercrombie  marched  in  person  against  Ticonderoga, 
which  he  found  better  fortified  than  he  had  anticipated,  and  after  a 
useless  manifestation  of  desperate  valor,  he  was  forced  to  retire  with 
considerable  loss.  The  French  were,  at  the  same  time,  deprived  of  all 
their  settlements  on  the  coast  of  Africa  ;  but  the  count  de  Lally  not  only 
preserved  their  East  Indian  possessions,  but  wrested  fx"om  the  English, 
Fort  St.  David  and  Cuddalore. 

Great  anxiety  was  felt  at  the  opening  of  the  next  campaign  (a.  n. 
1759).  Early  in  the  year,  the  Prussians  destroyed  the  Russian  maga- 
zines in  Poland,  laid  Bohemia  under  contribution,  and  reduced  the 
imperial  armies  to  inactivity.  But  Prince  Ferdinand  was  unable  to 
prevent  the  French  from  sending  succors  to  the  Austrians ;  and  his 
lU-success  once  more  exposed  Hanover  to  an  invasion.  Had  Ferdinand 
wavered,  the  British  and  Hanoverians  might  have  been  forced  to  a 
second  convention  as  disgraceful  as  Closterseven,  but  his  courage  rose 
with  the  crisis,  he  engaged  the  French  at  Minden,  and  gained  a  complete 
victory.  Minden,  indeed,  would  have  been  as  illustrious  and  decisive  a 
battle  as  Blenheim,  but  for  the  unaccou.itable  conduct  of  Lord  George 
Sackville,  who  commanded  the  cavalry,  and  either  misunderstood  or 
disobeyed  the  order  to  charge  the  discomfited  French.  There  had  been 
some  previous  disputes  between  the  prince  and  Lord  George  ;  they  threw 
the  blame  mutually  on  each  other,  but  which  ever  was  in  fault,  it  ia 
certain  that  on  this  occasion  the  best  opportunity  that  could  have  been 
desired  for  humbling  the  power  of  France  was  irretrievably  lost. 

The  victory  of  the  British,  at  Minden,  was  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  defeat  of  the  Prussians  by  the  united  forces  of  Austria 
and  Russia,  at  Cunersdorff.  But  the  heroic  Frederic  soon  retrieved 
this  disaster,  and  he  would  probably  have  triumphed  in  his  turn,  had 
he  not  exposed  a  large  division  of  his  troops  in  the  defiles  of  Bohemia, 
which  was  surrounded  and  taken  by  Count  Daun.  Still  the  only  per 
manent  acquisition  that  the  Austrians  made  was  Dresden,  for  Frederic  s 
vigor  and  rapidity  of  movement  rendered  ei^en  their  victories  fruitless. 

This  indecisive  campaign  greatly  diminished  the  ardor  of  the  English 
for  their  ally,  the  king  of  Prussia,  while  their  victories  in  North  America 
and  the  West  Indies,  directed  their  attention  to  their  colonial  interests. 
Immediately  after  the  conquest  of  Louisbourg,  which  was  justly  con- 
sidered the  key  of  Canada,  an  expedition  was  planned  against  Quebec. 
The  colonists  were  prepared  to  submit  to  a  change  of  masters  by  the 
politic  protection  granted  to  the  French  settlers  in  Gaudaloupe,  which 
h-id  been  subdued  early  in  the  year  (a.  d.  1758)  ;  and  by  the  guarantee 
given  to  the  inhabitants  for  the  enjoyment  of  religious  freedom.  When 
General   Wolfe,  therefore,  proceeded  up  the  St.  Lawrence   he  did  nof 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAL  SY8TEM.  ^'19 

encounter  any  serious  opposition  from  the  Canadians,  who  seemed  to 
view  the  struggle  with  indifierence.  While  Wolfe  advanced  toward 
Quebec,  General  Amherst  conquered  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point, 
and  Sir  William  Johnson  p-ained  possession  of  the  important  fortress  of 
Niagara.  But  Amherst,  as  had  been  originally  intended,  was  unable  to 
form  a  junction  with  General  Wolfe,  who  was  thus  employed  in  a 
hazardous  enterprise,  with  very  inadequate  means.  Though  he  almost 
despaired  of  success,  Wolfe  resolved  to  persevere  ;  he  adopted  the  dar- 
ing plan  of  landing  at  night  under  the  Heights  of  Abraham,  leading  his 
men  up  the  steep,  and  securing  this  position,  which  commanded  the 
town.  The  stream  was  rapid,  the  landing-place  narrow,  and  the  pre- 
cipices formidable  even  by  day,  but  the  soldiers,  animated  by  their 
heroic  commander,  triumphed  over  these  difficulties  ;  and  when  morning 
dawned,  the  marquis  de  Montcalm  was  astonished  to  learn  that  the 
British  army  occupied  those  heights  which  he  had  deemed  inaccessible. 
A  battle  was  now  inevitable,  and  both  generals  prepared  for  the  contest 
with  equal  courage.  The  battle  was  brief  but  fierce  ;  the  scale  of 
victory  was  just  beginning  to  turn  in  favor  of  the  British,  when  Wolfe 
fell  mortally  wounded.  This  loss  only  roused  the  English  regiments  to 
fresh  exertion,  their  bayonets  broke  the  French  lines,  and  a  body  of  High- 
landers, charging  with  their  broad  swords,  completed  the  confusion. 
The  French  fled  in  disorder ;  the  intelligence  was  brought  to  Wolfe, 
he  collected  his  breath  to  exclaim,  "  I  die  happy  !"  and  instantly  expired 
(September  13). 

The  marquis  de  Montcalm  fell  in  the  same  field  ;  he  was  not  infe- 
rior to  his  rival  in  skill  and  bravery,  nor  did  he  meet  death  with  less 
intrepidity.  When  told,  after  the  battle,  that  his  wounds  were  mortal, 
he  exclaimed,  "So  much  the  better:  Fshall  not  live  to  witness  the 
burrender  of  Quebec."  Five  days  after  the  battle,  that  city  opened  its 
gates  to  a  British  garrison,  and  this  was  soon  followed  by  the  complete 
subjugation  of  the  Canadas,  which  have  ever  since  remained  subject  to 
;he  crown  of  Great  Britain. 

The  success  oi"  the  English  in  the  East  Indies  was  scarcely  less 
decisive  than  in  America.  Lally,  the  French  general,  possessed  more 
courage  than  prudence  ;  he  engaged  in  enterprises  beyond  his  means, 
and  especially  wasted  his  limited  resources  in  a  vain  attack  on  Madras. 
Colonel  Coote,  the  commander  of  the  English  forces,  was  inferior  to 
his  adversaries  in  numerical  strength,  but  he  enjoyed  ampler  pecuniary 
resources,  and  was  far  superior  to  Lally,  both  as  a  general  and  a  state- 
man.  Coote  and  Lally  came  to  an  engagement  at  Wandewash  (Jan.  21, 
1760),  in  which  the  French  were  completely  overthrown,  and  their 
.nfluence  in  the  Carnatic  destroyed.  During  the  campaigTn,  Admiral 
Pococke  defeated  a  French  fleet  off  the  coast  of  Ceylon  ;  tiie  English, 
in  consequence,  became  masters  of  the  Indian  seas,  and  began  to  form 
reasonable  expectations  of  driving  their  rivals  from  Hindustan.  A  Dutch 
armament  arrived  in  Bengal,  under  suspicious  circumstances,  but  Ciivo 
ordered  that  it  should  be  immediately  attacked  by  land  and  sea  ;*  tho 

•  Clive  was  engi'gei  in  a  rubber  of  whist,  when  an  express  from  Colonel  Fnrdc 
brought  nim  intelligence  of  the  advance  of  the  Dutch.     He  replied  by  the  follow^ 
(ng  pencil-note,  on  a  slip  of  paper  torn  from  the  colonel's  letter  :  "  Dear  Fordi>- 
Fight  them  iiamc  diately,  and  I'U  send  you  an  order  of  council  to-morrow." 


62U  MODERN  HlSTOltY 

Dutch  were  forced  to  surrender,  and  ample  apologies  were  nmde  by  the 
iUthorities  of  Holland  for  this  infraction  of  treaties. 

The  French  court  threatened  to  take  revenge  for  the  destruction  of 
Cherbourg,  by  invading  Gieat  Britain  and  Ireland;  but  the  ports  wert 
so  strictly  blockaded  by  the  English  squadrons,  that  no  vessel  could 
venture  to  appear  in  the  chaniiel.  Admiral  Boscawen  pursued  a  squad- 
ron from  Toulon,  that  tried  to  slip  unnoticed  through  the  straits  of 
Gibraltar,  overtook  it  oiT  Cape  Lagos,  on  the  coast  of  Portugal  (AugusJ 
18),  destroyed  two  ships-of-the-line,  and  captured  two  more.  A  still 
m.)re  important  triumph  was  obtained  by  Sir  Edward  Hawke,  between 
Belleisle  and  Quiberon  (November  20).  Conflans,  the  French  admiral, 
taking  advantage  of  the  gales  that  drove  the  blockading  squadrons  ")fr 
the  coast,  put  to  sea,  but  was  soon  overtaken  by  Hawke.  Conflans 
unwilling  to  hazard  a  battle,  sought  shelter  among  the  rocks  and  shallows 
of  his  own  coast.  Hawke  unhesitatingly  encountered  the  perils  of  a 
stormy  sea  and  a  lee  shore  ;  he  gained  a  decisive  victory,  destroying 
four  ships-of-lhe-line,  and  compelling  another  to  strike  her  colors.  A 
tempestuous  night  alone  saved  the  French  fleet  from  destruction. 
Though  this  victory  delivered  the  English  from  all  fears  of  the  invasion, 
some  alarm  was  excited  by  the  enterprises  of  Commodore  Thurot,  who 
sailed  from  Dunkirk  with  five  frigates,  and  hovered  round  the  coasts 
of  North  Britain.  Having  failed  to  make  any  impression  on  Scotland, 
he  entered  the  Irish  sea,  and  landing  at  Carrickfergus,  stormed  and 
pillaged  that  town.*  Having  heard  the  news  of  Conflans'  defeat,  he 
steered  homeward,  but  was  swiftly  pursued  by  a  squadron  under  Com- 
modore Elhot,  and  overtaken  near  the  Isle  of  Man  (February  28,  1760). 
After  a  fierce  engagement,  Thurot  Avas  killed,  and  all  his  vessels  forced 
to  surrender. 

Vigorous  preparations  were  made  by  all  parties  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  war  in  Germany,  although  the  people  of  England  had  become 
weary  of  continental  connexions,  and  the  French  finances  had  fallen 
into  a  state  of  lamentable  disorder  (a.  d.  1760).  The  conduct  of  the 
people  of  France  to  their  sovereign  was,  indeed,  truly  generous  ;  the 
principal  nobility  and  gentry  sent  their  plate  to  the  treasury  to  bo 
coined  for  the  public  service  ;  an  army  of  nearly  one  hundred  thou'^and 
men  was  assembled  in  Westphalia,  under  the  duke  de  Broglio,  while 
in  inferior  army  was  formed  upon  the  Rhine,  under  Count  St.  Germain. 
Prince  Ferdinand  could  not  have  coped  with  such  an  overwhelming 
force,  had  not  the  French  generals  quarrelled  with  each  other.  Several 
t)attles  were  fought,  but  they  were  all  more  or  less  indecisive  ;  and 
rarely  has  there  been  a  campaign  in  which  such  numerous  and  well- 
appointed  armies  were  opposed  that  produced  so  few  memorable 
events. 

The  king  of  Prussia  resoived  to  act  on  the  defensive  in  Saxony, 
while  his  brother  Henry  opposed  the  Russians  and  Austrians  in  Silesia 

•An  interesting  example  of  humanity  softened  the  horrors  oC  war  during  the 
attack  on  Carrickfergus.  While  the  French  and  the  garrison  were  engaged  in 
the  streets,  a  beautiful  child,  unconscious  of  its  danger,  ran  between  both  parties. 
A  French  grenadier,  moved  with  compassion,  threw  down  his  musket,  rushed  into 
the  midst  of  the  fire,  took  up  the  child,  and  having  placed  it  in  safety,  leturned  to 
his  compnnio.-!.s,  who  with  loud  shouts  applauded  the  lieroic  deed. 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAL  SYSTEM  6'^1 

But  Lis  plans  Avere  deranged  by  the  enterprise  of  Marshal  Laudohn, 
who  surrounded  the  Prussian  general,  Fouquet,  slew  three  thousand 
3i"  his  army,  and  compelled  the  remainder  to  surrender  at  discretion. 
Fredei  c  attempted  to  retrieve  his  affairs  by  a  sudden  advance  on  Dres- 
den, but  he  failed  to  capture  the  city ;  his  brother.  Prince  Henry,  was 
more  fortunate  in  raising  the  siege  of  Breslau,  which  Laudohn  had  in- 
vested after  his  victory.  But  Frederic's  ruin  seemed  unavoidable,  as 
the  Russians  were  advancing  with  overwhelming  forces,  and  he  was 
himself  surrounded  by  three  Austrian  armies  at  Lignitz.  Count  Daun 
marched  to  storm  the  Prussian  camp,  in  full  confidence  of  victory ;  but, 
to  his  astonishment,  he  found  it  deserted,  Frederic  having  marched  that 
very  night  to  meet  the  army  of  Marshal  Laudohn,  who  was  eagerly 
pressing  forward  to  share,  as  he  fondly  believed,  in  assured  victory. 
The  heights  ^f  Pfafrendorff",  judiciously  protected  by  a  formidable  array 
c''  artillery,  prevented  Daun  from  marching  to  the  assistance  of  his 
col'<^ague  ;  Laudohn  was  completely  defeated,  and  the  Austrian  crand 
anny  driven  from  Silesia.  But  this  victory  did  not  prevent  the  success 
of  the  enemy  in  other  quarters ;  the  Russians,  being  joined  Ij  a  con- 
siderable body  of  Austrians,  under  General  Lascy,  pushed  forward 
tl;'ough  Brandenburgh,  and  made  themselves  masters  of  Berlin.  They 
levied  a  heavy  contribution  on  the  city,  and  Jesiroyed  its  arsenals,  foun- 
dries, and  public  works. 

The  Prussians  were  equally  unfortunate  in  Saxony,  but  Frederic 
resolved  to  run  every  risk,  to  recover  a  country  that  had  hitherto  sup- 
plied the  chief  support  to  his  armies.  Daun,  equally  convinced  of  the 
importance  of  Saxony,  protected  the  electorate  with  a  force  of  seventy 
thousand  men,  advantageously  posted  in  a  fortified  camp,  near  Torgau. 
Frederic,  with  only  fifty  thousand  men,  resolved  to  attack  the  Austrians 
in  their  intrenchments,  and  to  stake  his  life  and  crown  on  the  hazard 
of  the  engagement  (November  3).  The  battle  was  furious,  but  the  ardor 
of  the  Prussians,  who  felt  that  they  fought  for  the  very  existence  of 
iheir  country,  was  irresistible.  Dunn  was  borne  from  the  field  severely 
wounded  ;  the  Austrians  were  broken  by  separate  charges,  and  night 
alone  saved  them  from  total  ruin.  The  result  of  this  glorious  victory 
was,  that  Frederic  recovered  all  Saxony  except  Dresden,  and  compelled 
the  Russians,  Austrians,  and  Swedes,  to  evacuate  his  dominions. 

The  Canadian  war  was  not  terminated  by  the  capture  of  Quebec ; 
the  French  had  still  formidable  forces  in  the  country,  and  they  made  a 
vigorous  effort  to  recover  that  city.  They  were  baffled  by  the  intre- 
pidity of  General  Murray  ;  and  General  Amherst  soon  after  having  ob- 
tained reinforcements  from  England,  advanced  to  Montreal,  and  com 
palled  the  entire  French  army  to  capitulate.  The  savage  tribes  of 
Indians  who  had  been  induced  by  French  gold  to  attack  the  British 
settlements,  were  now  severely  chastised,  and  compelled  to  make  thfl 
most  humiliating  submissions. 

Not  less  complete  was  the  success  of  the  English  arms  in  Lrdia ; 
Pondicherry  and  Mahie  were  reduced  by  Colonel  Coote,  the  French 
power  in  the  east  completely  subverted,  and  the  E.nglish  rendered  mas- 
ters of  the  commerce  of  the  vast  peninsula  of  Hindustan.  These  im- 
portunt  acquisitions  made  the  English  very  impatient  of  the  German 
war;  they  complained  of  the  inactivity  of  the  navy,  and  asserted  tb?. 


f»22  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ihe  French  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  more  valuable  to  a  oomineicial 
people  than  half  the  German  empire,  might  have  been  gained  with  far 
tess  risk  and  loss  than  attended  the  protection  of  the  useless  electorate 
of  Hanover.  In  the  mids  of  these  disputes,  George  II.  died  suddenly, 
in  the  seventy-seventh  year  of  his  age  (October  25).  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  grandson,  George  HI.,  a  young  prince  in  his  twenty-third  year, 
who  had  hitherto  taken  no  active  part  in  public  life. 

The  death  of  George  II.  produced  little  change  in  European  politics, 
but  that  of  the  peaceful  Spanish  monarch,  Ferdinand  VI.  (a.  d  1759), 
led  to  some  important  results.  His  successor,  Charles  HI.,  was  king 
of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Aix-  a-Chapelle,  it  had 
been  agreed,  that  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  Spain,  his  former 
kingdom  should  devolve  to  Don  Philip,  duke  of  Parma  and  Placentia, 
and  that  these  dutchies  should  be  resigned  to  the  empire.  By  the  me- 
diation of  France  with  Austria,  Charles  was  enabled  to  procure  the 
Neapolitan  throne  for  his  third  son,  Ferdinand,  while  Philip  was  per« 
niitted  to  retain  Parma  and  Placentia.  Grateful  for  such  a  benefit, 
Charles  signed  the  family  compact,  which  bound  the  Bourbon  princes 
to  afford  each  other  mutual  assistance,  and  secretly  prepared  to  join 
France  in  the  war  against  Great  Britain.  The  haughty  conduct  of  the 
English  diplomatists,  which  was  not  unjustly  offensive  to  Spanish 
pride,  greatly  contributed  to  strengthen  the  resolution  of  the  court  of 
Madrid,  esoecially  as  the  naval  superiority  of  the  English  menaced  the 
communications  of  Spain  with  her  American  colonies. 

Negotiations  for  peace  were  commenced  by  the  courts  of  France  and 
Great  Britain,  soon  after  the  accession  of  George  HI.,  but  with  little 
sincerity  on  either  side  (a.  d.  1761).  Mr.  Pitt  was  firmly  resolved  to 
humble  the  house  of  Bourbon  ;  the  duke  de  Choiseul,  the  French  min- 
ister, relied  on  the  secret  promises  of  Spanish  aid,  and  thus  it  was  im- 
possible to  arrange  preliminaries.  The  war  languished  in  Germany; 
Prince  Ferdinand  succeeding  in  protecting  Hanover,  but  he  could  not 
prevent  the  French  from  ravaging  Westphalia  and  East  Friesland.  The 
king  of  Prussia,  exhausted  even  by  his  victories,  was  forced  to  act  on 
the  defensive ;  though  he  lost  no  battle,  he  had  'he  mortification  to  see 
the  Russians  make  themselves  masters  of  Coibeij^,  and  the  Austiians 
surprise  Schweidnitz.  The  possession  of  these  important  places  ena- 
bled the  Russians  to  establish  their  winter-quarters  in  Pomerania,  and 
ho  Austrians  in  Silesia.  On  sea,  the  honor  of  the  British  flag  was 
maintained  in  several  actions  between  single  ships  and  small  squad- 
rons. The  island  of  Belleisle,  on  the  coast  of  France,  was  captured 
by  a  British  armament,  but  at  a  very  disproportionate  cost  of  blood  and 
treasure. 

This  languid  campaign  seemed  to  prove  that  all  parties  were  weary 
of  the  war,  and  negotiations  were  resumed  In  their  progress,  Mr- 
Pitt  discovered  the  intimate  connexion  that  had  been  formed  between 
the  courts  of  Versailles  and  Madrid  ;  and  he  proposed  to  anticipate  the 
hostile  designs  of  the  latter  by  seizing  the  plate-fleet,  laden  with  the 
treasures  of  Spanish  America.  But  the  colleagues  of  Mr.  Pitt,  already 
dissatisfied  with  his  imperious  manners,  refused  to  adopt  such  bolrj 
measures,  and  he  instantly  resigned  the  seals  of  office.  The  king 
auxious  to  introduce  his  favorite,  the  earl  of  Bute   into  the  cabinet 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAL  SYSTEM.  ^'^'i 

adop.ed  the  opinions  of  the  majority  of  his  council,  and  accepted  the 
resignation.  Fierce  political  disputes  arose,  whose  effects  were  feh 
throughout  Europe  ;  the  hopes  of  the  French  court  were  raised,  and  the 
German  allies  of  Great  Britain  were  greatly  dispirited. 

But  the  new  ministry  showed  no  want  of  alacrity  in  maintaining  the 
honor  of  the  country.  One  of  their  earliest  measures  was  a  declaration 
of  war  against  Spain,  the  conduct  of  the  court  of  Madrid  having  amply 
justified  Mr.  Pitt's  anticipations  of  its  hostile  designs  (a.  d.  1762). 
The  superiority  of  the  British  navy  over  the  combined  fleets  of  France 
and  Spain,  hindered  tliese  powers  from  making  any  attempt  at  colonial 
conquests ;  but  they  believed  themselves  equally  superior  by  land,  and 
therefore  resolved  to  attack  Britain  through  the  side  of  its  ancient  ally 
Portugal. 

Few  kingdoms  had  sunk  into  such  a  state  of  degradation  as  Portuga. 
at  this  period.  Trusting  to  the  protection  of  England,  and  enriched 
by  the  treasures  of  Brazil,  the  court  of  Lisbon  reposed  in  ignorance 
and  indolence ;  its  fortresses  were  neglected,  its  army  mouldering 
away,  its  subjects  destitute  of  martial  spirit.  The  earthquake  that  laid 
Lisbon  in  ruins  was  followed  by  a  dangerous  conspiracy  against  the  life 
ot  Joseph,  the  reigning  sovereign.  This  monarch,  less  superstitious 
than  most  Portuguese  kings,  had  banished  the  Jesuits  from  his  court, 
and  had  resented  with  spirit  the  encroachments  of  his  nobles.  Some 
of  the  dissatisfied  Jesuits  and  nobles  formed  a  plot  to  murder  the  king, 
and  he  was  dangerously  wounded  by  assassins  while  on  his  road  from 
his  country-seat  to  Lisbon.  The  principal  conspirators  were  arrested 
and  Dunished  by  cruel  deaths  ;  and  all  the  Jesuits  banished  from  the 
kingdom  (a.' d.  1759).  But  the  nobles  continued  discontented;  the 
pope  and  the  clergy  resented  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  while  the 
superstitious  Portuguese  seemed  ready  to  renounce  their  allegiance  to 
a.  sovereign  who  had  incurred  the  resentment  of  the  church.  Such 
was  Joseph's  situation,  when  the  ministers  of  France  and  Spain  pre- 
?ented  a  joint  demand  that  he  should  instantly  renounce  his  alliance 
with  Britain,  under  pain  of  incurring  their  resentment,  and  allowing 
him  only  four  days  to  deliberate  on  his  answer.  Joseph  at  once  returned 
a  spirited  refusal  to  such  an  insolent  memorial,  and  the  Spanish  army 
crossed  the  frontiers.  An  auxiliary  British  force  of  eight  thousand  men 
was  sent  to  Portugal,  together  ivith  a  large  supply  of  arms  and  ammu- 
nition. Joseph  intrusted  the  command  of  his  army  to  the  conn* 
de  la  Lippe,  who  had  already  distinguished  himself  in  Germany.  The 
skill  ot  this  commander,  and  the  valor  of  the  British  officers,  compelled 
the  Spaniards  to  evacuate  the  kingdom  with  loss  and  disgrace,  before 
the  close  of  the  campaign. 

The  French  hoped  that  the  invasion  of  Portugal  would  foci.itate  the 
progress  of  their  arms  in  Germany  ;  but  Prince  Ferdinand,  and  the  mar- 
quis of  Granby,  not  only  protected  Hanover,  but  recovered  the  greater 
pait  of  Hesse.  An  unexpected  event  delivered  the  king  of  Piussia  from 
the  luin  that  seemed  to  threaten  him  at  the  close  of  the  last  campaign. 
Elizabeth,  emperess  of  Russia,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  her  nephew, 
Peter  HI.,  who  entertained  a  romantic  admiration  of  Frederic.  The 
now  emperor  not  only  put  an  end  to  hostilities,  but  enticed  into  alliance 
with  tho  Prussian  monarch;  and  Europe  saw  with  •istonislnnent  rh^i 


024  MODERN  HISTORY. 

unprecedented  spectacle  of  an  army  marching  ofT  from  its  former  allits 
to  the  camp  of  its  enemies.     Sweden  followed  the  example  of  Russia 
in  concluding  peace  ;  and  Frederic,  taking  advantage  of  these  favorable 
circumstances,  recovered  Schweidnitz  and  drove  the  Austrians  from  Si 
lesia. 

A  new  revolution  in  Russia  compelled  the  Prussian  king  to  halt  in 
his  victorious  career.  The  reforms  of  Peter  III.  had  given  oiTencc  to 
a  great  body  of  his  subjects ;  he  was  dethroned  by  his  wife,  who 
usurped  the  throne,  with  the  title  of  Catherine  II.  Peter  died  in  prison 
a  few  days  after  his  deposition,  but  it  has  not  been  ascertained  whether 
he  was  the  victim  of  disease  or  violence.  Catherine  did  not  renew  the 
war  against  Prussia,  as  had  been  at  first  expected,  but  she  withdrew 
her  forces,  and  resolved  to  observe  a  strict  neutrality.  Frederic's  vic- 
tories had  in  the  meantime,  so  seriously  alarmed  the  Austrians,  that 
they  consented  to  a  cessation  of  hostilities  for  Silesia  and  Saxony. 
This  impolitic  truce  laid  Bohemia  open  to  Frederic  :  one  division  of  his 
army  advanced  to  the  very  gates  of  Prague  and  destroyed  a  valuable 
magazine  ;  another  laid  the  greater  part  of  Egra  in  ashes,  while  de- 
tachments ravaged  Franconia,  and  even  Suabia.  The  princes  of  the 
empire  hasted  to  conclude  treaties  of  neutrality,  and  the  war  was  left 
to  be  decided  by  the  powers  of  Prussia  and  Austria,  between  which 
the  contest  had  begun. 

In  the  meantime  the  English  conquered  the  chief  islands  that  the 
French  still  retained  in  the  West  Indies,  Martinique,  St.  Lucie,  Gre- 
nada, and  St.  Vincent ;  while  the  Spaniards  suffered  the  more  severe 
loss  of  Havana,  tbe  capital  of  Cuba,  and  the  large  fleet  that  lay  in 
its  harbor.  Nor  was  this  the  least  alarming  of  the  consequences  that 
resulted  to  the  court  of  Madrid  from  its  unwise  interference ;  an  arma- 
ment from  Madras,  under  the  command  of  Admiral  Cornish  and  General 
Draper,  captured  Manilla,  and  the  fall  of  this  city  involved  the  fate  o^ 
'.he  whole  range  of  the  Philippine  islands. 

France  and  Spain,  heartily  tired  of  a  war  which  threatened  ruin  tc 
the  colonies  of  both,  became  desirous  of  peace,  and  they  found  the  earl 
of  Bute,  who  now  ruled  the  British  cabinet,  equally  anxious  to  termi 
nate  the  war.  Indeed,  so  anxious  was  that  minister  to  avoid  a  contin- 
uance of  hostilities,  that  he  not  only  stopped  the  career  of  colonial 
conquest,  but  consented  to  sacrifice  several  acquisitions  that  Britain  had 
already  made.  Still  the  British  nation  gained  by  the  war  the  whole  of 
Canada  and  part  of  Louisiana,  the  chief  settlements  on  the  western, 
coasts  of  Africa,  and  a  decided  superiority  in  India  ;  had  the  war  lasted 
another  year,  had  even  the  fair  claims  of  Britain's  position  been  sup- 
ported by  her  negotiators,  these  gains  would  have  been  more  extensive 
and  more  secure.  Contrary  to  all  expectation,  the  preliminaries  were 
sanctioned  by  a  majority  of  the  British  parliament,  and  soon  after  the 
definite  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris  (Feb.  10,  1763).  The  king  of 
Prussia  and  the  emperess  of  Austria,  deserted  by  their  respective  allies 
agreed  to  a  reconciliation  about  the  same  time,  on  the  basis  of  a  resti- 
tution of  conquests  and  an  oblivion  of  injuries. 

The  result  of  the  continentid  war  was,  that  Prussia  and  Austria  be- 
came the  principal  European  powers,  France  lost  her  political  pre- 
eminence when  united  to  the  empire,  and  England  abandoned  her  in 


MERCANTILE  AND  COLONIAI    SYSTEM. 


625 


fluence  in  the  European  system,  maintaining  an  intimate  relation  onlj 
with  Portugal  and  Holland.  Britain,  by  the  colonial  war,  obtained  com- 
plete maritime  supremacy  ;  she  commanded  the  entire  commerce  of 
North  America  and  Hindustan,  and  had  a  decided  superiority  in  the 
West  Indian  trade.  But  during  the  seven  years'  war  a  question  arose 
which  led  to  very  important  discussions  ;  France,  unable  to  maintain  a 
commercial  intercourse  with  her  colonies,  opened  the  trade  to  neutral 
powers  ;  England  declared  this  traffic  illegal,  and  relying  on  her  naval 
superiority,  seized  neutral  vessels  and  neutral  property  bound  to  hostile 
ports.  The  return  of  peace  put  an  end  to  the  dispute  for  a  season,  but 
it  became  the  subject  of  angry  controversy  in  every  future  war.  The 
internal  condition  of  England  improved  rapidly  during  the  contest  by 
th«  extension  of  the  funding  system  ;  the  pecuniary  aftairs  of  the  gov- 
ernment became  intimately  connected  with  those  of  the  nation ;  by  lar 
the  greatei  part  of  the  loans  required  for  the  war  was  raised  at  home, 
so  the  increase  of  the  national  debt  more  closely  united  the  rulers  and 
the  people  in  the  bonds  of  a  common  interest.  This  altered  state  of 
hings  scarcely  excited  notice,  though  it  was  the  chief  source  of  the 
pernunence  and  stability  displayed  by  the  British  government  when 
revolutioiiajy  movements  threatened  to  subvert  the  other  dyna-'sties  ot 
Europe. 

40 


020  MODERN  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS. 

Section  I. —  Change  in  the  Relations  of  the  Catholic  Fcwersio  the  Holy  Ht.e. 
Dismemberment  of  Poland. 

No  country  had  suffered  so  severely  as  France  during  the  late  war; 
ilie  finances  had  long  been  in  confusion,  and  the  profligate  expenditure 
of  a  demoralized  court  aggravated  the  indignation  produced  by  national 
distress.  Louis  XV.,  though  not  destitute  of  abilities,  was  the  slave 
of  his  sensual  appetites  ;  ruled  by  his  mistresses,  and  other  unworthy  fa- 
vorites, he  connived  at  glaring  abuses,  and  sanctioned  the  grossest  acts 
of  tyranny  and  rapacity.  A  spirit  of  opposition  spread  through  the 
kingdom,  several  of  the  parliaments  refused  to  register  the  edicts  for  the 
continuance  of  war-taxes,  and  others  remonstrated  in  a  tone  of  censure 
to  which  the  French  monarchs  had  been  longimaccustomed.  This  un- 
usual liberty  of  the  parliaments  had  been  in  some  degree  fostered  by 
the  court  itself;  the  king  permitted  these  bodies  to  set  bounds  to  eccle- 
siastical tyranny,  and  to  suppress  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  in  France 
(a.  d.  1762) ;  and  their  spirit  was  further  increased  by  the  intrigues  of 
the  duke  de  Choiseul,  who  persuaded  the  king  to  allow  the  Parisian 
parh anient  to  pass  sentence  on  Lally,  the  unfortunate  commander  of 
the  French  in  India,  whose  only  crime  was  failure  under  circumstances 
that  rendered  success  impossible. 

Popular  discontent  was  at  the  same  time  rapidly  spreading  in  Spain, 
v'here  the  reforms  of  the  prime  minister,  Squillace,  offended  the  obsti- 
nate prejudices  of  an  ignorant  and  bigoted  nation.  Charles  IIL  yielded 
to  the  clamors  of  his  subjects  and  dismissed  the  minister,  but  he  firmly 
resolved  to  take  vengeance  on  the  Jesuits,  who  were  supposed  to  have 
secretly  instigated  the  insurrection.  A  reforming  minister  in  Portugal 
maintained  his  post  in  spite  of  opposition  ;  the  marquis  of  Pombal 
ruled  the  land  with  iron  sway,  and  confident  in  the  rectitude  of  his  in- 
tentions, scorned  all  opposition.  But  though  he  removed  all  impedi- 
m3nts,  including  the  higher  order  of  nobility  and  the  society  of  Jesuits 
his  reforms  took  no  root  in  the  land,  and  the  institutions  which  he  es- 
tablished by  force  perished  Avhen  that  force  was  taken  away. 

The  enmity  of  Pombal  and  Choiseul  to  the  Jesuits  was  felt  in  the 
Spaiiish  cabinet ;  the  king  was  indignant  at  their  share  in  the  late  dis- 
turbances, his  minister,  Count  d'Aranda,  regarded  the  order  as  hostile 
to  all  existing  governments.  Both  took  their  measures  with  profoun  J 
eecresy  (a.  d.  1767).  The  houses  of  the  Jesuits  in  Madrid  wero  sur- 
rounded at  night,  and  the  inmates  commanded  to  set  out  instantlv  foi 


THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS.  627 

lie  coast.  An  edict  was  then  issued  for  the  banishment  of  the  regu- 
\irs  of  that  community  from  Spain  and  its  colonies,  and  the  confiscatior 
of  their  temporalities.  The  Jesuits  in  Mexico  and  Peru  were  similarly- 
seized  ;  and  in  Paraguay,  where  they  had  established  an  almost  inde 
pendent  empire,  they  were  suddenly  deposed  and  transported  to  Europe 
The  king  of  Naples  and  the  duke  of  Parma  followed  the  example  of 
th°  court  of  Spain,  in  spite  of  the  urgent  remonstrances  of  Pope  Clem- 
ent XIII.  ;  they  also  placed  new  restrictions  on  the  pontiff's  jurisdic- 
tion in  their  states,  and  when  Clement  made  a  vigorous  effort  to  sup- 
port the  ancient  privileges  of  the  holy  see,  he  found  himself  opposed 
to  ail  .he  Italian  powers,  except  tiie  king  of  Sardinia,  to  the  remon- 
strances of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  the  active  hostility  of  France. 

"^^bile  these  disputes  between  the  catholic  powers  and  the  head  of 
their  church  proved  that  the  supremacy  of  the  papacy  no  longer  exist- 
ed, but  in  name,  the  struggles  of  a  small  insular  people  to  maintain 
their  national  independence  excited  general  sympathy.  The  Genoese 
f.ransferred  their  nominal  claims  over  the  island  of  Corsica  to  the 
crown  of  France,  and  Choiseul  sent  a  large  army  to  occupy  this  new 
acquisition.  But  the  Corsicans,  justly  enraged  at  the  transfer  of  their 
allegiance  without  the  formality  of  asking  their  consent,  boldly  flew  to 
arms,  and  under  the  command  of  the  heroic  Paoli,  prepared  for  an  ob- 
stinate resistance.  Had  the  British  ministry  interfered,  the  result  of 
the  contest  would  have  been  very  doubtful ;  but  Paoli  could  not  resist 
the  entire  force  of  France,  he  was  driven  by  the  vast  superiority  of 
numbers  from  post  to  post,  until  every  strong  place  had  yielded  to  the 
invaders,  when  he  cut  his  way  through  the  enemy,  and  embarked  for 
Leghorn  (a.  d.  1769).  The  island  submitted  to  Louis,  but  many  of  the 
Corsicans  long  continued  to  harass  the  French  by  a  guerilla  war  in 
their  mountain  fastnesses. 

Choiseul,  finding  his  influence  with  Louis  XV.  on  the  decline,  sought 
to  strengthen  it  by  cementing  the  alliance  between  the  courts  of  Paris 
and  Vienna.  He  effected  a  marriage  between  the  king's  grandson  and 
heir  and  Marie  Antoinette,  daughter  of  the  emperess-dowager.  These 
ill-omened  nuptials  were  celebrated  with  extraordinary  splendor  during 
a  season  of  great  public  distress  :  during  the  festivities  a  fatal  accident 
cact  a  shade  of  melancholy  over  all  parties  ;  some  confusion  arose  in 
the  crowd  ot  spectators,  and  nearly  two  hundred  persons  lost  their  lives 
m  the  tumult.  Choiseul  involved  the  king  in  a  quarrel  with  the  parlia- 
mei/,  ,  which  precipitated  the  fail  of  that  able  minister;  the  king  re- 
luctantly consented  to  abandon  the  new  forms  of  jurisdiction  which 
were  proposed,  and  allow  the  old  courts  to  resume  their  functions. 
Thi?  unfortunate  and  dishonorable  proceeding  completed  the  abasement 
of  France  ;  it  was  notorious  that  the  duke  de  Choiseul  owed  his  dis- 
grace to  the  intrigues  of  the  king's  profligate  mistress  ;*  and  whatever 
may  have  been  the  faults  of  that  minister,  he  would  certainly  never 
have  permitted  the  influence  of  his  country  to  sink  so  low  as  it  did 
during  the  administration  of  his  successor,  the  duke  d'Aguillon. 

While  France  was  thus  declining,  the  Russian  empire  was  rapidly 
acquiring  a  preponderating  influence  in  eastern  Europe.    The  eraperess 

•  Madame  du  Barri.  She  was  subsequently  one  of  the  victims  ot  he  Freucb 
"evolution. 


628  MODERN  HISTOIIY. 

Catheiine  procured  the  throne  of  Poland  for  one  of  her  favorites,  StaT.- 
islaus  Augustus  (a.  d.  1765),  having  sent  a  Russian  army  to  overawe 
the  diet,  when  it  assembled  to  choose  a  sovereign.  Frederic  of  Prus- 
sia, anxious  to  remedy  the  calamities  which  the  seven  years'  war  hac 
Drought  upon  his  country,  did  not  venture  to  oppose  the  schemes  of  th^ 
ambitious  czarina ;  on  the  contrary,  he  was  gained  over  by  some  com- 
mercial concessions  to  aid  her  projects  with  all  his  influence.  The 
new  sovereign  of  Poland,  opposed  by  a  licentious  aristocracy  and  a  big- 
oted people,  was  unal)le  to  remedy  the  disorders  of  the  state,  or  control 
the  events  that  soon  furnished  a  pretext  for  the  interference  of  his  povv-- 
erful  neighbors.  Poland  had  long  been  agitated  by  religious  disputes  ; 
the  oppressions  of  the  catholics  compelled  the  dissidents,  as  the  dis- 
senting sects  were  called,  to  seek  foreign  protection ;  those  of  the 
Greek  church  appealed  to  the  emperess  of  Russia,  while  the  Lutherans 
sought  aid  from  the  kings  of  Prussia  and  Denmark.  Catherine,  with 
great  promptitude,  sent  an  army  to  enforce  the  claims  of  the  dissidents, 
and  paying  little  regard  to  the  remonstrances  of  Stanislaus,  acted  as  if 
Poland  had  been  one  of  her  own  provinces.  The  catholic  lords  formed 
a  confederacy  to  maintain  the  purity  of  their  religion,  and  the  indepen- 
dence of  their  country,  but  they  were  unable  to  compete  with  the  over- 
whelming forces  of  Russia  ;  Cracow,  where  they  attempted  to  make  a 
stand,  was  taken  by  storm,  the  fugitives  were  pursued  beyond  the  Turk- 
ish frontiers,  and  the  country  that  had  afforded  them  refuge  was  cruelly 
devastated. 

Mustapha  III.  was  more  peacefully  inclined  than  most  of  the  sultans 
that  have  fdled  the  throne  of  Constantinople,  but  he  felt  that  the  power 
which  Russia  was  acquiring  in  Poland  would  be  dangerous  to  the  se- 
curity of  his  northern  provinces  ;  he  was  indignant  at  the  violation  of 
his  dominions,  and  he  was  secretly  instigated  by  the  French  court. 
The  king  of  Prussia  vainly  remonstrated  with  the  sultan  ;*  Mustapha 
had  formed  an  extravagant  estimate  of  his  military  resources,  and  he  is 
said  to  have  been  animated  by  a  personal  dislike  of  Catherine.  The 
war  was  commenced  by  the  Turks  (a.  d.  1769)  ;  their  irregular  troops 
entered  southern  Russia,  and  committed  the  most  frightful  ravages ; 
but  wjien  they  hazarded  a  regular  engagement  at  Choczim,  they  suffered 
a  severe  defeat.  Catherine  prepared  to  strike  a  decisive  blow  against 
the  Turkish  power  ;  she  sent  a  fleet  from  the  Baltic  round  to  the  Med- 
iterranean, to  support  an  insurrection  which  her  emissaries  had  exci- 
ted in  Southern  Greece  (a.  d.  1770).  The  insurgents,  aided  by  a  Rus- 
sian force,  at  first  gained  some  advantages,  but  on  the  first  reverse  '■.h^-/ 
were  abandoned  by  their  allies  to  the  brutal  retaliations  of  their  Turkish 
masters.  Soon  after,  the  Turkish  fleet  of  fifteen  ships-of-the-line  wa.s 
burned  by  a  Russian  squadron  in  the  bay  of  Chesme,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  single  vessel  that  was  captured.  This  was  followed  by  the 
defeat  of  the  grand  Ottoman  army  near  the  Pruth,  the  capture  of  Ben- 
der, Akerman,  and  Ismail,  and  the  occupation  of  the  entire  province  of 
Bessarabia 

Stanislaus  was  forced  to  join  in  the  war  against  the  Turks,  thougli 
he  knew  that  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  their  taking  up  arms  was  ic 
•  Frederic,  who  loved  to  indulge  in  sarcasm,  said  that  a  war  between  the  Rus 
•uanfl  an  1  the  Turks  would  be  a  contest  between  the  one-eved  and  the  blind. 


THE  AJE  OF  DEVOLUTIONS.  620 

defend  the  independence  of  Poland.  But  Joseph,  who  had  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  German  empire  (a.  d.  1765),  began  to  dread  the  dan- 
gerous ambition  of  Russia  ;  and  even  his  mother,  Maria  Theresa,  began 
to  court  the  friendship  of  her  old  rival,  Frederic,  as  a  counterpoise  to 
the  governing  power  of  the  czarina.  It  was  obviously  the  interest  of 
the  northern  sftites,  Denmark  and  Sweden,  to  adopt  a  similar  course 
of  policy ;  bu;  the  governments  of  both  countries  were  too  deeply  en- 
gaged by  their  domestic  affairs  to  attend  to  the  state  of  their  foreign 
relations. 

Frederick  V.,  one  of  the  best  monarchs  that  ever  occupied  the  throne 
of  Denmark,  was  succeeded  by  Christian  V.,  a  prince  of  weak  intellect 
and  dissipated  habits  (a.  d.  1766).  Soon  after  his  accession.  Christian 
married  Caroline  Matilda,  one  of  the  sisters  of  the  queen  of  England, 
and  the  engaging  manners  of  this  princess  won  her  the  fuvor  of  the 
Danish  king  and  people.  To  maintain  her  ascendency  over  lae  mind 
of  her  husband,  Caroline  favored  the  ambition  of  Struensee  a  foreign 
p.dventurer,  who  was  raised  to  the  office  of  prime  minister,  oi  rather, 
sole  ruler  of  Denmark.  Slruensee's  idministration  was  vigorous  and 
useful,  but  his  haughtiness  gave  great  offence  to  the  Danish  nobles  ;  £ 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  him,  of  which  the  king's  step-mother  and 
her  son  Frederic  were  the  principal  instigators,  and  it  was  resolved  to 
involve  the  unfortunate  queen  Caroline  in  his  fate.  Struensee  and  his 
friend  Brandt  were  arrested  at  midnight,  by  virtue  of  an  order  which 
had  been  extorted  from  the  imbecile  Christian  ;  they  were  insulted  with 
the  mockery  of  a  trial,  and  put  to  a  cruel  death.  The  queen  was  also 
arrested  and  sent  a  prisoner  to  Cronenberg  castle  ;  dread  ol  British  ven* 
(Teance,  however,  saved  her  from  personal  violence.  She  was  peimitted 
I.O  retire  to  Hanover,  where  the  remainder  o\  her  life  was  spent  in  com- 
parative obscurity.  The  queen  dowager,  having  removed  her  rival, 
usurped  the  royal  authority  ;  a  young  nobleman  named  Bernstorff  was 
appointed  prime  minister,  and  the  court  of  Copenhagen  became  remark- 
aole  for  its  subserviency  to  that  of  St.  Petersburgh. 

Gustavus  III.,  a  young  prmce  of  great  vigor  and  sagacity,  ascended 
the  Swedish  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  Adolphus  Frederic  (a.  d. 
1771);  he  had  early  formed  a  project  for  removing  the  restrictions 
which  the  senate  had  imposed  on  the  royal  authority  after  the  dea  h  of 
Charles  XII.,  and  his  effons  were  seconded  by  the  bu'k  of  the  nytion, 
long  weary  of  aristocratic  tyranny.  The  senate,  suddenly  surrou'idei 
by  armed  bands,  was  intiinid.ited  into  assenting  to  the  instrument  of 
g)ve;nmeit  v^hi  ;h  Gu>ta>tis  ha  1  |  rep  an  d,  an  I  a  n  volut  on  \\  lic'i 
changed  Sweden  from  one  of  the  most  limited  into  one  of  the  most  ab- 
solute monarchies  of  Europe,  was  effected  witlumt  spilling  a  drop  of 
blood.  Dread  of  a  counter-revolution,  and  the  necessity  of  providing 
aoaie  remedy  for  the  distress  which  prevailed  in  Sweden,  prevented 
Gustavus  from  interfering  in  the  atlairs  of  Poland,  a  country  that  h.id 
aften  occupied  the  anxious  cares  of  his  predecessors. 

Stanislaus  was  sincerely  anxious  to  confer  the  blessings  of  tranquil- 
lity and  g(»od  government  on  Poland  ;  but  all  his  judicious  measures 
were  frustrated  by  the  J-'ohsh  nobles,  wlio  clung  to  their  tyrannous  and 
absurd  privileges,  though  they  were  known  to  be  as  pernicious  to  them> 
selves  as  they  were  ruinous  to  the  cc  untry.     An  attempt  on  the  persona 


B30  MODERN  HISTORY. 

liberty  of  the  unhappy  king  gave  Catherine  a  pretext  for  sending  r.  Riis 
sian  army  into  the  country,  and  suggested  to  the  Prussian  king  a  sc  licino 
for  the  dismemberment  of  Poland.  A  treaty  was  conckided  betweer 
Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  for  dividing  the  Polish  provinces  betweer. 
Jiem,  Their  armies  instantly  occupied  their  several  shares  ;  and  the 
diet,  overawed  by  the  united  forces  of  the  three  powers,  was  forced  to 
acquiesce  in  an  arrangement  that  left  Poland  a  merely  nominal  exist- 
ence (a.  d.  1773).  The  unhappy  Stanislaus,  reproached  for  calamities 
which  it  was  not  in  his  power  to  avert,  could  not  avoid  retorting  on  his 
accusers,  and  attributing  the  national  caLnities  to  the  bigotry,  the  fac- 
tious spirit,  and  the  incessant  contentions,  of  the  turbulent  nobles.  By 
the  intervention  of  Prussia,  a  treaty  was  subsequently  concluded  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey,  by  winch  the  emperess  gained  several  im- 
portant fortresses,  a  large  acquisition  of  territory,  and  permission  for  her 
subjects  to  navigate  the  Black  sea  (a.  d.  1774).  Grea>  .s  these  gains 
were,  they  were  less  valuable  in  themselves  than  as  means  for  obtaivi 
ing  other  objects  of  Catherine's  secret  ambition. 

Degraded  as  Louis  XV.  was,  he  could  not  receive,  without  emotion, 
intelligence  of  events  which  showed  the  low  ebb  to  which  the  influence 
of  France  was  reduced.  When  informed  of  the  partition  of  Poland,  he 
could  not  refrain  from  exclaiming,  "  Had  Choiscul  been  still  in  the  cabi- 
net, this  disgraceful  transaction  might  have  been  averted."  The  duke 
d'Aguillon  merited  this  reproach,  but  he  resolved  to  atone  for  his  negli- 
gence by  gratifying  the  national  hatred  against  the  Jesuits,  though  he 
had  long  been  suspected  of  secretly  favoring  that  order.  The  death  of 
Clement  XIII.  favored  his  projects  (a.  d.  1769).  Ganganelli,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  papacy  under  the  title  of  Clement  XIV.,  felt  that  the  time 
■was  for  ever  gone  by  when  the  extravagant  claims  of  the  pontiffs  couid 
be  maintained,  and  he  therefore  sought  a  reconciliation  with  the  catho- 
lic sovereigns  by  making  reasonable  concessions.  After  a  long  but  not 
unju&tiliable  delay,  he  issued  a  bull  suppressing  the  order  of  Jesuits  ;  and 
niDst  of  the  catholic  prelates,  who  had  long  been  jealous  of  that  fraterni- 
ty, eagerly  enforced  the  papal  edict  (a.  d.  1773).  Little  opposition  was 
made  by  the  Jesuits  to  this  decree,  but  the  insurrection  in  Sicily  and 
tlie  deaths  of  Louis  XV.  and  Pope  Ganganelli  (a.  d.  1774)  were  at- 
Dib'Jted  to  their  secret  practices,  though  not  a  shadow  of  proof  could  be 
liddi  ced  to  support  such  severe  accusations.  Indeed,  it  is  notorious 
that  Louis  died  of  small -pox,  and  Ganganelli  of  a  constitutional  disease 
to  which  he  tiad  long  been  a  martyr.  Louis  XVI.,  of  whom  his  sub- 
jects had  long  been  taught  to  Ibrm  the  most  favorable  expectations,  as- 
cended the  tl.  rone  of  France  :  Angelo  Braschi  was  elected  to  the  papacy, 
lutder  the  title  of  Pius  VI.,  by  the  influence  of  the  more  bigoted  cardi- 
nals, who  believed  that  he  would  be  a  more  zealous  supporter  of  the 
church  than  his  predecessors. 

Skotio.v   II. — History  of  Eiigiand  from  the  Peace  of  Paris  to  ine  ( 'ommencc- 
meat  of  the  American  War. 

V/men  the  British  ministry  concluded  a  separate  treaty  with  France, 
liiey  dissevered  their  country  from  its  expensive  connexion  with  tlK 
nontment,  but  at  the  ^ime  time  they  diminished  its  influence  in  Eura 


TilE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS.  (>31 

pean  politics.  Extensive  colonies,  rapidly  increasing  commerce,  and 
improving  manufactures,  afforded  the  nation  ample  amends  for  this  loss  ; 
but  a  spiri  of  faction  began  to  appear  in  the  national  councils,  which 
produced  a  pernicious  inriuence  on  the  growing  prosperity  of  the  nation. 
While  there  was  any  reason  to  apprehend  danger  from  the  house  of 
Stuart,  the  Brunswick  dynasty  was  necessarily  thrown  for  support  on 
tlie  whigs,  for  the  tories  were  from  principle  more  or  less  disposed  to 
favor  the  claims  of  the  exiled  house ;  but  when  all  fears  from  the  Pre- 
tender had  disappeared,  the  zeal  which  the  tories  had  ever  shown  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  royal  prerogative  naturally  recommended  them 
to  royal  favor.  Personal  friendship  induced  George  III.  to  introduce 
the  earl  of  Bute  into  his  cabinet ;  his  influence  excited  the  jealousy  of 
the  whigs,  who,  had  long  monopolized  the  favor  of  the  king  and  the  na- 
tion ;  they  accused  him  of  an  attachment  lo  toryisni,  of  partiality  to  liis 
Scottish  countrymen,  and  of  having  sacrificed  the  interests  of  the  nation 
at  the  peace.  Unable  or  unwifling  to  face  popular  clamor,  the  earl  of 
Bute  resigned  his  office,  but  it  was  believed  he  privately  retained  his  in- 
fluence in  the  cabinet ;  and  thus  no  small  portion  of  his  unpopularity 
was  inherited  by  his  successors. 

John  Wilkes,  member  of  parliament  for  Aylesbury,  assailed  the  min- 
isters with  great  bitterness  in  a  paper  called  the  North  Briton.  The  for- 
ty-fifth number  of  this  periodical  contained  a  fierce  attack  on  the  king's 
speech  at  the  opening  of  the  parliamentary  session ;  and  the  ministers, 
forgetting  discretion  in  their  rage,  issued  a  general  warrant  against  the 
authors,  printers,  and  publishers  of  the  libel.  Wilkes  was  arrested,  but 
was  soon  liberated,  on  pleading  privilege  of  parliament.  The  house  of 
commons,  in  opposition  to  the  legal  authorities,  voted  that  privilege  of 
parliament  did  not  extend  to  the  case  of  libel  ;  but  it  subsequently  joined 
v/ith  the  lords  in  voting  the  illegality  of  general  warrants.  Wilkes,  in 
the  meantime,  quitted  the  country,  and  not  appearing  to  take  his  trial, 
was  outlawed.  So  much  was  the  nation  engrossed  by  this  dispute  be- 
tween the  government  and  an  individual,  that  little  attention  was  ])aid  U: 
colonial  affairs  ;  but  during  this  period  the  East  India  company  acquired 
several  rich  districts  in  Bengal,  and  displayed  a  grasping  ambition, 
which  threatened  the  independence  of  the  native  powers. 

A  more  dangerous  prospect  was  opened  in  the  American  states.  Tht: 
French  being  removed,  and  the  Indians  driven  into  the  ba^ckwocds,  the 
colonies  began  to  increase  rapidly  in  wealth,  and  iheir  prosperity  sug- 
gested to  Mr.  Grenville  a  scheme  for  making  them  share  in  the  burden 
of  taxation.  The  late  war  had  been  undertaken  principally  for  the  se- 
curity of  the  colonists,  they  had  been  almost  exclusively  the  gainers  by 
its  successful  termination,  and  it  was  therefore  deemed  equitable  that 
they  should  pay  a  portion  of  the  cost.  But  the  Americans  were  not 
lepresented  in  the  British  parliament,  and  they,  together  with  a  large 
party  in  Britain,  maintained  that  they  could  not  be  constitutionally  taxed 
without  their  own  consei\t.  Mr.  Grenville,  supported  by  his  royal  mas- 
ter, disregarded  opposition,  and  an  act  was  passed  imposing  stamp-diitiea 
on  a  multitude  of  articles  (a.  d.  1705). 

The  dispute  seemed  to  be  allayed  by  a  ciiange  in  the  British  mmis 
try  ;  the  marquis  of  Rockingham,  much  against  the  king's  will,  repealed 
the  obnoxious  Stamp  Act ;  but  he  was  forced  to  assert,  in  strong  terma 


632  MODERN  HISTOHY 

die  right  of  the  king  and  parliament  to  enact  laws,  binding  the  colomes  ii, 
all  cases  whatsoever.  The  marquis  of  Rockingham  was  soon  obliged  tc 
o-ive  way  to  Mr.  Pitt,  who  had  been  created  earl  of  Chatham  ;  but  the  cabi 
ret  constructed  by  this  once-popular  minister  had  no  principle  of  union 
and  soon  fell  to  pieces.  The  appointment  of  Lord  North  to  the  chan- 
cellorship of  the  exchequer  aggravated  party  animosities  (a.  d.  1767)  ; 
the  new  minister  was  suspected  of  hostility  to  the  American  claims,  and 
had  taken  a  prominent  part  against  Wilkes.  That  demagogue  returned 
to  England  ;  he  was  chosen  member  for  the  county  of  Middlesex  at  the 
general  election,  after  which  he  surrendered  himself  to  justice,  obtained 
the  reversal  of  his  outlawry,  and  was  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  the 
libel  he  had  published.  When  parliament  met,  it  was  supposed  that 
Wilkes  would  take  his  seat  for  Middlesex,  and  a  cro'.yd  assembled  to 
escort  him  to  the  house  ;  some  rioting  occurred,  the  military  were  called 
out,  and  a  scuffle  ensued,  in  which  some  lives  were  lost.  Wilkes  stig 
matized  the  employment  of  the  soldiers  on  this  occasion  in  the  most 
unmeasured  terms  •  the  ministers  took  advantage  of  this  second  libel  to 
procure  his  expulsion  from  the  house  of  commons,  but  the  electors  of 
Middlesex  re-elected  him  without  any  hesitation.  The  commons  re- 
solved that  an  expelled  member  was  incapable  of  sitting  in  the  parlia- 
ment that  had  passed  such  a  sentence  upon  him,  and  issued  a  writ  for  a 
new  election.  Once  more  Wilkes  was  unanimously  chosen,  and  once 
more  the  commons  refused  to  admit  him.  A  new  election  was  held, 
and  Wilkes  was  returned  by  a  great  majority  over  Colonel  Luttrell,  the 
ministerial  candidate.  The  house  of  commons  persevered  in  its  decla- 
ration of  ^^'ilkes's  incapacity,  and  resolved  that  Colonel  Lnttrell  should 
be  the  s^ttirg  member. 

In  their  anxiety  to  cru.sh  a  worthless  individual,  the  ministers  had  now 
involved  themselves  in  a  contest  on  an  important  point  of  constitutional 
law,  with  all  the  constituencies  of  the  nation.  A  fierce  opposition  was 
raised  against  them  in  England,  and  this  not  a  little  encouraged  the 
Americans  to  persevere  in  their  resistance. 

The  resignation  of  the  duke  of  Grafton,  who  wished  to  conciliate  the 
colonits,  rhe  removal  of  E-arl  Camden,  who  disapproved  of  the  decisioi; 
lesjiecting  tl.e  Midilesex  election,  and  the  appointment  of  Lord  North 
as  premier,  added  to  the  exasperation  of  parties  (a.  d.  1770).  The  im- 
position of  a  light  duty  on  tea  kept  alive  the  dispute  with  America,  while 
the  concessions  made  to  the  court  of  Spain,  in  a  dispute  respecting  the 
Jalkland  i.siduds,  wore  represented  as  a  deliberate  sacrifice  of  the  honor 
or  the  country.  The  only  benefi.nal  result  from  these  disputes  was,  the 
indiiect  li(.ense  given  to  the  pu!jlic:ition  of  tne  pariiamentaiy  debates, 
which  hail  hitherto  been  deemed  a  breach  of  privilege.  The  commons 
sent  a  messenger  to  arrest  some  printers  and  publishers,  but  the  execu- 
tion of  their  orders  was  opposed  by  the  civic  magistrates,  Crosby,  Oli- 
ver, and  Wilkes.  The  two  former  were  sent  to  the  Tower  ;  but  Wilkes 
rel^ised  to  attend,  unless  permitted  to  take  his  seat  for  Middlesex,  and 
the  commons  gave  up  the  point  by  adjourning  over  the  day  on  which 
he  had  been  summoned  to  appear.  Since  that  time  the  debates  hav( 
been  regularly  published  in  the  newspapers. 

The  abuses  in  the  government  of  the  dominions  of  the  East  India 
company  having  attracted  considerable  attention,  a  law  was  passed  iot 


THE  AGE   OF  REVJLUTIONS.  633 

bringing  the  affairs  of  that  commercial  association  in  some  dogree  under 
the  control  of  government ;  but  to  reconcile  the  company  to  such  inter 
ference,  a  loan  was  granted  on  favorable  terms  ;  and  also  permission  to 
export  teas  without  payment  of  duty.  A  quantity  of  tea  was  shipped  for 
Boston,  and  Lord  North  hoped  that  the  low  price  of  the  commodity 
would  induce  the  New  Englanders  to  pay  the  small  duty  charged  on 
importation  ;  but  when  the  vessels  arrived  at  Boston,  they  were  boarded 
during  the  night  by  a  party  of  the  townsmen,  and  the  cargoes  throwr 
into  the  sea.  This  outrage,  foLowed  by  other  acts  of  defiance,  gave 
such  offence  in  England,  that  acts  were  passed  for  closing  the  port  of 
Eo.=ton,  and  altering  the  constitution  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts 
(a.  d.  1774).  It  was  hoped  that  the  other  colonies  would  be  warned 
by  this  example  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  encouraged  ihe  people  of 
Massachusetts  in  their,  disobedience,  and  signed  agreements  against  the 
importation  of  British  merchandise,  until  the  Boston  port  bill  should  be 
repealed,  and  the  grievances  of  the  colonies  redressed.  But  though  the 
colonists  acted  firmly,  they  showed  the  greatest  anxiety  for  reconc'Ua- 
tion  ;  they  prepared  addresses  to  the  government  and  their  fellow- 
subjects,  and  they  sent  a  luemorial  to  the  king,  couched  in  terms  equally 
spirited  and  respectful.  The  address  to  his  majesty  was  not  received, 
as  it  had  emanated  from  an  illegal  assembly  ;  and  the  determination 
e^^nced  by  the  new  parliament,  which  met  in  1775,  to  support  ministe- 
rial measures,  defeated  all  hopes  of  an  accommodation. 

The  continental  powers,  jealous  of  the  maritime  and  commercial  pros- 
perity of  England,  exulted  in  the  contest  thus  unwisely  provoked. 
Even  the  moderate  king  of  France,  though  severely  harassed  by  the 
disordered  state  of  his  finances,  and  the  embarrassing  disputes  whic? 
had  been  raised  by  his  grandfather  between  the  court  and  the  parlia 
ments,  seemed  disposed  to  favor  the  revolted  colonies  ;  several  of  hie 
ministers  urged  him  to  offer  them  support,  but  the  opinion  of  Turgot 
the  wisest  of  the  French  cabinet,  prevailed  for  a  season  ;  he  strenuously 
condemned  such  interference  as  impolitic  and  unjust.  Spain,  involved 
in  a  disastrous  war  with  the  piratical  states  of  Barbary,  and  in  a  less 
formidable  dispute  with  Portugal,  respecting  the  houndaries  of  their 
South  American  colonies,  was  slow  to  engage  in  fresh  hostilities,  and 
was  resolved  to  imitate  the  example  of  France.  The  king  of  Prussia, 
indignant  at  the  desertion  of  his  interests  in  the  peace  of  1763,  openly 
rejoiced  in  the  embarrassment  of  the  British  ministry  ;  and  Catherine 
of  Russia  exulted  in  the  hope  of  seeing  the  naval  power  most  likely  to 
oppose  her  ambitious  schemes  preparing  to  destroy  what  was  believed 
to  be  ih'i  secrtit  source  of  its  strength.  Undervaluing  the  power  and 
the  fortitude  of  the  provincials,  the  king  and  his  miidsters  resolved  to 
force  them  into  obedience,  parliament  seconded  these  views,  and  the 
great  bulk  of  the  i)eople  applauded  their  determination.  It  is  useless 
to  conceal  that  the  American  war  was  popular  at  its  commencement. 
The  vague  notion  of  dominion  over  an  entire  continent  flattered  Eng- 
lish pride,  and  the  taxes  which  the  ministers  demanded,  promised  some 
alleviation  to  the  public  burdens.  The  colonial  revolt  was  regarded  by 
many  as  a  rebellion,  not  against  the  British  government,  but  tht  British 
people,  and  the  contest  was  generally  looked  upon  in  England  as  an 


534  MODERN  HISTORY. 

effort  to  establish    not  tlie  royal  authority,  but  the  supremacy  of  th( 
nation. 

Skction  III. —  The  American  War. 

Blood  haA'ing  once  been  shed,  it  was  manifest  that  the  dispute  be- 
tween Britain  and  her  American  colou'es  could  only  be  decided  by  the 
sword.  Both  parties,  therefore,  prepared  for  the  struggle,  but  ap- 
parently with  some  lingering  hope  of  a  restoration  of  peace.  Mutual 
forbearance  was  exhibited  by  the  hostile  generals,  when  the  English 
were  compelled  to  evacuate  Boston ;  Howe,  the  British  commander 
made  no  attempt  to  injure  the  town,  and  Washington  permitted  the 
royal  army  to  retire  unmolested.  But  the  employment  of  German  mer- 
cenaries, by  the  English  ministry,  completed  the  alienation  of  the 
colonists  ;  they  resolved  to  separate  themselves  wholly  from  the  mother- 
country,  and  on   the   4th  of  July,  1776,  the  congress  published  the 

DECLARATIDN  OF  INDEPENDENCE  OF  THE  THIRTEEN  UNITED  STATES. 

The  first  campaign,  after  some  important  successes  gained  by  the 
British  forces  under  General  Howe,  terminated  in  the  entire  destruc- 
tion of  the  army  of  the  north  commanded  by  General  Burgoyne.  But 
this  did  not  abate  the  confidence  of  the  British  ministers  or  the  British 
people.  Conciliatory  acts  were,  indeed,  passed  by  the  parliament,  but 
before  intelligence  of  this  altered  policy  could  be  received  in  America, 
France  had  entered  into  a  treaty  recognising  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  (a.  d.  1778).  There  were  already  some  in  Britain  who 
advocated  this  extreme  measure  ;  the  earl  of  Chatham  vehemently  op- 
posed the  dismemberment  of  the  empire,  but  while  addressing  the 
lords,  he  was  struck  down  in  a  fit,  and  died  within  a  few  days.  The 
nation  mourned  his  loss,  but  it  did  not  the  less  prepare  vigorously  to 
meet  impending  dangers.  A  declaration  of  war  was  issued  against 
France,  and  a  respectable  fleet,  commanded  by  Admiral  Keppel,  sent 
to  cniise  in  the  channel.  Keppel  met  and  engaged  the  French  fleet 
off"  Ushant,  but  being  badly  supported  by  Sir  Hugh  Palliser,  the  second 
in  command,  he  was  unable  to  make  any  use  of  the  slight  advantage  he 
obtained. 

The  peace  of  the  continent  was  momentarily  menaced  by  the  efforts 
of  the  emperor  Joseph  to  obtain  possession  of  Bavaria,  but  the  prompt 
interference  of  the  king  of  Prussia,  the  remonstrances  of  the  emperess 
Catharine,  and  the  unwillingness  of  France  to  second  the  ambitious 
designs  of  Austria,  compelled  Joseph  to  relinquish  his  prey  when  it 
was  alniost  within  his  grasp  (a  d.  1779).  France  alone,  of  the  conti- 
nental powers,  had  yet  interfered  in  the  American  contest,  but  the  in- 
timate connexion  between  that  country  and  Spain,  led  to  a  general  be- 
lief that  the  latter  would  not  long  remain  neutral.  Nor  was  the  expect 
ation  groundless  ;  the  court  of  Madrid,  after  an  insincere  offer  of  media 
tion,  threw  off"  the  mask,  and  openly  prepared  for  active  hostilities 
Washington  adopted  a  cautious  defensive  policy,  by  which  his  adversa 
ries  were  more  exhausted  than  by  a  loss  of  a  battle.  The  English  sub 
dued  Georgia,  and  made  some  progress  in  the  Carolinas ;  I  ui  the 
French  captured  several   islands    in  the  AVest  ^ndies,  and  a  Spaai&L 


THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS.  t)35 

3oet,  f(;r  a  time  rode  triumphant  in  he  channel,  and  even  insulted 
Plymouth. 

Serious  riots  in  London  tended  more  to  lower  the  cnaracter  of  iht 
English,  among  foreign  nations,  than  these  reverses.  Some  of  the 
penal  laws  against  the  catholics  having  been  repealed,  an  association 
was  formed  by  some  ignorant  fanatics  for  the  protection  of  the  protestanf 
religion  ;  they  stimulated  the  passions  of  the  mob,  and  roused  an  im- 
mense multitude  to  acts  of  outrage.  For  several  days,  London  was  at 
the  mercy  of  an  infuriate  populace  ;  some  catholic  chapels  were  burned, 
and  many  private  houses  destroyed.  Tranquillity  was  at  length  re- 
stored by  the  interference  of  the  military,  and  several  of  the  rioters 
capitally  punished,  I'hese  disgraceful  transactions  alienated  the  court 
of  Madrid  at  a  time  when  it  was  disposed  to  negotiate,  and  the  promise 
of  the  French  to  aid  in  the  reduction  of  GibraJtar,  confirmed  the  hostile 
dispositions  of  the  Spaniards. 

The  English  had  reduced  all  the  Fiench  settlements  in  the  East 
Indies  in  1778,  and  humbled  the  Mahrattas  ;  but  a  new  and  formidable 
enemy  now  appeared.  Hyder  Ali,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  raised  hy 
chance  ^o  the  throne  of  Seringapatam,  resolved  to  drive  the  Europear 
intruders  from  Hindustan,  and  entered  the  Carnatic  with  overwhelming 
forces.  The  local  government  of  Madras  was  unprepared  for  this 
event,  and  the  resources  at  its  command  were  wasted  by  the  obstinacy 
and  incapacity  of  the  council.  Owing  to  this  mismanagement,  the 
English  forces,  commanded  by  Baillie  and  Fletcher,  were  all  either 
slain  or  taken  by  Hyder  and  his  son  Tippoo. 

The  maritime  glory  of  England  was  ably  maintained  by  Sir  George 
Rodney ;  he  captured  four  Spanish  ships-of-the-line  off  Cape  St.  Vin- 
cent, drove  two  more  on  shore,  and  burned  another:  thence  proceeding 
to  America,  he  thrice  encountered  the  French  fleet,  under  the  -ount  de 
Guichen,  and  though  he  obtained  no  decisive  success,  he  prevented 
Washington  from  receiving  naval  aid  in  his  meditated  attack  on  New 
York.  But  the  progress  of  the  war  now  threatened  to  involve  England  in 
3.  new  contest  with  all  the  maritime  powers,  respecting  the  trade  of  neu- 
tral vessels.  The  emperess  of  Russia  took  the  lead  in  demanding  freedom 
of  trade  for  neutral  vessels  not  laden  with  the  munitions  of  war,  to  all 
ports  not  actually  blockaded  ;  she  proposed  that  the  northern  powers 
should  unite  to  support  this  right ;  a  coniederacy,  called  the  Armed  Neu- 
trality, was  formed  by  Russia,  Denmark,  and  Sweden  ;  Holhind  promptly 
acceded  to  the  league  ;  the  courts  of  Vienna,  Berlin,  and  Naples,  adopted 
its  principles  ;  the  republic  of  Venice,  and  even  Portugal,  the  oldest  ally 
of  England,  joined  the  association.  The  British  ministry  temporized, 
ihey  expected,  probably,  that  the  smothered  jealousy  between  Austria 
and  Prussia  might  lead  to  a  war  that  would  divert  the  attention  of  the 
continental  powers,  but  these  hopes  were  frustrated  by  the  death  of 
Maria  Tl»eresa,  whose  inveterate  hatred  of  the  Prussian  monarch  was 
net  inherited  by  her  successor. 

The  conduct  of  the  Dutch  government  had  long  been  suspicious  ;  bm 
oroof  was  at  length  obtained  of  its  having  concluded  a  treaty  with  the 
a.merican  congress,  and  the  remonstrances  of  the  British  minister  were 
treated  with  disdain.  War  was  instantly  declared,  and  several  of  the 
Dutch  colonies  in  the  South  American  seas  were  subdued  by  the  Eng- 


15SC  MODERN  HISTORY 

lish  forces.  Noi  n'as  this  the  only  calamity  that  befell  the  Du;.;h  re 
public  ;  no  sooner  had  the  emperor  Joseph  succeeded  to  the  amplcj  in- 
heritance of  Maria  Theresa,  than  he  commanded  a  series  of  important  re- 
forms, among  which  was  included  the  dismantling  of  the  barrier  tc  wns  in 
the  Netherlands,  which  had  been  fortified  at  a  vast  expense  to  save  Hol- 
land from  the  encroachments  of  France  (a.  d.  1781).  A  Dutch  fleet, 
under  Zoutman,  was  defeated  by  Admiral  Parker,  at  the  Doggers'  bank  ; 
but  the  English  had  less  success  in  the  American  seas,  where  Sii 
Samuel  Hood  was  reduced  to  inactivity  by  the  superior  force  of  Count 
de  Grasse. 

The  defeat  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  and  the  loss  of  the  second  British 
army  that  had  been  forced  to  surrender,  led  to  a  general  feeling  in  Eng 
land  that  any  further  protraction  of  the  contest  would  be  hopeless  (a.  d. 
1782).  The  ministers,  indeed,  seemed  at  first  resolved  to  continue  the 
war,  but  they  could  no  longer  command  a  parliamentary  majority,  and 
were  forced  to  resign.  A  new  ministry,  formed  by  tlie  marquis  of 
Rockingham  and  Mr.  Fox,  commenced  negotiations  for  peace,  without 
at  all  relaxing  in  their  eflbrts  to  support  the  war;  but  before  the  iosults 
of  the  change  could  be  fully  developed,  the  ministry  was  dissolved  by 
the  deaih  of  the  marquis.  But  ere  this  event  produced  any  effect  on 
the  political  aspect  of  affairs,  two  signal  triumphs  shed  lustre  on  the 
arms  of  Britain.  Admiral  Rodney  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the 
French  fleet  under  Count  de  Grasse,  between  the  islands  of  Martinique 
and  Guadaloupe  ;  and  General  Elliott,  who  had  long  been  besieged  in 
Gibraltar,  defeated  the  formidable  attack  of  the  combined  French  and 
Spanish  forces  on  that  fortress,  and  burned,  by  showers  of  red-hot  balls, 
the  floating  batteries,  which  the  besiegers  had  fondly  believed  irresisti- 
ble. In  the  East  Indies,  Sir  Eyre  Coote  partly  retrieved  the  fortunes 
of  the  company ;  he  recovered  the  Carnatic,  and  totally  routed  Hyder's 
army  at  Porto  Novo  (a.  d.  1781);  and  again  at  Pollalore.  All  the 
Outch  settlements  were  captured  (a.  d.  1782),  but  this  success  was 
interrupted  by  the  defeat  of  Colonel  Braithwaite,  whose  forces  were 
surprised,  surrounded,  and  cut  to  pieces  by  Tippoo  and  an  auxiliary 
French  force  under  M.  Lally.  Several  indecisive  engagements  took 
place  between  Sufi'rein  and  Hughes,  the  French  and  English  idmirals, 
in  the  Indian  seas  ;  and  the  operations  of  the  British  by  land  were  im- 
peded by  the  jealousies  of  the  civil  and  military  authorities  (a.  d.  1783). 
The  death  of  Hyder,  and  the  restoration  of  peace  between  France  and 
England,  induced  Tippoo  to  listen  to  terms  of  accommodation,  and  the 
English  terminated  this  most  unfortunate  and  disgriceful  war,  by  sub- 
mitting to  humiliations  from  the  son  of  Hyder,  which  greatly  diminished 
the  respect  that  had  hitherto  been  paid  to  their  name  in  Asia. 

The  changes  of  ministry  in  England  protracted  the  negotiations  for 
peace.  The  earl  of  Shelburne  succeeded  the  marquis  of  Rockingham  , 
but  he  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  overwhelming  parliamentary  strength 
of  Lord  North  and  Mr.  Fox,  who  formed  an  unexpected  coalition. 
The  independence  of  America  was  recognised  by  the  signature  of  pre- 
liminaries at  Versailles  (November  30,1782);  little  difficulty  was 
''ound  in  arranging  terms  with  F'rance  and  Spain ;  but  the  EngUsh 
wished  to  gain  some  compensation  ibr  their  losses  from  Holland   and 


THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS.  637 

this  Circumstance  occasioned  a  delay  in   the  final   ai/angement  of  tlu,- 
:reaty. 

Section  IV. —  The  British  Umpire  in  India. 

The  British  empire  in  India  was,  as  we  have  already  stated,  founde<l 
on  the  ruins  of  the  empire  of  Delhi.  The  French  were  the  first  who 
rimed  at  acquiring  sovereignty  by  interfering  in  the  contests  of  the  local 
governors  who  had  established  their  independence  ;  they  gained  a  de- 
cided superiority  in  the  Carnatic  and  on  the  Crromandel  coast,  until 
the  naval  supremacy  of  England,  in  the  seven  years'  war,  intercepted 
their  communications,  and  enabled  their  rivals  to  seize  all  their  settle- 
ments. It  was  soon  discovered  that  Cororaandel  cost  more  than  it  was 
worth,  and  that  the  territorial  acquisitions  most  desirable  were  the  coun- 
tries round  the  Ganges.  Under  the  government  of  Lord  Clive,  the 
English  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa,  on  tho 
condition  of  paying  twelve  lacs  of  rupees  annually  to  the  emperor  of 
Delhi.  No  sooner  had  the  company  acquired  the  sovereignty  of  this 
rich  and  opulent  country,  than  an  opposition  of  interest  arose  between 
the  directors  at  home  and  their  officers  in  India.  The  former  were 
anxious  to  augm.ent  their  commercial  dividends  by  the  territorial  rev- 
enues, the  latter  were  as  obstinate  in  applying  the  surplus  income  to 
their  own  advantage.  The  want  of  control  over  the  suboidinate  au- 
thorities in  India  led  to  most  calamitous  results  ;  the  officers  of  the 
company  established  monopolies  in  all  the  principal  branches  of  domes- 
tic trade,  rendered  property  insecure  by  arbitrarily  changing  the  tenure 
of  land,  and  perverted  the  administration  of  justice  to  protect  their 
avarice.  The  injustice  with  which  the  native  princes  were  treated, 
ioused  a  formidable  enemy  to  the  English  in  Hyder  Ali,  sultan  of  My- 
sore ;  and  had  he  been  supported  by  European  aid  as  efl"ectively  as  he 
might  have  been,  the  company's  empire  in  Hindustan  would  soon  have 
ended.  Some  improvements  were  made  in  1774,  by  concentrating  tho 
power  of  the  three  presidencies  in  the  governor-general  and  council  of 
Bengal,  and  the  establishment  of  a  supreme  court  of  judicature.  But 
Warrer.  Hastings,  the  first  governor-general,  by  a  series  of  oppressions 
and  extortions,  provoked  a  second  war  with  Hyder  and  the  Mahratta 
states,  the  general  results  of  which  have  been  stated  in  the  preceding 
chapter. 

Notwithstanding  the  fortunate  termination  of  the  Mysorean  and 
Mahratta  wars,  and  the  extension  of  the  company's  territory  in  Bengal, 
by  the  capture  of  Negapatam  from  the  Dutch,  the  aspect  of  affairs  was 
very  gloomy  and  threatening.  All  the  exactions  of  the '  company  did 
not  enable  it  to  fulfil  its  engagements  with  the  government ;  and  its  af- 
fairs were  considered  as  fast  approaching  bankruptcy.  It  had  also 
been  found  very  inconvenient  to  have  a  mercantile  association  existing 
as  a  state  within  the  state,  and  all  parties  agreed  that  the  company 
ought  to  be  placed  more  directly  under  the  control  of  the  government. 

Under  the  administration  of  the  marquis  of  Rockingham,  Mr.  Fo:^ 
had  taken  the  lead  in  arranging  the  affairs  of  Ireland.  That  country 
r.ad  been  left  unprotected  during  the  late  war ;  the  inhabitants,  menacec' 
oy  irjvasion,  armed  in  their  own  defence,  and  the  volunteers  thus  raised 


I 


t>38  MODERN  HISTORY. 

resolved,  while  they  had  the  power,  to  secure  the  legislative  indepen 
dence  of  their  country.  The  prudence  of  their  leaders  averted  tbc 
horrors  of  a  civil  war,  which  would  probably  have  ended  in  the  separa- 
tion of  the  islands  ;  but  they  could  not  long  have  restrained  the  impa- 
tience of  their  followers  had  not  the  Rockingham  administration  showed 
eaily  its  desire  to  comply  with  their  demands.  The  legislative  inde- 
pendence of  Ireland  was  acknowledged  (a.  d.  1782),  and  a  federal 
union  of  the  two  governments  arranged,  which  promised  to  produce 
permanent  advantages  to  both  countries.  His  success  in  Ireland  in- 
duced Mr.  Fox  to  prepare  a  measure  for  regulating  the  complicated 
afl'airs  of  India  ;  and  a  bill  was  introduced,  on  whose  success  he  staked 
the  existence  of  the  coalition  ministry.  The  principle  of  Mr.  Fox's 
measure  was  to  place  the  whole  civil  and  military  government  of  India 
under  a  board  of  nine  members,  chosen  for  four  years,  and  not  remov- 
able without  an  address  from  euner  house  of  parliament.  Such  a  board 
would  manifestly  be  an  independent  authority  in  the  state  ;  and  it  was 
said  that  its  design  was  to  make  the  power  of  a  pai>y  rival  that  of  the 
king.  When  the  bill  had  passed  the  commons,  his  majesty,  through 
Earl  Temple,  intimated  to  the  peers  his  hostility  to  the  measure,  and 
the  lords  rejected  it  by  a  considerable  majority.  A  new  mini.stry  was 
formed  under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  Pitt,  second  son  to  the  great  earl  of 
Chatham  ;  and  as  it  was  impossible  to  resist  the  strength  of  the  coali- 
vion  in  the  house  of  commons,  the  parliament  was  dissolved  at  the  ear- 
liest moment  that  the  state  of  public  business  Avould  permit  (a.  d.  1784). 
The  success  of  this  measure  surpassed  the  expectations  of  the  new 
minister  ;  the  nation  had  been  disgusted  by  the  coalition  of  parties,  that 
had  been  so  long  and  so  bitterly  opposed  to  each  other  as  those  of  Mr. 
Fox  and  Lord  North  ;  their  friends  were  in  most  places  beaten  by  the 
supporters  of  the  new  cabinet,  and  Mr.  Pitt  found  himself  firmly  estab- 
lished m  the  plenitude  of  power.  A  new  bill  was  framed  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  India,  which  transferred  to  the  crown  the  influence  which 
Mr.  Fox  had  designed  to  intrust  to  parliamentary  commissioners  ;  but 
6om€  share  of  power,  and  the  whole  management  of  commercial  affairs, 
was  allowed  to  remain  with  the  court  of  directors.  The  most  important 
branch  of  commerce  monopolized  by  the  company  was  the  tea  trade 
with  China,  ind  this  was  thrown  completely  into  their  hands  by  a  re- 
duction of  the  duty,  which  removed  all  temptation  to  smuggling. 

This  change  in  the  government  of  India  was  followed  by  the  mem- 
orable impeachment  of  Mr.  Hastings,  whose  trial  lasted  several  years. 
It  ended  in  the  acquittal  of  that  gentleman,  at  least  of  intentional  error ; 
but  his  fortune  and  his  health  were  ruined  by  the  protracted  prosecu- 
tion. A  wise  selection  of  rulers  greatly  improved  the  condition  of  the 
British  empire  in  India ;  under  the  administration  of  Lord  Cornwallis, 
the  situation  of  the  natives  was  greatly  ameliorated  ;  but  the  seeds  of 
corruption,  arising  from  ancient  misgovernment  and  internal  wars,  could 
not  be  wholly  eradicated. 

The  great  extension  of  the  British  colonies  gave  a  fresh  stimulus  to 
the  spirit  of  maritime  discovery,  and  the  English  penetrated  into  the 
remotest  seas,  stopping  only  where  nature  had  interposed  impenetrable 
barriers  of  ice.  The  three  voyages  of  Captain  Cook  awakened  a  spirit 
of  enterprise  scarcely  inferior  to  that  which  had  been  roused  by  thf. 


I 


THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS 


639 


liscoverics  of  Columbus.  The  islands  of  the  south  Pacific  oceai  be- 
came soon  as  well  known  as  those  of  the  Mediterrai  ean  sea.  and  thai? 
natural  productions  speedily  formed  articles  of  trade.  Cook  himself 
suo-gested  the  exi)ediency  of  forming  a  settlement  on  the  coast  of  New 
Holland  ;  in  less  than  half  a  century  this  colony  has  risen  into  great 
importance  as  an  agricultural  community ;  it  promises,  at  no  very  dis- 
tant day,  .0  outgrow  the  fostering  care  of  the  mother-country,  to  afford 
her  a  rich  reward,  and  become  one  of  her  most  flourishing  descendants. 
From  the  period  of  Mr.  Pitt's  accession  to  power  until  the  commence- 
ment of  the  French  revolution,  there  was  little  beyond  the  strife  of  par- 
ties remarkable  in  the  domestic  history  of  England.  The  illness  of  the 
king  (a.  d.  1787),  gave  indeed  alarming  proof  that  the  federal  union  of 
the  English  and  Irish  legislatures  was  by  no  means  sufficient  to  secure 
the  permanent  connexion  of  the  countries  ;  for,  while  the  British  parlia- 
ment adopted  a  restricted  regency,  the  Irish  offered  the  entire  royal 
power  to  the  prince  of  Wales.  The  speedy  recovery  of  the  king  avert- 
ed the  evils  that  might  have  resulted  from  so  marked  a  discrepancy,  but 
from  that  time  Mr.  Pitt  seems  to  have  determined  on  his  plan  for  uni- 
ting the  two  legislatures.  The  chief  parliamentary  struggles  were  for 
a  repeal  of  the  disqualifying  laws  that  aff'ected  the  dissenters,  and  the 
abolition  of  the  infamous  slave-trade ;  but  the  success  of  both  these 
measures  was  reserved  for  later  times. 

Section  V. — History  of  Europe,  from  the  end  of  the  American  War  to  the 
commencement  of  the  French  Revolution. 

During  the  progress  of  the  American  war,  a  gradual  improvemeiW 
in  the  science  of  government  begaii  to  be  manifested  in  the  European 
states.     Many  of  the  German  princes  began  to  moderate  the  stern  ex- 
ercise of  their  despotic  authority,  to  reform  their  expenditure  and  mili- 
tary establishments,  and  to  adopt  new  institutions  suited  to  the  advanced 
state  of  civilization.     The  emperor  Joseph  was  the  most  enterprising 
of  the  royal  reformers  ;  his  measures  for  regulating  the  church  involved 
him  in  a  cor.last  with  Pope  Pius  VI.,  who  hated  and  dreaded  innova- 
tion, and  was  bigotedly  attached  to  the  ancient  pretensions  of  the  Romish 
see.    Persuaded  that  his  personal  influence  would  be  sufficient  to  dis- 
suade Joseph  from  pursuing  his  course  of  change,  the  pontiff  undertook 
an  expensive  journey  to  Vienna,  but  the  emperor  only  gave  him  an  abun- 
dance of  compliments,  and  persevered  in  his  resolutions.     His  failure 
covered  the  pontiff  with  ridicule,  especially  as  he  had  to  endure  similar 
disappointments  in  his  negotiations  with  the  courts  of  Russia  and  Prus- 
sia.    Joseph  was  willing  to  join  the  emperess   Catherine  in  the  dis- 
memberment  of  Turkey,  and    permitted    that    princess    to    seize  the 
Crimea  ;  but  the  principal  western  powers  still  dreaded  the  aggrandize- 
ment of  Austria,  and  the  threat  of  their  confederacy  saved  the  Ottoman 
empire.     The  king  of  Prussia  was  foremost  in  checking  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  emperor  ;  he  secretly  instigated  the  Dutch  to  refuse  the 
free  navigation  of  the  Scheldt  to  the  ships  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands, 
and  he  planned  a  confederacy  for  maintaining  the  integrity  of  the  (Jcr- 
manic  states.     Frederic  died  when  he  had  completed  the  consolidation 
of  a  kingdom  which  his  conquests  had  nearly  doubled  {a.  d.  1780) ;  he 


G40  MODERN  HISTORY 

was  succeeded  by  his  nepliew  Frederic  William,  whose  attention  waa 
early  directed  to  the  allairs  of  Holland. 

The  success  of  the  Americans  in  establishing  a  commonwealth,  in- 
duced many  of  the  Dutch  to  aim  at  restoring  their  old  republican  con« 
btitution,  and  abridging  or  destroying  the  power  of  the  stadtholder, 
which  had  become  in  all  but  name  monarchical.  The  French  secretly 
encouraged  the  opponents  of  the  prince  of  Orange,  hoping  to  obtain 
from  the  popular  party  an  addition  to  their  East  Indian  colonies,  or  at 
least  such  a  union  of  interests  as  would  counterpoise  British  ascend- 
ency in  Asia ;  but  the  new  king  of  Prussia,  whose  sister  was  married 
to  the  stadtholder,  resolved  to  prevent  any  change,  and  the  English  am 
bassador  vigorously  exerted  himself  to  counteract  the  intrigues  of  the 
French.  An  insult  offered  to  the  princess  of  Orange  brought  matters 
to  a  crisis  ;  Frederic  William  immediately  sent  an  army  to  redress  his 
sister's  wrongs  ;  the  republicans,  deserted  by  France,  made  but  a  feeble 
resistance,  and  the  stadtholder  was  restored  to  all  his  former  authority. 

The  disordered  state  of  the  French  finances  was  the  cause  of  this 
desertion  of  their  party  by  the  ministers  of  Louis  ;  through  mere  jeal- 
ousy of  England,  they  had  involved  their  country  in  the  American  war, 
and  had  thus  increased  the  confusion  in  which  the  prodigahty  of  the 
preceding  year  had  sunk  the  treasury.  Minister  after  minister  had  at 
tempted  to  palliate  the  evil,  but  M.  de  Calonne,  who  owed  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  unwise  partiality  of  the  queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  aggravated 
the  disorder  by  a  series  of  measures  formed  without  prudence,  and  sup- 
ported with  obstinacy.  Opposed  by  the  parliaments,  Calonne  recom- 
mended the  king  to  convene  an  assembly  of  the  notables,  or  persons 
selected  from  the  privileged  orders  (a.  d.  1787)  ;  but  these,  orders  had 
hitherto  paid  far  less  than  their  fair  proportion  of  the  imposts,  and  an 
equitable  system  of  taxation  could  not  be  expected  from  such  an  inter- 
ested body.  Necker,  a  Swiss  banker,  who  had  been  for  a  short  time 
the  French  minister  of  finance,  joined  in  the  opposition  to  Calonne,  and 
it  must  be  confessed  that  he  demonstrated  the  total  inadequacy  of  the 
proposed  measures  to  remedy  the  decline  of  public  credit.  Louis  dis- 
missed Calonne,  but  he  would  not  gratify  his  subjects  by  recalling 
Necker  to  the  cabinet ;  and  he  dismissed  the  notables,  whose  uncom 
plying  disposition  rendered  all  hopes  of  aid  from  that  assembly  fruitless. 

But  the  derangement  of  the  finances  was  not  the  only  evil  that  the 
French  court  sufiered  from  its  interference  in  the  American  war  ;  the 
officers  and  soldiers  who  had  fought  for  liberty  in  one  hemisphere  be- 
came dissatisfied  with  despotism  in  the  other.  A  general  desire  for  the 
establishment  of  a  free  constitution,  like  that  of  England,  was  difiused 
through  the  nation,  and  some  more  ardent  spirits  began  to  speculate  on 
a  republic.  The  connexion  of  the  court  with  Austria  was  the  cause  of 
much  secret  discontent ;  the  decline  of  the  influence  and  the  power  of 
France  was  traced  to  its  unfortunate  alliance  with  the  court  of  Vienna 
during  the  seven  years'  war,  and  the  queen,  who  was  naturally  inclined 
to  perpetuate  this  unpopular  union,  became  an  object  of  suspicion  and 
dislike.  It  was  mortifying  to  find  that  France  no  longer  held  the  bal- 
ance of  power  on  the  continent ;  that  she  could  not  save  Turkey  from 
the  a|;gressions  of  the  ambitious  Catherine,  nor  protect  the  republican 
partj'  in  Holland  from  punishment  for  acts  done  in  her  service. 


THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS.  641 

While  France  was  thus  disturbed,  the  progress  of  reform  in  otiiei 
states  was  unimpeded  ;  the  rulers  of  Spain  and  Portugal  improved 
cheir  kingdoms  by  institutions  for  the  protection  of  trade,  and  by  placing 
checks  on  the  exorbitant  powers  of  the  clergy.  They  joined  in  an  ef- 
fort to  chastise  the  piratical  powers  in  the  Mediterranean,  but  the 
strength  of  the  Algerine  capital  frustrated  the  attempt.  The  emperor 
.Kiseph  and  his  brother  Leopold,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  distinguished 
themselves  by  enacting  new  and  salutary  codes  of  law  ;  they  abol^ 
ijjiied  the  use  of  torture  to  extort  confessions,  and  they  greatly  limited 
the  number  of  offences  to  which  the  penalty  was  aihxed.  Their  ex- 
ample was  followed  by  the  emperess  Catherine,  whose  code  was  the 
greatest  blessing  that  her  glorious  reign  conferred  on  Russia  ;  and  even 
the  sultan  evinced  a  desire  to  improve  the  institutions  of  Turkey. 

But  the  course  of  events  in  France  soon  inspired  all  the  sovereigns 
of  Europe  with  a  horror  of  innovation.  Aftei  the  dismissal  of  the  no- 
tables, M.  de  Brienne,  archbishop  of  Toulouse,  had  become  minister 
of  finance,  and  he  soon  involved  himself  in  a  dispute  with  the  parlia- 
ments, by  refusing  to  produce  the  accounts,  which  they  insisted  on  ex- 
amining before  registering  any  new  edicts  of  taxation.  The  great  ob- 
ject of  the  parliament  was  to  maintain  the  immunities  of  the  privileged 
orders  ;  the  minister  justly  recommended  a  less  partial  system,  when 
his  opponents,  yielding  to  temporary  irritation,  demanded  the  convoca- 
tion of  the  states-general.  The  nobles  and  the  clergy  joined  in  the 
demand,  without  any  expectation  of  its  being  granted,  but  merely  to 
annoy  the  court ;  the  people,  however,  took  up  the  matter  in  earnest, 
and  determined  to  enforce  compliance.  Various  schemes  were  tried 
by  the  archbishop  to  overcome  this  powerful  opposition,  but  all  his 
plans  were  disconcerted  by  the  oijstinacy  of  the  parliaments,  and  the 
king,  finding  every  expedient  fail,  consented  to  recall  Necker  (a.  d. 
i788).  At  the  same  time,  a  solemn  promise  was  given  for  the  speedy 
assembly  of  the  states-general,  a  body  that  had  not  been  convened  since 
the  year  1614. 

Before  the  assembling  of  this  legislative  body,  it  was  necessary  to 
determine  the  number  of  representatives  that  should  be  sent  by  each  oi 
the  three  orders,  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  and  the  people  ;  the  majority 
of  the  notables  voted  that  an  equal  number  of  deputies  should  be  sent 
by  the  respective  classes,  but  it  was  subsequently  determined  that  the 
representatives  of  the  third  estate  should  equal  in  number  those  of  the 
nobles  and  clergy  conjoined.  The  king  declared  that  the  three  estates 
should  form  separate  chambers,  but  this  very  important  matter  was  not 
so  deiiiiitely  fixed  as  to  prevent  future  discussion.  On  the  5th  of  Maj, 
1780,  the  slates-general  met  at  Versailles,  and  the  democratic  party, 
confident  in  its  strength,  demanded  that  the  three  orders  should  sit  and 
vote  together.  After  a  short  struggle,  the  court  was  compelled  to  con- 
cede this  vital  point,  and  the  united  bodies  took  the  name  of  the  National 
Assembly. 

A  spirit  of  insubordination  began  to  appear  in  Paris,  caused  in  some 
degree  by  the  pressure  of  famine  ;  artful  and  ambitious  men  fanned  the 
rising  flame,  and  directed  the  popular  indignation  against  the  king  and 
his  family.  The  arms  in  the  Hospital  of  Invalids  were  seized  by  the 
mob,  and  the  insurgents  immediately  proceeded  tc  attack  the  Bastile   a; 

41 


642  MODERN  HISTORY. 

state-prison  of  Paris.  After  a  brief  resistance,  the  governor,  having  an 
insufficient  garrison,  capitulated,  but  the  conditions  of  the  surrende: 
were  not  observed  by  the  infuriate  muUitude ;  the  governor  w^as  torn  to 
pieces,  and  many  of  the  soldiers  inhumanly  massacred.  Louis,  greatly 
alarmed,  tried  by  every  means  to  conciliate  his  subjects  ;  he  removed 
the  regular  troops  from  Paris  and  Versailles,  intrusting  the  defence  of 
the  capital  to  a  body  of  civic  militia,  called  the  National  Guards.  The 
command  of  this  new  force  was  intrusted  to  the  marquis  de  la  Fayette, 
who  had  acquired  great  popularity  by  his  liberal  sentiments  and  his 
services  to  the  cause  of  freedom  in  the  American  war.  But  all  the 
king's  concessions  failed  to  conciliate  the  democratic,  or  rather,  as  we 
may  henceforth  call  it,  the  republican  parly ;  relying  on  the  support  of 
the  Parisian  populace,  the  leaders  of  this  band  resolved  that  the  legis- 
lature should  be  removed  to  the  capital,  and  a  mob  was  secretly  insti- 
gated to  make  the  demand.  A  crowd  of  the  lowest  rabble,  accompa- 
nied by  some  of  the  national  guards,  proceeded  to  Versailles,  the  palace 
was  violently  entered,  several  of  its  defenders  slain,  and  the  king  com- 
pelled instantly  to  set  out  for  Paris,  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  a  licen- 
tious crowd,  whose  insults  and  indecencies  were  revolting  to  human 
nature. 

This  atrocious  outrage  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  the  commencement 
of  the  French  Revolution  ;  thenceforth  the  royal  authority  was  an  empty 
name,  and  all  the  ancient  forms  of  government  set  aside  ;  visionaries 
indulged  in  speculations  on  a  new  order  of  things,  ardent  patriots  hoped 
to  establish  a  constitution  more  perfect  than  the  world  ever  yet  had 
witnessed,  but  the  base  and  the  depraved  sought  to  gain  their  own  selfish 
ends  by  stimulating  popular  violence ;  and  the  last  class  was  the  onlv 
one  whose  expectations  were  realized. 

Skction  VI. — The  French  RevGlution. 

f-ROM  the  moment  that  Louis  XVL  was  brought  a  prisonei  lo  liis 
capital,  the  ancient  constitution  of  France  was  overthrown  ;  the  mon- 
archy continued  to  exist  only  in  name,  and  the  abolition  of  feudal 
rights,  the  extinction  of  hereditary  titles,  and  the  secularization  of  ec- 
clesiastical property,  established  popular  sovereignty  on  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  structure.  Several  German  princes,  who  had  possessions  in 
Alsace,  protested  against  these  violent  changes,  but  the  popular  rulers 
would  not  listen  to  any  proposal  of  a  compromise,  and  thus  the  leaders 
of  the  revolution  were  embroiled  with  the  empire  in  the  very  outset  of 
their  career.  A  club,  called  from  its  place  of  meeting,  the  Jacobin  As- 
sociation, waF  formed  by  the  leading  democrats,  and  from  this  body  de- 
nunciations were  issued  against  all  who  were  believed  favorable  to  the 
ajicient  institutions  of  the  country.  Through  the  machinations  of  the 
Jacobins,  popular  hatred  was  directed  against  the  :;ourt,  and  violent  tu- 
mubs  excited  in  various  parts  of  France.  Infinitely  more  dangerous  to 
che  repose  of  Europe  were  the  emigrations  of  the  nobles,  who  were 
■dissatisfied  with  the  revolution  ;  instead  of  remaining  at  home  and  or 
iganizirg  a  constitutional  resistance,  they  resolved  to  seek  the  restora- 
tion of  the  old  government,  with  all  its  abuses,  by  the  intervention  of 
■foreign  powers.     A  meeting  and  conference  took  place  at  Pihulz,  be 


II 


THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS.  G43 

twecu  the- emperor  of  Germany,  the  king  of  Prussia,  iiid  the  electoi 
of  Saxony  ;  the  Count  d'Artois,  brother  to  the  French  monarch,  and 
head  of  the  emigrants,  came  uninvited,  and  he  engaged  the  sovereigns 
to  issue  a  vague  declaration  in  favor  of  the  rights  of  kings.  Louis, 
wearied  by  the  violence  of  the  Jacobins,  the  licentiousness  of  the  Par- 
isian mob,  and  the  disappointments  he  was  daily  forced  to  meet,  re- 
solved to  escape  from  the  captivity  in  which  he  was  detained,  and  seek 
refuge  on  the  frontiers.  He  fled  from  Paris,  accompanied  by  his  queen 
and  children,  but  was  unfortunately  discovered  at  Varennes,  seized, 
rmd  brought  back  a  prisoner  to  his  capital.  This  failure  exposed  the 
royal  family  to  suspicions  of  which  the  Jacobins  took  advantage  ;  but 
the  more  moderate  of  the  patriots  were  for  a  time  sufliciently  powerful 
to  restrain  their  violence  ;  and  after  a  long  deliberation,  hey  prepared 
a  constitutional  code,  which  was  tendered  to  the  king  for  acceptance. 
The  readiness  with  which  Louis  assented  to  this  instrument  of  govern- 
ment, and  his  frank  communication  of  his  satisfaction  with  the  arrange- 
ment to  his  ambassadors  at  the  different  European  courts,  for  a  time 
restored  his  popularity.  The  emperor  Leopold  notified  to  the  other 
powers  that  all  danger  of  war  was  averted,  and  the  external  and  inter- 
nal tranquillity  of  France  seemed  to  be  assured. 

But  the  constitution,  thus  established,  could  not  be  permanent ;  it 
was  itself  defective  ;  and  the  minds  of  tlie  French  people,  once  ani- 
mated by  the  desire  of  change,  could  not  rest  satisfied  with  any  fixed 
form  of  government.  The  assembly  by  which  it  had  been  framed  was 
dissolved,  and  a  new  legislative  body  chosen,  according  to  the  system 
recently  established,  and  in  this  assembly  the  more  violent  partisans  of 
Jemocracy  had  more  influence  than  in  the  preceding.  It  was  the 
great  object  of  the  revolutionary  party  to  involve  the  kingdom  in  foreign 
war ;  and  the  suspicious  proceedings  of  the  emigrants,  their  intrigues 
m  the  German  courts,  and  the  avowed  determination  of  the  emperor  to 
maintain  the  feudal  rights  of  the  German  princes  in  Alsace,  furnished 
plausible  pretexts  for  the  commencement  of  hostilities.  The  death  of 
the  emperor  Leopold  accelerated  a  rupture;  his  successor,  Francis  II., 
continued  to  mak  ^  alarming  military  preparations,  and  on  his  refusal  to 
give  any  satisfactory  explanation,  Louis  was  compelled  to  declare  war 
against  him  (a.  d.  1792).  But  the  strife  of  parties  in  the  royal  cabinet 
and  the  national  assembly,  led  to  such  confusion  in  the  councils  of  the 
French,  that  their  armies,  though  superior  in  number,  were  defeated 
with  loss  and  disgrace  ;  while  the  Jacobins,  whose  intrigues  were  the 
real  cause  of  these  misfortunes,  ascribed  them  to  royalist  treachery,  and 
to  the  influence  that  Austrian  councils  possessed  over  the  court  from 
its  connexion  with  the  queen.  These  malignant  slanders,  industriously 
circulated,  and  generally  believed,  stimulated  the  Parisian  mob  to  dis- 
graceful acts  of  violence  and  disorder,  against  which  La  Fayette  and 
the  friends  of  rational  liberty  protested  in  vain. 

A  new  incident  gave  fresh  strength  to  the  Jacobin  party  ;  Frederic 
William,  king  of  Prussia,  engaged  to  co-operate  with  the  emperor 
Francis  to  restore  the  royal  authority  in  France;  their  united  forces 
were  p'aced  u-ider  the  commaid  of  the  duke  of  Brunswick;  and  this 
fr-nce  issued  a  sanguinary  and  insulting  manifesto,  which  had  the  effect 
ji  unUing    all   the    French   factions   in   the   defence   of  their   connnuii 


644  MODERN  HISTOllV. 

country.  A  decltiration  issued  soon  after  by  the  emigrant  brothri^ 
and  relatives  of  Louis,  in  which  the  revolution  was  bitterly  condemned 
Droved  still  more  injurious  to  the  unfortunate  king ;  scarcely  did  intclli 
gencc  of  the  publication  reach  Paris,  when  the  palace  was  attacked  bj 
an  infuriate  mob,  the  Swiss  guards  ruthlessly  massacred,  and  Louiy 
with  his  family,  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  the  hall  of  the  national  asscm 
bly.  The  deputies  protected  his  person,  but  they  suspended  his  regal 
functions,  and  committed  him  a  prisoner  to  a  building  called  the  Tem- 
ple, from  having  been  once  a  monastery  of  the  knights  of  that  order. 

La  Fayette  was  equally  surprised  and  indignant  at  these  outrages  oi 
the  Jacobins  ;  he  tried  to  keep  the  army  firm  in  its  allegiance ;  but 
all  his  exertions  not  being  sufficient  to  accomj)lish  this  result,  he 
fled  into  the  Netherlands,  when  he  was  seized  and  imprisoned  by  the 
Austrians  for  his  former  opposition  to  the  royal  power.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  command  of  the  army  by  Dumouriez,  who  made  energetic 
preparations  to  resist  the  coming  invasion.  Confident  in  their  strength, 
the  allied  armies  entered  France  with  the  proudest  anticipations,  and 
their  rapid  progress  in  the  beginning  seemed  to  promise  the  most 
decisive  results.  To  diminish  the  number  of  their  internal  enemies, 
Robespierre,  Marat,  and  other  chiefs  of  the  Jacobins,  planned  the  mas 
sacre  of  all  the  suspected  persons  confined  in  the  prisons  of  Paris,  and 
this  diabolical  plot  was  executed  by  the  licentious  populace.  Similar 
horrors  were  perpetrated  in  other  parts  of  France ;  a  reign  of  terroi 
was  established,  and  no  man  dared  lo  remonstrate  against  these  shock- 
ing excesses.  In  the  meantime  tlie  invaders  had  met  with  unexpected 
reverses ;  trusting  to  the  representations  of  the  emigrants,  that  the  rev- 
olution had  been  the  work  of  a  few  agitators,  not  of  the  nation,  and  that 
there  was  a  general  reaction  in  favor  of  royalty,  the  allies  had  advanced 
without  providing  adec^uate  stores,  and  when  they  received  a  check  at 
Valmy,  their  camp  was  attacked  by  famine  and  disease  ;  they  were 
boon  compelled  to  retreat,  and  to  purchase  an  inglorious  security  by 
resigning  the  fortresses  they  had  occupied.  Dumouriez  pursued  the 
Austrians  into  the  Netherlands,  and  gained  a  decisive  victory,  which 
encouraged  the  Belgians  to  tlirow  off  the  imperial  yoke  ;  Flanders  and 
Brabant  were  soon  in  possession  of  the  victors,  and  their  arms  had 
made  considerable  progress  in  the  reduction  of  Luxemburg.  The  con- 
vention, as  the  national  assembl}-  began  to  be  called,  having  made  their 
own  country  a  republic,  resolved  to  extend  the  revolution  into  other 
Btates  ;  they  offered  their  alliance  to  every  nation  that  desired  to  recover 
its  liberties,  and  they  ordered  the  ancient  constitutions  of  all  the  coun- 
tries occuj)ied  by  the  French  troops  to  be  subverted.  As  the  republican 
arms  had  conquered  Savoy,  and  were  fast  gaining  ground  in  Germany, 
the  a  Joption  of  such  a  decree  was  virtually  a  declaration  of  war  against 
all  the  kings  of  Europe. 

The  Jacobins,  aided  by  the  Parisian  mob,  and  still  more  by  the  ct  w 
ardice  and  indecision  of  their  opponents,  were  now  masters  oi  the  zcn- 
vention,  and  the  first  use  they  made  of  their  power  was  to  bring  the 
unfortunate  king  to  trial,  on  the  ridiculous  charge  of  his  having  er.gaged 
in  a  conspiracy  for  the  subversion  of  freedom.  1-ouis  deiduded  hnnself 
with  great  spirit  and  energy,  but  his  judges  were  predeternnned  on  hi: 
conviction:  six  hunlred   and    eighty -three   deputies   pronounced   l.iu 


THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS.  Mt 

guilty  of  treason  against  the  sovereignty  of  the  nation,  vihile  there 
were  only  thirty-seven  vi^ho  took  a  more  favorable  view  of  his  conduct 
A  motion  for  an  appeal  to  the  people  was  rejected  ;  but  the  sentence  of 
death  was  passed  by  a  very  inconsiderable  majority,  and  this  probably 
induced  the  Jacobins  to  hasten  tlie  execution.  On  the  twenty-first  of 
January,  1793,  the  unfortunate  Louis  was  guillotined  in  his  capital 
city  ;  and  the  severity  of  his  fate  was  aggravated  by  the  insults  of  his 
cruel  executioners. 

This  judicial  murder  excited  general  indignation  throughout  Europe  ; 
Chauvelin,  the  French  ambassador,  was  dismissed  from  the  British 
court,  and  many  persons  in  England,  who  had  hitherto  applauded  the 
efforts  of  the  French  people,  became  vehement  opposers  of  revolu- 
tionary principles.  A  similar  result  "vas  produced  in  Holland,  where 
the  government  had  been  justly  alarmed  by  the  progress  of  the  French 
in  the  Netherlands. 

The  convention  did  not  wait  to  be  attacked ;  a  vote  was  passed  that 
the  republic  was  at  war  with  the  king  of  England  and  the  stadtholder 
of  Holland,  by  which  artful  phraseology  it  was  intended  to  draw  a 
marked  distinction  between  the  sovereign  and  the  people  of  both  coun- 
tries. Spain  was  soon  after  added  to  the  enemies  of  France,  and  the 
new  republic  had  to  contend  against  a  coalition  of  all  the  leading  powers 
3f  Europe.  None  of  the  allies  threatened  more  loudly  than  the  em- 
peress  Catherine  ;  she  had  just  concluded  a  successful  war  against 
Turkey,  in  which  her  general.  Suwaroff,  had  won  a  large  addition  of 
erritory  for  his  mistress,  and  the  power  of  Russia  m  the  Black  sea 
was  secured  ;  she  had  also  triumphed  over  the  king  of  Sw  eden,  more, 
nowever  by  the  insubordination  of  her  rival's  officers,  than  by  the  valor 
of  her  own  troo'^s.  Poland  was  in  everything  but  name  subjected  to 
Russia,  and  the  f  jnpsress  was  secretly  maturing  a  plan  to  blot  that  coun- 
try from  the  \vit  (.)f  r.ations.  As  the  coalition  against  the  French  repub- 
lic was  regardi?.d  as  a  war  in  the  defence  of  the  rights  of  kings,  it  was 
intended  that  a  king  should  be  placed  at  the  head  of  the  allied  armies ; 
and  Gust'ivus,  who  had  subverted  the  free  constitution  of  Sweden,  of- 
fered his  services ;  but  ^vhlle  ho  was  preparing  for  the  expedition,  a 
conspiracy  was  tbraed  against  hnii  by  his  discontented  nobles,  and  he 
was  )iuirilered  at  a  masked  ball  by  Ankarstrom,  an  officer  who  believed 
bin  self  personally  injured  by  the  king  (a.  d.  1792).  After  the  death 
of  Gustavus,  the  insincerity  c>f  Catherine  became  more  manifest;  sh*^ 
i-sued  violent  proclamations  against  the  French,  but  carefully  abstained 
'rom  active  hostility  ;  indeed,  it  was  manifestly  her  purpose  to  involve 
.he  continental  powers  ia  a  war,  which  would  prevent,  them  from 
watching  too  jealously  the  aggrandizement  of  Russia. 

The  English  and  Prussians,  deeming  the  defence  of  Holland  a  mat- 
.er  of  prufkary  importance,  combined  to  check  the  progress  of  Dum:)u- 
riez,  who  had  overrun  Dutch  Brabant,  with  little  opposition  (a.  d.  1793), 
But  the  progress  of  the  Austrians,  on  the  side  of  Germany,  stopped  the 
French  in  their  career  of  conquest.  Dumouriez  quitted  Holland  to 
defend  Louvain  ;  he  suffered  a  complete  defeat  at  Neer-winden,  by 
which  his  soldiers  were  so  discouraged,  that  they  deserted  in  great 
uumbers.  Dumouriez,  finding  himself  suspected  by  the  two  great  par- 
'ies  which  divided  the  republic,  and  weary  of  the  disorganized  state  of 


346  MODERN   HISTORY 

the  French  gOA'ernmcnt,  entered  into  negotiations  wi.h  the  al.ieJ  gen 
erals,  and  arrested  the  deputies  sent  by  the  convention  to  watch  hi& 
movements.  But  the  army  did  not  share  the  anti-re vohitionary  feel- 
ings  of  Dumouriez,  and  he  was  forced  to  seek  shelter  in  the  Austrian 
oamp. 

Custine,  the  successor  of  Dumouriez,  was  unable  to  check  t^^e  prog- 
ress of  the  alUed  armies  ;  being  reinforced  by  a  Brhish  force  undci 
the  duke  of  York,  they  captured  the  important  fortress  of  Valenciennes, 
and  seemed  to  have  opened  a  way  to  Paris.  The  revolutionary  gov- 
ernment punished  Custine's  failure  by  a  public  execution,  and  employed 
the  terrors  of  the  guillotine  as  an  incentive  to  patriotism.  But  the  sep 
aration  of  the  allied  forces  was  more  serviceable  to  the  cause  of  the 
convention  than  the  cruelties  of  the  "  Committee  of  Public  Safety,"  to 
which  the  supreme  power  in  France  was  intrusted.  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  England,  had  separate  interests,  in  the  pursuit  of  which  the  com- 
mon cause  was  forgotten ;  the  imperialists  laid  siege  to  Le  Quesnoi, 
while  the  English  and  Dutch  proceeded  to  invest  Dunkirk.  The  duko 
of  York  attacked  Dunkirk  with  great  spirit,  but  not  receiving  the  sup- 
port by  sea  that  he  had  expected,  and  the  Hano\'erian  force  that  cov- 
ered his  operations  having  been  routed  by  Houchard,  he  was  obliged  to 
raise  the  siege  and  abandon  the  greater  portion  of  his  artillery  and  mil 
itary  stores.  The  Austrians  were  for  a  time  more  successful,  but  when 
Hoche,  the  defender  of  Dunkirk,  was  promoted  to  the  command  of  the 
republican  armies,  they  were  driven  from  all  their  conquests  in  Alsace, 
and  forced  to  seek  shelter  within  the  imperial  frontiers.  In  Italy,  the 
French  maintained  their  hold  of  Savoy,  but  they  experienced  some  se- 
vere reverses  on  the  Spanish  frontier. 

The  revolutionary  excitement  produced  the  most  dreadful  eifects  be- 
yond the  Atlantic  ;  the  colored  population  in  the  French  division  of  St. 
Domingo  took  arms  to  force  the  whites  to  grant  them  equal  privileges ; 
their  claims  were  supported  by  the  three  deputies  sent  by  the  conven- 
tion to  regulate  the  aflairs  of  the  colony,  the  negroes  were  seduced,  by 
offers  of  liberty,  to  revolt  against  their  masters,  and  St.  Domingo,  which 
had  been  one  of  the  most  flourishing  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  was 
devastated  by  a  civil  war,  scarcely  to  be  paralleled  for  its  sanguinary 
fury  and  the  wanton  destruction  of  life  and  property. 

The  wars  of  southern  and  western  Europe  permitted  Catherine  of 
Russia  to  accomplish  the  favorite  object  of  her  policy,  the  dismember- 
ment of  Poland.  Austria  and  Prussia  joined  in  this  iniquitous  scheme, 
for  the  purpose  of  sharing  the  plunder,  but  the  Poles  made  a  gallant 
struggle  to  maintain  their  independence.  Kosciusko,  who  had  served 
in  America,  under  Washington,  was  the  chief  of  the  patriots,  and  his 
heroic  efforts  protracted  a  struggle  which  from  the  first  was  hopeless. 
Kosciusko,  severely  wounded,  fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  War- 
saw was  stormed  by  the  brutal  SuvvarofT,  and  the  kingdom  of  Poland, 
erased  from  the  list  of  nations,  was  divided  between  the  three  confed- 
erates (a.  d.  1795).  The  king  of  Prussia,  more  anxious  to  secure  his 
new  acquisitions  than  to  support  the  objects  of  the  coalition,  made 
peace  with  the  French,  and  offered  to  mediate  between  the  republic  and 
Austria. 

Scarcely  had  the  Austrians   been  driven  from  Fran:;e,   when  ihs 


I 


THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS.  fi47 

country  was  convulsed  by  civil  war  (a.  d.  1793.)  The  jacobins  hav- 
ing, by  the  aid  of  the  Parisian  populace,  triumphed  over  the  rival  faction 
m  the  convention,  mercilessly  proscribed  their  political  adversaries  a.s 
traitors,  and  after  a  mockery  of  trial,  hurried  them  to  execution.  Amon^ 
Jie  victims  to  their  fury  was  the  unfortunate  queen  of  France,  Mario 
Antoinette,  but  death  was  to  her  not  a  punishment,  but  a  release  from 
s-.lVering.  The  tyranny  of  the  Jacobins  provoked  formidable  insurrec- 
tions in  the  south  of  France,  and  encouraged  the  royalists  of  La  Vendee 
io  t  ike  up  arms  in  the  cause  of  their  church  and  their  king.  Nothing 
oould  excet  d  the  fury  of  the  Jacobins  when  they  heard  of  these  revolts  ; 
severe  decroes  were  passed  against  the  cities  which  had  resisted  their 
authority,  bit  no  place  was  so  cruelly  punished  as  Lyons,  which  had 
continued  fo/  four  months  in  a  state  of  insurrection.  After  having  en* 
dured  a  furii'us  bombardment,  it  was  forced  to  surrender  at  discretion 
five  deputies,  of  whom  Callot  and  Fouche  were  the  chief,  received  a 
communicatidu  from  the  convention  to  punish  the  Lyonese  revolters  by 
the  summary  process  of  military  law,  and  about  four  thousand  victims 
were  shot  or  guillotined  after  the  mockery  of  trial  before  this  savage 
tribunal.  But.,  ia  the  midst  of  their  but'^heries,  the  Jacobins  did  not 
neglect  the  military  defence  of  their  country ;  a  decree  of  the  conven- 
tion declared,  that  all  tlie  French  Avere  soldiers,  and  a  levy  of  the  pop- 
ulation, en  maise,  was  ordered.  To  support  such  numerous  armies, 
private  property  was  seized  and  paid  for  in  promissory  notes,  called 
assigncds,  whose  value  was  speedily  depreciated,  a  circumstance  which 
ruined  public  ciedit  in  France. 

Toulon  having  revolted,  an  English  garrison,  strengthened  by  Span- 
ish and  Neapolitan  detaclunents,  occupied  that  important  seaport.  It 
was  soon  besieged  by  the  troops  of  the  convention  ;  the  artillery  of  the 
besiegers  was  directed  by  a  young  Corsican,  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
who  had  ifucn  by  his  merits  from  an  inferior  station.  Owing  to  his 
exertions,  the  English  soon  found  the  place  untenable ;  they  evacuated 
Toulon,  without  loss,  after  having  destroyed  the  arsenal  and  shipping, 
but  they  abandoned  the  ir.habitants  to  the  fury  of  the  conquerors,  who 
punished  their  revolt  with  indiscriminate  severity. 

In  the  Netherlands  and  Germany,  the  French,  under  Pichegru  and 
Jourdan,  gained  many  important  advantages  over  the  imperialists  and 
their  all^  ?,s ;  but  though  many  battles  were  fought,  nothing  of  any  con- 
sequence was  efiected  in  the  early  part  of  the  campaign  (a.  d.  1794). 
A  more  important  event  was  the  downfall  of  the  sanguinary  faction 
which  had  so  long  deluged  France  with  the  blood  of  its  best  citizens ; 
Robespierre's  enormities  were  too  numerous  and  too  shocking  to  be 
borne,  even  by  many  of  the  Jacobin  party ;  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  him ;  the  convention  was  induced  to  resume  its  authority,  and 
order  his  arrest,  and,  after  a  brief  struggle,  he  and  his  accomplices 
were  hurried  before  the  revolutionary  tribunal,  which  they  had  them- 
selves organized,  and  sent  to  the  scaffold.  This  revolution  did  not  pro- 
duce the  beneficial  results  that  had  been  expected ;  Robespierre's  suc- 
cessors were  little  better  than  himself,  and  tiiey  were  confirmed  in  their 
hostility  to  Britain  by  the  recent  defeat  of  their  navy.  Lord  Howe, 
who  had  been  distinguished  as  a  na  al  commander  in  the  two  preceding 
wars,  encountered  a  French  fleet  of  rather  superior  force  (June  1),  and 


548  MODERN  HISTORY. 

having  broken  the  enemy's  line,  took  six  ships-of-war  and  sank  two 
This  success  revived  the  declinin£r  spirits  of  the  EngHsh  nation,  dis 
couraged  by  the  ill  success  of  the  war  in  Holland.  Corsica  was  soon 
after  annexed  to  the  dominions  of  England,  but  the  French  were  victo- 
rious on  the  Spanish  frontier,  and  Holland  was  completely  subdued  by 
Pichegru  and  Moreau.  The  prince  of  Orange  and  the  English  fi'rce.'? 
escaped  by  sea  ;  the  Dutch  abolished  the  ofHce  of  stadtholder,  and 
adopted  a  new  form  of  government,  similar  to  that  of  the  French  repub- 
lic. If  there  were  any  in  Holland  who  expected  to  derive  advantage 
from  this  revolution,  they  were  grievously  disappointed  ;  the  French 
despised  their  new  confederates,  and  treated  them  as  a  conquered  peo- 
ple, while  the  English  seized  the  colonies  and  destroyed  the  remainf: 
of  the  once  unparalleled  commerce  of  Holland. 

The  alarm  which  the  French  revolution  excited  in  England,  led  the 
government  to  prosecute  some  ei  thusiastic  advocates  of  reform  in  par 
liament  for  high  treason ;  three  of  them  were  brought  to  trial  and  ac- 
quitted, upon  which  the  prosecutions  of  the  others  were  abandoned. 
There  were  few  in  the  country  anxious  to  make  a  change  in  the  estab- 
lished institutions,  the  crimes  and  follies  of  the  French  Jacobins  had 
rendered  innination  unpopular,  and  many  who  had  hitherto  been  ii. 
opposition  to  the  court,  tendered  their  aid  to  the  minister ;  the  most 
remarkable  of  these  converts  was  the  eloquent  Burke,  whose  denuncia- 
tions of  French  principles,  produced  a  powerful  effect  on  the  national 
mind. 

The  dismemberment  of  Poland,  and  the  desertion  of  the  coalition  by 
the  king  of  Prussia,  gave  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  British  parliament, 
and  the  character  of  our  faithless  ally  was  made  the  theme  of  severe 
and  not  unmerited  censure.  He  had  accepted  a  large  subsidy  from 
England,  and  employed  the  money  lavishly  granted  him,  against  the 
Polanders  instead  of  the  French.  But  the  defection  of  Prussia  did  not 
dishearten  the  English  or  the  Austrians,  who  were  encouraged  to  con- 
tinue the  war  by  the  distracted  state  of  France.  In  Paris,  the  conven- 
tion partially  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  the  Jacobins,  but 
the  city  was  ^'requently  endangered  by  their  machinations,  and  the  in- 
surrections of  ihe  ferocious  populace  who  supported  them.  The  royalist 
war  was  renewed  in  La  Vendee,  and  the  south  of  France  continued 
discontented.  But  the  allies  profited  little  by  these  commotions.  The 
Spaniards,  completely  humbled,  were  forced  to  make  peace  with  the 
republicans  ;  the  Austrians  barely  maintained  their  ground  in  Italy,  and 
success  was  evenly  balanced  on  the  side  of  Germany.  Great  Britain, 
however,  maintained  its  supremacy  at  sea;  Admiral  Cornwallis  com- 
pelled a  fleet  of  very  superior  force  to  retire,  and  Lord  Bridport,  with 
ten  sail-of-the-line,  attacked  twelve  of  the  enemy,  three  of  which  were 
compelled  to  strike  their  colors.  The  French  were  deprived  of  Mar- 
tinique, Gaudaloupe,  and  St.  Lucie,  in  the  West  Indies,  and  their  le- 
luctant  allies,  the  Dutch,  lost  their  settlements  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  and  in  the  island  of  Ceylon. 

The  convention,  by  an  attempt  to  perpetuate  its  authority,  provoked 
a  formidable  insurrection  in  Paris ;  Bonaparte  had  a  considerable 
share  in  subduing  the  revolters,  more  than  two  thousand  of  whom  were 
mercilessly  slaugbtered.     Soon  afterward,  France  had  a  new  constitu 


THE  AGE  OF  aEVOLUTiONS.  049 

non,  consisting  of  a  legislative  assembly,  an  upper  noiise,  called  the 
council  of  ancients,  and  a  directory  of  five  members,  intrusted  with  the 
executive  functions  of  government.  The  directors  soon  began  to  limit 
the  powers  of  the  legislative  body,  and  the  new  constitution  was  found  to 
be  a  delusion.  But  an  approach  had  been  made  to  regular  government,  and 
the  war  was  carried  on  with  fresh  vigor  by  the  directory  (a.  d.  1796). 
Marshals  Jourdan  and  Moreau  made  successful  irruptions  into  Ger- 
many, but  they  encountered  a  formidable  antagonist  in  the  archduke 
Charles  of  Austria.  He  stopped  the  invaders  in  their  mid-career  of 
victory,  completely  routed  Jourdan  at  Kornach,  and  then  suddenly 
marching  against  Moreau,  he  nearly  succeeded  in  surprising  and  over- 
whelming that  general.  Moreau's  celebrated  retreat  was  moi^e  honor- 
able to  his  abilities  than  the  most  brilliant  victoiy  ;  he  led  his  forces 
through  the  black  forest,  from  position  to  position,  often  compelled  to 
yield  his  ground,  but  never  thrown  into  confusion,  until  he  safely  crossed 
the  Rhine  with  all  his  artillery  and  baggage. 

The  campaign  in  Italy,  where  the  French  were  commanded  by 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  was  more  eventful.  The  king  of  Sardinia, 
completely  routed  and  cut  off  from  his  communications  with  the 
Austrians,  was  forced  to  purchase  a  dishonorable  peace  from  the  re- 
public, by  the  cession  of  his  most  important  fortresses.  Mapoleon  ther 
led  his  forces  against  the  Austrians,  forced,  but  with  great  loss,  a  pas- 
sage over  the  bridge  of  Lodi,  and  gained  possession  of  Milan  and  the 
principal  cities  of  Lombardy.  The  victors  made  a  harsh  use  of  theii 
triumph,  the  unfortunate  Lombards  were  treated  with  great  cruelty,  the 
duke  of  Tuscany  was  compelled  to  exclude  the  English  from  the  port 
of  Leghorn,  and  the  pope  was  forced  to  purchase  the  forbearance  of  the 
republicans  by  ceding  to  them  Bologna,  and  several  other  towns,  pay- 
ing a  heavy  ransom,  and  sending  three  hundred  precious  manuscripts 
and  pictures  to  enrich  the  national  museum  at  Paris.  The  dukes  of 
Modena  and  Parma  were  subjected  to  similar  exactions,  but  the  king 
of  Naples  had  providently  made  a  truce  with  the  French  before  th6y 
approached  his  frontiers.  Mantua,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Austrians 
in  Italy,  was  closely  besieged,  but  the  court  of  Vienna  made  vigorous 
preparations  for  its  relief.  Marshal  Wurmser  twice  pushed  forward 
against  the  French,  but  was  each  time  defeated  with  great  loss,  a 
calamity  owing  to  his  unwisely  dividing  his  forces,  i^lvinzi,  v/ho 
succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  Austrians,  committed  the  same  fault, 
and  was  compelled  to  retire  ;  Mantua,  however,  was  still  obstinately 
defended,  but  the  garrison  ceased  to  entertain  sanguine  hopes  of 
success. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Corsicans  grew  weary  of  their  connexion 
with  Great  Britain,  drove  the  English  from  the  island,  and  placed 
themselves  under  the  protection  of  France.  Ireland  was  exposed  to 
ihe  horrors  of  an  invasion  ;  a  formidable  squadron,  having  a  large 
body  of  troops  on  board,  appeared  in  Bantry  Bay.  Hoche,  who  1  ad 
acquired  considerable  fame  by  his  suppression  of  the  insurrection  in 
La  Vendee,  commanded  the  expedition,  and,  could  he  have  effected  a 
anding,  the  safety  of  the  British  empire  would  have  been  perilled; 
but  a  violent  storm  dispersed  the  ships,  most  of  which  were  subse- 
quently either  sunk  or  captured.     The  death  of  the  emperess  Catherine 


650  MODERN  HISTORY. 

inspired  the  English  minister  with  the  hope  of  gain'ng  more  effectivt' 
assistance  from  Russia ;  but  her  successor,  the  emperor  Paul,  disre- 
garded all  the  solicitations  addressed  to  him  by  the  courts  of  London 
and  Vienna. 

A  new  enemy  appeared  against  England  ;  the  Spanish  government, 
always  jealous  of  British  naval  power,  and  overawed  by  the  French 
directory,  entered  into  alliance  with  the  republic,  and  began  to  increase 
its  navy  (a.  d.  1797).  At  this  moment,  when  the  existence  of  England 
depended  on  its  sailors,  a  formidable  mutiny  broke  out  in  the  fleet  at 
Spithead  ;  the  officers  were  suspended  from  their  authority  and  dismissed 
from  their  ships  ;  the  malcontents  blockaded  the  mouth  of  the  Thames, 
and  committed  several  acts  of  depredation.  Fortunately  the  sailors  grew 
alarmed  themselves  and  hastened  to  return  to  their  allegiance  ;  a  few 
of  the  ringleaders  were  hanged,  but  the  great  body  of  the  revolters  was 
conciliated  by  an  act  of  amnesty. 

The  war  in  Italy  was  not  discontinued  during  the  winter ;  Alvinzi 
made  a  desperate  eflbrt  to  retrieve  the  fortunes  of  Austria,  but  he  was 
again  defeated,  and  Mantua  soon  capitulated.  Having  very  severely 
punished  the  pope  for  his  attachment  to  the  imperial  interests.  Napoleon 
resolved  to  carry  the  war  into  the  hereditary  states  of  Austria.  The 
territory  of  Friuli  was  quickly  subdued,  and  a  great  part  of  the  Tyrol 
occupied  by  the  French  ;  the  archduke  Charles  made  a  bold  defence, 
but  the  emperor  Francis,  terrified  by  the  advance  of  Hoche  and  Moreau 
in  Germany,  sued  for  peace,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  his  English 
allies.  While  the  terms  of  pacification  were  under  discussion,  Napo- 
leon subverted  the  ancient  constitution  of  Genoa  and  Venice,  and  made 
both  republics  virtually  dependant  on  France. 

Spain  suffered  severely  in  the  war  she  had  so  rashly  commenced. 
Admiral  Jervis  encountered  a  Spanish  fleet  of  very  superior  force  ofT 
Cape  St.  Vincent,  and  by  a  dexterous  manoeuvre  cut  off  nine  of  their 
ships  from  the  line,  so  that  he  could  engage  the  rest  on  more  equal 
terms.  Four  ships-of-the-line  were  taken  in  this  brilliant  engagement, 
to  the  success  of  which  Nelson,  who  was  now  commencing  his  brilliant 
career,  mainlv  contributed.  The  Spaniards  lost  also  the  valuable  island 
of  Trinidad,  but  an  attack  made  by  the  British  on  Teneriffe  was  unsuc- 
cessful. The  Dutch,  too,  were  punished  for  their  alliance  with  France. 
Three  ships-of-the-line  and  four  frigates  were  taken  by  the  British,  after 
an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  recover  the  cape.  But  they  suffered  a  more 
severe  loss  on  their  own  coast ;  an  English  squadron,  commanded  by 
Admiral  Duncan,  got  between  their  ships  and  the  shore,  and  took  eleven 
out  of  fifteen  sail-of-the-line.  Two  of  the  prizes,  however,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  difficulties  of  the  navigation,  were  abandoned. 

A  new  revolution  in  France  invested  the  directory  wnh  supreme 
power,  and  their  opponents  were  banished  to  the  unhealthy  swamps  of 
Guiana,  where  they  were  treated  with  great  rigor.  Negotiations  for 
peace  were  commenced,  but  those  with  England  were  broken  off  abruptly 
by  the  extravagent  demands  of  the  French  plenipotentiaries.  This  did 
not  prevent  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  between  the  republic  ancf  Au.stria, 
when  the  emperor  was  renumerated  for  the  loss  of  Mantua  by  the  ces- 
sion of  Venice,  which  he  meanly  accepted,  and  the  frontiers  of  France 
vero  extended  to  the  Rhine, 


THE  AGE  OF  REVOLUTIONS  65] 

Gieat  Britian  was  now  the  only  power  at  war  with  France,  and 
the  directory  prepared  a  large  army  for  its  invasion.  This  threat  pro- 
duced a  noble  display  of  patriotism  throughout  the  country,  volunteer 
associations  for  defence  were  formed,  and  every  man  was  ready  to  act 
as  a  soldier.  But  while  the  British  navy  rode  triumphant  in  the  chan 
nel,  the  menace  of  invasion  was  an  idle  boast,  and  Bonaparte  only 
used  it  as  a  pretext  to  cover  his  ulterior  designs.  While  the  French 
were  modelling,  at  their  pleasure,  the  governments  of  Italy,  Switzerland, 
and  Holland,  Napoleon  planned  an  expedition  to  Egypt,  with  the  hope 
of  rendering  the  French  influence  as  predominant  in  the  east  as  it  was 
in  western  Europe  (a.  d.  1798).  Convoyed  by  a  fleet,  under  Admiral 
Brueys,  he  sailed  first  to  Malta,  which  was  betrayed  by  the  French 
kniffhts.  A  garrison  was  left  to  secure  the  forts  of  this  important 
island  ;  the  rest  of  the  expedition  escaping  the  vigilance  of  the  English 
fleet,  safety  reached  Egypt,  and  having  effected  a  landing,  took  Alexandria 
bv  storm.  The  Mameluke  beys,  who  were  then  masters  of  the  country, 
led  their  brilliant  cavalry  to  check  the  progress  of  the  invaders ;  but 
these  undisciplied  warriors  were  unable  to  break  the  firm  squares  of 
the  French  infantry,  and  they  were  almost  annihilated  in  the  battle  of 
Embaba. 

But  the  hopes  inspired  by  such  success  were  soon  dashed  by  the 
ruin  of  the  French  fleet.  After  a  long  search.  Admiral  Nelson  dis- 
covered Brueys,  in  the  bay  of  Aboukir,  and  immediately  formed  a  bold 
plan  of  action.  He  led  a  part  of  his  fleet  between  the  French  and  the 
shore,  so  as  to  place  his  enemies  between  two  fires.  The  victory  was 
complete,  nine  sail-of-the-line  were  captured,  L  Orient,  a  ship  of  uncom- 
mon size,  blew  up  with  the  greater  part  of  her  crew  ;  another  ship-of- 
the-line  and  a  frigate  were  burned  by  their  respective  captains. 

But  Great  Britain  was  not  equally  fortunate  in  other  quarters ;  an 
armament  sent  against  the  Belgic  coast  signally  failed,  and  the  island 
of  St.  Domingo  was  evacuated  by  the  British  troops.  Ireland  was  dis- 
trt-oted  by  an 'insurrection,  planned  by  some  enthusiastic  admirers  of 
French  principles,  but  put  into  execution  by  an  ignorant  peasantry,  whose 
excesses  tXieir  leaders  were  unable  to  control.  Many  acts  of  atrocity 
were  committed  by  the  insurgents,  and  the  conduct  of  the  royal  army 
was  frequently  very  disgraceful.  The  insurrection  was  finally  quelled  ; 
but  scarcely  was  tranquillity  restored,  when  a  sm.all  party  of  French 
landed  in  Connaught,  and  through  the  cowardice  of  the  troops  first  sent 
0  oppose  them,  penetrated  into  the  heart  of  the  country.  Lord  Com- 
wallis,  who  had  just  been  appointed  lord  lieutenant,  soon  overtook  the 
French,  and  forced  them  to  surrender.  Judiciously  tempering  severity 
with  clemency,  he  conciliated  the  discontented ;  and  Sir  John  Warren, 
by  capturing  the  greater  part  of  a  French  fleet,  averted  the  dangers  of  a 
future  invasion. 

The  victory  of  Nelson  at  the  Nile  produced  a  powerful  eff'ect  through 
out  Europe.  The  sultan  made  preparations  for  a  vigorous  defence  of 
his  dominions  ;  the  Russians  sent  an  armament  into  the  Mediterranean 
and  capturf  d  the  Ionian  islands,  which  the  French  had  wrested  from 
the  Venetians  ;  the  kmg  of  Naples  took  arms  to  recover  the  iComan 
territories  for  the  pope  ;  and  the  emperor  of  Austria  yielded  to  the 
suggestions  of  Mr.  Pitt,  and  commenced  hostilities. 


6S2  MO OERN  HISTORY. 

The  French  were  not  daunted  by  this  powerful  coalition  ;  thcyeasll) 
repelled  the  NeapK)litans,  but  ihey  found  a  more  formidable  foe  in  the 
Russians,  who  entered  Italy  under  the  command  of  Suwaroff,  and  being 
there  joined  by  the  Austrians,  gained  several  important  advantages  in 
iipite  of  Marshals  Moreau  and  Macdonald.  But  these  successes  were 
so  dearly  purchased,  that  the  allies  resolved  to  try  a  new  plan  of  opera- 
tions. Suwaroff  undertook  to  drive  the  French  from  Switzerland  ;  Kray 
and  Melas  were  to  direct  the  Piedmontese  and  Austrian  troops  in  Italy  ; 
while  the  archduke  Charles  protected  Germany  with  all  the  forces  of 
the  empire.  Victory  in  general  favored  the  allied  powers  :  the  French 
lost  all  their  posts  in  Italy  except  Genoa,  and  that  was  closely  besieged  ; 
Suwaroff  made  rapid  progress  in  Switzerland  ;  and  in  Germany  the 
French  arms  suffered  several  but  not  A'ery  important  reverses.  In  the 
meantime  Napoleon  invaded  Syria;  but  being  foiled  at  Acre,  chiefly 
through  the  heroic  exertions  of  Sir  Sydney  Smith,  he  returned  to  Egypt, 
and  having  provided  for  the  security  of  that  country,  secretly  embarked 
for  France.  He  escaped  the  vigilance  of  the  English  cruisers,  and  ai 
rived  at  Paris  just  as  the  directory  were  indulging  in  extravagant  jo} 
for  the  defeat  of  the  joint  invasion  of  KjUand  by  the  English  and  Rus- 
sians. It  had  been  confidently  asserted  that  the  Dutch  were  anxious  to 
throw  off  the  yoke  of  France,  but  these  representations  were  proved  to 
be  fallacious  ;  and  the  duke  of  York,  who  commanded  the  English  forces, 
was  compelled  to  purchase  a  safe  retreat  by  restoring  eight  thousand 
French  prisoners  without  ransom  or  exchange. 

Bonaparte  soon  perceived  that  the  French  people  had  grown  weary 
of  the  directory.  Trusting  to  his  popularity  with  the  army,  he  drove 
the  legislative  council  from  their  chamber  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet, 
and  formed  a  new  constitution,  by  which  the  executive  power  was  in- 
trusted to  three  consuls,  of  whom  he  was  the  chief.  The  first  consul, 
in  everything  but  name  a  monarch,  attempted  to  commence  negotiations  ; 
the  English  ministers  repulsed  him  rather  harshly,  and  preparations 
were  made  for  a  decisive  campaign. 

An  important  and  necessary  change  was  made  in  the  constitution  of 
the  British  empire  (a.  d.  1800).  Some  diflliculties  had  arisen  from  the 
existence  of  independent  legislatures  in  England  and  Ireland  ;  the  twc 
parliaments  had  already  divided  differently  on  the  important  question  of 
ihe  regency,  and  there  was  reason  to  fear  that  some  future  discrepancy 
might  lead  to  the  dismemberment  of  the  empire.  To  prevent  such  an 
evil;  it  was  resolved  that  the  two  legislatures  should  form  on  ^  imperial 
parliament,  and  the  terms  of  the  union  were  warmly  canvassed  in  both 
countries.  The  measure  was  very  unpopular  in  Ireland,  and  when 
first  proposed,  was  rejected  by  the  parliament ;  but,  during  the  recess 
the  minister  fountJ  means  to  increase  the  number  of  his  supporters,  and 
in  the  following  session  the  Act  of  Union  was  passed  by  considerable 
majorities. 

It  was  expected  that  the  first  consul  would  attempt  the  invasion  of 
England  or  Ireland  ;  but  Napoleon  was  too  well  aware  of  his  naval 
weakness  to  undertake  such  a  hazardous  enterprise.  He  formed  a 
daring  plan  of  a  campaign  in  Italy,  and  led  his  army  like  Hannibal  ovei 
ihe  Alps.  The  Austrians  could  scarcely  have  been  more  surprised  if 
un  array  had  fallen  from  the  clouds,  than  they  were  bv  the  appearance 


THE  AGE  OP  REVOLaTIONS.  <>53 

I'lf  the  French  columns  descending  from  Momit  St.  Bernard  ;  bnt,  en- 
couraged by  their  recent  acquisition  of  Genoa,  they  prepared  to  make  a 
vigorous  resistance.  The  battle  of  Montebello,  in  which  the  French 
had  the  advantage,  was  the  prelude  to  the  decisive  battle  of  Marengo. 
The  Austrians  commenced  the  fight  with  unusual  spirit ;  both  wings 
of  their  opponents  were  beaten,  and  the  centre  shaken  ;  but  some  fresh 
divisions  arriving  to  the  support  of  the  French  at  the  last  moment  of 
the  crisis,  Napoleon  pierced  the  lines  of  the  imperialists,  which  were 
loo  much  extended,  and  Murat's  furious  charge  completed  the  rout  of 
'he  Austrians.  So  disheartened  was  the  imperial  general,  Melas,  that 
he  purchased  a  truce  by  resigning  Genoa,  and  the  principal  fortiesses 
in  Piedmont  and  the  Milanese,  to  the  conquerors. 

The  influence  of  the  British  cabinet,  and  some  slight  successes  in 
Germany,  induced  the  emperor  Francis  to  continue  the  war  ;  but  his 
rising  hopes  were  crushed  by  the  battle  of  Hohenlinden,  in  which  the 
French  and  Bavarians  under  Moreau  completely  defeated  the  imperial^ 
ists,  and  opened  a  passage  into  Upper  Austria.  The  emperor,  alarmed 
for  his  hereditary  dominions,  consented  to  a  truce,  and  this  was  soon 
followed  by  the  treaty  of  Luneville,  which  annihilated  for  a  season  the 
Austrian  influence  in  Italy.  Scarcely  had  Great  Britain  lost  one  ally, 
when  she  was  threatened  with  the  active  hostility  of  another.  The 
Russian  emperor,  Paul,  had  been  chosen  patron  of  the  order  of  St.  John 
of  Jerusalem  ;  and  when  the  English,  after  having  reduced  Malta  by 
blockade,  refused  to  restore  the  island  to  the  degenerate  knights,  the 
chivalrous  potentate  ordered  the  British  ships  in  the  Russian  ports  to 
be  detained,  and  prevailed  u})on  Sweden  and  Denmaik  to  unite  with 
him  in  an  armed  neutialiiy  (a.  d.  1801).  In  the  meantime  Mr.  Pitt, 
who  had  so  long  presided  over  the  councils  of  Great  Britain,  resigned 
his  office  as  premier.  When  he  was  urging  forward  the  great  measure 
of  the  union  with  Ireland,  he  had  endeavored  to  conciliate  the  catholics 
of  that  country  by  a  promise  of  his  aid  in  procuring  a  repeal  of  the  laws 
*vhich  excluded  them  from  parliament  and  office  ;  hut  the  king's  repug- 
nance to  catliolic  emancipation  was  invincible,  and  Mr.  Pitt  retired  from 
the  cabint't.  Mr.  Aduint:ton,his  successor,  had  scarcely  leen  installed, 
when  the  gratifying  intelligence  was  received  of  a  great  triumph  ob- 
tained by  the  British  navy  in  the  Baltic.  When  Mr.  Pi:t  received  ia- 
telligence  of  the  armed  neutrality,  he  sent  a  large  fleet  into  the  northern 
seas,  under  the  command  of  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and  J^ord  Nelson.  The 
latter,  with  twelve  sail-of-the-line  and  some  small  vessels,  attacked  the 
Dimi.vh  fle  n,  moored  ii  a  fo:milable  jositioa  bisforj  theij  capital,  auvl 
after  a  desperate  contest,  took  or  destroyed  every  lianish  ship  that  had 
a  share  hi  tlie  engagement.  The  Danes  were  humbled  by  this  loss 
but  they  were  still  more  disheartened  by  the  death  of  the  Russian  em 
peror,  Paul,  who  was  the  founder  and  head  of  the  northern  confederacy 
This  poteiiate's  incaj.acity  j)rovoked  the  indignation  of  the  nobles  and 
the  people,  and  he  was  nmrdered  by  a  party  of  conspirators,  who  placed 
his  son  Alexynder  upon  the  throne  The  young  ])rince  concluded  a 
treaty  with  the  Britibh  on  equitable  terms,  and  the  other  northern  pow- 
ers imitated  his  example. 

A  British  army,  under  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  had  been  sent  to  drive 
the  Freucl    from  Egypt,  and  it  succeeded  in  this  object,  but  with  thi< 


h54  MODERN  HISTORY. 

loss  of  its  gallant  commander.  Some  naval  enterprises  were  less  sue 
cessful  :  and  as  there  was  now  a  stable  government  in  France,  the  Eng 
lish  minister  consented  to  commence  negotiations  for  peace.  The  terms 
were  soon  arranged  :  France  retained  her  acquisitions  in  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands,  and  her  supremacy  in  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  Italy. 
England  consented  to  resign  Malta  to  the  knights,  to  make  the  Ionian 
islands  an  independent  republic,  and  to  restore  all  her  colonial  con- 
quests except  Ceylon  and  Trinidad.  The  treaty  was  signed  at  Amiens, 
nnd  for  a  short  time  Europe  was  deceived  with  a  hope  of  continued 
tranquillity. 

During  this  war  the  maritime  and  commercial  supremacy  of  England 
had  been  completely  established,  and  her  colonial  empire  in  India  ex- 
tended and  secured.  When  the  French  invaded  Egypt,  Tippoo,  the 
sultan  of  Mysore,  inheriting  his  father's  hostility  to  the  English,  medi- 
tated an  attack  on  the  company's  territories,  but  he  was  anticipated  by 
the  vigor  of  the  earl  of  Mornington,  the  governor-general,  who,  instead 
of  waiting  for  an  attack,  invaded  Mysore.  Seringapatam,  Tippoo's  cap- 
ital, was  taken  by  storm,  and  that  unfortunate  prince  fell  in  the  assault 
This  conquest  made  the  British  power  supreme  in  southern  India,  and 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  company's  paramount  authority  over  the 
whole  peninsula  of  Hindustan. 

France  had  gained  a  vast  accession  of  territory,  but  the  freedom 
which  the  French  had  taken  arms  to  defend  was  no  more.  The  revo- 
lution, whose  progress  had  been  so  strangely  marked  by  savage  crime 
and  cruel  suffering,  was  now  fast  finding  its  consummation  in  a  military 
despotism,  more  arbitrary  and  crushing  than  the  iron  rule  even  of  the 
feudal  monarchs  ;  but  the  French,  weary  of  the  many  vicissitudes  that 
their  gov(;nmient  had  undergone,  submitted  to  a  change  that  promised 
future  stability,  and  consoled  themselves  with  dreams  of  glory  for  tlib 
loss  of  freedom. 


I 


THE  PBENCH  EMPIRE.  655 


CHAPTER  X. 
THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE. 

Section  I. — Renewal  of  the  War  between  England  and  France. 

AVhen  peace  was  restored,  Napoleon  directed  all  his  energies  to  coii« 
aolidate  the  power  he  had  acquired.  Permission  was  granted  to  those 
whom  the  violence  of  the  revolution  had  driven  from  their  country,  to 
return,  on  certain  conditions.  Christianity,  abolished  in  the  madness  of 
the  preceding  convulsions,  was  restored,  and  arrangements  were  made 
with  the  pope  for  the  future  government  of  the  Gallican  church ;  and 
finally,  the  consular  power  was  conferred  upon  Napoleon  for  life,  while 
a  representative  constitution  preserved  for  the  nation  a  mere  shadow  of 
freedom.  His  interference  in  foreign  states  was  less  honorable  :  he 
moulded  the  Italian  and  Ligurian  republics  at  his  pleasure ;  but  the 
Swiss  proving  more  refractory,  Marshal  Ney  entered  their  territory 
with  a  large  army,  to  enforce  submission  to  the  imperious  dictates  of 
the  first  consul.  The  British  ministers  remonstrated  against  this  intei- 
ference,  but  they  could  not  prevent  the  French  from  extending  their  in- 
fluence in  Germany  and  Italy,  as  well  as  the  Swiss  cantons.  Napoleon 
was  less  successful  in  his  efforts  to  recover  the  island  of  His;paniola  or 
St.  Domingo.  A  large  French  army  was  sent  to  the  island,  and  the 
proceedings  of  its  commanders  were  marked  by  gross  cruelty  and  treach- 
ery ;  but  these  abominable  means  failed  to  crush  the  spirit  of  the  insur- 
gent negroes,  and  the  unfortunate  colony  was  exposed  lo  ull  the  horrovs 
of  a  servile  war.  Great  Britain  did  not  interftre  in  this  contest;  tlie 
example  of  a  successful  revolt  of  slaves  was  deemed  of  dangerous  con- 
sequence to  our  West  Indian  islands,  and  the  reduction  of  St.  Domingo 
was  desired  ratner  than  deprecated. 

But  the  encroachments  of  France  on  the  independence  of  tlv3  neigh- 
boring states,  and  the  determination  of  England  to  retain  the  island  of 
Malta,  gave  rise  to  angry  discussions,  which,  it  was  soon  obvious,  would 
only  terminate  in  a  renewal  of  hostilities  (a.  d.  1833). 

The  English  commenced  the  war  by  issuing  letters  of  marque,  author- 
izing the  seizure  of  French  vessels  ;  Napoleon  retaliated,  by  seizing  the 
persons  of  all  the  British  whom  pleasure  or  business  had  induced  to 
visit  France  during  the  brief  interval  of  peace.  The  threats  of  in\asion 
were  renewed,  but  the  English  people  evinced  a  spirit  of  lovalfy  which 
quelled  all  fear  of  danger.  In  Ireland  an  unmeaning  insuriection  w.ig 
raised  by  two  enthusiasts,  Russell  and  Emmelt,  but  it  was  suppressf(} 
hlraos'.  the  instant  it  exploded,  and  a  few  of  the  leaders  were  cai)U:iiiv 


656 


MODERN  HTSTfJivt 


punished.  Hanover,  however,  was  occaipied  by  a  French  army,  and  the 
Dutch  repuhlic  joined  in  the  war  against  Britain.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  EngUsh  conquered  the  French  islands  of  St.  Lucie  and  Tobago,  and 
the  Dutch  settlements  of  Demerara  and  Essequebo.  In  Asia,  the  Eng- 
lish broke  tlie  dangerous  power  of  the  Mahrattas,  who  were  supposed, 
at  the  instigation  of  the  French,  to  have  formed  plans  for  the  subversion 
of  the  company's  power.  The  earl  of  INIornington,  who  had  recently 
been  created  marquis  of  Wellesley,  disconcerted  their  schemes  by  his 
vigor  and  promptitude  ;  and  the  formidable  Scindiah  was  forced  to  pur- 
chase peace  by  the  cession  of  a  large  portion  of  his  dominions.  The 
king  of  Kandi,  who  had  assailed  the  British  power  in  Ceylon,  was  also 
subdued,  and  the  English  colonial  empire  in  Asia  was  at  or^^e  enlarged 
and  secured.  The  French  colonial  power  was  at  the  same  time  nearly 
annihilated  :  the  island  of  St.  Domingo  was  wrested  from  them  by  the 
insurgent  blacks,  and  erected  into  an  independent  state,  under  its  an- 
cient Indian  name  of  Hayti.  These  results  might  have  been  reasonably 
anticipated,  for  without  a  navy  it  was  impossible  for  France  to  retain  its 
colonies. 

Mr.  Pitt  had  retired  from  office  just  before  the  conclusion  of  the 
peace,  his  friends  became  anxious  that  he  should  return  to  the  admin- 
istration on  the  renewal  of  war,  and  Mr.  Addington  was  forced  to  yield 
to  their  superior  influence  (a.  d.  1804).  The  premier  encountered 
many  difficulties  in  constructing  a  cabinet,  and  had  to  resist  a  more 
formidable  opposition  in  parliament  than  he  had  been  accustomed  to 
meet.  While  Mr.  Pitt  was  laboring  to  strengthen  his  ministry.  Napo- 
leon was  n\oro  successfully  engaged  in  securing  the  supreme  power  in 
France.  lie  accused  his  rivals,  Moreau  and  Pichegru,  of  having  plot- 
ted his  destruction,  in  ccmjunction  with  Georges,  a  royalist  leader,  and 
charged  the  English  ministers  with  having  hired  assassins  to  destroy 
him.  A  more  atrocious  crime  was  the  murder  of  the  most  amiable  of 
the  Bourbon  princes.  The  young  duke  D'Enghien  was  unjustifiably 
seized  in  the  neutral  territory  of  Baden,  hurried  to  the  castle  of  Vin- 
cennes,  and  shot  by  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial,  contrary  to  all 
forms  of  law,  as  well  as  principles  of  justice.  Immediately  after  the 
f,eq>etration  of  this  ruthless  deed,  Napo'eon  obtained  the  title  of  em- 
peror from  his  servile  senate  ;  the  dignity  was  declared  hereditary  in 
his  family,  and  the  principal  powers  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of 
Great  Bruain,  rccogni.ied  ths  now  sovereign. 

The  empeior  of  Russia  was  anxious  to  avenge  the  fate  of  the  duke 
D'Eagbiei.,  his  lemonytranct^s  agair.st  the  usurpations  of  Napoleon  were 
ver}'  wirni,  but  noiiC  of  the  othur  contint  ntai  soveieigus  seconded  hi& 
zeal,  and  the  storm,  A\hich  threatened  to  burst  forth,  soon  subsided 
Having  no  ally  on  the  continent,  England  had  no  means  of  employing 
her  military  strength,  and  the  operations  of  the  war  were  confined  to  a 
few  naval  enterprises.  Napoleon  offi^red  terms  of  peace ;  but  the 
British  minister,  relying  on  the  probable  co-operation  of  Russia,  refused 
to  negotiate  (a.  d.  1805).  At  the  same  time  war  was  commenced 
against  Spain,  by  sending  out  a  squadron  to  intercept  the  Plate  fleet, 
laden  with  the  treasures  of  Spanish  America.  This  attempt  was  made 
before  hostilities  were  formally  declared  ;  but  the  British  minister  jus- 
*itied  it  by  referring  to  tlie  intimate  connexion  that  had  been  formed  bo- 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  05*3 

tweeu  the  courts  of  Paris  and  Madrid.  Mr.  Pitt's  conduct  was  ap- 
proved by  large  parliamentary  majorities ;  but  he  received  a  harsh 
proof  of  the  decline  of  his  influence,  in  the  impeachment  of  his  friend 
Lord  Melville,  for  official  delinquency.  When  the  charge  was  made 
m  the  house  of  commons,  Mr.  Pitt  vindicated  the  conduct  of  Lord 
Melville  ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  minister's  exertions,  the  impeach- 
ment was  carried  by  the  casting  vote  of  the  speaker.  The  premiin 
VMS  more  successful  in  his  foreign  policy;  the  emperor  of  Russia  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  England  for  restraining  the  ambition  of  France, 
and  Napoleon's  encroachments  in  Italy  induced  Austria  to  accede  to 
the  league. 

NapoleoU;  at  the  request  of  the  constituted  authorities  of  the  Italian 
republic,  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Italy ;  and  in  the  cathedral  of 
Milan  placed  upon  his  head  the  ancient  iron  crown  of  the  Lombard 
monarchs,  and  with  less  ceremony,  annexed  the  territories  of  the  Ligu- 
rian  republic  to  the  French  empire.  The  Austrian  emperor  vainly  re- 
monstrated ;  and  at  length,  relying  on  the  aid  of  the  Russians,  pul)lish- 
ed  a  declaration  of  war.  Unfortunately,  Francis  commenced  hostilities 
by  an  action  as  unjustifiable  as  any  of  which  he  accused  Napoleon. 
The  elector  of  Bavaria,  whose  son  was  in  the  French  capital,  declared 
himself  neutral,  upon  which  the  Austrian  troops  entered  his  dominions, 
treated  them  as  a  conquered  country,  and  compelled  him  to  seek  refuge 
in  Franconia.  Napoleon  eagerly  seized  the  opportunity  of  branding 
his  enemies  as  the  aggressors  in  the  contest,  and  declaring  himself  the 
protector  of  the  liberties  of  Europe. 

The  naval  war  was  maintained  by  Great  Britain  with  equal  vigor 
and  success.  The  French  and  Spanish  fleets  having  formed  a  junction, 
sailed  for  the  West  Indies,  but  they  were  soon  pursued  by  Lord  Nel- 
son, the  terror  of  whose  name  induced  them  to  return  to  Europe.  Off 
Ferrol  they  encountered  an  inferior  squadron,  under  Sir  Robert  Calder, 
and  lost  two  of  their  ships,  but  the  rest  reached  the  bay  of  Cadiz,  where 
they  were  strongly  reinforced.  Lord  Nelson,  with  twenty-seven  sail- 
of-the-line,  appeared  off  the  coast,  and  the  French  admiral  Villeneuve, 
relying  on  his  vast  superiority  of  force,  resolved  to  hazard  an  engage- 
ment Tha  allied  fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  amounting  to  thirty-three 
ships-of-the-line,  besides  frigates  and  corvettes,  appeared  near  Cape 
Trafalgar,  ranged  in  order  of  battle  ;  Nelson  gave  immediate  orders  for 
an  attack,  and  the  English  fleet,  advancing  in  two  divisions,  soon  broke 
thro'.'uh  the  adverse  line.  In  the  heat  of  the  engagement,  the  heroic 
British  commander  fell  mortally  wounded  ;  but  he  lived  to  know  that 
'iis  plans  had  been  crowned  with  success,  twelve  of  the  enemies'  ship? 
having  struck  before  he  expired.  A  dreadful  storm,  which  arose  just 
after  the  battle  closed,  prevented  the  English  from  retaining  all  the 
fruits  of  their  victory  ;  but  four  prizes  reached  Gibraltar,  fifteen  French 
dud  Spanish  vessels  were  destroyed  or  sunk  ;  out  of  the  fourteen  which 
fled,  six  were  wrecked,  and  four  taken  at  a  later  period  by  Sir  RoI)ei1 
Strachan.  The  joy  which  so  brilliant  a  victory  difl'used  tln-oughont 
England  was  chastened  by  grief  for  the  loss  of  the  gallant  Nelson  ;  jic 
was  honorably  interred  at  the  public  expense,  and  monuments  Avcrc 
'erected  to  his  memory  by  a  grateful  nation. 

Napoleon  consoled  himself  for  his  losses  at  sea  bv  the  prospect  o^ 

42 


008  MODERN   HISTORY 

•lainin^  some  decisive  advantage  over  the  Austrians  before  they  coiilii 
be  joined  bv  their  Russian  auxiliaries.  He  treated  with  contempt  tht- 
threats  of  Gustavus,  king  of  Sweden  ;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  the 
pompous  l)oasts  of  that  ecc  ?ntric  monarch,  combined  with  his  vacilla 
tinor  conduct,  did  not  entitle  him  to  much  respect.  The  French  army 
crossed  the  Rhine,  and  disregarding  the  neutrality  of  the  king  of  Prus- 
sia, passed  through  the  Franconian  territories  of  that  monarch,  and 
having  passed  the  Danube,  began  to  menace  the  rear  of  the  Austrians. 
In  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  archduke  Charles,  the  cabinet  of 
Vienna  had  intrusted  the  chief  command  of  their  armies  to  Genera! 
Mack,  wliose  talents  and  fidelity  were  both  suspicious.  Mack  in  a 
short  time  permitted  himself  to  be  surrounded  by  the  French  at  Ulm  ; 
he  had  ample  means  for  a  protracted  defence,  having  twenty  thousand 
men  under  his  command,  but  through  cowardice  or  incapacity,  he  con- 
sented to  a  capitulation,  by  which  he  and  his  soldiers  became  prisoners- 
of-war.  Intelligence  of  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  came  to  abate  Napoleon's 
triumph,  while  the  courage  of  Francis  was  revived  by  the  arrival  of  the 
Russian  auxiliaries.  The  French,  pushing  forward,  made  themselves 
masters  of  Vienna ;  but  the  Russians,  encouraged  by  the  presence  of 
their  emperor,  though  they  had  been  severely  harassed  in  Moravia, 
showed  so  much  spirit,  that  the  allies  resolved  to  hazard  an  engage- 
ment. In  the  beginning  of  December,  the  hostile  armies  met  near  the 
village  of  Austerlitz  ;  Kutuzoff,  who  directed  the  movements  of  the 
allies,  injudiciously  extended  his  lines,  with  the  intention  of  outflanking 
the  French ;  Napoleon  at  once  saw  and  took  advantage  of  the  error,  he 
separated  the  enemies'  central  divisions  from  those  of  both  wings,  and 
pouring  his  columns  through  the  gaps,  overwhelmed  his  foes  in  detail. 
After  a  desperate  resistance,  the  Russians  were  forced  to  retreat ;  a 
large  body  attempted  to  escape  over  a  frozen  lake,  but  the  French  artil- 
lery poured  a  storm  of  shot  from  a  neighboring  eminence,  which  bioke 
the  ice  around  the  fugitives,  and  the  greater  part  of  them  perished  in 
the  waters.  This  severe  defeat  humbled  the  emperor  Francis ;  he  ac- 
cepted peace  on  the  terms  dictated  by  the  conqueror,  but  the  emperor 
Alexander  refused  to  be  a  party  to  the  treaty,  and  returned  to  his  own 
country. 

During  tliese  transactions,  the  selfish  conduct  of  the  king  of  Prussia 
way  as  injurious  to  the  allies  as  it  was  ultimately  ruinous  to  himself. 
Oil  the  violation  of  his  Franconian  territories,  he  had  taken  arms,  and 
entered  into  treaties  with  Great  Britain  and  Russia ;  but  Napoleon, 
aware  that  the  prompt  movement  of  a  third  power  might  disconcert  all 
his  plans,  contrived  to  keep  awake  the  ancient  jealousy  between  the 
(sovereigns  of  Austria  and  Prusisia,  and  he  finally  won  the  tacit  appro- 
bation of  the  latter  power  by  ofl'ering  Hanover  as  .a  bribe.  Thus  the 
Prussian  sovereign  was  induced  to  favor  the  alarming  extension  of 
French  power  by  a  share  of  the  plimder  of  his  own  allies. 

The  battle  of  Austerlitz  was  a  fatal  blow  to  Mr.  Pitt ;  he  had  been 
the  chief  agent  in  forming  the  coalition — he  had  loudly  and  boldly 
prrognosticated  its  success,  and  had  despised  the  warnings  of  his  politi- 
cal adversaries  ;  the  failure  of  all  liis  hopes  proved  too  much  for  his 
shattered  constitution,  and  he  died  at  the  commencement  of  the  parlia- 
■liAcntary  sossion  (a.  d.  1806^.     His  parliamentary  friendij  procured  hiir 


THE  rHENClI  EMPIRE.  ^59 

.i  splendid  funeral,  and  the  payment  of  his  debts  at  the  national   cost, 
and  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Section  JI. — Progress  of  Napoleon's  Power. 

While  Napoleon  was  establishing  his  supremacy  over  the  continent 
of  Europe,  the  marquis  of  Wellesley  was  further  extending  and  securing 
the  British  empire  in  India,  by  humbling  the  Mahratta  powers.  Jess- 
wunt  Holkar,  a  formidable  chief,  made  a  vigorous  resistance,  but  he 
soon  found  that  his  soldiers  could  not  cope  with  the  disciplined  troops 
of  the  company,  and  was  forced  to  beg  a  peace.  He  obtained  better 
lerms  than  he  could  have  expected,  from  the  marquis  Cornwallis,  who 
succeeded  the  marquis  of  Wellesley,  for  the  court  of  directors  had 
found  that  conquests  were  very  expensive,  and  that  every  new  ac- 
quisition of  territory  became  an  additional  source  of  expense.  At  this 
time  the  English  nation  generally  took  little  interest  in  the  affairs  of 
India  ;  men's  minds  were  more  occupied  by  the  change  of  ministry 
consequent  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Pitt.  It  was  generally  desired  that  as 
large  a  share  of  the  talent  of  the  country  as  possible,  without  reference 
to  party,  should  be  included  in  the  new  administration  ;  and  Lord 
Grenville,  to  whom  the  arrangements  were  confided,  overcame  the 
king's  reluctance  to  Mr.  Fox,  and  made  that  gentleman  one  of  the  sec- 
retaries of  state.  The  first  measures  of  the  ministers  won  them  a  con- 
siderable share  of  public  favor  ;  Lord  Henry  Petty  introduced  order 
into  the  financial  accounts,  which  were  in  such  a  state  of  confusion  as 
to  afford  protection  to  fraud  and  peculation  ;  Mr.  Fox  proposed  and 
carried  the  abolition  of  the  infamous  slave-trade,  which  had  been  so 
long  a  disgrace  to  England  and  to  Christianity.  The  acquittal  of  Lord 
Melville  by  the  house  of  peers  was  received  with  some  surprise  ;  but 
the  ministers  appear  to  have  acted  impartially  in  avoiding  any  inter- 
ference that  might  influence  the  result  of  an  official  investigation. 

The  war  was  still  prosecuted  with  great  vigor  ;  the  Dutch  colony  of 
the  Cape  was  subdued,  and  a  small  force  under  Sir  Home  Popham  and 
General  Beresford,  captured  the  important  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  in 
South  America.  The  provincials,  however,  disappointed  in  the  hope 
of  obtaining  freedom  and  independbuce  by  British  aid,  took  up  arms, 
and  the  conquerors  of  Buenos  Ayres  were  forced  to  capitulate,  while  a 
British  armament  was  on  its  way  to  maintain  the  supposed  coiKiuest. 

Hastening  to  secure  the  reward  of  his  perfidy,  the  king  of  Prussia 
occUj>ied  Hanover,  ceding  to  the  French  the  diitchy  of  Cleves,  and 
some  other  districts,  as  a  rcAvard  for  yielding  him  the  electorate.  Gus- 
tavus  of  Sweden  joined  the  British  court  in  remonstrating  againsit  this 
proceeding  ;  but  as  that  monarch's  actions  were  not  very  consistent 
with  his  menaces,  the  Prussians  treated  him  with  contempt.  An  ally 
of  Britain  was  about  the  same  time  driven  from  his  dominions.  During 
the  Austrian  war,  the  king  of  Naples,  encouraged  by  the  withdrawal 
of  the  French  troops  from  his  territories,  and  instigated  by  his  queen, 
an  Austrian  princess,  received  an  army  of  Russians  and  English  into 
^li8  cai)ital.  Napoleon,  provoLsd  by  this  unexpected  wai,  declared  that 
the  Bourbon  dynasty  had  ceased  to  reign  in  Naples,  and  assembled  an 
iivny  to  execute  his   threats  just  as  the  Russian  and  English   forces 


StiO  MODERN  HISTORY. 

were  witlidfawn.  The  invaders  scarcely  encountered  any  resislaiice 
except  in  Calabria,  where  the  peasants  made  a  brief  stand.  The  kinj. 
of  Naples  fled  to  Sicily,  and  Napoleon  conferred  the  vacant  throne  on 
his  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte.  The  peasants  in  Calabria  and  the 
Abrnzzi,  harassed  the  French  by  desultory  attacks,  and  they  were 
supported  by  Sir  Sydney  Smith,  who  commanded  the  British  naval 
force  on  the  Sicilian  station.  The  queen  of  Naples  and  Sir  Sydney 
Smith  prevailed  on  Sir  John  Stuart,  the  commander  of  the  British  force 
in  Sicily,  to  transport  his  troops  into  Calabria  ;  the  natives  did  not  join 
the  invaders  in  such  force  as  had  been  expected,  and  they  would  have 
immediately  returned,  had  not  an  opportunity  offered  of  engaging  the 
French  general  Regnier.  The  armies  met  at  Maida,  and  the  French, 
though  greatly  superior  in  number,  were  completely  defeated.  But  the 
victory  had  no  result  except  to  raise  the  character  of  the  British  army, 
which  had  been  for  some  time  depressed.  The  French  poured  large 
bodies  of  soldiers  into  Calabria,  and  in  a  short  time  established  their 
authority  over  the  whole  of  the  south  of  Italy. 

Having  procured  the  throne  of  Naples  for  his  brother  Joseph,  Napo- 
leon resolved  to  place  his  brother  Louis  on  that  of  Holland.  The 
Dutch  submitted  to  the  change  without  remonstrance,  though  their 
country  thus  became  a  mere  province  of  France;  but  they  consoled 
themselves  by  reflecting  on  the  mild  character  of  their  new  sovereign, 
who  was  sincerely  anxious  to  promote  the  prosperity  of  his  subjects 
His  efforts,  were,  however,  controlled  by  his  imperial  brother,  who  was 
anxious  of  becoming  the  arbiter  of  Europe,  and  rendering  everything 
subservient  to  the  military  sway  of  France.  Siill  Najmleon  professed 
an  anxious  desire  for  peace,  and  made  overtures  to  Mr.  Fox,  for  whose 
character  he  professed  and  probably  felt  the  highest  veneration.  The 
negotiations  were  brol<'^;i  itf  by  the  refusal  of  the  French  to  admit  the 
Russians  to  a  share  of  the  treaty,  and  by  Napoleon's  perseverance  in 
retaining  power  inconsistent  with  the  independence  of  the  other  Eu- 
ropean states.  While  the  subject  was  under  discussion,  Mr.  Fox  died, 
and  was  succeeded  in  office  by  Mr.  (al'terward  Earl)  Grey:  the  con- 
ferences were  continued,  but  M.  Talleyrand,  who  was  the  representa- 
tive of  France,  insinuated  that  the  change  in  the  British  cabhiet  blighted 
the  '"ope  of  restoring  tran'|uillity  to  Europe. 

The  frustration  of  this  negotiation  led  to  a  new  war;  during  the 
conferences.  Napoleon's  agents  averred  that  the  restoration  of  Hanover 
would  nor  be  refused  ;  the  king  of  Prussia  was  in  lignan'  a1  the  r^ad'- 
ness  with  which  this  pretended  I'riend  sacrificed  his  interests  ;  Hanover 
had  been  the  reward  of  subserviency,  if  not  treachery,  and  he  now 
found  that  he  retained  the  bribe  by  a  very  insecure  tenure.  A  more 
justifiable  ground  of  indignation  was  the  opposition  vchicli  Napoleon 
^ave  to  the  oflbrts  of  the  Prussians,  in  forming  an  association  which 
might  counterbalance  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  an  alliance  thai 
transferred  to  France  the  supremacy  over  Germany,  that  had  lormerly 
belonged  to  the  house  of  Austria;  finally,  it  was  more  than  suspected 
(.hat  Napoieon  had  offered  to  win  the  favor  of  the  Russian  emperor  al 
tuc  expense  of  his  Prussian  ally.  Frederic  William  was  furtliei 
citin^ulated  by  his  queen  and  his  subjects  ;  the  Germans  generally  were 
BurageJ   bj  the  military  tyranny  of  the    French,  especially  by   the  ju- 


I 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  661 

dicial  muiJer    of  two  booksellers,  who  were  shot  pursuant  to  thu  sen- 
tence of  a  court-martial  for  circulating  libels  against  Napoleon. 

Anger  is  an  evil  counsellor  to  nations  as  well  as  individuals ;  yield- 
ing to  the  suggestions  of  indignation  rather  than  prudence,  the  king  of 
Prussia  commenced  hostilities  before  his  own  arrangements  were  com- 
plete, or  his  allies  ready  to  give  him  effective  assistance ;  and  he  in- 
inisted  the  command  of  his  army  to  the  duke  of  Brunswick,  who  pos- 
sessed the  personal  bravery  of  a  soldier,  but  not  the  priideuce  and  abil- 
ities requisite  for  a  general.  Louis,  the  king's  cousin,  impetuously 
advancing  to  seek  the  French,  encountered  a  vastly  superior  force  ;  he 
was  defeated  and  slain,  a  calamity  that  greatly  dispirited  the  Prussian 
army.  This  was  only  the  preliminary  to  the  fatal  battle  of  Jena  ;  the 
Prussians  injudiciously  posted,  and  badly  commanded,  were  routed  with 
crreat  slaughter,  and  what  was  even  worse  than  defeat,  a  dispute  arose 
between  them  and  their  Saxon  allies,  which  induced  the  latter  to  con- 
clude a  separate  peace  with  Napoleon.  The  success  of  the  French 
was  uninterrupted,  Berlin  opened  its  gates  to  the  conquerors,  and  the 
division  of  the  Prussian  army,  which  had  been  long  preserved  unbroken 
by  the  heroic  exertions  of  x\'farshal  Blucher,  was  forced  to  capitulate. 
The  fugitive  king  still  preserved  his  courage,  relying  on  the  approach- 
ing aid  of  his  Russian  ally.  Napoleon's  forces  advanced  into  Poland, 
where  they  were  joined  by  many  of  the  inhabitants,  who  were  taught 
to  hope  that  the  French  emperor  would  restore  the  independence  of 
their  native  country  ;  but  ho  was  incapable  of  such  generous  policy,  and 
in  after-life,  he  lamented  too  late  that  he  sacrificed  the  hopes  of  a  brave 
and  grateful  people  to  i\n-  teraoorary  gain  of  selfish  ambition.  The 
Russians  successfully  engaged  the  French  at  Pultusk,  but  they  were 
unable  to  retain  their  advaMtages,  and  weie  forced  gradually  to  retreat. 

Encouraged  by  his  rap'd  success.  Napoleon  resolved  to  crush,  if 
possible,  the  commercial  prosperity  of  Greai,  Britain  ;  he  issued  a  series 
of  edicts  from  Berlin,  declaring  the  British  islands  in  a  state  of  block- 
ade, and  excluding  British  manufactures  from  all  the  continental  ports. 
Every  country  that  refused  ohodience  to  these  decrees  was  threatened 
with  immediate  vengeance,  and  PoyUwh],  so  long  the  faithful  ally  of 
England,  was  marked  out  as  the  first  vlctnTi  (a.  d.  1807).  Great  in- 
dignation was  excited  throughout  Britain  by  the  French  emperor's 
adoptioi.  of  this  unparalleled  syst'^m ;  but  if.  proved  eventually  more  in- 
jurious to  himself  than  to  his  nnemies  :  British  manufactures  and 
colonial  produce  were  smuggled  to  the  continent  in  various  ways,  and 
Napoleon  was  finally  compelled  to  connive  at  the  illicit  traffic.  But 
the  menaces  of  the  French  had  roused  the  s^piiit  of  the  English  people, 
and  complaints  were  made  of  the  want  of  vigor  and  success  with  which 
the  war  was  supported.  A  second  expedition  against  Buenos  Ayres, 
under  General  Whitelock,  disgracefully  failed,  though  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  the  hatred  of  the  Spanish  provincials  to  the  English,  aa 
strangers  and  heretics,  would  probably  have  prevented  any  permanent 
success  in  South  America.  An  armament  sent  apainst  Constantinople, 
to  gratify  our  Russian  ally  by  enforcing  his  demands  on  Turkey,  was 
equally  unsuccessful ;  and  an  attempt  to  occupy  Esfy\"t,  badly  contrived, 
and  worse  executed,  terminated  in  loss  and  disgrace.  But  the  m'nisfera 
uijght  have  overcome  the  unpopularity  occasioned  by  these  failures,  Lt.^ 


5Ga  MODERN  HISTORY. 

they  riot  displeased  tne  king  by  introducing  a  bill  for  oj)enint»  the  high 
est  dignities  of  the  army  and  navy  to  Roman  catholics.  His  mttjesty 
entertained  religious  objections  to  the  measures ;  he  demanded  that  the 
cabinet  should  not  only  abandon  it  for  the  present,  but  give  a  promise 
that  it  should  not  be  proposed  at  any  future  period.  The  ministers  re- 
fused to  give  a  pledge  which  they  regarded  as  unconstitutional,  and  re- 
signed their  office?.  A  new  administration  was  formed  under  the 
auspices  of  the  duke  of  Portland  and  Mr.  Perceval ;  an  appeal  was 
made  to  the  country  by  a  dissolution  of  parliament,  and  the  ide  of 
popular  prejudice  ran  so  strong  against  the  preceding  cabinet,  that 
many,  if  not  most  of  its  supporters,  were  rejected  by  the  electors. 

Russia  vigorously  maintained  the  war  against  Turkey,  and  gained 
some  important  advantages.  The  Turks,  enraged  by  their  losses, 
directed  their  vengeance  against  Sultan  Selim,  whose  attempts  to  in- 
troduce European  reforms  had  offended  their  inveterate  prejudices. 
The  Janissaries  deposed  their  unibrtunate  sovereign,  and  raised  his 
cousin  Mustapha  to  the  throne  ;  but  this  revolution  did  not  change  the 
fortmie  of  the  war,  for  the  Russians  soon  after  gained  a  signal  naval 
victory  off  the  island  of  Tenedos. 

But  the  Turkish  war  did  not  divert  the  attention  of  Alexander  from 
the  more  important  object  of  checking  French  ambition.  Military 
operations  were  renewed  during  the  winter,  and  a  sanguinary  battle  at 
Eylau,  in  which  each  army  lost  more  than  twenty  thousand  men,  led  to 
no  decisive  result.  In  some  minor  engagements  the  allies  had  the 
advantage,  but  their  gains  were  more  than  outbalanced  by  the  loss  of 
Dantzic,  which,  after  an  obstinate  resistance,  sun'endered  to  the  French. 
Napoleon,  on  the  fall  of  Dantzic,  hastened  to  terminate  the  war  by  the 
decisive  battle  of  Friedland  ;  the  Russians  fought  with  great  braver}', 
but  their  generals  were  inferior  in  ability  and  experience  to  those  of 
the  enemy,  and  they  were  completely  defeated.  Koningsberg  was 
surrendered  immediately  after  this  battle,  and  the  existence  of  the 
Prussian  monarchy  now  depended  on  the  discretion  or  moderation  of 
the  conquerors.  An  armistice  having  been  concluded,  Napoleon  sought 
a  personal  interview  with  the  Russian  emperor,  and  arrangements  were 
soon  made  for  a  conference  of  the  two  potentates  on  a  raft  in  the  river 
Niemen.  In  this  and  some  subsequent  interviews,  Bonaparte  wor 
over  the  emperor  Alexander  to  his  interests,  by  stimulating  that  mon- 
arch's ambition  for  eastern  conquest,  and  promises  of  support.  Peace 
was  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  all  sacrifices  were  made  at  the 
expense  of  the  Prussian  monarch,  by  whose  distress  even  his  Russian 
ally  did  not  refuse  to  profit ;  and  when  Frederic  ventured  to  nmonstrate, 
he  was  contemptuously  informed  that  he  owed  the  preservation  of  the 
miserable  remnant  of  his  kingdom  to  Napoleon's  personal  friendship  for 
Alexander. 

The  eccentric  king  of  Sweden  refused  to  be  included  in  this  pacifica- 
tion, but  he  was  unable  to  prevent  the  French  from  occupying  Stral- 
Bimd  and  the  island  of  Rugen.  Terms  were  arranged  for  a  peace  be- 
tween Russia  and  Turkey,  out  so  many  points  remained  open  for  dis- 
pute, that  it  was  manifest  war  would  be  renewed  at  no  distant  period 
The  king  of  Prussia  was  lorced,  not  only  to  accede  to  the  Berlin  de- 
crce«,  and  exclude  British  manufactures  and  colonial  produce  from  hi.s 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  003 

lominions,  but  liad  also  to  receive  French  garrisons  into  his  principal 
fortresses,  and  these  troops  treated  the  unfortunate  Germans  witli  such 
arrogance  and  cruelty,  that  they  were  almost  reduced  to  despair.  Na 
poleon's  power  had  now  nearly  touched  the  summit  of  its  greatness. 
and  had  he  been  contented  with  what  he  had  already  acquired,  it  might 
have  been  permanent ;  but  his  restless  ambition  hurried  him  soon  into 
in  unprincipled  contest,  which  terminated  in  his  overthrow. 

Section  III. —  The  French  Invasion  of  Sj^ain. 

After  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  it  was  generally  believed  that  Napoleou 
"Aould  endeavor  to  enforce  the  Berlin  decrees  by  excluding  the  British 
from  the  navigation  of  the  Sound,  and  that  he  would  probably  avail  him- 
self of  the  Danish  navy  to  execute  his  old  project  of  an  invasion.  To 
prevent  such  an  enterprise,  a  powerful  armament  was  sent  against  Den- 
mark, which  had  hitherto  remained  neutral  in  the  contest.  An  imperi- 
ous demand  for  the  instant  surrender  of  the  Danish  fleet  and  naval  stores, 
to  be  retained  as  a  deposite  by  the  English  until  the  conclusion  of  the 
war,  being  peremptorily  rejected,  the  Danes  were  briskly  attacked  by 
iaod  and  sea.  After  Copenhagen  had  been  furiously  bombarded  for 
four  days,  the  Danish  court  was  constrained  to  submit  to  the  demands 
of  the  British,  and  the  fleet  was  removed,  while  the  indignant  people 
could  scarcely  be  prevented  from  avenging  the  national  insult  even  by 
the  presence  of  a  superior  force. 

The  attack  on  Denmark  furnished  the  Russian  emperor  with  a  pre- 
text for  fulfilling  the  promises  he  made  to  Napoleon  at  Tilsit,  and  break- 
.  ing  off  his  connexion  with  Great  Britain.  He  complained  in  strong 
language  of  the  disregard  which  England  had  ever  shown  for  the  rights 
of  neutral  powers,  and  the  unscrupulous  use  that  had  been  made  of  her 
naval  supremacy,  and  many  of  the  maritime  states  seconded  his  remon- 
strances. A  second  fleet  was  saved  from  the  grasp  of  the  French  by  a 
less  unjustifiable  proceeding  than  the  attack  on  Denmark.  Napoleoi 
issued  one  of  his  imperious  edicts,  that  "  the  house  of  Braganza  had 
ceased  to  reign,"  and  to  enforce  it,  sent  an  army  to  occupy  Portugal. 
The  prince-regent  of  that  country,  at  the  instigation  of  the  British,  sailed 
vvitli  the  Portuguese  fleet  for  Rio  Janeiro,  where  he  resolved  to  hold 
nis  court  until  peace  was  restored.  As  a  retaliation  for  the  Berlin  de- 
crees, the  British  government  issued  orders  in  council,  restraining  the 
trade  of  neutrals  with  France,  and  all  countries  subservient  to  its  power. 
Against  these  regulations  the  government  of  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica protested  loudly,  and  their  remonstrances  assumed  a  very  angry 
character,  which  threatened  speedy  hostilities.  An  attack  made  on  a  a 
American  frigate,  whose  captain  refused  to  submit  to  having  his  ship 
searched  by  an  English  vessel  of  inferior  force,  was  resented  as  a  na- 
.lonal  insult ;  a  proclamation  was  issued,  excluding  all  armed  British 
ships  from  the  harbors  and  waters  of  the  United  States  ;  and  an  embargo 
^'as  laid  on  British  conmierce. 

While  the  ])olicy  of  the  orders  in  council,  and  the  proffered  mediation 
of  Austria  to  elTect  the  restoration  of  tranquillity,  were  warmly  discussed 
m  the  British  parliament,  events  were  occurring  in  Spain  which  gave 
tho  war  an  entirely  new  character  and  direction. 


664  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Tho  iiniialrf  of  the  world  could  scarcely  supply  a  parallel  to  the  pio 
ture  of  dc<rradation  which  the  Spanish  court  presented  at  this  period 
Charles,  the  imbecile  king,  was  the  dupe  of  a  faithless  wife  and  an  un- 
principled minister  ;  this  unworthy  favorite  had  been  raised,  by  the 
quf^en's  partiality,  from  an  humble  station  to  the  highest  rank  ;  Godoy, 
Prince  of  the  Peace,  as  he  was  called,  had  neither  abilities  for  the  high 
ofEce  with  which  he  was  invested,  nor  strength  of  mind  to  support  hh 
elevation  ;  he  excluded  Ferdinand,  the  heir  apparent,  from  all  share  in 
the  government,  and  thus  provoked  the  resentment  of  a  prince  who  was 
as  ambitious  of  power  as  he  was  unfit  to  possess  it.  But  Ferdinand's 
evil  dispositions  were  as  yet  unknown  to  the  Spaniards,  and  when  Go- 
doy attempted  to  ruin  him  by  an  accusation  of  treason,  the  people  showed 
t;uch  discontent  that  Charles  was  forced  to  consent  to  his  son's  libera- 
tion. Napoleon  won  Godoy's  support  by  proposing  a  'lartition  of  thf> 
peninsula,  part  of  which  should  be  assigned  to  the  royal  minion,  as  an 
independent  sovereignty,  and  he  thus  obtained  the  means  of  pouring  a 
large  body  of  troops  into  Spain,  and  occupying  the  principal  fortresses. 
Charles,  intimidated  by  these  proceedings,  meditated  flight  to  Spanish 
America,  but  finally  resolved  to  resign  his  crown  to  Ferdinand  (a.  0. 
1808).  By  the  intrigues  of  the  French,  Charles  was  induced  to  disa- 
vow his  abdication,  while  Ferdinand  was  led  to  expect  a  recognition  of 
his  royal  title  from  the  emperor  Napoleon.  Deluded  by  such  represen- 
tations, he  proceeded  to  Bayonne,  where  he  was  contemptuously  in 
formed  that  "  the  Bourbons  had  ceased  to  reign  ;"  and  on  his  refusal  l< 
resign  his  claims  for  the  petty  kingdom  of  Etruria,  he  was  guarded  as  { 
prisoner.  A  fierce  riot  in  Madrid,  occasioned  by  preparations  for  the 
removal  of  the  Spanish  princes  to  France,  was  cruelly  piuiished  by 
Murat,  who  massacred  multitudes  of  the  unarmed  populace.  Soon  after, 
Charles,  accompanied  by  his  queen,  proceeded  to  Bayonne,  and  formally 
abdicated  his  crown  in  favor  of  Napoleon.  Ferdinand,  daunted  by  in- 
telligence of  the  massacre  at  Madrid,  pursued  the  same  course  ;  and  tho 
French  emperor  summoned  his  brother  Joseph  from  the  throne  of  Na- 
ples, to  occupy  that  of  Spain.  The  Neapolitan  kingdom  was  given  to 
Mtirat,  whose  eminent  services  to  the  French  emperor  were  not  over- 
paid, even  by  the  splendid  donation  of  a  crown.  Many  of  the  Spanish 
nobles  tamely  acquiesced  in  this  arrangement,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the 
nation  rejected  the  intruding  sovereign,  and  preparations  to  maintain 
Spanish  independence  were  made  in  the  principal  provinces.  Andalusia 
took  the  lead  :  Ferdinand  VII.  was  proclaimed  in  Seville,  war  declared 
against  Napoleon,  and  a  junta,  or  council,  chosen  to  direct  the  affairs 
of  the  government.  A  French  squadron,  which  had  been  stationed  in 
the  bay  of  Cadiz,  w  ts  forced  to  surrender  to  a  Spanish  flotilla  ;  but  this 
would  not  have  hapi)ened  if  the  port  had  not  been  at  the  same  time 
blockaded  by  the  British  fleet. 

In  every  province  not  occupied  by  French  troops,  the  adult  popula- 
tion oft'ered  military  service  to  the  difi'erent  juntas  ;  the  English  sent 
large  supplies  of  arms  and  ammunition,  and  released  all  their  Spanish 
prisoners-of-war,  a  seasonable  reinforcement  to  the  patriotic  armies.  In 
their  first  contests  with  the  invaders,  the  Spaniards  obtained  considera- 
ble succe^is  ;  Marshal  Moncey  was  repulsed  from  Valencia  with  great 
'oos,  and  Manshal  Dupont,  with  eight  thousand  men,  was  forced  to  sin 


THE   FRENCH  EMPIRE.  605 

reader  to  the  paVi'ioi  general,  Castanos  (July  20).  On  the  very  day 
that  this  unfavorable  event  occurred,  the  intrusive  monarch  made  his 
triumphal  entry  into  Madrid.  Joseph  Bonaparte,  however,  hau  neithei 
the  firmness  nor  courage  of  his  brother  Napoleon  ;  the  moment  he  heard 
of  Dupont's  surrender,  he  plundered  the  treasury  and  royal  palaces  of 
their  most  valuable  contents,  and  fled  to  Burgos. 

A  bold  example  of  Spanish  heroism  directed  the  attention  of  all  Eu- 
rope to  the  struggle  in  the  peninsula.  The  citizens  of  Saragossa,  dis- 
trusting the  fidelity  of  the  captain-general  of  Aragon,  deposed  him,  and 
chose  for  their  leader  Don  Joseph  Palafox,  a  nobleman  of  dauntless 
courage,  though  destitute  of  military  experience.  Their  city  was  al- 
most destitute  of  defences,  they  had  only  a  mere  handful  of  regular  sol- 
diers in  the  garrison,  and  they  had  a  very  limited  suppiv  of  arras  and 
ammunition.  Notwithstanding  these  disadvantages,  they  sternly  refused 
to  admit  the  French,  and  prepared  for  a  desperate  resistance.  All  classes 
were  animated  with  the  same  spirit ;  the  monks  manufactured  gunpow 
der  and  prepared  cartridges,  the  women  shared  the  toil  of  raising  forti- 
fications— even  the  children  lent  their  feeble  aid  in  such  labor  as  was 
not  beyond  their  strength.  It  is  not  wonderful  that  the  French  soldiers 
were  daunted  by  such  an  heroic  population.  After  a  long  and  sangui- 
nary contest  they  abandoned  the  siege,  leaving  Saragossa  in  ruins,  but 
immortalized  by  the  patriotic  courage  that  had  enabled  its  undisciplined 
citizens  to  triumph  over  a  regular  army. 

The  spirit  of  resistance  soon  extended  to  Portugal  :  the  people  of 
Oporto  rose  in  a  body,  seized  and  imprisoned  all  the  French  they  could 
find,  and  formed  a  junta  under  the  superintendence  of  the  bishop.  A 
British  force  commanded  by  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  stimulated  and  pro- 
tected these  patriotic  exertions.  A  French  division,  posted  at  Roleia 
to  terrify  the  insurgents,  was  driven  from  its  position  by  the  allied  forces, 
and  the  north  of  Portugal  delivered  from  the  invaders.  Marshal  Junot 
collected  all  the  forces  at  his  disposal  to  drive  back  the  English ;  he 
found  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  at  Vimiera,  and  immediately  attacked  his 
lines  (August  21).  After  a  brief  but  vigorous  struggle,  the  French 
were  defeated  and  driven  in  confusion  toward  Lisbon.  Scarcely  had 
the  victory  been  won,  when  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  was  superseded  by 
Sir  Hugh  Dalrymple,  who  concluded  a  convention  with  Junot  for  the 
evacuation  of  Portugal,  on  terms  that  were  generally  regarded  as  too 
favorable  to  the  Frel  '^h  after  their  recent  defeat. 

While  Napoleo '  was  pursuing  his  ambitious  designs  against  Spain, 
Alexander  of  Russia  was  engaged  in  a  war  with  Sweden,  undertaken  in 
an  equally  unjust  and  aggressive  spirit.  The  English  sent  an  army  un- 
der Sir  John  Moore  to  assist  their  ally,  but  that  ger  eral  refusing  to 
submit  to  the  dictates  of  the  eccentric,  or  perhaps  the  msane  Gustavus, 
soon  returned  home.  Though  the  Swedes  fought  wiih  great  courage, 
they  were  unable  to  resist  the  overwhelming  force  of  the  Russians,  es 
pecially  as  the  limited  resources  of  Sweden  were  wasted  by  Gustavus 
in  senseless  and  impracticable  enterprises.  At  length  the  Swedes  grew 
weary  of  a  sovereign  whose  conduct  threatened  the  ruin  of  their  country 
He  was  arrested  by  some  of  his  oflicers,  deposed,  and  the  crown  trans 
fcrred  to  the  duke  of  Sudermania,  who  took  the  title  of  Charles  XIII 
'a.  d.  IftOO)      The  new  monarch  was  forced  to  purchase  peace  frcjm 


866  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Russia  by  the  cession  of  Finland,  and  the  exclusion  tf  British  vessel? 
from  the  ports  of  Sweden. 

The  Spaniards  soon  found  that  a  central  government  was  ndcessar}' 
to  the  success  of  their  operations  ;  the  different  juntas,  therefore,  chose 
deputies  who  formed  a  supreme  junta  for  the  general  conduct  of  the  war. 
The  marquis  dc  la  Roinana,  who  had  commanded  a  large  l)ody  of  Span- 
iards employed  by  the  French  in  Hoistein,was  enabled  to  return  home 
with  his  troops,  by  British  aid,  and  take  a  shaife  in  the  defence  of  his 
country.  But  the  want  of  concert  among  the  Spanish  leaders,  and  of 
discipline  among  the  soldiers,  rendered  them  unable  to  cope  with  the 
French  ;  thev  were  severely  defeated  at  Durango,  Reynosa,  and  Tuno- 
la,  and  Napoleon  soon  appeared  in  Spain  at  the  head  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  men  (a.  d.  1808). 

Avery  exaggerated  notion  of  the  capabilities  of  the  Spaniards  appears 
to  have  been  formed  by  the  English  ministers.  They  ordered  Sir  John 
Moore  to  advance  with  the  British  forces  in  Portugal  to  the  aid  of  the 
patriot  armies,  but  do  not  seem  to  have  sufficiently  investigated  the  ob- 
stacles by  which  his  march  was  impeded.  When  Sir  John  Moore  en- 
tered Spain,  he  found  that  the  French  were  everywhere  victorious,  and 
that  it  was  hopeless  to  expect  such  active  co-operation  from  the  Span- 
iards as  would  enable  him  to  turn  the  scale.  After  some  hesitation, 
finding  himself  in  danger  of  being  surrounded,  he  retired  rather  precipi- 
tately into  Galllcia.  The  English  soldiers,  in  their  retreat,  displayed 
great  courage  whenever  they  were  attacked  by  the  French  ;  but  in  other 
respects,  their  conduct  was  so  disorderly  that  it  was  stigmatized  by  the 
general  himself  as  disgraceful.  At  length  a  halt  was  made  at  Corunna, 
where  the  troops  remained  until  the  transports  prepared  for  their  em- 
barkation could  arrive  from  Vigo.  In  this  position  they  were  attacked 
by  the  French  ;  but  the  English  soldiers,  though  dispirited  by  their  late 
retreat,  and  worn  down  by  fatigue,  compelled  the  enemy  to  retire.  Sir 
John  Moore  was  mortally  wounded  in  this  battle,  and  was  buried  on  the 
field.  The  embarkation  of  the  army  was  very  feebly  resisted,  and 
though  the  British  gained  no  honor  by  the  campaign,  its  conclusion  im- 
pressed the  enemy  with  greater  respect  for  English  patience  and  valoi 
than  they  had  previously  been  accustomed  to  entertain. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1809,  the  possession  of  Spain  seemed 
assured  to  Napoleon,  but  neither  the  Spaniards  nor  the  British  despaired 
of  final  success.  The  English  parliament  readily  voted  the  necessary 
supplies  for  the  defence  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and  reinforcements  were 
sent  to  the  peninsula.  About  the  same  time,  his  royal  highness  the 
duke  of  York  was  accused  of  having  connived  at  some  abuses  in  the 
command  of  the  army ;  he  was  acquitted  by  a  great  majority  of  the 
house  of  commons,  but  he  deemed  it  prudent  to  resign  his  situation,  and 
Sir  David  Dundas  was  appointed  commander-in-chief. 

Austria  once  more  resolved  to  try  the  hazards  of  war.  The  empenti 
Francis  was  induced  to  take  this  precipitate  step  by  the  harsh  remon 
etrances  and  menaces  of  Napoleon.  Taking  advantage  of  the  absence 
of  the  large  body  of  French  troops  employed  in  Spain,  the  archduke 
Charles  entered  Bavaria  and  took  possession  of  Munich.  But  the  rapid 
Treasures  of  Bonaparte  baffled  the  Austrian  calculations  ;  he  speedily 
collected  a  large  army  and  defeated  the  archduke  at  Eckmuhl,  so  so 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  607 

•  ertly,  tLat  he  was  compelled  to  cross  the  Danube.  Vienna  was  thus 
opened  to  the  conqueror,  and  Napoleon  took  possession  of  that  capital. 
The  aichduke  was  still  undismayed  ;  he  attacked  the  French  in  their 
positions  at  Asperne  and  Essling.  The  battle  was  very  sanguinary  and 
olistinate ;  it  terminated  to  the  advantage  of  the  Austrians,  but  they  had 
sufl'ered  such  severe  loss  that  they  were  unable  to  profit  by  their  victor}'. 
The  failure  of  the  archduke  John,  in  Italy,  more  than  counterbalanced 
the  success  of  the  Austrians  at  Asperne,  and  was  the  chief  cause  of 
their  final  overthrow  at  Wagram  (July  5).  It  would  be  impossible  to 
describe  within  reasonable  limits  the  various  conflicts  that  terminated 
in  this  result ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  Austrians  were  driven  from  all 
their  positions,  forced  to  retreat  in  confusion,  and  only  saved  from  total 
ruin  by  an  armistice. 

The  Tyrolese  and  Voralbergers  had  been  transferred  to  the  king  of 
Bavaria  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  but  their  national  privileges  and  im- 
munities had  been  guarantied  by  the  articles  of  pacification.  But  Maxi- 
milian Josuph  was  as  regardless  of  a  compact  as  his  master  Napoleon  ; 
he  violated  the  Tyrolese  constitution  without  scruple,  crushed  the  peas- 
ants with  severe  taxes,  and  punished  remonstrances  as  seditious.  The 
Tyrolese  seized  the  opportunity  of  the  Austrian  war  to  raise  the  standard 
of  revolt ;  success  attended  their  early  operations,  and  the  Bavarians 
were  expelled  from  the  principal  towns.  A  French  army  entered  the 
country  and  laid  it  waste  with  fire  and  sword  ;  but  the  Tyrolese,  ani- 
mated by  an  heroic  peasant  named  Hoffer,  expelled  the  invaders  once 
more,  and  secured  a  brief  interval  of  tranquillity.  When  the  total  de- 
feat of  the  iVu-strians  at  Wagram  compelled  the  emperor  Francis  to  ac- 
cept peace  on  any  terms,  the  Tyrolese  were  assailed  by  overwhelming 
forces  ;  they  made  a  desperate  resistance,  but  the  French  and  Bavarian 
columns  penetrated  their  fastnesses,  desolated  the  land  with  fire  and 
sword,  and  punished  the  leading  patriots  as  rebels.  Hoffer  was  taken 
prisoner  and  put  to  death  by  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial ;  Mayer, 
another  gallant  chieftain,  shared  the  same  fate,  and  the  g^-een  hills  of 
Tyroi  were  again  subjected  to  Bavarian  tyranny. 

Several  eff'orts  were  made  in  Germany  to  shake  off"  the  French  yoke. 
Schill,  who  commanded  a  regiment  in  the  Prussian  service,  collected  a 
considerable  force  and  harassed  the  French  detachments  in  Saxony  and 
Wcstj'halia,  but  he  was  defeated  and  slain  by  some  Dutch  and  Danish 
troops,  near  Stralsund.  The  duke  of  Brunswick  made  a  bold  effort  to 
recover  his  hereditary  dominions,  but  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Aus- 
trians he  despaired  of  success,  and  sought  refuge  in  England.  The 
archduke  Ferdinand  invaded  Saxony,  while  Napoleon's  brother  Jerome 
trembled  for  the  security  of  his  Westphalian  throne,  in  consequence  of 
the  progress  of  General  Kienmayer.  But  the  success  of  Napoleon  in 
Austria  frustrated  the  exertions  of  the  patriots  in  the  north  of  Germany 
especially  as  no  effort  was  made  to  send  them  support  from  England. 

The  attention  of  the  British  ministry  was  occupied  by  an  expedition 
of  a  very  different  nature,  for  which  the  most  ample  preparations  were 
made.  A  fleet  of  thirty-seven  sail-of-the-line,  twenty-nine  ships  of 
inferior  rate,  besides  small  craft,  and  an  army  of  forty  thousand  men, 
were  sent  to  tlie  island  of  Welcheren,  on  the  coast  of  Holland.  After 
maav  delays  the  fort  of  Flushing  was  besieged  and  taken  •  but  Antwerp 


y08  MOEilRN  HISTOKY. 

which  was  the  great  object  of  attack,  had,  in  the  meantime,  been  po- 
cured,  and  the  commanders  despaired  of  success.  Soon  afterward  the 
pestilential  climate  of  Walcheren  spread  disease  through  the  British 
army  and  navy ;  the  greater  part  of  the  forces  returned  to  England  ;  tht 
progress  of  the  disease  soon  rendered  the  removal  of  the  remainder  ne- 
cessary, and  the  only  result  of  this  costly  armament  was  the  destruction 
of  the  fortifications  of  Flushing.  Their  naval  successes  in  some  de- 
gree consoled  the  English  for  this  disappointment.  Lord  Cochrane  de- 
stroyed four  vessels,  forming  part  of  a  French  squadron,  in  Basque 
roads,  and  irreparably  injured  several  others  ;  Lord  CoUingwood  was 
similarly  successful  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  French  were  deprived 
of  their  remaining  colonies  in  the  West  Indies. 

Some  European  islands,  especially  those  called  the  Ionian,  were 
added  to  the  British  dominions,  a  proceeding  which  gave  some  otfence 
to  the  new  sultan  of  Turkey,  Mahmoud  II.,  who  had  been  elevated  to 
the  throne  on  the  deposition  of  his  cousin  Selim  and  his  half-brother 
Mustapha.  But  the  progress  of  the  Russian  arms  induced  Mahmouc 
-o  court  an  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  and  jealousy  of  the  same  power 
inclined  the  Persian  shah  to  renew  his  former  friendly  connexions  with 
England. 

Though  the  Russian  emperor  did  not  join  Napoleon  in  the  war 
against  Austria,  he  received  a  share  of  the  provinces  which  Franciy 
was  forced  to  resign,  in  order  to  purchase  peace.  But  though  the  Aus- 
trian emperor  was  compelled  to  make  many  great  and  painful  sacrifices, 
lie  obtained  more  favorable  conditions  than  had  been  anticipated  ;  and 
Napoleon  received  general  praise  for  the  moderation  with  which  he 
used  his  victory.  The  secret  cause  of  this  affected  generosity  was 
subsequently  revealed,  and  proved  that  it  resulted  from  a  plan  foi 
more  effectually  securing  his  despotism  over  Europe. 

After  the  retreat  of  the  British  from  Corunna,  the  French  seemed  tti 
have  permanently  secured  possession  of  Spain.  Though  the  marquis 
de  la  Romana  and  the  duke  del  Infantado  held  out  against  the  invaders 
yet  Saragossa  was  taken,  in  spite  of  the  heroic  resistance  of  its  inhab 
itants ;  and  Soult  having  invaded  Portugal,  made  himself  master  ol 
Oporto.  Victor  also  advanced  toward  the  same  country,  and,  on  hin 
march,  overthrew  the  Spanish  army  of  Estremadura.  But  Oporto  was 
soon  reovered  by  a  British  force  under  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  and  the 
removal  of  a  large  body  of  the  French  to  take  part  in  the  Austrian  war 
^revived  the  courage  of  the  Spaniards.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley,  believing 
it  possible  to  strike  an  important  blow  before  the  French  grand  army 
could  be  reinforced,  boldly,  and  perhaps  rashly,  advanced  into  Spain. 
He  was  attacked  at  Talavera  (July  28),  by  the  united  forces  of  Jour- 
dan,  Victor,  and  Sebastiani,  who  were  rather  the  masters  than  the  ser- 
vants of  the  nominal  king,  Joseph  Bonaparte.  British  valor  has  rarely 
been  more  nobly  displayed  than  in  this  engagement ;  the  French  were 
beaten  back  at  every  point,  and  had  the  Spaniards  displayed  the  same 
comage  and  zeal  as  their  allies,  the  retreat  might  have  been  changed 
into  a  total  rout.  The  misconduct  of  the  Spaniards,  indeed,  deprived 
the  English  of  the  chief  fruits  of  their  victory ;  they  were  soon  com- 
pelled to  act  only  on  the  defensive,  and  to  letreat  slowly  toward  the 
&onUers  of  Portjgal.     Nor  were  the  patriots  more  srccessful  in  otlioi 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  669 

i^r.aiteis;  they  did  not,  however,  despair,  and  the  supreme  junta  pub- 
litshed  a  spirited  proclamation,  animating  the  national  courage,  and  con- 
voking an  assembly  of  the  cortes  or  estates  of  the  realm,  to  form  a 
fixed  constitutional  government. 

The  celebration  of  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  king's  accession 
diffused  joy  through  England.  About  the  same  time  the  death  of  the 
duke  of  Portland,  and  some  dissensions  in  the  cabinet,  led  to  a  partial 
change  in  the  ministry.  Mr.  Perceval  was  appointed  premier,  and  sev- 
eral angry  debaws  ensued  in  both  houses  of  parliament.  The  oppo- 
nents of  the  ministry  failed  in  procuring  a  condemnation  of  the  Wal- 
cheren  expedition ;  but,  during  the  discussion,  party  spirit  raged  with 
great  violence,  and  Sir  Francis  Curdett,  having  assailed  the  privileges 
of  the  house  of  commons  in  very  unmeasured  terms,  was  ordered  to  bo 
committed  to  the  Tower.  He  declared  his  intention  to  resist  the  war- 
rant, but  was  arrested  and  committed  to  the  Tower  by  a  military  foii'o. 
The  soldiers,  on  their  return,  were  assaulted  by  the  mob,  and  a  riot 
ensued,  in  which  several  lives  were  lost.  At  the  close  of  the  session, 
the  popular  baronet  was  liberated,  as  a  matter  of  course  ;  he  brought 
actions  for  what  he  regarded  as  an  illegal  arrest,  against  the  speaker 
and  the  serjeant-at-arms,  but  the  court  of  King's  Bench  disallowed  his 
claims,  and  supported  the  privileges  of  the  house  of  commons. 

These  ebullitions  of  party  violence  did  not  weaken  the  British  cabi- 
net, though  they  induced  the  enemies  of  England  to  believe  the  coun- 
try on  the  verge  of  a  convulsion.  France  was  apparently  tranquil,  and 
Napolev3n  reveaied  the  secret  of  his  model  ation  at  \'ienna,  by  procuring 
a  div->rte  from  the  emperess  Josephint;,  the  faithful  companion  of  hi.-i 
former  fortunes,  and  offerin;/  his  hand  to  the  archdutchess  Maria  Louisa, 
daughter  oi'  the  emperor  Francis  (a.  d.  1810).  This  marriage,  which 
seemed  permanently  to  establish  Bonaparte's  j)ower,  became  eventually 
the  principal  cause  of  his  ruin,  for  it  alarmed  all  the  northern  powerSj 
and  especially  the  Russians,  who  justly  feared  that  Napoleon,  secured 
by  the  Ausirian  alliance,  would  strive  to  make  himself  absolute  master 
of  Europe.  His  arbitrary  coi.du(;t  to  HoUai.d  justified  these  suspi- 
cions ;  hv  removed  h.s  brother  from  the  dircne  of  iha:  cciiniry,  and  an- 
next'd  It  as  a  province  to  France. 

The  disputes  respecting  the  trade  of  neutrals,  between  England  and 
America,  oegan  to  assume  a  veiy  hostde  aspect,  and  it  was  feared  that 
war  could  not  lung  be  d'^liyed.  But  pubhc  attention  was  diverted  froin 
this  sulijc'-.t  'o  the  strug^de  in  Portu^  il,  wh'ire  Sir^rthtr  Welh  slev, 
v\ho  h  d  recently  been  created  Lord  VVelliaglon,  nobly  sustainei  the 
honor  of  the  English  arms.  The  French  army,  strongly  reinforced 
w;is  placed  under  the  command  of  Massena,  prince  of  Essling ;  th{ 
fortresses  of  Aslorga,  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  and  Almeida,  were  captured, 
Lord  Wellington  retired  slowly  before  a  superior  Ibrce,  and  Alassena 
flattered  himself  that  he  would  soon  obtain  pt)ssession  of  Lisbon.  Hia 
presumption  was  first  checked  at  Busaco,  where  the  British  made  a 
stand  and  inflicted  a  severe  check  on  their  assailants  ;  but  the  hopes 
of  tht!  French  were  ctjmpletely  destroyed  when  they  saw  Lord  Wel- 
liiigtoik  take  up  his  position  in  the  formidable  lines  of  Torres  Vedras. 
Noi  daring  to  advance,  and  ashamed  to  retreat,  Massena  remained  for 
inort    than  a  month  wat(dung  his  cautious  adversary,  and  losing  thoa 


070  MODERN  HISTORY. 

s'.inds  of  his  men  by  disease  or  desertion.  He  at  length  letreated  to 
Santarem,  but  thoiioh  he  received  a  large  reinforcement,  he  did  not 
venture  to  resume  offeiisive  operations. 

A  desultory  war  Avas  maintained  in  Spain  ;  the  patriot  armies  wert 
usually  defeated  in  regular  engagements,  but  the  invaders  were  severelj 
harassed  by  the  incessant  attacks  of  the  guerilla  parties  ;  convoys  were 
intercepted,  stragglers  cut  off,  and  outposts  exposed  to  constant  danger. 
Cadiz,  the  residence  of  the  supreme  junta  and  the  seat  of  government, 
was  besieged,  but  the  strength  of  its  works  and  the  ease  with  which 
relief  was  obtained  by  sea,  prevented  the  French  from  making  any 
progress  in  its  reduction.  The  cortes  assembled  in  this  city  and  framed 
a  form  of  constitutional  government,  which,  however,  had  many  violent 
opponents  among  the  higher  orders  of  tiie  nobuity  ai  d  clergy. 

Most  of  the  French  and  Dutch  colonies  in  the  Indian  seas  were 
subdued,  under  the  direction  of  Lord  Minto,  the  gjverner-general  of 
India,  a  nobleman  whose  judicious  administration  of  affairs  in  the  east 
not  only  extended  the  British  dominions  in  the  east,  but  suppressed  a 
dangerous  mutiny  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  occasioned  by  the  adop- 
tion of  economical  regulations,  which  curtailed  the  allowances  made  to 
officers  in  the  company's  service. 

In  the  north  of  Europe,  little  of  moment,  in  war,  occurred ;  the 
Danes  and  Russians  had  some  trivial  naval  engagements  with  English 
vessels  ;  but  Sweden  was  the  theatre  of  a  most  extraordinary  revolu- 
tion, which,  for  a  tiine,  added  her  to  the  enemies  of  England.  The 
crown  prince  died  suddenly,  not  without  some  suspicion  of  poison, 
and  the  Swedish  senate  tendered  the  succession  to  Charles  John  Ber- 
nadotte,  one  of  Napoleon's  most  celebrated  marshals,  who  had  won  their 
favor  by  the  leniency  and  i)rudence  he  displayed  some  years  before  in 
the  north  of  Germany.  Bernadotte  accepted  the  offer,  to  the  secret 
annoyance  of  Napoleon,  who  had  long  been  jealous  of  his  military  lame 
and  independent  spirit. 

Civilized  Europe  might  now  be  said  to  be  arrayed  against  Great 
Britain,  but  the  spirit  of  its  inhabitants  did  not  sink.  Its  sovereign, 
afthcted  by  grief  for  fho  loss  of  his  favorite  daughter,  was  seized  by  the 
disease  under  which  he  had  formerly  suffered,  and  fell  into  a  state  of 
montal  derangement,  Irom  which  he  never  afterward  recovered  (a.  d. 
Ifill).  The  prince  ot  Wales  was  appointed  regent,  undc"  restrictions 
siinilur  to  those  proposed  by  Mr.  Pitt  in  1789,  but  these  were  subse- 
quently removed  when  it  was  found  that  he  intended  steadily  to  pursue 
his  father's  system  of  policy. 

It  was  not  long  before  Lord  Wellington  reaped  the  fruits  of  his 
prudent  arrangements  for  the  defence  of  Portugal.  Massena  was 
forced  to  retreat  from  Santarem,  but  befoie  he  evacuated  the  country, 
ho  ravaged  it  in  \\io  most  frightful  maimer,  destroying  many  noble 
moniimeuls  of  architecture  in  mere  wantonness.  The  British  parlia- 
ment voted  the  sum  of  one  hundred  thousand  pounds,  for  the  reiief  of 
the  Portuguese,  and  a  liberal  subscription  for  the  same  purpose  was 
formed  by  private  liberality.  Almeida  was  the  only  town  in  Portugal 
retained  bv  the  French  ;  it  was  bh)ckaded  by  the  allies,  and  Massena'e 
t:ffuits  to  rplieve  it  led  to  the  battle  of  Fueiites  d'Oiior.  The  engage- 
uinnt  was  severe,  but  British  valor  triumphed  ;  tne  garrison  of  Almeida. 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE  671 

^isliearter.ed  bv  the  defeat  of  iheir  countrymen,  evacuated  the  ;.iai.e  and 
Portugal  was  oelivercd  from  the  presence  of  an  enemy. 

The  hberation  of  Spain  was  a  more  difficult  task,  and  it  was  ren- 
dered still  more  so  by  the  surrender  of  Badajoz  to  Marshal  Soult,  after 
a  very  brief  and  inefTective  defence.  Lord  Wellington  sent  Sir  William 
Beresford  to  recover  this  important  place,  but  the  advance  of  the  French 
from  Seville,  compelled  that  general  to  raise  the  siege.  The  imited 
forces  of  the  British  and  Spanish  encountered  the  French  at  Albuera, 
and  gained  an  important  victory  ;  Badajoz  was  once  more  invested,  but 
the  approach  of  Soult  on  one  side  and  Marmont  on  the  other,  induced 
Lord  Wellington  to  retire  beyond  the  Tagus.  But  in  his  anxiety  to 
save  Badajoz,  Soult  had  so  much  weakened  the  force  which  blockaded 
Cadiz,  that  the  Spaniards  resolved  to  hazard  an  expedition  against  the 
invading  armies  in  Andalusia.  General  La  Pena,  aided  by  the  British 
lieutenant-general,  Graham,  undertook  to  direct  these  operations,  and 
great  hopes  were  entertained  of  success.  But  though  Graham  obtained 
a  brilliant  victory  at  Barossa,  over  Marshal  Victor,  no  efforts  were  made 
to  follow  up  his  success.  In  the  other  Spanish  provinces,  the  patriotic 
armies  were  still  more  unfortunate  ;  Mina,  indeed,  from  his  mountains 
^hreatened  and  harassed  the  invaders,  but  the  other  Spanish  leaders 
showed  themselves  equally  deficient  in  courage  and  conduct.  Neithei 
did  all  the  expected  advantages  result  from  the  assembling  of  the  cortes  ; 
they  prepared,  indeed,  a  constitutional  code,  which,  however,  was 
scarcely  suited  to  the  Spanish  people  ;  but  they  maintained  the  onerous 
restrictions  on  the  colonial  trade,  and  thus  gave  deep  offence  to  the 
South  American  provinces,  and  drove  them  to  organize  plans  for  self- 
government. 

In  other  quarters  the  war  was  more  favorable  to  British  interests  ; 
the  island  of  Java  was  wrested  from  the  Dutch  ;  several  flotillas  Avere 
destroyed  by  English  frigates  in  the  Italian  seas,  and  an  attempt  made 
by  th";  Danes  to  recover  the  island  of  Anholt,  in  the  Baltic,  was 
defeated  by  the  gallant  garrison.  Sweden  could  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  at  war  with  Great  Britain  ;  Bernadotte  soon  discovered  that  sub- 
serviency to  France  was  inconsistent  with  the  interests  of  his  adopted 
country,  and  he  secretly  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  Russian 
emperor  for  restoring  their  mutual  indepfsndence.  But  Alexander  was 
still  too  deeply  engaged  in  pursuing  the  favorite  policy  of  the  czars,  and 
establishing  the  supremacy  of  Russia  on  both  sides  of  the  Black  sea, 
at  the  expense  of  Turkey  and  Persia.  His  success  was  far  from  an- 
swering his  expectations  ;  the  wild  tribes  of  the  Gaucacus  severely 
harassed  the  invaders  of  Asiatic  Turkey  ;  and  thouvfti  KiUusoff  \yas 
more  successful  on  the  European  side,  his  acquisitions  were  obtained 
by  a  very  disproportionate  expenditure  of  blood  and  treasure.  The  dis- 
organized state  of  the  Turkish  provinces  pi  evented  the  sultan  from  effec- 
tively defending  his  dominions  ;  in  most  of  them  a  military  aristocracy 
had  usurped  the  chief  power  of  the  slate,  and  in  Eg}  pt  especially,  iho 
Mameluke  beys  acted  as  independent  princes.  Mohammed  Ali,pa(dia 
of  Egypt  finding  that  the  beys  would  not  submit  to  his  power,  and  fear- 
ing the  liazards  of  civil  war,  invited  them  to  a  banquet,  where  they 
'^cro  all  ruthlessly  massacred.     The  sukan  apj>lauded  this  perfidy,  bul 


i>72  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ere  long  he  found  Mohammed  Ali  a  more  dangerous  subject  than  tin- 
turbulent  lords  whom  he  had  removed. 

The  mental  disease  of  George  III.  showed  no  symptoms  of  improve- 
ment, and  as  the  time  approached  when  the  restrictions  imposed  on  the 
authority  of  the  prince  regent  would  expire,  some  anxiety  was  felt  about 
the  probaI)le  fate  of  the  ministry.  But  the  prince  regent  had  become 
reconciled  to  the  cabinet,  and  after  a  faint  eflbrt  to  gain  the  support  of 
Lords  Grey  and  Grenville,  it  was  resolved  that  no  change  should  be 
made  in  the  government  (a.  d.  1812).  At  a  later  period  in  the  year, 
negotiations  were  resumed,  in  consequence  of  the  murder  of  Mr. 
Perceval ;  the  premier  was  shot  in  the  lobby  of  the  house  of  commons, 
by  Bellingham,  a  merchant,  who  believed  that  the  ministers  had  shown 
indifference  to  his  fancied  claims  on  the  Russian  government.  After 
some  delay,  the  old  cabinet  was  reconstructed,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  earl  of  Liverpool,  and  the  plans  for  forming  a  united  administration 
were  abandoned. 

Lord  William  Bentinck,  the  British  minister  in  Sicily,  strenuously 
exerted  himself  to  remedy  tlie  evils  which  the  imbecility  of  the  king 
and  the  tyranny  of  the  queen  had  introduced  into  the  government  of 
that  island.  He  succeeded  in  procuring  the  establishment  of  a  consti- 
tution similar  to  that  of  Britain  ;  and  the  island  began  to  enjoy  peace 
and  prosperity  in  a  greater  degree  than  had  been  experienced  for  several 
centuries. 

A  change  in  the  Spanish  constitution  revived  the  courage  of  the 
nation  ;  a  new  regency,  the  promulgation  of  the  constitutional  code, 
and  various  reforms  in  the  ditferent  branches  of  the  adniinistration, 
gave  fresh  spirit  to  the  Spaniards,  and  inspired  hopes  of  final  success. 
Lord  Wellington  opened  the  campaign  with  the  siege  of  Ciudad 
Rodrigo ;  the  capture  of  this  important  fortress  was  followed  by  that 
of  Badajoz,  but  the  victors  suffered  severe  loss  of  both  places.  Wel- 
lington, who  had  been  created  an  earl  for  these  exploits,  next  marched 
against  Marmont,  and  took  the  important  city  of  Salamanca.  Mar- 
mont,  streuL'^theued  by  large  reinforcements,  hoped  not  oidy  to  defeat 
'he  BritK^h,  but  to  intercept  iheir  retreat.  As  he  extended  his  lines 
for  this  purpose,  WelLngion  seized  the  favorable  opjiortunity,  and, 
pouring  Lis  whole  fjrce  on  the  weakened  divisions,  gained  the  most 
complete  victory  that  the  allies  had  yet  won  in  the  peninsida.  Indeed 
if  tie  Spaniards  had  displayed  the  same  energy  as  the  British  and  the 
Portuguese,  Marmont's  entire  army  would  have  been  ruined.  Still  the 
ii  m):;diite  re  ul's  of  'he  bafle  i>f  Salamanca  were  very  great ;  Madrid 
was  evacuated  by  the  intrusive  king  Joseph  ,  the  blockade  of  Cadiz  was 
raii-ed  ;  and  the  citv  of  Seville  was  laken  by  Colonel  Skerret  and  the 
Spanish  geneial  La  Cruz. 

The  failure  of  the  British  at  th(i  siege  of  Burgos,  the  want  of  con- 
cert in  the  Spanish  councils,  and  the  great  reinforcements  received  by 
the  French,  compelled  Wellington  to  resign  the  fruits  of  his  victory;  he 
retired  leisurely  to  the  frontiers  of  Portugal,  and  firmly  waited  an  oppor- 
nmity  for  renewing  his  efforts.  But  events  in  other  parts  of  the  globo 
■were  producing  the  most  important  results  in  favor  of  Spanish  indepeml- 
eiice  ,  the  South  American  colonies,  alarmed  by  an  earthquake  whic'l 
was  superstiliously  beUeved  to  be  a  visitation  of  Providence,  returned  *o 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  073 

tiieir  allegiance,  and   the   Russian  emperor  prepared  to  measure   hia 
strength  with  the  colossal  power  of  Napoleon. 

Section  IV. —  The  Russian  War. 

No  long  time  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  Alexander 
began  to  doubt  the  prudence  of  the  compact  he  had  made  with  the 
Trench  emperor,  and  the  subsequent  marriage  of  Napoleon  to  an 
Austrian  princess  gave  him  fresh  grounds  of  alarm.  The  Austrian 
omperor,  however,  was  not  very  sincerely  attached  to  his  son-in-law , 
Napoleon  had  given  his  infant  son  the  title  of  Xing  of  Rome,  a  very 
plain  intimation  of  his  design  to  retain  his  hold  on  Italy.  The  interests 
of  his  subjects,  many  of  whom  were  almost  ruined  by  the  suspension 
of  the  trade  with  Great  Britain,  compelled  Alexander  to  seek  for  some 
relaxation  of  the  restrictive  system  established  by  the  Berlin  decrees ; 
but  Napoleon  would  not  abandon  his  favorite  policy,  and  the  discus- 
sions between  the  courts  of  St.  Peterburgh  and  Paris  began  to  assume 
an  angry  and  even  hostile  tone.  Both  parties,  however,  proi'cssed  an 
mxious  desire  for  peace,  and  Napoleon  even  made  overtures  to  the 
British  government,  but  as  he  refused  to  restore  Spain  to  its  legitimate 
sovereign,  or  to  withdraw  his  troops  from  Prussia,  negotiations  were 
fruitless,  and  both  sides  prepared  for  war. 

Alexander  entered  into  alliance  with  Sweden  and  England  :  Napo- 
leon arrayed  under  his  banners  the  military  strength  of  western  and 
'southern  Europe.  But  the  selfishness  of  the  French  emperor  in  the 
very  outset  deprived  him  of  the  best  security  for  success  ;  to  secure  the 
lid  of  Austria,  he  refused  to  restore  the  independence  of  Poland,  and 
'.hus  lost  the  hearts  of  a  brave  and  enthusiastic  race  of  warriors,  who 
jvould  have  powerfully  aided  his  advance,  or  effectually  covered  his 
retreat.  Trusting  to  the  vast  number  of  his  victorious  legions,  Napoleon 
crossed  the  Niemen,  routed  a  division  of  Cossacks  at  Kowno,  and 
directed  his  march  to  the  capital  of  Lithuania.  The  Russians  retired 
before  the  French  deliberately,  wasting  the  country  as  they  retreated 
Several  sharp  battles  were  fought  without  any  important  result ;  but 
the  hopes  of  the  Russians  were  raised  by  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty 
whh  the  Turks,  which  enabled  them  to  direct  all  their  energies  to  repel 
the  invaders.  Napoleon  with  his  main  body  directed  his  inarch  toward 
Moscow,  while  a  large  division  of  his  forces  menaced  the  road  to  St. 
Petersburgh.  The  Russians  repelled  the  latter,  but  the  main  force  of 
the  invaders  advanced  to  Sinolensko,  which  was  justly  regarded  as  the 
bulwark  of  Moscow.  A  dreadful  battle  was  fought  under  the  walls  of 
Smojensko  ;  it  terminated  in  favor  of  the  French,  but  they  purchased 
their  victory  very  dearly,  and  the  Russians  made  an  orderly  retreat, 

Kutusoff  now  assumed  the  command  of  the  Russians,  and  resolved  to 
hazard  another  battle  for  the  protection  of  Moscow  ;  he  fixed  upon 
•d  posiuon  near  the  village  of  Borodino,  and  there  firmly  awaited  th( 
enemy.  The  battle  was  furious  and  sanguinary,  nearly  seventy  thou- 
sand of  the  combatants  fell  without  giving  to  either  side  a  decisivt' 
victory.  The  Russians  indeed  maintained  their  ground  ;  but  the  French 
having  boen  joined  by  new  reinforcements,  Kutusoff  was  forced  to  re- 
treat and  abandon  Moscow  to  its  fate.  This  ancient  capital  of  the 
r,7,a.r8  is  revered  by  the  Russians,  as  Jerusalem  was  by  the  Jews  ;  thov 

43 


f»74  MODERN  HISTORY. 

give  it  the  fond  name  of  Mother  Moscow,  and  regard  it  as  the  sanctuary 
uf  their  nation.  But  when  the  invaders  approached,  the  citizens  re- 
solved not  onl)'  to  abandon  their  beloved  metropolis,  but  to  consign  it  tc 
the  flames.  Napoleon  entered  Moscow,  and  took  up  his  residence  in 
the  Kremlin,  the  ancient  palace  of  the  czars  ;  but  while  he  was  holding 
a  council,  fires  broke  out  in  various  parts  of  the  city,  and  though  many 
nf  the  incendiaries  were  shot,  it  was  found  impossible  to  check  the 
uop.flagrevtion. 

When  the  greater  part  of  the  city  was  destroyed,  its  stores  con- 
sumed, and  all  supplies  cut  off.  Napoleon  found  himself  in  a  very 
embarrassing  position.  With  great  reluctance  he  gave  orders  for  a 
retreat,  and  the  French  obeyed  with  so  much  precipitation,  that  they 
were  unable  to  complete  the  demolition  of  Moscow.  Before  the  fugi- 
tives hcd  proceeded  far  on  their  route,  they  began  to  experience  the 
horrors  of  h  Russian  winter ;  thousands  became  the  victims  of  ;.old  and 
hunger,  while  their  pursuers,  taking  courage  from  their  calamities 
harassed  them  severely  at  every  step.  It  had  been  Napoleon's  inten- 
tion to  make  a  stand  at  Smolensko,  but  the  magnitude  of  his  losses, 
the  disorganized  state  of  his  army,  and  the  increasing  want  of  provisions, 
rendered  such  a  course  impossible.  Once  more  the  French  had  to 
undertake  a  perilous  march,  amid  the  rigors  of  the  severest  winter  ever 
known,  pursued  by  enraged  enemies,  deprived  of  food,  of  clothing,  and 
of  shelter.  Language  fails  to  describe  the  horrors  of  such  a  retreat  • 
every  hour  added  to  the  miseries  of  the  sufferer's  ;  they  lost  the  disci- 
pline of  soldiers,  and  almost  the  semblance  of  men.  The  passage  of 
the  Borodino  was  one  of  the  most  terrific  scenes  recorded  in  history ; 
in  their  eagerness  to  place  the  river  between  themselves  and  their  pur- 
suers, the  French  rushed  in  a  disorderly  crowd  over  the  bridges,  undei 
a  heavy  fire  of  artillery  from  the  heights  behind  them.  Eight  thousand 
were  killed  or  drowned  in  this  calamitous  passage,  and  long  before  all 
had  crossed  over,  Napoleon  ordered  the  bridges  to  be  set  on  fire,  aban- 
doning twelve  thousand  of  his  followers  to  the  mercy  of  the  irritated 
Russians.  Napoleon  at  length  resolved  to  provide  for  his  personal 
security,  and  fled  to  Paris,  where  indeed  some  revolutionary  attempts 
rendered  his  presence  necessary  ;  the  miserable  remnant  of  his  once 
mighty  host  found  a  precarious  shelter  in  Poland. 

lu  the  meantime  Great  Britain  was  engaged  in  active  hostilities  with 
the  United  States.  The  Americans  twice  invaded  Canada,  but  were 
defeated  ;  they  were  more  successful  at  sea,  where  the  superiority  of 
their  frigates  in  size  and  weight  of  metal  to  the  British  vessels  of  the 
same  denomination,  secured  their  victory  in  some  engagements  between 
single  ships.  But  this  war  attracted  comparatively  but  little  attention  ; 
every  mind  was  too  deeply  occupied  with  the  great  struggle  on  the 
continent  of  Europe. 

The  domestic  affairs  of  England,  though  of  importance,  did  not  di- 
vert attention  from  the  contest  with  Napoleon.  An  unfortunate  pub- 
licity was  given  to  the  discords  between  the  prince  regent  and  his  con- 
tort ;  a  bill  for  emancipating  the  catholics  v/as  rejected,  after  having 
passed  several  stages,  in  the  house  of  commons,  and  the  charter  of  the 
East  India  company  was  renewed  for  twenty  years.  Notwithstanding 
his  recent  reverses,  Napoleon  foand  that  he  still  possessed  the  confi- 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  375 

dence  of  the  Fi  ench  nation,  a  large  conscription  was  ordered  to  supply 
the  losses  of  the  late  campaign  ;  and  the  emperor  having  provided  for 
the  internal  security  of  his  dominions,  hasted  to  the  north  of  Europe, 
where  he  had  to  encounter  the  hostility  of  a  new  enemy. 

It  was  with  great  reluctance  that  the  king  of  Prussia  sent  an  army 
to  serve  imder  Napoleon,  and  the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  contingent 
were  far  from  being  anxious  for  the  success  ,)f  the  cause  in  which  they 
were  engaged.  During  the  retreat,  one  Prussian  corps  separated  itself 
from  the  division  to  which  it  was  attached,  and  concluded  a  convention 
of  neutrality  ;  as  the  Russians  advanced,  the  Prussian  monarch  took 
courage  to  assert  his  independence,  and  he  entered  into  alliance  with 
Alexander.  But  notwithstanding  his  recent  losses.  Napoleon  had  as- 
sembled an  array  immerically  superior  to  those  of  his  adversaries  ;  in 
three  sanguinary  battles  the  French  gained  the  advantage,  but  they 
were  unable  to  obtain  a  decided  victory ;  and  Napoleon,  alarmed  by 
the  magnitude  of  his  losses,  and  the  obstinacy  of  his  enemies,  consent- 
ed to  an  armistice..  During  the  truce  the  British  government  encour- 
aged the  allies  by  large  subsidies,  and  the  aid  of  Sweden  was  pur- 
chased not  only  by  money,  but  by  a  promise  to  aid  that  power  in  the 
acquisition  of  Norway.  But  what  was  of  far  greater  importance,  the 
emperor  of  Austria  was  induced  to  abandon  the  cause  of  his  &on-in-lavv, 
and  take  an  active  part  in  the  confederation  for  restraining  the  power 
of  France. 

Napoleon,  establishing  his  headquartei-s  at  Dresden,  commenced  a 
series  of  vigorous  operations  against  his  several  foes.  They  were  at 
first  successful ;  but  the  tide  of  fortune  turned  ;  several  of  his  divisions 
were  defeated,  the  Bavarians  joined  the  allies,  and  at  length  the  baffled 
emperor  retired  to  Leipsic.  Under  the  walls  of  this  ancient  city  the 
battle  was  fought  which  decided  the  fate  of  Europe  (Oct.  18).  While 
the  result  of  the  engagement  was  yet  undecided,  the  Saxon  troops  in 
the  French  service  deserted  in  a  body  to  the  allies,  and  the  positiou 
thus  abandoned  was  immediately  occupied  by  the  Swedish  forces. 
Napoleon's  soldiers,  driven  from  their  lines  in  every  direction,  were 
compelled  to  seek  shelter  in  Leipsic,  but,  as  the  city  was  incapable  of 
defence,  a  further  retreat  became  necessary.  The  French  emperor 
gave  the  requisite  orders,  but  did  not  wait  to  see  them  executed  ;  the 
evacuation  of  the  city  was  not  completed  when  the  allies  i'orced  an  en- 
trance ;  the  French,  entangled  in  the  streets,  suflered  very  severely, 
and  many  were  drowned  as  they  crowded  over  the  narrow  briilge, 
which  was  their  only  path  of  safety.  The  bridge  was  blown  up  before 
the  whole  of  tbe  fugitives  could  pass,  and  this  obstruction  of  the  retreat 
swelled  the  number  of  the  slain  and  the  captives. 

The  battle  of  Leipsic  liberated  Germany  ;  Napoleon  fled  to  France, 
his  followers  were  severely  harassed  in  their  retreat,  especially  as  the 
Bavarians  made  a  vigorous  effort  to  intercept  them  at  Hanau ;  theii 
sufferings  were  very  great,  and  muUitudes  were  made  prisoners  by  the 
allied  armies,  as  they  advanced  to  the  Rhine.  Bernadotte  was  natu- 
rally reluctant  to  join  in  tbe  meditated  invasion  of  France,  but  he  under- 
took the  task  of  expelling  the  enemy  from  the  circle  of  Lower  Saxony. 
At  his  approach,  the  Hanoverians  eagerly  seized  the  opportunity  of  de- 
Ixvermg  tiiemselves  from  a  foreign  yoke,  and  returning  once  mere  undel 


670  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  paternal  government  of  the  Guelphs.  The  flame  of  independtrioe 
^spread  to  Holland,  and  kindled  even  the  cold  bosoms  of  the  Dutch- 
Insurrections  broke  out  in  the  principal  towns,  the  hereditary  claims  of 
the  house  of  Orange  were  rapturously  acknowledged,  and  when  the 
stadtholder  arrived  from  England,  he  found  the  Hollanders  eager,  not 
only  to  acknowledge  his  former  power,  but  to  extend  it  by  conferring 
on  him  the  title  of  royalty. 

While  the  allies  were  thus  triumphant  in  Germany,  Wellington  was 
rjow  gloriously  occupied  in  the  liberation  of  Spain.  Early  in  the 
spring,  he  concentrated  his  forces  near  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  and  by  a  series 
of  able  movements,  compelled  the  French  not  only  to  abandon  their 
positions  on  the  Douro,  but  to  retire  beyond  the  Ebro.  Marshal  Jour- 
dan,  who  exercised  the  real  authority,  for  Joseph  was  king  only  in 
name,  resolved  to  make  one  vigorous  effort  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
French  power,  and  chose  a  strong  position  near  Vittoria,  as  the  theatre 
of  a  decisive  engagement.  The  allied  army  advanced  with  an  eager- 
ness that  insured  success  ;  the  heights  that  protected  the  hostile  lines 
were  successively  stormed,  and  at  length  the  French  were  forced  to 
retreat  in  such  disorder,  that  they  abandoned  their  artillery,  baggage, 
and  military  chest.  In  the  east  of  Spain  the  allies  were  less  success- 
ful ;  Sir  John  Murray,  on  the  approach  of  Marshal  Suchet,  abandoned 
the  siege  of  Tarragona  with  unnecessary  precipitation  ;  but  the  arrival 
of  Lord  William  Bentinck  prevented  the  enemy  from  profiling  by  this 
partial  success. 

When  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Vittoria  reached  Napoleon,  he  sent 
Marshal  Soult  iiom  Germany  to  take  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Spain,  where  Pampeluna  and  St.  Sebastian  had  been  invested  by 
Wellington,  now  raised  to  the  dignity  of  marquis.  Soult's  operations 
were  vigorous,  but  unsuccessful  ;  his  forces  were  una'ole  to  make  any 
impression  on  the  British  lines,  and  so  severe  was  their  repulse,  that 
they  fled  to  their  own  frontiers.  St.  Sebastian  was  soon  after  taken  by 
storm,  but  not  without  a  very  severe  loss  to  the  conquerors,  and  the 
British  now  prepared  to  invade  France. 

The  allies  crossed  the  Bidassoa,  and  advanced  slowly  but  steadily 
toward  Bayonne  :  Soult  showed  great  courage  and  talent  in  his  arrange-- 
ments,  but  his  efforts  were  foiled  by  the  superior  valor  o''  the  British 
soldiers,  and  two  regiments  of  Dutch  and  Gernians  quitting  his  lines, 
went  over  to  the  camp  of  his  allies.  Spain  was  now  IVee,  but  the  eflortfi 
of  the  enlightened  portion  of  the  cortes  to  secure  its  future  happiness, 
by  the  establishment  oi  a  constitutional  government,  were  frustr.ited  by 
the  interested  opposition  of  the  clergy,  and  the  ignorant  bigotry  of  the 
])eople. 

The  war  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  contiiuied  to 
be  maintained  with  the  obstinacy  that  characterizes  the  quarrels  be- 
tween "  foes  who  once  were  friends  ;"  but  it  was  not  productive  of  any 
important  event.  The  Americans  were  unsuccessful  in  their  repealed 
invasions  of  Canada,  but  they  estalilished  their  naval  superiority  on  the 
lakes,  while  the  honor  of  the  British  flag  was  nobly  maintained  in  the 
engagement  between  the  frigates  Chesapeake  and  Shannon. 

The  memorable  year  1814  opened  with  the  invasion  of  F'^ance  ;  the 
Russian,  Prussian,  and  Austrian  armies  forced  an  entrance  through  the 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  677 

eastern  frontiers,  while  Wellington  was  making  an  alamung  progress 
on  the  western  side.  Never,  in  the  hours  of  his  greatest  success,  did 
Napoleon  display  more  promptitude  and  ability  ;  but  he  had  beaten  his 
entmies  into  the  art  of  conquering,  and  even  partial  success  was  inju- 
rious, because  it  inspired  hopes  which  prevented  him  from  embracing 
the  proffered  opportunities  of  negotiation.  Several  furious  but  indeci- 
sive battles  were  fought ;  the  aUied  armies  had  moved  at  too  great  a 
distance  from  each  other,  and  it  was  not  until  they  had  suffered  severely 
for  their  error,  that  they  learned  the  necessity  of  a  combined  plan  of 
operations.  But  in  other  quarters  the  success  of  the  allies  was  more 
decided ;  Bernadotte  completed  the  liberation  of  the  north  of  Germany, 
and  not  only  intimidated  the  Danish  court  into  an  abandonment  of  the 
French'  alliance,  but  enforced  its  consent  to  the  transfer  of  Norway ; 
thence  he  marched  to  the  Netherlands,  where  the  allies  had  made  con- 
siderable progress,  though  General  Graham  had  been  baifled,  with 
much  loss,  in  an  attempt  to  surprise  Bergen-op-Zoom. 

But  Napoleon  was  much  more  alarmed  by  the  progress  of  Welling- 
ton in  the  southwest  of  France.  The  English  general  having  driven 
the  French  from  their  posts,  crossed  the  Adour,  and  invested  the  cita' 
del  of  Bayonne.  As  he  advanced,  the  old  partisans  of  the  Bourbons 
bfegan  to  revive,  the  exiled  family  was  proclaimed,  and  the  white  flag 
hoisted  at  Bordeaux.  More  mortifying  was  the  defection  of  Murat ; 
eager  to  secure  his  crown,  the  king  of  Naples  entered  into  a  secret 
treaty  with  Austria,  and  lent  his  aid  in  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  Italy. 

But  in  the  meantime  the  fate  of  France  was  decided ;  Napoleon 
moved  his  main  army  eastward,  hoping  to  intimidate  the  allies  into  a 
retreat,  by  threatening  their  communications.  Blucher  and  Prince 
Schwartzenberg  immediately  decided  on  marching  to  Paris,  and  having 
defeated  the  forces  of  Marmont  and  Mortier,  who  guarded  the  road, 
tioon  came  in  sight  of  that  metropolis.  The  outworks  that  defended 
Paris  were  stormed,  and  the  intimidated  citizens  hastened  to  secure 
iheir  persons  and  property  by  a  capitulation.  The  allied  sovereigns, 
Frederic  and  Alexander,  made  a  triumphant  entry  into  the  city  (March 
31),  and  were  hailed  as  liberators  by  the  fickle  populace. 

When  Napoleon  heard  that  the  Austrians  had  effected  a  junction 
with  the  Prussians,  he  hasted  back  to  defend  his  capital,  but  before  he 
reached  Fontainebleau  the  capitulation  had  been  signed,  and  a  pro- 
visional government  installed,  without  any  regard  to  his  authority.  On 
the  2d  of  April  he  was  formally  deposed  ;  and  on  the  6th  of  the  same 
month,  Louis  XVIII.  was  invited  to  ascend  the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 
A  constitutional  charter  was  framed  for  the  protection  of  the  French 
people,  and  Napoleon  was  promised  the  sovereignty  of  the  island  of 
Elba,  and  a  pension.  Before  intelligence  of  these  events  was  received 
in  the  south,  a  sanguinary  battle  had  been  fought  between  the  armies 
of  Soult  and  Wellington  at  Toulouse,  which  ended  in  the  complete  dis- 
comfiture of  the  former;  but  the  British  general  sincerely  lamented  a 
triumph  which  had  been  purchased  by  a  useless  expenditure  of  human 
life. 

On  the  3d  of  May,  Louis  XVIII.  returned  from  his  tedious  exile, 
iud  landed  at  Calais.     The  preliminaries  of  a  general  peace  were  sign 


578  MODERN  HISTORY. 

ed  at  Paris  ;  and  it  was  arranged  that  the  details  and  the  adjustnicut  o( 
the  claims  of  the  different  European  princes  should  be  referred  to  a 
future  con"ocation  at  Vienna. 

JSkction   V". — History  of  Europe  from  the  dethronement  of  Napoleon  to  the 
Conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  Vienna. 

Befork  his  final  overthrow,  Napoleon  liberated  the  captive  Ferdi- 
nand, well  aware  that  Spain  would  have  little  reason  to  rejoice  in  the 
restoration  of  such  a  sovereign.  No  sooner  had  he  obtained  his  free- 
dom than  he  annulled  all  the  proceedings  of  the  cortes,  re-established 
the  old  despotism  with  all  its  abuses,  and  even  revived  ihe  horrors  of 
the  inquisition.  Several  of  those  who  had  most  strenuously  resisteJ 
the  French  invasion  Avere  punished  by  imprisonment  or  exile,  their 
attachment  to  constitutional  freedom  being  deemed  to  outweigh  their 
former  services.  The  allies  could  not  be  blamed  for  the  perfidy  and 
tyranny  of  Ferdinand,  but  they  incurred  just  censure  by  aiding  in  the 
forcible  annexation  of  Norway  to  Sweden,  against  the  earnest  remon- 
strances of  the  inhabitants,  and  they  displayed  little  policy  in  uniting 
Belgium  to  Holland,  for  the  countries  were  opposed  to  each  other  in 
their  religious  creeds  and  commercial  interests. 

The  American  war  was  protracted  more  in  a  spirit  of  revenge  than 
sound  policy  ;  a  sanguinary  but  indecisive  struggle  took  place  in  Cana- 
da ;  an  English  armament  captured  Washington,  the  capital  of  the 
United  States,  and  destroyed  the  public  buildings ;  but  similar  attacks 
on  Baltimore  and  New  Orleans  were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  Peace 
was  at  length  concluded  at  Ghent,  and  we  may  confidently  hope  thai 
hostilities  will  never  again  be  renewed  between  two  nations  so  closely 
united  by  the  ties  of  language,  religion,  and  blood.  Before  this  war 
was  terminated,  the  emperor  Alexander,  and  Frederic,  king  of  Prussia, 
accompanied  by  their  most  distinguished  marshals  and  statesmen,  per- 
sonally visited  England,  and  were  received  with  great  enthusiasm. 
But  the  convulsion  produced  in  the  commercial  world  by  the  sudden 
transition  from  war  to  peace,  was  necessarily  followed  by  numerous 
bankruptcies  and  great  distress,  which  threw  a  shade  of  gloom  over  the 
general  joy. 

The  conduct  of  Louis  XVIII.  immediately  after  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  was  calculated  to  win  popularity ;  but  the  establishment  of  a 
censorship  over  the  press,  his  anxiety  to  restore  the  power  and  influence 
of  the  clergy,  and  to  remunerate  the  loyal  emigrants  who  had  shared 
the  calamities  of  his  exile,  gave  general  offence,  and  revived  the  courage 
of  the  friends  of  Napoleon.  A  secret  conspiracy  was  formed  for  re- 
storing the  emperor,  and  he,  dreading  that  the  allied  powers,  whose 
plenipotentiaries  were  assembled  at  Vienna,  would  remove  him  from 
Elba  to  a  place  of  greater  security,  resolved  to  make  a  bold  effort  for 
the  recovery  of  his  throne.  Accompanied  only  by  eleven  hundred  men, 
he  landed  at  Frejus  (March  1,  1815),  and  advanced  into  the  interior  of 
ihe  country.  At  first  he  received  little  encouragement;  but  being 
joined  by  the  garrison  of  Grenoble,  ?nd  supported  by  secret  promises 
of  aid  from  other  divisions  of  the  army,  he  proceeded  to  Lyons,  where 
lie  held  his  court.     Louis  made  a  spirited  appeal  to  the  loyalty  of  thf 


THE  FRENCH  EMPIRE.  671/ 

French  nation ;  but  Marshal  Ney  having  set  the  example  of  defection 
all  the  soldiery  declared  in  favor  of  the  emperor  ;  and  Louis,  compelled 
to  abandon  his  kingdom,  sought  safety  in  Ghent. 

Though  the  allied  powers  had  shown  a  great  want  of  vigilance  and 
caution  in  not  preventing,  as  they  easily  might  have  done,  the  escape 
of  Napoleon,  they  were  not  for  a  moment  undetermined  in  resolving  on 
the  course  of  action  rendered  necessary  by  that  event.  A  proclamation 
was  issued  by  the  congress  of  Vienna,  denouncing  him  as  the  common 
enemy  of  Europe,  and  excluding  him  horn  the  pale  of  civil  and  social 
relations.  A  treaty  was  concluded,  by  which  .^ach  of  the  four  powers, 
Russia,  Prussia,  Austria,  and  England,  engaged  to  maintain  an  army 
of  150,000  men  until  they  had  rendered  Napoleon  incapable  of  disturb- 
ing the  tranquillity  of  Europe  ;  and  the  Prussians  and  the  English  ai 
once  began  to  assemble  their  forces  on  the  northern  frontiers  of  France 

Napoleon,  disappointed  in  his  hope  of  procuring  the  acquiescence  of 
the  allied  powers  in  his  usurpation,  prepared  boldly  to  meet  the  dangei 
by  which  he  was  menaced.  He  gratified  the  vanity  of  the  Parisians 
by  the  splendid  ceremonial  of  proclaiming  a  new  constitution  in  thu 
Champ  de  Mars,  and  at  the  same  time  he  made  the  most  vigorous  ex- 
ertions to  recruit  his  armies  and  supply  his  military  stores.  In  a  shor; 
time,  far  sliorter  than  had  been  anticipated,  his  troops  were  ready  foi 
action,  and  instead  of  waiting  for  the  attack  of  his  enemies,  he  resolvea 
to  become  the  aggressor.  The  first  brunt  of  the  war  fell  on  the  Prus- 
sians, who  were  driven  from  their  advanced  posts.  Blucher  immediately 
concentrated  his  forces  at  Ligny ;  while  the  duke  of  Wellington,  with 
the  British  and  subsidiary  troops,  occupied  a  parallel  position  at  Quatre 
Bras.  The  main  body  of  the  French  attacked  the  Prussian  lines,  and, 
after  a  sanguinary  battle,  compelled  Blucher  to  abandon  Ligny  (June 
16) ;  but  his  retreat  was  effected  in  good  order,  and  in  a  very  few 
hours  his  troops  were  ready  to  renew  the  fight.  In  the  meantime  the 
British  had  defeated  the  enemy  at  Quatre  Bras,  but  the  retreat  of  the 
Prussians  rendered  a  corresponding  movement  necessary  on  their  part ; 
and  Wellington  led  his  army  to  the  memorable  position  of  Waterloo. 

Flushed  by  his  recent  victory  over  the  Prussians,  Napoleon,  on  the 
morning  of  the  18th  of  June,  appeared  in  front  of  the  English  position, 
and  commenced  an  attack,  in  full  assurance  of  success.  His  first  eflbrt 
was  directed  against  Hougoumont,  a  post  which  protected  the  English 
right;  but  after  a  murderous  conflict,  the  French  were  bafliled,  and  the 
place  maintained.  The  emperor's  next  eflbrt  was  to  turn  the  left  wing 
so  as  to  intercept  the  communication  with  the  Prussians,  but  this  still 
more  signally  failed ;  Sir  Thomas  Picton's  division,  though  with  the 
loss  of  their  brave  commander,  repulsed  the  French  infantry,  while  the 
Scotch  Greys,  aided  by  a  corps  of  dragoons,  routed  the  French  cav^alry, 
particularly  the  cuirassiers,  who  fondly  deemed  themselves  invincible 

A  third  great  eflbrt  •was  made  against  the  centre,  and  at  first  some 
advantages  were  gained.  The  French  seized  the  farm  of  La  Haye 
Sainte,  which  covered  the  position,  and  poured  masses  of  cavalry  and 
infantry  on  the  British  lines.  But  Wellington,  forming  his  troops  in 
hollow  squares,  maintained  a  steady  resistance,  and  the  eflbrts  of  the 
baffled  assailants  gradually  r^jlaxed.  At  this  moment  the  Prussian 
troops  began  to  appear  on  tlie  right  flank  of  the  French,  and  to  take  a 


L 


S80  MODERN   HISTORY 

share  in  the  engagement.  Napoleon  now  mustered  his  guard  far  one 
decisive  engagement,  but  did  not,  as  was  expected,  place  himself  tit 
their  head.  The  imperial  guard  advanced  under  a  perfect  storm  of  ar- 
tillery and  musketry  from  the  British  lines,  which  had  been  gradually 
advanced  after  the  defeat  of  the  former  attacks.  They  attempted  tc 
deploy,  under  this  formidable  fire,  but  their  lines  were  shaken,  and  they 
began  to  fall  into  confusion.  Wellington  seized  the  decisive  momeni 
to  charge ;  the  effect  was  instantaneous,  not  a  single  French  soldiei 
remained  to  cross  a  bayonet ;  and  as  the  British  pressed  forward,  the 
retreat  was  soon  a  perfect  rout.  As  the  English  were  too  much  fa- 
tigued to  pursue  the  fugitives,  that  duty  devolved  upon  the  Prussians, 
and  they  executed  it  with  the  vigor  of  men  who  felt  that  they  had  the 
wrongs  of  their  country  to  avenge.  Out  of  the  entire  French  army  not 
more  than  forty  thousand  men  could  again  be  imbodied. 

Napoleon  continued  his  melancholy  flight  to  Paris,  where  he  soon 
found  that  his  reign  was  at  an  end.  He  abdicated  -he  crown  in  favor 
of  his  son,  but  while  his  resignation  was  received,  the  acknowledgment 
of  Napoleon  II.  was  evaded.  He  lingered  so  long  in  the  hope  of  some 
favorable  change,  that  his  opportunities  of  escape  were  cut  oflT,  and  he 
was  forced  to  seek  refuge  on  board  a  British  man-of-war.  After  some 
discussion  respecting  his  destination,  it  was  resolved  that  he  should  be 
imprisoned  for  life,  in  the  island  of  St.  Helena  ;  and  to  this  rock,  in  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  he  was  sent,  with  a  small  train  of  attendants. 

Mural's  fate  was  still  more  calamitous ;  no  sooner  had  he  heard  of 
Napoleon's  landing  in  France,  than  he  renounced  his  alliance  with 
Austria,  and  endeavored  to  unite  all  the  Italians  in  a  league  against 
that  power.  His  efforts  completely  failed  ;  his  forces  were  routed  at 
Ferrara,  the  cowardly  Neapolitans  could  not  be  induced  to  make  any 
efiective  resistance,  and  finally  he  fled  disguised  from  his  kingdom. 
His  restless  ambition  induced  him,  with  only  thirty  followers,  to  make 
an  effort  to  recover  his  dominions  ;  he  landed  on  the  Calabrian  coast, 
but  he  was  made  a  prisoner,  and  shot  by  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 

After  the  victory  at  Waterloo,  the  Prussians  and  the  British  advanced 
toward  Paris,  without  encountering  any  serious  opposition.  The  two 
legislative  chambers  were  reluctant  to  restore  the  king,  at  least  un- 
conditionally, but  their  appeal  to  the  nation  was  disregarded,  and  on 
the  nearer  approach  of  the  allies,  a  convention  was  concluded  by  which 
Louis  was  restored.  A  few  of  Napoleon's  most  strenuous  supporters 
were  excluded  from  the  act  of  amnesty ;  Ney  and  Labedoyere  were 
shot,  but  Lavalette  escaped  by  the  aid  of  his  wife  and  some  British 
officers. 

The  future  peace  of  Europe  now  depended  on  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
but  the  decrees  of  this  body  were  guided  more  by  the  convenience  of 
sovereigns,  than  the  wishes  of  nations.  The  ancient  republics  of 
Venice  and  Genoa  were  abolished ;  the  territories  of  the  former  were 
given  to  Austria,  while  the  latter  were  assigned  to  the  king  of  Sardinia ; 
Poland  was  annexed  to  the  territories  of  Russia,  and  the  Prussian  do- 
minions enlarged  at  the  expense  of  Saxony.  When  these  arrange 
raents  were  completed,  the  sovereigns  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia, 
( niered  into  a  solemn  compact  called  ihe  Holy  Alliance  ;  the  j)rofessed 
object  of  the  treaty  was  to  preserve  the   peace  of  Europe,  on  the  prin 


TflS  FHENCH  EMriRB  681 

ciples  which  God,  m  nis  revelation,  has  pointed  out  as  the  source  of 
tranquillity  and  prosperity.  But  the  contracting  parties  understood  bv 
these  principles  the  maintenance  of  despotic  power,  and  made  their  en- 
gagement a  pretext  for  resisting  the  efforts  made  subsequently,  by 
several  nations   to  establish  constitutional  freedoin. 


682  MODERX    HIirORV. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  PEACE. 

Section  I. — Stale  of  Europe  at  the  Close  of  the  IVai 

When  the  sanguinary  and  expensive  wars  arising  out  of  the  Freneh 
revolution  terminated,  the  different  nations  of  Europe  that  shared  in  the 
contest  were  so  enfeebled  and  harassed,  that  they  sank  at  once  into 
inactive  repose.  But  the  transition  from  war  to  peace  made  such  a 
complete  change  in  all  commercial  transactions,  that  credit  was  shaken, 
trade  injured,  manufactures  checked,  and  thousands  suddenly  deprived 
of  employment.  These  evils  were  more  sensibly  felt  in  England  than 
iu  any  other  country ;  for  while  the  tide  of  war  swept  over  every 
other  European  state,  England,  protected  by  her  insular  situation,  en- 
joyed internal  tranquillity,  and  was  enabled  to  sell  with  profit,  not  only 
her  manufactures,  but  her  agricultural  produce  to  less  favored  countries. 
Peace  permitted  the  people  of  the  continent  to  supply  themselves  with 
many  of  the  articles  whi'.'h  they  had  previously  been  forced  to  import ; 
and  the  jealousy  with  which  the  continental  sovereigns  began  to  regard 
the  commercial  prosperity  of  England,  induced  them  to  encourage  na- 
tive manufactures  ;  hence  the  demand  for  British  goods  and  produce 
suddenly  slackened,  and  distress  was  felt  by  every  portion  of  the  com- 
munity. Several  serious  riots  occurred  in  the  agricultural  distress ; 
but  still  more  alarming  symptoms  of  dissatisfaction  were  displayed  in 
the  metropolis,  where  meetings  were  held  under  pretence  of  procuring 
a  reform  in  the  constitution,  but  which  threatened  to  end  in  revolution. 
Several  strong  restrictive  statutes  were  passed  by  parliament,  and 
energetic,  if  not  severe  measures  adopted  by  the  government ;  it  was 
not,  however,  until  the  commercial  crisis  had  passed  over,  and  the 
embarrassments  of  transition  disappeared  that  the  public  tranquillity 
was  restored. 

There  were  not,  however,  wanting  more  cheering  occurrences  which 
relieved  the  gloom  ;  the  piratical  states  of  Algiers  were  humbled  ;  Lord 
Exmouth,  with  a  united  squadron  of  English  and  Dutch,  attacked  the 
city  of  Algiers,  destroyed  its  fortifications,  and  compelled  the  dey  to 
abolish  Christian  slavery  (a.  d.  1816).  Great  joy  was  also  diffused  b) 
the  marriage  of  the  princess  Charlotte,  the  pride  and  the  hope  of  Eng 
l.ind,  to  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg.  But  the  expectations  of  the 
iiation  were  fatally  disappointed  ;  the  princess  died  on  the  6th  of 
No 'ember,  1817,  after  having  been  delivered  of  a  dead  child.  The 
national  sorrow  was  general  and  profound,  and  there  never  was  an 
occasion  in  which  the  British  nation  showed  greater  regret  for  the  loss 
of  an  individual.     But  this  was  only  the  beginning  of  a  series  of  death.-; 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PEACE.  383 

in  the  royal  family  ;  Queen  Charlotte  died  during  the  ensuing  year,  she 
u  as  soon  followed  to  the  grave  by  the  duke  of  Kent,  and  finally,  the 
aged  monarch  George  III.,  without  having  enjoyed  one  lucid  interval 
during  his  long  illness,  sank  quietly  into  the  tomb. 

France,  much  to  the  surprise  of  the  neighboring  states,  enjoyed  the 
blessings  of  tranquillity  under  the  mild  and  conciliatory  government  of 
Louis  XVIII .  The  revolution,  and  its  consequent  wars,  had  given  the 
chief  property  of  the  country,  and  consequently  the  elements  of  politi- 
cal power,  to  the  middle  classes  of  society ;  their  interests  could  only 
be  aecured  by  the  preservation  of  peace,  and  they  became  zealous  roy- 
alists, because  they  regarded  the  monarchy  as  the  surest  pledge  for  the 
maintenance  of  public  order.  Some  of  them  carried  their  zeal  to  such 
extravagant  lengths  that  they  provoked  resistance,  and  the  king  was 
forced  to  interfere,  to  prevent  tiro  ill  consequences  that  were  likely  to 
result  from  the  indiscretion  of  those  who  claimed  to  be  his  best  friends. 

The  united  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  though  apparently  tranquil, 
was  secretly  shaken  by  the  national  antipathy  between  the  Belgians  and 
the  Dutch.  Gratitude  induced  the  sovereign  to  accede  to  the  hoily  alli- 
ance, a  circumstance  which  gave  great  offence  to  many  of  his  subjects, 
especially  in  Flanders,  where  a  republican  spirit,  fostered  by  municipal 
institutions,  had  prevailed  from  the  time  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Great  disappointment  was  felt  in  Germany,  by  the  delay  or  refusal 
of  the  constitutions,  which  the  several  states  had  been  taught  to  expect 
during  the  war  of  independence.  But  the  principal  sovereigns,  es- 
pecially the  emperor  of  Austria  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  alarmed  by  the 
remembrance  of  the  calamities  that  political  innovations  had  produced 
in  France,  steadily  opposed  every  change  in  the  forms  of  government, 
but,  at  the  same  time,  zealously  labored  to  secure  to  their  subjects  the 
benefit  of  a  just  and  enlightened  administration. 

Spain  was  far  more  unfortunate  ;  the  imbecile  Ferdinand  was  the 
tool  of  the  courtiers  and  the  priests  ;  at  their  instigation  he  revived  the 
ancient  principles  of  despotism  and  bigotry,  punishing  with  remorseless 
severity  every  expression  of  liberal  sentiments  in  politics  or  religion. 
The  arbitrary  conduct  of  the  court  was  not  the  only  cause  of  the  mis- 
ery that  prevailed  in  the  Peninsula ;  the  South  American  colonies, 
v/hich  had  long  been  regarded  as  the  chief  and  almost  the  only  source 
of  the  small  share  of  commercial  prosperity  which  the  Spaniards  re- 
tained, openly  revolted,  and  raised  the  standard  of  independence.  Fer- 
dinand made  some  faint  efforts  to  subdue  the  insurgents,  but  he  was 
badiy  supported  by  his  subjects,  and  the  troops  he  had  assembled  refu- 
sed to  embark.  Finally,  the  liberals  having  gained  over  a  great  portioi 
of  the  army,  compelled  the  king  to  establish  a  democratic  constitution 
by  which  the  royal  power  was  almost  annihilated  (a.  d.  1820).  Simi- 
lar revolutions  took  pLce  in  Portugal,  Naples,  and  Piedmont ;  alarm 
seized  the  minds  of  the  European  sovereigns,  and  they  secretly  com- 
bined to  check  popular  movements.  But  experience  soon  proved  that 
hose  who  had  framed  the  Spanish  constitution  were  ignorant  of  the 
wants  and  wishes  of  the  Spanish  people.  Louis  XVIII.  alarmed  foi 
the  safety  of  France  by  the  revolutionary  movements  in  Spain,  seat  an 
army,  under  the  command  of  the  duke  of  Angouleme,  to  restore  tho 
royal  authority ;  the  invaders  encountered  no  effective  opoosition ;  tho 


'J84 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


cortes  fled  before  them  to  Cadiz,  and  when  the  French  approacLe  1  thui 
city,  they  permitted  the  king  to  resume  his  former  despotic  authority 
(a.  d.  1823).  The  revolutions  of  Naples  and  Piedmont  ended  similarly  • 
the  liberals  laid  down  their  arms  on  the  approach  of  the  Austrian  ar 
mies,  and  the  new  constitutions  were  abolished. 

The  accession  of  Charles  John  Bernadotto,  to  the  crown  of  Sweden 
'  made  no  change  in  the  politics  of  the  northern  nations  ;  his  right  of  in- 
heritance had  been  solemnly  recognised  by  the  allied  sovereigns,  at  the 
congress  of  Vienna,  and  his  conduct  as  a  crown-prince  had  taught  the 
Swedes  to  respect  and  love  the  monarch  they  had  chosen.  Even  the 
Norwegians  became  reconciled  to  tlieir  fate,  and  learned  to  console 
themselves  for  the  loss  of  national  independence  by  the  blessings  that 
result  from  paternal  government. 

No  sooner  was  peace  restored  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  than  the  old  feelings  of  friendship  and  kindred  revived  between 
the  two  countries,  and  the  leading  statesmen,  in  both,  showed  an  earn- 
est desire  to  have  former  animosities  buried  in  oblivion,  iiut  far  dif- 
ferent were  the  feelings  between  Spain  and  her  revolted  colonies ;  the 
South  American  states  vigorously  maintained  their  struggle  for  inde- 
pendence, and  finally  succeeded.  The  English  government  delayed 
acknowledging  these  republics  until  the  duke  of  Angouleme  had  crossed 
the  Pyrenees,  when  consuls  were  sent  out  to  the  chief  states,  and  com- 
mercial treaties  formed  with  their  governments. 

From  this  rapid  sketch,  it  will  be  seen  that  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  civilized  world  there  was  a  struggle  between  the  principles 
of  monarchy  and  democracy,  and  that  even  England,  though  it  had  long 
enjoyed  the  blessings  of  a  free  constitution,  was  not  wholly  exempt 
from  the  agitation. 

Section  II. — History  of  Europe  during  the  reign  of  George  IV. 

George  IV.  had  so  long  wielded  the  supreme  executive  power  ia 
England,  under  the  title  of  regent,  that  no  political  change  was  made 
or  expected  when  he  assumed  the  royal  dignity.  A  month  had  not 
elapsed  after  his  accession,  when  a  plot  was  discovered  for  the  murder 
of  all  his  majesty's  ministers,  and  thus  facilitating  a  revolution,  which 
had  been  planned  by  a  few  obscure  enthusiasts.  The  conspirators  used 
to  assemble  in  Cato  street,  an  obscure  place  near  the  Edgeware  road ; 
they  were  arrested  in  their  rendezvous,  just  as  they  were  preparing  to 
execute  their  project,  all  their  plans  having  been  betrayed  to  govern- 
ment by  a  spy  who  had  pretended  to  join  in  the  conspiracy.  Such 
H'cre  the  insanity  and  misery  of  these  wretched  men,  who  proposed  16 
subvert  a  powerful  government,  that  when  they  were  searched,  not  even 
a  shilling  was  found  among  the  whole  party.  The  government  pitying 
their  delusion,  punished  only  the  ringleaders,  and  this  clemency  had  a 
beneficial  effect  in  calming  political  agitation. 

Preparations  were  now  made  for  the  king's  coronation,  when  they 
were  suspended  by  an  event  which  excited  more  public  interest,  and 
stimulated  more  angry  passions  than  any  other  which  had  occurred  for 
jovcral  years.  This  was  the  return  of  Queen  Caroline  to  England,  and 
her  t-ubsequent  trial  before  the  house  of  lords.     Her  marriage  had  been 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PEACE.  6B5 

imfoitunate  almost  from  the  commencement ;  she  was  early  separated 
hrom  her  husband  ;  after  the  lapse  of  some  years,  her  conduct  was 
made  the  subject  of  official  inquiry ;  at  the  commencement  of  the  re- 
gency she  was  excluded  from  court,  and  these  indignities  induced  her 
to  quit  England.  She  visited  the  most  celebrated  spots  along  the  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  then  selected  a  permanent  residence  in  that 
part  of  Italy  subject  to  the  Austrian  government.  Reports  injurious  to 
her  character  were  circulated ;  commissioners  were  sent  to  Milan  to 
investigate  them,  and  the  ministers,  in  consequence  of  the  evidence 
thus  collected,  excluded  her  name  from  the  liturgy,  on  the  king's  acces- 
sion. Irritated  at  such  an  insult,  she  resolved  to  return  to  England, 
though  a  pension  of  fifty  thousand  pounds  annually  was  offered  to  pur- 
chase her  submission,  and  though  she  was  informed  that  her  landing 
would  be  the  signal  for  the  commencement  of  a  prosecution. 

No  sooner  had  the  queen  landed,  than  messages  were  sent  to  both 
houses  of  pc^^liament,  recommending  that  her  conduct  should  be  inves- 
figated.  "  A  Bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties"  was  introduced,  to  deprive 
her  of  royal  rights  and  dignities,  and  a  trial  commenced  which  lasted 
forty-five  days,  when  the  bill  was  read  a  second  time  by  a  majority  of 
forty-five.  On  the  third  reading,  however,  the  ministers  could  only 
command  a  majority  of  nine,  and  the  bill  was  abandoned.  During  these 
proceedings,  the  agitation  of  the  public  mind  knew  no  bounds ;  ad- 
dresses to  the  queen  poured  in  from  all  sides,  and  when  the  bill  was 
abandoned,  her  friends  celebrated  her  escape  as  an  acquittal.  The  re- 
mainder of  her  melancholy  history  may  be  briefly  told;  her  popularity 
sank  as  rapidly  as  it  had  ri.sen ;  she  was  refused  a  share  in  th.3  ceremo- 
nial of  the  coronation  ;  her  appeals  to  the  nation  were  disregardtd , 
and  the  sense  of  disappointment  and  degradation  produced  a  mortal  dis- 
ease  which  terminated  her  unhappy  life.  Her  funeral  was  marked  by 
a  disgraceful  riot :  the  mob  determined  that  her  remains  should  pass 
through  the  city  of  London,  and  tnumphed  over  the  troops  that  tried  to 
carry  the  hears'i  by  a  different  route. 

Soon  after  his  ccnna'ion  the  king  visited  Ireland,  Scotland,  and 
Hanovtr;  he  was  everywhere  received  with  the  i,reatesi  enlhusiasnii 
but  the  permanent  results  expected  from  these  visits  were  not  realized. 
In  Ireland,  party  spirit  blazed  more  furiously  than  ever,  and  the  depre- 
ciation of  agr.cultur.il  pro  luce  rendering  it  difiicult  for  tenants  to  pay 
thtdr  reiits,  led  to  a  series  of  agrarian  outrages  which  couli  only  bo 
chocked  by  sei^ere  coercive  laws.  The  distress  of  the  Icwer  classes, 
which  i.ideed  almost  excued<.d  credibi.ity,  was  reheved  jy  a  general 
and  generous  subscription  in  England,  winch  arrested  the  progress  of 
a  pestilential  disease,  produced  by  famine  and  distress. 

England  sutlered  severely  from  the  financial  difiiculties  produced  by 
the  immense  expenditure  of  the  late  war.  While  statesmen  were  en- 
gaged in  devising  means  to  alleviate  the  pressure  of  taxation.  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  the  cause  of  so  many  cahimities,  died  almost  uimoticed  in 
his  place  of  exile  at  St.  Helena.  During  the  king's  visit  to  Scotland 
Loid  Londonderry,  who  had  so  long  directed  the  foreign  afTiirs  of  Eng- 
and,  connnilted  suicide  ;  his  place  was  supplied  by  Mr.  Canning,  who 
■/(as  si;pposed  to  be  favorable  to  what  was  called  a  more  liberal  line  of 
pi  ticy  ihdn  that  of  his  predecessor. 


R86  MODERN  HISTORY. 

The  distnicted  comlition  of  Spain  a*  '.his  period  engaged  the  altcn 
'ion  ol  Europe,  f  erdiiiand  had  been  coinpolled  to  grant  his  subjects 
a  free  and  almost  a  republican  constitution,  bat  the  ministers  forced 
upon  him  by  the  cortes,  showed  Uttle  wisdom  or  moderation,  and  the 
proceedings  of  the  cortes  themselves  were  unworthy  the  dignity  of  a 
deliberative  assembly.  In  consequence  of  these  errors,  a  large  party 
was  formed  in  the  Penins  ila  to  restore  absolute  monarchy  ;  several 
bodies  of  insurgents  were  raised  by  the  monks  and  friars,  who  feared  that 
the  estates  of  the  monasteries  and  the  church  would  be  confiscated ; 
thev  called  themselves  the  "  Army  of  the  Faith,"  and  were  zealously 
supported  by  the  lower  ranks  of  the  populace.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, a  congress  of  the  European  powers  was  held  at  Verona,  and  a 
resolution  was  adopted  for  subverting  the  Spanish  constitution,  and  re- 
storing the  absolute  power  of  the  king.  The  duke  of  Wellington,  on 
the  part  of  England,  refused  to  sanction  this  design,  and  the  execution 
of  it  was  intrusted  to  the  king  of  France,  who  was  naturally  anxious 
to  check  the  progress  of  revolutionary  principles,  before  his  own  throne 
was  endangered  by  the  contagion. 

Early  in  the  year  1823,  the  due  d'AngouIeme  entered  Spain  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army ;  the  constitutionalists  made  but  a  feeble  re- 
sistance, and  the  king  was  restored  to  absolute  authority  with  little 
trouble.  Ferdinand  made  a  bad  use  of  his  power ;  he  persecuted  all 
whom  he  suspected  of  liberal  principles  with  the  utmost  severity,  and 
revived  all  the  ancient  abuses  which  had  so  long  disgraced  the  govern- 
ment of  Spain.  Though  the  English  ministers  maintained  a  strict 
neutrality  during  this  contest,  they  severely  censured  the  conduct  of 
the  French  government,  and  as  a  counterpoise,  they  recognised  the  in- 
dependence of  the  South  American  republics,  which  had  withdrawn 
themselves  from  their  allegiance  to  Spain. 

During  the  Spanish  war,  which  excited  little  interest,  the  sympathies 
of  o'vilized  Europe  were  engaged  in  the  Greek  revolution,  which,  how- 
ever, was  a  barbarous  and  sanguinary  struggle,  that  for  many  years 
seemed  to  promise  no  decisive  result.  The  principal  members  of  the 
Holy  Alliance  viewed  tht  Greek  insurrection  with  secret  dislike,  for 
they  regarded  it  as  a  rebellion  against  legitimate  authority  ;  but  the  young 
and  enthusiastic  spirits  throughout  Europe  viewed  it  as  a  just  revolt 
against  Turkish  t\  rainiy,  and  hoped  that  its  success  would  restore  the 
classical  agts  of  Greece.  Am  ng  the  many  volunteers  who  went  to  aid 
the  insurgents  was  the  celebrated  poet,  Lord  Byron  ;  before,  however, 
they  could  profit  by  his  services,  he  was  attacked  by  fever,  and  died 
prematurely  at  Missolonghi. 

Commercial  en  barrassments  and  political  disputes  diverted  the  atten- 
tion of  England  from  foreign  afl'airs  ;  a  sudden  rage  for  speculation 
seized  the  [leople  ;  projects  and  joint-stock  companies  were  multiplied 
without  number,  but  suddenly  the  b\ibbles  burst,  and  a  terrible  reaction 
ensued.  The  panic  in  the  money-market  was  equal  to  the  overween- 
ing confidence  which  had  led  to  these  extravagant  speculations.  But 
the  evil  was  transitory,  and  it  had  perhaps  some  beneficial  inlluence  in 
limiting  attention  to  those  branches  of  trade  best  suited  to  the  condition 
of  the  country.  Political  agitation  was  not  so  easily  cured  ;  the  lead 
i-rs  ol  the  Irish  catholics  formed  an  association  to  procure  the.  repeal  of 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PEACE.  687 

iJtie  restrictive  laws  by  which  members  of  their  churcn  were  excluded 
from  parliament  and  offices  of  state.  This  body  assumed  all  the  forms 
and  some  of  the  functions  of  a  legislative  assembly,  and  though  an  act 
3f  parliament  was  passed  for  its  suppression,  the  statute  was  eluded  by 
he  legal  skill  of  the  popular  leaders  in  the  association. 

Soon  after  Mr.  Canning's  accession  to  power,  the  attention  of  ali 
Europe  was  excitfd  by  an  event  which  seemed  to  prove  that  England 
aad  not  only  deserted  the  principles  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  but  was  about 
to  take  her  position  at  the  head  of  a  more  liberal  political  system.  On 
the  death  of  John  VI.,  king  of  Portugal  (March  10,  1826),  the  crown 
devolved  to  his  eldest  son,  Don  Pedro,  who  reigned,  with  the  title  of 
emperor,  over  the  old  Portuguese  colonies  in  Brazil.  Ccmpelled  to 
choose  between  his  empire  and  his  kingdom,  Pedro  selected  the  former  ; 
but  he  sent  to  Portugal  a  constitutional  charter,  and  a  formal  resignation 
of  the  crown  in  favor  of  his  daughter  Donna  Maria.  Pedro's  brother, 
Don  Miguel,  the  queen  dowager,  and  the  most  bigoted  portion  of  the 
clergy,  labored  hard  to  frustrate  this  arrangement,  and  their  machinations 
w-ere  encouraged  by  the  French  and  Spanish  cabinets.  Several  Portu- 
guese regiments  were  induced  to  desert  across  the  frontier  and  proclaim 
Don  Miguel  absolute  king.  As  the  Spanish  government  notoriously 
supplied  the  rebels  with  military  stores  and  arms,  the  Portuguese  min- 
ister applied  to  the  British  government  for  aid,  and  a  message  was  sent 
to  both  houses  of  parliament,  calling  on  them  to  aid  in  maintaining  the 
independence  of  Portugal.  Mr.  Canning  introduced  the  subject  in  the 
house  of  commons,  describing  the  situation  and  policy  of  Great  Britain, 
placed  as  a  mediator  between  the  conflicting  opinions  that  convulsed 
Europe  ;  and  such  v.^as  the  eifect  of  his  eloquence,  that  only  four  per- 
sons in  a  full  house  could  be  got  to  oppose  the  address.  A  British  ar- 
mament was  sent  to  the  Tagus  :  its  effect  was  instantaneous  and  deci- 
sive. The  French  diplomatic  agent  was  recalled,  the  Spanish  cabinet 
forced  to  desist  from  its  intrigues,  and  Portugal  restored  to  temporary 
tranquillity 

Death  and  disease  among  the  great  and  noble  of  the  land  produced 
some  important  changes  in  the  councils  of  Great  Britain.  In  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  1827,  the  duke  of  York,  who  had  solemnly  pledged 
himself  to  oppose  the  claims  of  the  catholics  to  the  utmost,  sank  under 
disease.  He  was  sincerely  lamented  even  by  his  political  opponents  •, 
for  his  conduct  in  the  management  of  the  army,  e\er  aince  he  had  been 
restored  to  the  office  of  commander-in-chief,  had  deservedly  won  for  liim 
the  honorable  appellation  of  "  the  soldier's  friend."  Soon  afterward 
the  earl  of  Liverpool,  who  by  his  conciliatmg  conduct  as  premier,  had 
held  together  the  Iriends  and  the  opponents  of  catholic  em&ncipaiiou  in 
the  cabinet,  was  seized  with  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  which  terminated  his  po- 
litical existence,  though  his  natural  life  was  protracted  for  several 
months.  Mr.  Caiuiing,  who  had  long  been  a  disting-iished  advocate  of 
the  catholic  claims,  was  appointed  his  successor,  upon  which  all  the 
members  of  the  cabinet,  oj)posed  to  concession,  resigned  in  a  body 
The  fatigues  and  anxieties  imposed  upon  him  proved  too  much  for  the 
new  premier  :  he  sank  under  them,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  F.  Rob- 
inson, who  was  at  the  same  time  raised  to  th»;  peerage,  with  the  title 
of  Lord  Goderich.     Before  relating  the  overthrow  of  this  feeble  iniuia 


088  MODERN  HISTORY. 

try,  we  must  turn  our  attention  to  the  events  in  another  part  of  the  globe 
which  arcelerated  its  downfull. 

Notwithstanding  the  horrid  atrocities  committed  on  both  sides  during 
the  Greek,  war,  the  sympathies  of  Christendom  in  favor  of  the  insurgents 
continually  increased  ;  it  was  expected  that  Alexander,  emperor  of  Rus- 
sia, would  have  taken  some  measures  in  their  favor,  but  he  died  rathei 
suddenly  while  engaged  in  a  survey  of  his  southern  provinces.  At  this 
crisis,  the  sultan,  unable  to  crush  the  revolt  by  his  own  strength,  sought 
the  aid  of  his  powerful  vassal,  Mohammed  Ali,  the  pacha  of  Egypt. 
This  provincial  governor,  who  had  acted  for  some  time  more  like  an  in- 
dependent monarch  than  a  tributary,  readily  sent  his  adopted  son,  Ibra 
him  Pacha,  with  a  powerful  army,  into  the  Morea.  The  excesses  of 
the  Turks  and  Egyptians  were  so  shocking  to  humanity,  that  the  Euro- 
})ean  powers  felt  bound  to  interfere,  especially  as  the  protracted  contest 
was  very  pernicious  to  the  commerce  of  the  Levant.  A  treaty  for  the 
pacification  of  Greece  was  concluded  in  London  between  Russia 
France,  and  England,  by  which  it  was  stipulated  that  Greece  should 
enjoy  a  qualified  independence  under  the  sovereignty  of  Turkey,  and 
that  measures  should  be  taken  to  coerce  the  sultan  if  he  refused  his 
consent  to  these  arrangements. 

The  Austrian  cabmet  refused  to  share  in  this  treaty.  Dread  of  a 
similar  insurrection  in  Italy,  which  was  scarcely  less  oppressed,  and 
which  could  equally  appeal  to  classical  sympathies  And  reminiscences, 
induced  the  court  of  Vienna  to  oppose  anything  that  seemed  like  sanc- 
tioning a  revolt.  But  not  content  with  refusing  to  join  the  allies,  the 
Auslriaus  secretly  urged  the  sultan  to  reject  the  protTered  conipromise, 
and  the  court  ot  Constantinople,  already  bent  on  the  extermination  of 
the  Greeks,  made  more  vigorous  exertions  than  ever.  The  lleets  of 
England,  Russia,  and  France,  which  had  been  sent  to  support  the  ne- 
gotiations, when  it  was  known  that  the  sultan's  answer  was  unfavora 
ble,  blockaded  the  Turco-Egyptian  fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Navarino,  and 
Sir  Edward  CoJrington,  who  commanded  the  allied  squadrons,  con- 
cluded an  armistice  with  Ibrahim  Pacha,  in  order  to  alleviate  the  hor- 
rors of  war.  This  armistice  was  flagrantly  violated  by  the  Turks  and 
Egyptians  in  every  particular,  and  the  allied  squadrons  entered  the 
harlor  of  Navarino,  in  order  to  enforce  compliance  with  its  stipulations. 
A  shot  fired  from  a  Turkish  ship  at  an  English  boat,  was  the  signal  or 
tLe  jiretext  for  a  general  engagement,  which  ended  in  the  utter  annihi- 
lation of  the  Turco-Egyptian  armament.  The  independence  of  Greece 
w  IS  this  nr  ua  [y  sec  un  d,  ;md  it.^  conpletion  was  s.icured  soon  af*er 
by  toe  arrival  of  a  small  military  force  from  France,  which  compelled 
the  Turks  to  evacuate  the  Morea. 

Ill  Russia  and  in  France  the  victory  of  Navarino  was  regarded  as  a 
national  triumph  ;  in  England  it  only  increased  the  embarrassments  of 
Lord  CJoderich's  distracted  cabintt,  the  members  of  which  were  at  va- 
riance on  almost  every  point  of  policy,  foreign  and  domestic.  Finding 
themselves  unable  to  determine  in  what  manner  the  event  should  be  no- 
ticed in  the  king's  s])eech,  the  ministers  resigned  their  situations  before 
the  meeting  of  parliament,  and  the  task  of  forming  a  new  administration 
was  intrusted  to  the  duke  of  Wellington. 

The  sultan  was  not  daunted  by  the  intelligence  of  the  destruction  of 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PEACE.  689 

his  fleet ;  it  seemed,  indeed,  rather  to  confirm  liim  in  his  obstiuacv 
After  mai.y  ineffectual  efforts  to  change  his  resolution,  the  ambassadors 
of  France,  England,  and  Russia,  demanded  their  passports,  and  quitted 
Constantinople,  a  proceeding  which  was  of  course  equivalent  to  a  dec- 
laration of  war.  But  the  allies  were  no  longer  united  in  their  policy  ; 
France  and  England  were  not  unreasonably  jealous  of  Russian  ambition  ; 
France  limited  her  exertions  to  protecti'ig  the  Morea,  the  new  ministers 
of  England  declared  the  victory  of  Navarino  "  an  untoward  event" — a 
phrase  which  led  to  the  belief  that  they  were  disposed  to  look,  favorably 
on  the  pretensions  of  Turkey.  This  error  precipitated  what  all  wished 
to  avoid,  a  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey.  Still  more  unfortunate, 
the  events  of  the  first  European  campaign  led  many  European  states- 
men to  believe  that  Turkey  could  defend  herself  from  her  own  re- 
sources ;  though  the  Russians  had  taken  Varna  by  the  treachery  of  its 
governor,  they  were  forced  to  raise  the  siege  of  Shumlah,  and  retire 
with  some  precipitation.  It  was  unnoticed  or  forgotten  that  this  failure 
was  more  than  compensated  by  the  decisive  success  of  the  Russians  in 
the  Asiatic  provinces,  where  the  real  strength  of  the  Turkish  empire 
lies  ;  they  conquered  the  greater  part  of  ancient  Armenia,  occupied  the 
fortresses  which  command  the  principal  lines  of  march,  and  thus  laid 
the  foundation  of  decisive  success  in  the  next  campaign. 

In  consequence  of  the  general  misapprehension  respecting  the  posi- 
tion and  resources  of  the  belligerant  parties,  Turkey  narrowly  escaped 
being  blotted  from  the  map  of  Europe.  The  Russians  opened  the  cam- 
paign by  surprising  Sizopoli,  and  laying  siege  to  Silistria.  The  grand 
vizier  advanced  to  the  relief  of  the  fortress,  but  he  was  surprised  or 
his  march  by  Marshal  Diebitsch,  and  defeated.  In  this  battle  the  Turks 
behaved  so  courageously  that  the  Russians  almost  despaired  of  success, 
and  made  an  attempt  to  open  negotiations.  Their  offers  were  rejected  ; 
the  vizier,  trusting  to  his  impregnable  position  at  Shumlah,  remained 
quietly  in  his  intrenchments,  while  the  Russians  pressed  forward  the 
siege  of  Silistria.  That  city  surrendered  on  the  last  day  of  June,  but  it 
was  the  middle  of  July  before  Diebitsch  could  concentrate  his  forces  for 
the  bold  enterprise  which  decided  the  fortune  of  the  war.  Having 
masked  Shumlah  with  one  division  of  his  forces,  he  forced  a  passage 
throDfdr  the  defiles  of  the  Balkan,  and  took  Aides  by  storm.  The  viz- 
ier, alarmed  by  this  unexpected  movement,  determined  to  remove  his 
quarters  to  Salamno.  He  was  encountered  by  Diebitsch  on  his  march, 
and  irretrievably  defeated.  The  very  soldiers  who  had  so  recently 
fought  the  Russians  for  seventeen  hours,  now  scarcely  withstood  them 
for  as  many  minutes  ;  they  fled  at  the  first  onset,  abandoning  arms,  aii- 
munition,  artillery,  and  baggage.  Adrianople,  the  second  city  in  tno 
Turkish  empire,  was  captured  without  firing  a  shot  ;  Stamboul  itself 
must  have  fallen,  had  not  the  sultan  consented  to  the  terms  of  peace 
dictated  by  the  conquerors.  He  signed  a  treaty  on  the  14th  of  Septem- 
ber, by  which  he  recognised  the  independence  of  Greece,  and  granted 
to  Russia  very  considerable  advantages,  and  a  guarantee  for  the  pay- 
ment of  the  expenses  of  the  war.  Greece  indeed  was  already  virtually 
free  ;  the  French  expedition  had  recovered  the  fortresses  of  the  Morea 
from  the  Turks  and  Egyptians,  while  the  Greeks  themselves  had  gained 
considerable  advantages  in  the  north.     It  was  re-^olved  that  the  final 

44 


P90  MODERN  HISTORY. 

destinies  of  the  country  should  be  arranged  by  a  congress  of  the  great 
powers  in  London.  The  crown  of  Greece  was  first  offered  to  Prince 
Leopold,  the  relict  of  the  late  princess  Charlotte,  but  after  a  long  nego- 
tiation he  rejected  it,  and  it  was  finally  bestowed  on  Prince  Otho,  the 
son  of  the  king  0/  Bavaria. 

A  revolution  of  a  very  different  character  took  place  in  Portugal 
When  Don  Pedro  resigned  the  throne  of  that  kingdom  in  favor  of  hie 
daughter,  Donna  Maria  de  Gloria,  he  appointed  his  brother,  Don 
Miguel  regent,  reasonably  hoping  that  he  might  thus  secure  his  daugh 
ter's  rights,  and  the  constitutional  privileges  which  he  had  given  to  the 
Portuguese.  Before  quitting  Vienna  to  assume  the  reins  of  power, 
Don  Miguel  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  charter ;  when  he  visited 
England,  on  his  way  to  Portugal,  he  repeated  his  protestations  of  at- 
tachment to  the  constitution  and  the  rights  of  his  niece  so  warmly,  that 
the  British  statesmen,  assured  of  his  fidelity,  consented  to  withdraw 
their  troops  from  Lisbon.  Unfortunately,  after  his  return,  he  resigned 
himself  to  the  guidance  of  the  queen-mother,  an  unprincipled  woman, 
who  seemed  lo  think  that  a  bigoted  zeal  for  what  she  believed  to  be  the 
cause  of  religion  would  atone  for  every  other  crime.  At  her  instigation, 
he  induced  the  fanatic  rabble,  by  means  of  an  artful  priesthood,  to  pro- 
claim him  absolute  king,  and  to  denounce  the  charter  as  inconsistent 
with  the  purity  of  the  Roman  faith.  The  friends  of  the  constitution  or- 
ganized a  resistance  at  Oporto  and  in  the  island  of  Madeira  ;  but  theil 
efforts  were  badly  directed,  and  worse  supported.  They  were  finally 
defeated  and  driven  into  exile,  while  Don  Miguel  commenced  a  bitter 
persecution  against  all  who  had  been  conspicuous  for  their  advocacy  of 
liberal  opinions.  The  principal  powers  of  Europe  manifested  their  de- 
testation of  such  treachery,  by  withdrawing  their  ambassadors  from  the 
court  of  Lisbon. 

France  during  this  period  was  gre-atly  agitated  by  political  strife. 
•Charles  X.  was  more  bitterly  opposed  to  revolutionary  principles  than 
his  brother,  and  he  yielded  to  the  counsels  of  the  bigoted  priests,  who 
persuaded  him  that  it  was  his  duty  to  restore  to  the  church  all  the  power 
which  it  had  possessed  in  the  dark  ages.  On  the  oilier  hand,  the 
French  people  became  persuaded  that  a  plot  was  formed  to  deprive  them 
of  the  constitutional  privileges  which  they  had  gained  after  so  long  a 
struggle  ;  thus  the  nation  became  gradually  alienated  from  the  court, 
and  the  court  from  the  nation  ;  while  some  turbulent  spirits  endeavored 
lo  aggravate  this  hostility,  in  the  hope  of  profiting  by  a  future  convul- 
sion. A  new  ministry  was  forced  upon  the  king  by  the  popular  party ; 
the  members  of  it  professed  moderate  principles,  but  they  wanted  the 
abilities  and  the  influence  necessary  for  steering  a  safe  course  between 
the  extremes  of  royal  prerogative  on  one  side,  and  popular  encroach- 
ment on  the  other.  They  were  driven,  by  the  majority  of  the  chambers, 
to  make  larger  concessions  to  the  demands  of  the  people  than  they  had 
.  originally  intended,  and  the  reluctance  with  which  they  yi(ilded,  de- 
prived them  of  popular  gratitude.  Even  their  sending  an  armament  to 
aid  the  Greeks  in  the  Morea,  their  recalling  the  French  army  of  occu- 
pation from  Spain,  and  their  acknowledging  the  independence  of  the 
South  American  republics,  failed  to  conciliate  the  support  of  the  demo- 
.-.ratic  party,  while  these  measures  rendered  them  perfectly  odious  to 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PEACE.  091 

tliC  royalisis.     They  were  suddenly  dismissed,  and  the  formation  of  a 

cabinet  was  intrusted  to  Prince  Polignac,  whose  appointment  was 
studiously  represented  as  a  declaration  of  war  by  Charles  X.  against  his 
subjects. 

Interesting  as  these  events  were,  they  excited  little  attention  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  public  mind  was  intently  fixed  on  the  struggle  in  par 
liainent,  between  those  who  sought  to  effect  important  constitutional 
changes,  and  those  who  were  resolved  to  resist  all  innovation.  The 
duke  of  Wellington's  cabinet  had  been  placed  in  office  mainly  by  the 
influence  of  that  portion  of  the  aristocracy  which  was  anxious  to  check 
the  progress  of  change,  and  resist  certain  proposed  measures,  which  they 
deemed  inconsistent  with  the  supremacy,  if  not  the  safety,  of  the  estab- 
lished church.  One  of  these  measures  was  the  repeal  >.f  the  Test  and 
Corporation  acts,  by  which  dissenters  were  excluded  from  office  ;  it  was 
proposed  in  the  house  of  commons,  and  on  a  division  the  ministers  were 
left  in  such  a  minority,  that  they  not  only  withdrew  further  opposition, 
but  adopted  the  measure  as  their  own,  and  carried  it  successfully  through 
both  houses  of  parliament. 

This  event  gave  fresh  vigor  to  the  efforts  aiade  by  the  Irish  catholics 
to  procure  the  concessions  which  they  usually  called  emancipation. 
The  rejection  of  a  bill  for  the  purpose  by  the  house  of  lords  in  1828, 
only  roused  them  to  greater  exertion  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  par- 
tisans of  protestant  ascendency  in  Ireland  began  to  form  clubs  for  the 
protection  of  their  peculiar  privileges.  An  unexpected  event  exaspera- 
ted the  strife  of  parties,  and  threatened  to  bring  matters  to  a  dangerous 
crisis.  Mr.  Vesey  Fitzgerald,  having  accepted  office  under  the  duke 
of  Wellington,  vacated  his  seat  for  the  county  of  Clare,  reasonably  ex- 
pecting that  there  would  be  no  obstacle  to  his  re-election.  Mr.  O'Con- 
nell,  an  Irish  catholic,  who  had  been  long  recognised  as  the  popular 
leader,  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  vacant  seat,  and  in  spite 
of  the  disqualifying  laws,  was  elected  by  an  overwhelming  majority. 
It  was  considered  disputable  whether  he  might  not  take  his  seat,  but 
on  all  hands  it  was  allowed  that  he  was  the  legal  representative  of  the 
county 

This  was  a  state  of  things  which  could  not  with  safety  be  permitted 
to  continue  ;  the  ministers  felt  that  they  should  either  increase  the  se- 
verity of  the  exclusive  laws,  which  the  temper  of  the  times  would 
hardly  have  permitted,  or  that  they  should  remove  the  few  restrictions 
which  prevented  catholics  from  enjoying  the  full  benefits  of  the  consti- 
tution. They  chose  the  latter  alternative,  and  after  some  difficulty  in 
overcoming  the  king's  reluctance,  they  had  the  concession  of  the 
catholic  claims  recommended  in  the  royal  speech,  at  the  opening  of  the 
session  of  parliament.  The  bill  for  giving  effect  to  this  recomme  ida- 
tion  was  strenuously  opposed  in  both  houses,  but  as  it  was  supported 
by  the  united  strength  of  the  ministers  and  the  party  by  which  they 
were  most  commonly  resisted,  it  passed  steadily  through  both  houses, 
und  received  the  royal  assent  on  the  13th  of  April,  1829. 

From  the  time  that  this  important  measure  w;is  carried,  the  domestic 
condition  of  England  presented  an  aspect  of  more  tranquillity  than  had 
L»een  witnessed  for  many  years.  Party  strife  seemed  hushed  within 
and  without  the  vrAls  of  parliaineijt,  as  if  both  parties  had  been  wearied 


O^'^i  MODERN  HISTORY. 

out  by  the  proti acted  discussion  of  the  question  they  had  just  settled 
This  cahn  was  increased  by  the  gloom  which  the  illness  of  the  king 
diffused  over  the  nation.  Early  in  1830  the  symptoms  of  the  diseast 
became  alarming,  and  for  many  weeks  before  its  termination,  all  hopee 
of  a  favorable  result  were  abandoned.  On  the  26th  of  June,  George 
IV.  died  at  Windsor  castle,  after  having  borne  the  agonies  of  protracted 
sickness  with  great  firmness,  patience,  and  resignation. 

Section  III. — History  of  Europe  during  the  Reign  of  Williayn  IV. 

Few  monarchs  ever  obtained  such  immediate  popularity  on  their  ac- 
cession as  William  IV.  He  had  been  educated  in  the  navy,  always  a 
favorite  branch  of  service  with  the  British  people;  he  was  eminent  for 
the  domestic  virtues,  which  are  the  more  readily  comprehended  by  a 
nation,  as  their  value  is  felt  in  every  walk  of  life ;  his  habits  were 
economical,  and  his  manners  familiar ;  he  exhibited  himself  to  his 
people,  conversed  with  them,  and  shared  in  their  tastes  and  amuse- 
ments. As  he  had  been  intimately  connected  with  some  of  the  leading 
whigs  before  his  accession  to  the  throne,  it  was  generally  believed  that 
the  policy  by  which  that  party  had  been  jealously  excluded  from  power 
during  the  two  preceding  reigns  would  be  abandoned,  and  it  was  hoped 
that  a  ne«  cabinet  would  bo  formed  by  the  coalition  of  ministers  with 
their  opponents.  The  parliamentary  debates  soon  put  an  end  to  these 
expectations  ;  the  oppcsition  to  the  ministry,  which  had  been  almost 
nominal  since  the  settlement  of  tlie  catholic  question,  was  more  thai 
usually  violent  in  the  debate  on  the  address  ;  the  formal  business  of 
liie  house  was  indeed  despatched  with  all  possible  expedition,  prepar 
atory  to  a  new  election  ;  but  before  parliament  could  be  prorogued, 
the  whigs  were  virtually  pledged  to  irreconcilable  war  with  the  ad- 
ministration. 

It  is  now  time  to  turn  to  the  affairs  of  France,  which  had  for  two 
years  b(;en  fast  hastening  to  a  criisis.  Never  had  a  ministry  in  any 
country  to  encounter  sue  h  a  storm  of  virulence  and  invective,  as  that 
which  assailed  the  cabinet  of  Prince  Polignac  ;  though  he  was  per- 
haps justly  suspected  of  arbitrary  designs,  yet  his  fiist  measures  were 
dignified  and  moderate  ;  some  of  them  t;veri  seem  to  have  been  framed 
in  a  spirit  of  conciliation.  But  nothing  could  purchase  the  forbearance 
of  his  o[)porients  ;  they  scrupled  not  to  h  ive  recourse  to  downright 
falsehood,  and  in  s(»me  ca-ics  accused  him  of  d<jsi'>as  so  exquis  tely  ab- 
surd, that  they  appeared  to  have  been  invented  for  the  express  purpose 
of  measuring  the  extent  of  popular  credulity.  Charles  X.  more  than 
shared  the  odium  thrown  on  his  obnoxious  favorite  ;  his  patronage  of 
the  Jesuits  and  monastic  orders,  his  rcnival  of  austere  and  rigid  eticiuette 
in  his  court,  aiul  his  marUiid  dislike  of  those  who  had  acquired  eminence 
in  the  revolulion,  or  under  Napoleon,  were  circumstances  which  ren- 
Jered  him  unpopular  with  the  sireal  bulk  of  the  nation  so  long  estranged 
rom  the  Bourbons  and  their  policy. 

i*oligi\ac  defied  the  stcu-m  ;  but  unibrtunately,  as  the  contest  con 
linued,  he  departed  Irom  the  course  of  caution  and  prudence,  probably 
because  injustice  had  driven  him  into  anger,  and  he  sooi..  I'urnished  his 
Itdvcisaiies  wuh  just  grounds  lor  continued  iKJSlility.      When  '.he  chaiB 


HISTORY  OP  THE  PEACE 


G9^ 


i>crb  assembled,  the  royal  speech  was  a  direct  attack  on  the  first  prin- 
ciples of  the  constitution,  concluding  with  a  threat  of  resuming  the  con- 
cessions made  by  the  charter,  which  was  notoriously  impotent,  and 
therefore  supremely  ridiculous.  A  very  uncourtly  reply  was  voted  by 
the  chamber  of  deputies,  after  a  very  animated  debate,  by  a  majority  of 
forty.  The  only  alternative  now  left  was  a  dissolution  of  the  chambers, 
or  a  change  of  the  ministry  ;  Charles  X.  chose  the  former,  trusting  that 
events  might  turn  the  popular  current,  and  give  him  a  more  manageable 
chamber  at  a  new  election. 

Charles  and  his  ministers  appear  to  have  hoped  that  their  unpopu- 
larity would  be  overcome,  and  their  future  projects  facilitated,  by  grat- 
ifying the  taste  of  the  French  people  for  military  glory.  An  armameni 
was  therefore  prepared  with  extraordinary  care,  and  sent  against  Al- 
giers, under  the  pretext  that  the  dey  had  insulted  the  honor  of  France. 
The  success  of  the  expedition  corresponded  with  the  exertions  made  to 
ensure  it ;  the  city  of  Algiers  was  taken  after  a  very  slight  resistance, 
the  dey  was  sent  prisoner  to  Italy,  and  his  vast  treasures  remained  at 
the  disposal  of  the  conquerors.  It  was  reasonable  that  the  maritime 
powers  should  feel  jealous  at  the  establishment  of  French  garrisons 
and  colonies  in  northern  Africa ;  to  allay  their  suspicions,  a  promise 
was  made  that  the  occupation  of  Algiers  should  be  merely  temporary ; 
but  the  French  nation  formed  such  an  infatuated  attachment  to  their 
conquest,  that  they  have  kept  it  ever  since,  though  it  causes  an  annual 
waste  of  life  and  treasure,  without  conferring  any  appreciable  advan- 
tage either  on  Africa  or  on  France. 

Polignac,  relying  on  the  moral  effect  which  the  conquest  of  Algiers 
would  produce,  dissolved  the  chambers,  but,  with  the  same  infatuation 
which  seems  to  have  directed  all  his  movements,  he  at  the  same  time 
dismissed  the  only  two  moderate  members  of  his  cabinet,  and  supplied 
their  places  by  the  most  unpopular  men  in  France.  Such  a  course,  as 
ought  to  have  been  foreseen,  more  than  counterbalanced  any  benefit 
which  the  ministers  might  have  gained  from  the  conquest  of  Algiers  ; 
the  elections  left  them  in  a  miserable  minority,  and  matters  were 
consequently  brought  to  a  crisis. 

The  majority  of  the  commercial  classes  and  landed  proprietors 
in  France  dreaded  the  renewal  of  civil  commotions  ;  they  knew  that 
there  was  an  active  republican  party  in  the  country,  which  though  not 
very  numerous,  was  very  unscrupulous  and  energetic  ;  they  leared, 
and  not  without  reason,  tha  the  triumph  of  this  party,  which  was  no 
unlikely  termination  of  a  levolutionary  struggle,  would  lead  to  the 
renewal  of  the  horrors  perpetrated  during  the  reign  of  terror,  when 
the  Jacobins  were  in  power.  But  at  the  same  time,  these  classes  were 
equally  hostile  to  the  restoration  of  the  ancient  despotism,  which  they 
believed  to  be  the  object  of  the  king  and  his  ministers.  Had  Charles  X. 
declared  that  he  would  be  contented  with  the  prerogatives  of  a  consti- 
tutional monarch,  dismissed  his  obnoxious  ministers,  and  formed  a 
cabinet  of  moderate  men,  the  crisis  would  have  passed  over  without 
danger  ;  unfortunately,  more  arbitrary  counsels  prevailed  ;  Polignac  and 
his  colleagues  resolved  to  terminate  the  struggle  by  subverting  the 
constitution. 

On  the  morning  of  the  26th  of  July,  three  ordinances  were  pub- 


fi94  MODERN  HISTORY. 

lished,  which  virtually  subverted  the  constitutional  privileges  grantee 
Dy  the  charter.  The  first  dissolved  the  newly  elected  chamber  o 
deputies  before  it  assembled  :  the  second  changed  the  law  of  elections 
and  disfranchised  the  great  body  of  electors  ;  and  the  third  subjected 
the  press  to  new  and  severe  restrictions  which  would  completely  have 
annihilated  its  liberties. 

It  was  late  in  the  day  before  intelligence  of  these  events  was  gene- 
rally circulated  through  Paris,  and  the  news,  at  first,  seemed  to  excite 
astonishment  rather  than  indignation  ;  the  ministers  passed  the  day  ir. 
quiet  at  their  hotels,  receiving  the  visits  of  their  friends  and  congratu- 
lating themselves  upon  the  delusive  tranquillity.  But  their  opponents 
were  not  inactive  ;  expresses  were  sent  to  summon  all  the  deputies  of 
their  party  within  reach,  and  those  who  had  already  arrived  in  Paris 
held  a  private  meeting  to  concert  measures  of  resistance.  The  prin- 
cipal journalists  acted  with  still  greater  promptitude  ;  they  prepared 
and  published  a  protest  against  the  restrictions  on  the  prcts,  whose 
daring  language  would  probably  have  exposed  them  to  the  penalties  of 
treason  had  the  contest  terminated  differently. 

On  the  morning  of  the  27th,  few  of  the  journals  appeared,  for  the 
publication  of  those  which  were  not  sanctioned  by  the  minister  of  the 
interior  was  prohibited  by  the  police.  The  printers,  thus  suddenly 
deprived  of  employment,  formed  a  body  of  vindictive  rioters,  and  their 
numbers  were  increased  by  the  closing  of  several  large  factories  in  the 
suburbs  of  Paris.  The  proprietors  of  two  journals  ■  printed  their 
papers  in  defiance  of  the  ordinance,  and  the  first  disturbance  was 
occasioned'  by  the  police  forcing  an  entrance  into  their  establishments, 
breaking  the  presses,  scattering  the  types,  and  rendering  the  machinery 
unserviceable.  So  little  was  an  insurrection  anticipated,  that  Charles, 
sccomparued  by  the  dauphin,  went  on  a  hunting  match  to  Rambouillet ; 
and  his  ministers  neglected  the  ordinary  precaution  of  strengthening 
the  garrison  of  the  capital.  It  was  only  on  the  morning  of  the  27th 
that  Marmont  received  his  appointment  as  military  governor  of  Paris, 
and  it  was  not  till  after  four  in  the  afternoon  that  orders  were  given  to 
put  the  troops  under  arms. 

Between  six  and  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening  some  detachments  ot 
troops  were  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  police ;  this  was  the  signal  for  com- 
mencing the  contest ;  several  smart  skirmishes  took  place  between  the 
citizens  and  the  soldiers,  in  which  the  latter  were  generally  successful, 
so  that  Marmont  wrote  a  letter  to  the  king,  congratulating  him  on  the 
suppression  of  the  riot,  while  the  ministers  issued  their  last  ordinance, 
declaring  Paris  in  a  state  of  siege.  When  night  closed  in,  the  citizens 
destroyed  every  lamp  in  the  city,  thus  securing  the  protection  oi 
darkness  for  their  preparations  to  renew  the  struggle. 

On  the  morning  of  the  28th.  Marmont  was  astonished  to  find  that 
the  riots  which  he  had  deemed  suppressed,  had  assumed  the  formidable 
aspect  of  a  revolution.  The  citizens  were  ready  and  organized  for  u 
decisive  contest ;  they  were  in  possession  of  the  arsenal  and  the  powdei 
magazine  ;  they  had  procured  arms  from  the  shops  of  the  gunsmiths 
and  the  police  stations  ;  they  had  erected  barricades  across  the  principal 
streets,  and  had  selected  leaders  competent  to  direct  their  exertions 
Under  these  circumstances,  the  marshal  hesitated  before  taking  ant 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PEACE.  Gli.'^ 

Jecisive  step  ;  it  was  noon  before  he  had  resolved  how  to  act,  and  he 
then  determined  to  clear  the  streets  by  military  force.  He  divided 
his  troops  into  four  columns,  which  he  directed  to  move  in  different 
directions,  thus  unwisely  separating  his  forces,  so  that  they  could  not 
act  in  concert.  Every  step  taken  by  the  columns  was  marked  by  a 
series  of  murderous  conflicts  ;  they  were  assailed  with  musketry  from 
the  barricades,  from  the  windows  and  tops  of  houses,  from  the  corners 
of  streets,  and  from  the  narrow  alleys  and  passages  which  abound  in 
Paris.  When  the  cavalry  attempted  to  charge,  they  were  overwhelmed 
with  stones  and  articles  of  furniture  flung  from  the  houses  ;  their 
horses  stumbled  in  the  unpaved  streets,  or  were  checked  by  the  bar- 
ricades, while  the  citizens,  protected  by  their  dwellings,  kept  up  a 
heavy  fire,  which  the  disheartened  horsemen  were  vmable  to  return. 
Though  the  royal  guards  performed  their  duty,  the  troops  of  the  line 
showed  great  reluctance  to  fire  on  the  citizens,  and  hence  the  insur- 
gents were  enabled  to  seize  many  important  posts  with  little  or  no 
opposition.  When  evening  closed  the  troops  had  been  defeated  in 
every  direction  ;  they  returned  to  their  barracks,  weary,  h'vngry,  and 
dispirited  ;  by  some  inexplicable  blunder,  no  provision  was  made  for 
their  refreshment,  while  every  family  in  Paris  vied  in  supplying  the 
insurgents  with  everything  they  wanted. 

Marmont  was  now  fully  sensible  of  the  perils  of  his  situation  ;  he 
wrote  to  the  infatuated  king,  representing  the  dangerous  condition  ot 
Paris,  and  soliciting  fresh  instructions  ;  the  orders  he  received  in  reply, 
urged  him  to  persevere,  and  indirectly  censured  his  former  conduct,  by 
directing  him  "  to  act  with  masses." 

The  contest  was  renewed  on  the  morning  of  the  third  day,  the 
soldiers  evincing  great  feebleness,  while  the  populace  seemed  animated 
by  a  certainty  of  success.  While  the  issue  was  yet  doubtful,  two 
regiments  of  the  line  went  over  to  the  insurgents  in  a  body  ;  the  citizens 
thus  strengthened,  rushed  through  the  gap  which  this  defection  left  in 
the  royal  line,  took  the  Louvre  by  assault,  and  soon  compelled  the 
troops  that  remained  faithful  to  the  royal  cause,  either  to  lay  down 
their  arms  or  evacuate  Paris.  The  revolution  was  speedily  completed 
by  the  installation  of  a  provisional  government ;  measures  were  adopted 
for  the  speedy  convocation  of  the  chambers,  and  in  a  few  hours  the 
capital  had  nearly  assumed  its  ordinary  aspect  of  tranquillity. 

Charles  and  his  ministers  appear  to  have  believed  that  the  country 
would  not  follow  the  example  of  Paris.  They  were  speedily  convinced 
of  their  error ;  the  king  v/as  abandoned,  not  only  by  his  courtiers,  but 
even  by  his  household  servants  ;  he  was  forced  to  wail  helplessly  in 
iiis  country-seat,  until  he  was  dismissed  to  contemptuous  exile  by  the 
national  commissioners.  His  ministers  attempted  to  escape  in  disguise, 
but  were  most  of  them  arrested,  a  circumstance  which  occasioned 
great  perplexity  to  the  new  government.  In  the  meantime,  the  dukt 
of  Orleans,  far  the  most  popular  of  the  royal  family,  was  chosen  lieu 
tenant- general  of  the  kingdom,  and  when  the  chambers  met,  he  was 
elected  to  the  throne,  with  the  title  of  Louis  Philippe  L,  king  oi 
he  French. 

This  revolution  produced  an  extraordinary  degree  of  political 
excitement  throughout  Europe  ;    even  in    England  the   rick-burninga 


k 


fi90  MODERN  HISTORY. 

and  olLer  incendiary  acN  gave  formidable  signs  of  popular  discoiiteux 
but  the  personal  attaohmer.t  of  the  nation  to  the  sovereign,  and  tht 
prudent  measures  of  the  goveininent,  prevented  any  attempt  at  revo 
lutior..  When  parliament  assembled,  the  duke  of  Wellington  took  an 
early  opportunity  of  declaring  that  he  <vould  resist  any  attempt  to  make 
a  change  in  the  representative  system  of  the  country,  and  this  declar- 
ation, which  was  wholly  unexpected,  or  rather,  which  was  contrary  to 
very  general  expectations,  at  once  deprived  the  ministers  of  the  popu- 
larity they  had  hitherto  enjoyed.  An  event  of  trifling  importance  iu 
itself,  but  very  grave  in  its  consequences,  proved  still  more  injurious 
to  the  Wellington  administration.  The  king  had  been  invited  to  dine 
with,  the  lord-mayor  of  London  on  the  9th  of  Noveniber,  and  his 
ministers  were  of  course  expected  to  accompany  him.  All  the  prepar- 
ations were  complete,  when  a  city  magistrate,  having  heard  that  some 
persons  intended  to  insult  the  duke  of  Wellington,  in  consequence  ol 
his  late  unpopular  speech,  wrote  to  his  grace,  recommending  him  not 
to  come  without  a  military  escort.  The  riots  in  Paris  and  Brussels, 
which  had  commenced  with  trifling  disturbances,  and  ended  in  revo- 
lutions, were  too  recent  not  to  alarm  the  ministers ;  they  resolved  that 
the  king's  visit  to  the  city  should  be  postponed  to  some  more  favorable 
conjuncture. 

This  announcement  produced  a  general  p'anic  ;  business  was  sus- 
pended ;  the  funds  fell  four  per  cent,  in  a  {ew  hours :  the  city  of 
London  continued  in  the  greatest  anxiety  and  alarm,  for  every  one 
believed  that  some  dreadful  conspiracy  was  discovered  at  the  moment 
it  was  about  to  explode.  A  day  sufficed  to  show  that  no  substantial 
grounds  for  apprehension  existed,  and  people  excused  their  vain  terrors 
by  throwing  all  the  Mame  upon  the  government.  The  ministers  weie 
overwhelmed  with  a  storm  of  indignant  ridicule,  which  was  scarcely 
merited,  for  they  could  not  have  anticipated  such  an  extensive  and 
groundless  panic,  and  there  could  be  little  doubt  of  the  propriety  of 
removing  any  pretext  for  a  tumultuous  assembly  in  the  long  nights  of 
November. 

This  strange  occurrence  proved  fatal  to  the  ministry,  which  indeed 
had  previously  been  tottering.  On  a  question  of  confidence,  the 
ministers  were  defeated  by  a  majority  of  twenty-nine  in  the  house  of 
commons,  upon  which  the  duke  of  Wellington  and  his  colleagues 
immediately  resigned  their  offices.  A  new  ministry  was  formed  under 
the  auspices  of  Earl  Grey,  composed  of  the  old  whig  opposition,  and 
the  party  commonly  called  Mr.  Canning's  friends  ;  it  was  recommended 
to  the  nation  by  the  premier's  early  declaration,  that  the  principles  of 
his  cabinet  should  be  reform,  retrenchment,  and  peace. 

But  to  preserve  the  peace  of  Europe  was  now  a  task  of  no  ordinary 
difficulty.  The  excitement  produced  by  the  late  French  revolution  had 
aroused  an  insurrectionary  spirit  in  every  country  where  the  people  had 
to  complain  of  real  or  fancied  wrongs  ;  and  the  continental  sovereigns, 
alarmed  for  their  power,  looked  with  jealousy  on  every  movement  that 
seemed  likely  to  lead  to  a  popular  triumph.  The  emperor  of  Russia 
went  so  far,  as  to  hesitate  about  acknowledging  the  title  of  Louis 
Philippe  to  the  throne  of  France,  and  when  he  at  length  yielded  to  tho 
example  and  influence  of  the  other  European  states,  his  recognition  o( 


HISTORY  OF  THE  1  EACE.  097 

a  king  elected  by  the  people  was  so  relucta.nt  and  ungracious^  us  to  \^ 
deemed  an  insult  by  the  French  nation. 

Nowhere  did  the  insurrectionary  spirit  thus  excited  produce  more 
decisive  effects  than  in  Belgium,  whose  compulsory  union  with  Holland 
was  one  of  the  most  imwise  arrangements  of  the  congress  of  Vienna. 
The  Dutch  and  Flemings  differed  in  language,  in  habits,  and  in  reli- 
gion ;  their  commercial  interests  were  opposed,  their  national  antipa- 
thies were  ancient  and  inveterate.  In  the  midst  of  these  anxieties 
produced  by  the  events  in  Paris,  the  Dutch  ministers  continued  to  goad 
the  Belgians  by  restrictive  laws,  and  at  length  drove  them  into  open  re- 
volt. On  the  night  of  the  25th  of  August,  a  formidable  riot  began  in 
Brussels ;  the  Dutch  authorities  and  garrison,  after  having  exhibited 
the  most  flagrant  proofs  of  incapacity  and  cowardice,  were  driven  out, 
and  a  provisional  government  installed  in  the  city.  The  king  of  Hol- 
land hesitated  between  concession  and  the  employment  of  force ;  he 
adopted  a  middle  course  of  policy,  and  sent  nis  sons  to  redress  griev- 
ances, and  an  army  to  enforce  the  royal  authority ;  at  the  same  time  he 
convoked  the  states-general.  The  Dutch  princes  were  received  with 
such  coolness  at  Brussels,  that  they  returned  to  the  army  ;  soon  after, 
Prince  Frederick,  having  learned  that  the  patriots  were  divided  among 
themselves,  led  the  royal  troops  to  Brussels,  and  at  the  same  time  pub- 
lished an  amnesty,  but  unfortunately,  with  sach  sweeping  exceptions, 
that  it  should  rather  be  called  an  edict  of  proscription.  For  four  days 
the  Dutch  and  Belgians  contested  the  possession  of  the  city  with  equal 
want  of  skill  and  courage,  but  with  somewhat  more  of  energy  on  the 
part  of  the  insurgents.  Finally,  the  Dutch  were  driven  out,  and  a  pro- 
visional government  established.  Proposals  of  mediation  were  made 
by  the  prince  of  Orange,  which  were  disavowed  by  his  father,  the  king 
of  Holland,  and  equally  rejected  by  the  Flemings  ;  thus  refused  by 
both  parties,  he  allowed  matters  to  take  their  course,  and  Belgium  be- 
came an  independent  state.  Many  tedious  negotiations  and  discussions 
were  necessary  before  this  disarrangement  of  the  European  powers 
could  be  adjusted  so  as  to  avert  the  danger  of  a  general  war.  At  length 
Leopold,  prince  of  Saxe  Coburg,  nearly  connected  with  the  royal 
family  of  England,  was  elected  sovereign  of  the  new  kingdom,  and  to 
conciliate  his  subjects  and  strengthen  his  throne,  he  formed  a  matrimo- 
nial alliance  with  the  dauj.-hter  of  the  king  of  the  French. 

Germany  was  not  exempt  from  the  perils  of  popular  commotion.  In 
the  year  1813,  the  sovereigns  of  the  principal  German  states  had  prom- 
ised popular  constitrlions  to  their  subjects,  as  a  reward  for  their  exer- 
tions in  delivering  the  continent  from  the  tyranny  of  Napoleon.  These 
promises  had  not  been  fulfilled  ;  there  were  many  discontented  persons 
anxious  to  profit  by  the  example  of  France  and  Belgium,  but  fortunately, 
in  the  principal  states,  the  personal  character  of  the  sovereigns  had  so 
endeared  them  to  the  people,  that  no  insurrection  was  attempted.  In 
some  of  the  minor  states  there  were  slight  revolutions  ;  the  duke  of 
Brunswick  was  deposed  by  his  subjects,  and  the  thro^  e  transferred  to 
his  brother  ;  the  king  of  Saxony  was  forced  to  resign  in  favor  of  hi? 
nephew  ;  and  the  elector  of  Hesse  was  compelled  to  grant  a  constitu 
tional  charter. 

iSpain  continued  to  languish  under  the  iron  sway  of  Ferdinand  VII.  _ 


698  MODERN  HISTORY. 

the  people  generally  seemed  to  have  no  wish  for  liberty,  and  the  aboi 
live  efforts  to  establish  the  constitution  again  were  easily  quelled,  and 
cruelly  punished.  The  condition  of  Portugal  appeared  to  be  similar , 
Don  Miguel,  who  had  usurped  the  throne,  was  so  strenuously  supported 
Dy  the  priests  and  monks,  "Jiat  every  attempt  to  effect  a  change  seemed 
hopeless.  Italy  shared  in  the  excitement  of  the  time,  but  the  jealous 
watchfulness  of  Austria,  and  the  formidable  garrisons  which  that  power 
had  established  in  northern  Italy,  effectually  prevented  any  outbreak. 
Insurrectionary  movements  took  place  in  several  of  the  Swiss  cantons, 
but  the  disputes  were  arranged  with  promptness  and  equity,  so  speed- 
ily as  to  avert  the  horrors  of  civil  war. 

Poland  was  one  of  the  last  countries  to  catch  the  flame  of  insurrec- 
tion, but  there  it  raged  most  furiously.  Provoked  by  the  cruelties  of 
the  archduke  Constantine,  who  governed  the  country  for  his  brother, 
the  emperor  of  Russia,  the  Poles  took  up  arms,  at  a  time  when  all  the 
statesmen  of  Europe  were  intent  on  maintaining  peace,  and  were  there- 
fore compelled  to  withhold  their  sympathies  from  the  gallant  struggle. 
Unaided  and  unsupported,  the  Poles  for  nearly  two  years  maintained  an 
unequal  struggle  against  the  gigantic  power  of  Russia  ;  they  were 
finally  crushed,  and  have  ever  since  been  subjected  to  the  yoke  of  the 
most  cruel  despotism. 

France,  which  had  scattered  these  elements  of  discord,  was  far  from 
enjoying  tranquillity  itself.  The  republican  party  deemed  itself  be- 
trayed by.  the  election  of  a  king,  and  several  who  had  consented  to  thai 
arrangement  were  dissatisfied  with  the  limited  extension  of  popular 
privileges  gained  by  the  revolution.  A  great  number  of  idle  and  dis- 
contented young  men  were  anxious  to  involve  Europe  in  a  war  of  opin- 
ion, and  they  denounced  the  king  as  a  traitor  to  the  principles  which 
had  placed  him  on  the  throne,  because  he  refused  to  gratify  their  insane 
wishes.  The  total  separation  of  the  church  from  the  state  alienated 
the  French  clergy ;  while  the  royalists  recovered  from  their  first  terror, 
began  to  entertain  hopes  of  a  restoration.  Thus  surrounded  by  diffi- 
culties and  dangers,  Louis  Philippe  was  far  from  finding  his  throne  a 
bed  of  roses  ;  but  he  evinced  firmness  and  talent  adequate  to  the  occa- 
sion, and  he  was  zealously  supported  by  the  middle  classes,  who  looked 
upon  him  as  their  guarantee  for  constitutional  freedom  and  assured  tran- 
quillity. 

His  success,  however,  would  have  been  doubtful  but  for  the  efficient 
support  he  received  from  the  national  guard,  whose  organization  was 
rapidly  completed  in  Paris  and  the  provinces.  This  civic  body  re- 
pressed the  riots  of  the  workmen  and  artisans,  broke  up  the  meetings 
of  revolutionary  clubs,  and  frustrated  the  attempts  of  republican  fanatics, 
without  incurring  the  odium  which  would  have  been  attached  to  the  ex 
ertions  of  the  police  and  military.  The  severest  test  to  which  the 
stability  of  the  new  government  in  Paris  was  exposed,  arose  from  the 
trials  of  the  ministers  who  had  signed  the  fatal  ordinances.  Louis 
Philippe  made  ro  effort  to  seize  these  delinquents,  and  would  probably 
aave  been  rejoiced  at  their  escape  ;  four  of  them  were,  as  we  have 
said,  arrested  hy  some  zealous  patriots,  at  a  distance  from  Paris,  as 
ihey  were  endeavoring  to  escape  under  the  protection  of  false  pass- 
ports ;  the  government  had  no  option,  but  was  forced  to  send  them  for 


HISTOHY  OF  THE  PEACE.  699 

uial  before  the  chamber  of  peers.  The  partisans  of  anarchy  took  ad- 
rantage  of  the  popular  excitement  to  raise  formidable  riots,  which  might 
have  terminated  in  a  new  and  sanguinary  revolution,  but  for  the  zeal 
and  firmness  of  the  national  guard.  After  an  impartial  trial,  Polignac 
and  his  companions  were  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment  and 
civil  death,  and  were  quickly  removed  from  the  capital  to  a  distant  pris- 
on. Tranquillity  was  re-established  on  the  morning  of  the  third  day 
after  the  trial,  and  the  citizens  of  Paris  demonstrated  the  extent  of  theii 
late  alarms  by  the  brilliant  illuminations  with  which  they  celebrated  the 
restoration  of  order. 

England  was  deeply  engaged  in  an  attempt  to  remodel  her  constitu- 
tion. Early  in  1831,  the  new  premier  declared  that  "  ministers  had 
succeeded  in  framing  a  measure  of  reform,  which  they  were  persuaded 
would  piove  efficient  without  exceeding  the  bounds  of  that  wise  moder- 
ation with  which  such  a  measure  should  be  accompanied."  On  the  ■•  st 
of  March  the  measure  was  introduced  to  the  house  of  commons  by 
Lord  John  Russell,  andfrom  that  moment  to  its  final  success  it  almost 
wholly  engrossed  the  attention  of  the  country.  The  debate  on  the  first 
reading  of  the  bill  lasted  the  unprecedented  number  of  seven  nights  ; 
the  discussion  on  the  second  reading  was  shorter,  but  more  mimated  ; 
it  was  carried  only  by  a  majority  of  one.  Ministers  were  subsequently 
defeated  on  two  divisions,  and  at  their  instigation  the  king  hastily  dis- 
solved the  parliament.  The  elections  took  place  amid  such  popular  ex- 
citement, that  ardent  supporters  of  the  ministerial  measure  were  re- 
turned by  nearly  all  the  large  constituencies,  and  the  success  of  the 
reform  bill,  at  least  so  far  as  the  house  of  commons  Avas  concerned 
was  secured. 

The  reform  bill  passed  slowly  but  securely  through  the  house  of 
commons,  it  was  then  sent  up  to  the  lords,  and  after  a  debate  of  five 
nights,  rejected  by  a  majority  of  41.  Great  was  the  popular  disappoint- 
ment, but  the  promptitude  with  which  the  house  of  commons,  on  the 
motion  of  Lord  Ebrington,  passed  a  vote  of  confidence  in  ministers, 
and  pledged  itself  to  persevere  with  the  measure  of  reform,  calmed  the 
agitation  in  the  metropolis  and  the  greater  part  of  the  country.  Some 
serious  rio(,s,  however,  occurred  at  Derby  and  Nottingham,  which 
were  not  suppressed  until  considerable  mischief  was  done  ;  Bristol  suf- 
fered still  more  severely  from  the  excesses  of  a  licentious  mob,  who'se 
I'ury  was  not  checked  until  many  lives  were  lost,  and  a  great  amount  of 
valuable  property  wantonly  destroyed. 

While  the  excitement  respecting  the  reform  bill  was  at  the  highest 
a  new  pestilential  disease  was  imported  into  the  country.  It  was  called 
the  Asiatic  cholera,  because  it  first  appeared  in  India,  whence  it  grad- 
ually extended  in  a  northwestern  direction  to  Europe.  Its  ravages  in 
Great  Britain  were  not,  by  any  means,  so  great  as  they  had  been  in 
some  parts  of  the  continent,  yet  they  were  very  destructive  ;  they  wero 
met  by  a  bold  and  generous  offer  of  service  from  the  physicians 
throughout  the  empire,  and  their  conduct,  while  the  pestilence  pre- 
Failed,  reflected  the  highest  honor  on  the  character  of  the  medical  pro- 
"ession  in  Great  Britain. 

A  new  reform  bill  was  introduced  into  the  house  of  commons  im- 
modiiitf  ly  after  the  assembling  of  parliament ;  it  passed  there  with  lit- 


700  MODERN  niSTOR"\. 

tie  opposition,  and  was  sent  up  to  the  house  of  lords.  As  10  change 
had  been  made  in  the  constitution  of  that  body,  great  anxiety  was  feh 
respecting  the  fate  of  the  measure ;  but  some  peers,  who  had  formerly 
opposed  it,  became  anxious  for  a  compromise,  and  the  second  readint 
was  carried  by  a  majority  of  nine.  But  these  new  allies  of  the  minis- 
try were  resolved  to  maK.e  important  alterations  in  the  character  of  the 
measure,  and  when  the  bill  went  into  committee  the  ministers  found 
themselves  in  a  minority.  Earl  Grey  proposed  to  the  king  the  creation 
of  a  sufTicient  number  of  peers  to  turn  the  scale,  but  his  majesty  refused 
»o  proceed  to  such  extremities,  and  all  the  members  of  the  cabinet  re- 
signed. Tne  duke  of  Wellington  received,  through  Lord  Lyndhurst, 
his  majesty's  commands  to  form  a  new  admiiustration,  and  he  under- 
took the  task  in  the  face  of  the  greatest  difficulties  that  it  had  ever 
been  the  fate  of  a  British  statesman  to  encounter.  The  nation  was 
plunged  into  an  extraordinary  and  dangerous  state  of  excitement ;  the 
house  of  commons  by  a  majority  of  eighty,  virtually  pledged  itself  ti 
the  support  of  the  late  ministry  ;  addresses  to  the  crown  were  sent 
from  various  popular  bodies,  which  were  by  no  means  distinguished  by 
moderation  of  tone  or  language  ;  associations  were  formed  to  secure 
the  success  of  the  reform  measure,  and  the  country  seemed  brought  to 
the  verge  of  a  revolution.  Under  such  circumstance*  the  duke  of 
Wellington  saw  that  success  was  hopeless,  he  resigned  we  commission 
with  which  he  had  been  intrusted,  and  advised  his  majesty  to  renew  his 
communications  with  his  former  advisers.  Earl  Grey  returned  to  office  ; 
a  secret  compact  was  made  that  no  new  peers  should  be  created  if  the 
reform  bill  were  suffered  to  pass  ;  and  the  measure  having  been  rap- 
idly hurried  through  the  remaining  stages,  received  the  royal  assent  on 
the  7th  of  June.  The  Irish  and  Scotch  reform  bills  attracted  com- 
paratively but  little  notice  ;  a  law  for  enforcing  the  collection  of  tithes 
in  Ireland  was  more  vigorously  opposed,  and  the  ignorant  peasants  of 
Ireland  were  encouraged  by  their  advocates  to  resist  the  payment  of 
the  impost. 

While  England  was  -engrossed  by  the  discussions  on  the  reform  bill, 
the  new  monarchy  established  in  Fiance  was  exposed  to  the  most  im- 
minent dangers  from  the  republicans  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  partisans 
Oi"  the  exiled  family  on  the  other.  The  republican  party  was  the  more 
violent  and  infinitely  the  more  dangerous,  because,  in  the  capital  at 
least,  there  was  a  much  greater  mass,  to  whom  its  opinions  and  incen- 
tives were  likely  to  be  agreeable.  There  was  also  a  spirit  of  fanaticism 
in  its  members,  which  almost  amounted  to  insanity  ;  several  attempts 
were  made  to  assassinate  the  king,  and  his  frequent  escapes  may  bo 
justly  regarded  as  providential.  When  any  of  the  apostles  of  sedition 
we"e  brought  to  trial,  they  openly  maintained  their  revolutionary  doc- 
trines ;  treated  the  king  with  scorn  and  derision ;  inveighed  against  the 
existing  institutions  of  the  country  ;  entered  into  brutal  and  violent  al- 
tercations with  the  public  prosecutor ;  menaced  the  juries  and  insulted 
the  judges.  The  very  extravagance  of  this  evil  at  length  worked  out  a 
remedy  :  the  bombast  of  the  republicans  was  carried  to  sucii  an  excess 
of  absurdity,  that  it  became  ridiculous  ;  the  republicans  were  disarmed 
when  they  found  that  the  nonsense  of  their  inflated  speeches  produced 
not  intimidation,  but  shouts  of  laughter.     Moderate  men  took  courage  ; 


mSTORY  OF  THE  PEACE.  701 

the  middle  classes,  to  whose  prosperity,  peace  abroad  and  tranquillity 
at  lume  were  essentially  necessary,  rallied  round  the  monarchy,  and  tho 
republicans  were  forced  to  remain  silent,  until  some  new  excitement  of 
the  public  mind  would  afford  an  opportunity  for  disseminating  mischiev- 
ous falsehoods. 

An  insurrection  of  the  Carlists.  as  the  partisans  of  the  exiled  family 
were  called,  in  the  south  of  Fran^.e,  injured  the  cause  it  was  designed 
to  serve.  It  was  easily  suppressed,  but  the  government  learned  that 
the  dutchess  de  Berri,  whose  son,  the  duke  of  Bourdeaux,  was  the  legit- 
imate heir  to  the  crown,  had  made  arrangements  for  landing  in  La 
Vendee,  and  heading  the  royalists  in  the  province.  Such  preparations 
were  made,  that  when  the  dutchess  landed,  she  found  her  partisaua  dis- 
heartened, and  their  movements  so  closely  watched,  that  it  was  scarce- 
ly possible  for  them  to  assemble  in  any  force.  Still  she  resolved  to 
persevere,  but  the  enterprise  degenerated  into  a  scries  of  isolated  and 
insignificant  attacks,  made  by  small  bodies  in  a  strong  country,  and  the 
proceedings  of  the  royalists,  consequently,  resembled  those  of  brigands. 
The  dutchess  continued  five  months  in  the  country,  though  actively  pur- 
sued by  the  military  and  police  ;  she  was  at  length  betrayed  by  ^ne  of 
her  associates,  and  made  prisoner.  The  government  of  Louis  Philippe 
treated  the  royal  captive  with  great  clemency  ;  she  had  not  been  long  in 
prisr^n  when  it  was  discovered  that  she  was  pregnant,  having  been 
privately  married  some  time  before  her  arrest.  This  unfortunate  cir- 
cumstance threw  such  an  air  of  ridicule  over  the  entire  enterprise,  that 
the  royalists  abandoned  all  further  efforts  against  the  government. 

While  the  south  of  France  was  thus  agitated  by  the  royalists,  Paris 
narrowly  escaped  the  perils  of  a  republican  revolution.  The  funeral  of 
General  Lamarque  afforded  the  opportunity  for  this  outbreak,  which 
lasted  about  five  hours,  and  was  attended  with  great  loss  of  life.  The 
entire  body  of  the  military  and  all  the  respectable  citizens  supported 
the  cause  of  monarchy  and  good  order,  or  else  the  consequence  would 
have  been  a  new  revolution.  The  revolt  had  the  effect  of  strengthening 
the  ministerial  influence  in  the  chambers  ;  when  they  met,  the  opposi- 
tion could  not  muster  more  than  half  the  number  of  votes  that  supported 
the  cabinet. 

A  treaty  had  been  concluded  by  the  representative  of  the  five  great 
powers,  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  England,  arranging  the  conditions 
on  which  Belgium  should  be  separated  from  Holland  ;  to  these  terms 
the  Belgians  had  acceded,  but  they  were  declined  by  the  Dutch,  who 
still  retained  the  citadel  of  Antwerp.  A  French  army  entered  Belgium, 
and  proceeded  to  besiege  this  fortress  ;  it  was  taken  after  a  sharp  siege, 
and  was  immediately  given  up  to  a  Belgian  garrison,  the  French  re- 
tiring within  their  own  frontiers  in  order  to  avert  the  jealousies  and 
suspicions  of  the  European  powers. 

Turkey  was  exposed  to  the  greatest  danger,  by  the  rebellion  of  ita 
powerful  vassal,  the  pacha  of  Egypt.  Mohammed  Ali  was  anxious  to 
annex  Syria  to  his  territories,  a  dispute  with  the  governor  of  Acre 
furnished  him  a  pretext  for  invading  the  country  ;  the  sultan  command 
ed  him  to  desist,  and  on  his  refusal  treated  him  as  a  rebel ;  Mohammev* 
Ah  was  so  indignant,  that  he  extended  his  designs  to  the  whole  empire  , 
hid  forcen  routed  the  Turkish  armies  in  every  battle  ;  Syria  and  a  great 


"i^^  MODERN  HISTORY. 

part  ot'  Asia  Minor  were  subdued  with  little  di/Hcidty,  and  Constantino 
pie  itself  would  have  fallen  but  for  the  prompt  interference  of  Russia 
The  sultan  was  thus  saved  from  his  rebellious  vassal,  but  the  independ- 
ence of  his  empire  was  fearfully  compromised. 

The  declining  health  in  King  Ferdinand  directed  attention  to  the 
law  of  succession  in  Spain  :  his  on'y  child  was  an  infant  daughter,  and 
the  Salic  law,  introduced  by  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  excluded  females 
from  the  throne.  Ferdinand  had  repealed  this  law,  but  when  he  was 
supposed  to  be  in  his  mortal  agonies,  the  partisans  of  his  brother,  Don 
Carlos,  who  was  looked  upon  as  the  surest  support  of  the  priesthood 
and  of  arbitrary  power,  induced  him  to  disinherit  his  daughter,  and 
recognise  Don  Carlos  as  heir  to  the  crown.  The  very  next  day  Ferdi' 
nand  was  restored  to  consciousness  and  understanding ;  the  queen  in- 
stantly brought  before  him  the  injustice  he  had  been  induced  to  com- 
mit, and  the  king  was  so  indignant  that  he  not  only  dismissed  his  min- 
isters but  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of  the  liberal  party.  A  genera] 
amnesty  was  published  ;  those  who  had  been  exiled  for  supporting  the 
constitution  were  invited  home,  and  the  Carlist  party  was  so  discouraged 
that  it  sank  without  resistance.  Don  Carlos  himself,  his  wife,  and  his 
wife's  sister,  the  princess  of  Beira,  were  compelled  to  quit  Madrid  ; 
they  sought  and  found  shelter  with  Don  Miguel,  the  usurper  of  Portugal. 
On  the  20th  of  September,  1833,  Ferdinand  died :  his  daughter  was 
proclaimed  at  Madrid,  but  Carlist  insurrections  broke  out  in  several 
parts  of  Spain,  and  have  continued,  with  little  interruption,  almost 
ever  since. 

The  excitement  produced  by  the  French  revolution  extended  beyond 
the  Atlantic.  Don  Pedro,  emperor  of  Brazil,  was  compelled  by  his 
subjects  to  abdicate  the  throne  in  favor  of  his  infant  son  ;  an  event  tlie 
more  singular,  as  he  had  some  time  before  resigned  the  crov/n  of  Por- 
tugal in  favor  of  his  daughter,  Donna  Maria  de  Gloria.  When  Pedro 
returned  to  Europe,  he  resolved  to  assert  his  daughter's  rights,  which 
had  been  usurped  by  Don  Miguel  ;  soldiers  were  secretly  enlisted  in 
France  and  England,  the  refugees  from  Portugal  and  Brazil  were  form- 
ed into  regiments,  and,  after  some  delay,  a  respectable  armament  was 
collected  in  the  Azores,  which  had  reuiaiued  faithful  to  Donna  Maria. 
Pedro  resolved  to  invade  the  north  of  Portugal  ;  he  landed  near  Oporto, 
and  ma  le  himself  master  of  that  city ;  but  his  further  operations  were 
cramped  by  the  want  of  money,  and  of  the  munitions  of  war ;  Oporto 
was  invested  by  Don  Miguel,  and  for  several  months  the  contest  between 
the  two  brothers  was  confined  to  the  desultory  operations  of  a  siege. 
At  length,  in  the  summer  of  1833,  Don  Pedro  intrusted  the  command 
of  his  na.^al  force  to  Admiral  Napier  ;  this  gallant  officer,  after  having 
landed  a  division  of  the  army  in  the  province,  sought  Don  Miguel's 
fleet ;  though  superior  in  number  of  ships,  men,  and  weight  of  metal,  he 
attacked  it  with  such  energy,  that  in  a  short  time  ail  the  large  vessels  be- 
•onging  to  the  usurper  struck  their  colors.  This  brilliant  success,  fol- 
lowed by  the  capture  of  Ijisbon,  which  yielded  to  Pedro's  forces  with  little 
difficulty,  and  the  recognition  of  the  young  queen  by  the  principal 
powers  of  Europe,  proved  fatal  to  Miguel's  cause.  After  some  faint 
attempts  at  protracted  resislanci.,  he  abandoned  the  struggle,  and  sought 
shelter  in  Italy. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PEACE.  703 

Don  Pedro's  death,  which  soon  followed  his  triumph  did  little  injury 
lo  the  constitutional  cause.  His  daughter  retains  the  crown  ;  she  was 
married  first  to  the  prince  at  Leuchtenberg,  who  did  not  long  survive 
his  nuptials  ;  her  second  husband  is  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe  Coburg, 
nearly  allied  to  the  queen  of  Great  Britain, 

Several  disturbances  in  the  papal  states  gave  the  French  a  pretext 
for  seizing  the  citadel  of  Ancona,  which  gave  just  grounds  of  offence  to 
Austria.  But  neither  party  wished  to  hazard  the  perils  of  war.  The 
pope  excommunicated  all  the  liberals  in  his  dominions,  but  was  mortified 
lo  find  that  ecclesiastical  censures,  once  so  formidable,  were  now  ridic- 
ulous. When  the  French  evacuated  Ancona,  he  was  obliged  to  hire 
a  body  of  Swiss  troops  for  his  personal  protection,  and  the  pay  of  these 
mercenaries  almost  ruined  his  treasury.  To  such  a  low  estate  is  the 
papal  power  now  reduced,  which  was  once  supreme  'n  Europe,  and 
exercised  unlimited  sway  over  the  consciences  and  conduct  of  potentates 
and  nations. 

The  attention  of  the  first  reformed  parliament  of  Great  Britain 
was  chiefly  engrossed  by  domestic  afTairs.  In  consequence  of  the  con- 
tinued agrarian  disturbances  in  Ireland,  a  coercive  statute  Avas  passed, 
containing  many  severe  enactments  ;  but  at  the  same  time,  the  Irish 
church  was  forced  to  make  some  sacrifices,  a  tax  for  ecclesiastical 
purposes  was  levied  on  its  revenues,  and  the  number  of  bishoprics  was 
diminished. 

But  measures  of  still  greater  importance  soon  occupied  the  attention 
of  parliament ;  the  charter  of  the  bank  of  England  was  renewed 
on  terms  advantageous  to  the  country ;  the  East  India  company  was 
deprived  of  its  exclusive  commercial  privileges,  and  the  trade  to  Hin- 
dustan and  China  thrown  open  ;  but  the  company  was  permitted  to  re- 
tain its  territorial  sovereignty.  Finally,  a  plan  was  adopted  for  the 
abolition  of  AVest  India  slavery  ;  the  service  of  the  negro  was  changed 
into  apprenticeship  for  a  limited  period,  and  a  compensation  of  twenty 
millions  was  voted  to  the  planters.  There  was  a  very  active  though 
not  a  very  large  section  of  the  house  of  commons  dissatisfied  with  the 
limited  extent  of  change  produced  by  the  reform  bill ;  they  demanded 
much  greater  innovations,  and  they  succeeded  in  exciting  feelings  of  dia- 
content  in  the  lower  classes  of  the  community.  Popular  discontent 
was  not  confined  to  England,  it  was  general  throughout  Europe,  but 
fortunately  no  serious  efibris  were  made  to  dsturb  the  public  tran- 
quiflity. 

The  second  sessioi.  of  the  reformed  parliament  was  rendered  memor-' 
able  by  the  passing  of  an  act  for  altering  the  administration  of  the  poor 
laws,  which  was  very  fiercely  attacked  outside  the  walls  of  parliament. 
It  was,  however,  generally  supported  by  the  leading  men  of  all  parties  ; 
though  its  enactment  greatly  weakened  the  popularity  of  the  ministers. 
The  cabinet  was  itself  divided  respecting  the  policy  to  be  pursued 
toward  Ireland,  and  the  dissensions  resjiecting  the  regulation  of  the 
church,  and  the  renewal  of  the  Coercion  bill,  in  that  country,  arose  to 
buch  a  height,  that  several  of  the  ministry  resigned.  Lord  Melbourno 
Bucceeded  Earl  Grey  as  premier,  but  it  was  generally  believed  that  the 
king  was  by  no  means  pleased  with  the  change  ;  and  that  on  the  Iri^h 
olimch  question,  he  was  far  from  being  satistied  with  the  line  of  con- 


704  MODERN  HISTORY. 

duct  pursued  by  his  ministers.  In  the  month  of  November,  the  death 
of  Earl  Spencer  removed  Lord  AUhorp.the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
to  the  house  of  lords,  and  rendered  some  new  modifications  necessary. 
The  kino-  took  advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  dismiss  the  ministers, 
an  express  was  sent  to  summon  Sir  Robert  Peel  from  the  continent,  to 
assume  the  otHce  of  premier ;  and  the  duke  of  Wellington,  who  had 
administered  the  government  in  the  interim,  was  appointed  foreign 
secretary.  Parliament  was  immediately  dissolved,  and  the  three  king- 
doms were  agitated  by  a  violent  explosion  of  party  spirit.  A  tithe- 
affray  in  Ireland,  which  ended  with  the  loss  of  life,  supplied  the  oppo 
nents  of  the  ministry  with  a  pretext  for  rousing  the  passions  of  the 
peasantry  in  that  country,  and  of  this  they  availed  themselves  so  effec- 
tually, that  the  ministerial  candidates  were  defeated  in  almost  every 
election. 

While  the  country  was  anxiously  waiting  the  result  of  the  struggle 
between  the  rival  political  parties,  both  houses  of  parliament  were 
burned  to  the  ground.  This  event  at  first  excited  some  alarm,  but  it 
was  soon  allayed,  for  the  cause  of  the  fire  was  clearly  proved  to  be  ac- 
cidental. When  parliament  met.  Sir  Robert  Peel's  cabinet  was  found 
to  be  in  a  minority  in  the  house  of  commons.  The  premier,  however, 
persevered  in  spite  of  hostile  majorities,  until  he  was  defeated  on  the 
question  of  the  Irish  church,  when  he  and  his  colleagues  resigned. 
The  Melbourne  cabinet  was  restored,  with  the  remarkable  exception  of 
Lord  Brougham,  whose  place  as  chancellor  was  supplied  by  Lord  Cot- 
tenham. 

On  the  death  of  his  brother,  Don  Carlos,  after  a  vain  attem{)t  to  assert 
his  claims,  was  driven  frc»m  Spain  into  Portugal,  and  so  closely  pur- 
sued that  he  was  forced  to  take  refuge  on  board  an  English  ship-of-war. 
He  came  to  London,  where  several  abortive  efforts  were  made  to  in- 
duce him  to  abandon  his  pretensions.  But  in  the  meantime  his  parti- 
sans in  the  Biscayan  provnices  had  organized  a  formidable  revolt,  under 
a  brave  leader,  Zumalacarregui,  and  a  priest  named  Merino.  Don 
Carlos  secretly  quitted  Loi  don,  passed  through  France  in  disguise,  and 
appeared  at  the  head  of  tie  insurgenls.  A  quadrupartite  treaty  was 
concluded  between  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  and  England,  for  support- 
ing the  rights  of  the  infant  queen.  It  was  agreed  that  France  should 
guard  the  frontiers,  to  prevent  the  Carlists  from  receiving  any  aid  by 
land  ;  that  England  should  watch  the  northern  coasts  ;  and  thai  Portu- 
gal should  aid  the  queen  of  Spain  with  a  body  of  auxiliary  troop's  if 
necessary. 

Notwithstanding  these  arrangements,  the  Carlists  were  generally 
successlul,  and,  at  length,  the  court  of  Madrid  applied  to  England  for 
direct  assistance.  This  was  refused  ;  but  permission  was  given  to 
raise  an  auxiliary  legion  of  ten  thousand  men  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  couunand  of  which  was  intrusted  to  Colonel  Evans.  But  the  effect 
produced  by  this  force  was  far  inferior  to  what  had  been  expected ;  in 
the  dilaj)idated  state  of  the  Spanish  finances,  it  was  found  difficult  to 
supply  the  legion  with  pay,  provisions,  and  the  munitions  of  war.  A 
revolution  at  Madrid,  which  rendered  the  form  of  government  very 
democratic,  alienated  the  king  of  the  French  from  the  cause  of  the 
Spanish  (jueen,  and  the  war  lingered,  without  any  prospect  of  restored 


HISTORY  OF  THE  I'KACE.  705 

tranquillity.  At  the  end  of  its  second  year  of  service,  the  British  legion 
was  disbanded,  and  the  Spanish  government  and  its  auxiliary  force 
parted  with  feelings  of  mutual  dissatisfaction. 

After  the  departure  of  the  legion,  the  Carlists,  weary  of  the  war,  en- 
.ered  into  negotiations  with  the  queen  regent,  and  returned  to  their  alle- 
giance. Carlos  was  again  compelled  to  become  an  exile  ;  but  defeat 
could  not  break  his  spirit,  and  he  continued  to  declare  himself  the  right- 
ful heir  to  the  Spanish  crown,  though  rejected  by  the  people,  and  dis- 
avowed by  the  other  sovereigns  of  Europe.  Spain,  however,  was  too 
disorganized  fur  tranquillity  to  be  easily  restored  ;  the  queen  regent  en- 
deavored, with  more  good  will  than  ability,  to  reconcile  contending  fac- 
tions ;  but  her  efforts  proved  unavailing,  and,  wearied  of  her  situation, 
she  resigned  the  regency  in  the  summer  of  1840. 

The  people  of  England  generally  felt  little  interest  in  ihe  affairs  of 
Spain;  public  attention  was  principally  directed  to  the  state  cf  Ireland 
and  Canada.  The  great  Irish  questions  discussed  in  parliament  were, 
the  reform  of  the  corporations  on  the  same  plan  that  had  been  adopted 
in  the  reform  of  the  English  and  Scotch  corporations ;  the  regulation 
of  tithes,  and  the  establishment  of  a  provision  for  the  poor ;  but  the  dif- 
ferent views  taken  by  the  majorities  in  the  houses  of  commons  and 
lords,  prevented  the  conclusion  of  any  final  arrangements.  In  Canada, 
the  descendants  of  the  old  French  settlers,  for  the  most  part  bigoted  and 
ignorant,  viewed  with  great  dissatisfaction  the  superiority  to  which  the 
English  settlers  had  attained,  in  consequence  of  their  knowledge,  spirit, 
and  enterprise  ;  they  attributed  this  pre-eminence  to  the  partiality  of 
the  government,  and,  instigated  by  designing  demagogues,  clamored  for 
constitutional  changes,  little  short  of  a  recognition  of  their  independence. 
Their  demands  were  refused,  and  the  deluded  Canadians  were  persua- 
ded to  hazard  a  revolt.  After  a  brief  struggle,  the  insurgents  were  re- 
duced, and  since  the  termination  of  the  revolt,  Upper  and  Lower  Cana- 
da have  been  united  into  one  province  by  an  act  of  the  British  legisla- 
ture. 

Great  em.barrassment  was  produced  in  the  commercial  world  by  the 
failure  of  the  American  banks,  which  rendered  many  leading  merchants 
and  traders  unable  to  fulfil  their  engagements.  The  crisis  was  sensi- 
bly felt  in  England,  v/here  it  greatly  checked  the  speculations  in  rail- 
roads, which  perhaps  were  beginning  to  be  carried  to  a  perilous  ex 
tent ;  the  manufacturing  districts  suffered  most  severely,  but  the  prcs 
sure  gradutlly  abated,  and  trade  began  to  flow  in  its  accustomed  chan- 
nels. Parties  were  so  nicely  balanced  in  the  British  parliament,  thai 
DO  measure  of  importance  could  be  arranged  ;  a  further  gloom  wa.s 
thrown  over  the  discussions  by  the  increasing  illness  of  the  king,  and 
the  certainty  that  its  termination  must  be  fatal.  William  IV.  died  on 
the  morning  of  the  20th  of  June,  1837,  sincerely  regretted  by  every 
class  of  his  subjects.  During  the  seven  years  that  he  swayed  the 
sceptre,  England  enjoyed  tranquillity  both  at  home  and  abroad  ;  it  waa 
the  only  reign  in  British  history  in  which  there  was  no  execution  fin 
High  treason,  and  no  foreign  war. 

45 


'O'l  MODERN  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  Xir 

HISTORY    OF    COLONIZATION. 

In  order  to  avoid  frequent  interruptions  in  the  course  of  the  narrativt-. 
It  has  been  deemed  advisable  lO  reserve  the  account  of  the  principal 
European  colonies  for  the  close  of  tne  volume,  and  thus  to  bring  before 
the  reader  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features  in  modern  history.  The 
discovery  of  a  new  world  gave  an  extraordinary  impulse  to  emigration, 
and  produced  one  of  the  most  striking  series  of  events  in  the  annals  of 
mankind.  The  subject  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  great  parts — 
the  European  colonies  in  the  western,  and  those  in  the  eastern  world 
and  to  the  former  we  shall  first  direct  our  attention. 

Section  I. —  The  Establishment  of  the  Spaniards  in  Mexico. 

Immediatkly  after  the  discovery  of  America,  the  first  Spanish  colo- 
ny was  established  in  Hispaniola,  better  known  by  the  more  modern 
name  of  St.  Domingo.  The  queen  Isabella  had  given  strict  orders  to 
protect  the  Indians,  and  had  issued  a  proclamation  prohibiting  the 
Spaniards  from  compelling  them  to  work.  The  natives,  who  consid- 
ered exemption  from  toil  as  supreme  felicity,  resisted  every  attempt  to 
induce  them  to  labor  for  hire,  and  so  many  Spaniards  fell  victims  to 
the  diseases  peculiar  to  the  climate,  that  hands  were  wanting  to  work 
the  mines  or  till  the  soil.  A  system  of  compulsory  labor  was  therefore 
adopted  almost  by  necessity,  and  it  was  soon  extended,  until  the  Indians 
were  reduced  to  hopeless  slavery.  The  mines  of  Hispaniola,  when 
first  discovered,  were  exceedingly  productive,  and  the  riches  acquired 
by  the  early  adventurers  attracted  fresh  crowds  of  greedy  but  enterpri- 
sing settlers  to  its  shores.  The  hardships  to  which  the  Indians  were 
subjected,  rapidly  decreased  their  numbers,  and  in  the  same  proportion 
diminished  the  profits  of  the  adventurers.  It  was  therefore  resolved  to 
seek  new  settlements  ;  the  island  of  Puerto  Rico  was  annexed  to  the 
Spanish  dominions,  and  its  unfortunate  inhabitants  were  subjected  to 
the  same  cruel  tyranny  as  the  natives  of  Hispaniola.  The  island  of 
Cuba  was  next  conquered  ;  though  it  is  seven  hundred  miles  in  length, 
and  was  then  densely  populated,  such  was  the  un warlike  character  of 
the  inhabitants,  that  three  hundred  Spaniards  were  sufficient  for  its  total 
subjugation. 

More  important  conquests  were  opened  by  the  intrepidity  of  Balboa, 
who  had  founded  a  small  settlemcni,  on  the  isthmus  oi   Darn-n. 

At  length  the  Spaniards  b'^gan  to  prepare  an  expedition  for  establish 
ing  their  empire  on  the  American  continent.     An  armament  was  orgaii 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  707 

ized  in  Cuba,  and  tlie  command  intrusted  to  Fernando  Cortez,  a  com« 
inander  possessing  great  skill  and  bravery,  but  avaricious  and  cruel  even 
beyond  the  general  average  of  his  countrymen  at  that  period.  Oa  the 
2d  of  April,  1519,  this  bold  adventurer  entered  the  harbor  of  St.  Juan 
de  Uloa,  on  the  coast  of  Yucatan.  By  means  of  a  female  captive,  he 
was  enabled  to  open  communications  with  the  natives  ;  and  they,  in- 
stead of  opposing  the  entrance  of  these  fatal  guests  into  their  country, 
assisted  them  in  all  their  operations  with  an  alacrity  of  which  they  too 
soon  had  reason  to  repent.  The  Mexicans  had  attained  a  pretty  higli 
degree  of  civilization  ;  they  had  a  regular  government,  a  system  of  law, 
and  an  established  priesthood ;  they  recorded  events  by  a  species  of 
picture-writing,  not  so  perfect  as  the  Egyptian  system  cf  hieroglyphics, 
but  which,  nevertheless,  admitted  more  minuteness  and  particularity 
than  is  generally  imagined  ;  their  architectural  structures  were  remark- 
able for  their  strength  and  beauty ;  they  had  advanced  so  far  in  science 
as  to  construct  a  pretty  accurate  calendar  ;  and  they  possessed  consid 
erable  skill,  not  only  in  the  useful,  but  also  in  the  ornamental  arts  of 
life.  Cortez  saw  that  such  a  nation  must  be  treated  differently  from 
the  rude  savages  in  the  islands  ;  he  therefore  concealed  his  real  inten- 
tions, and  merely  demanded  to  be  introduced  to  the  sovereign  of  the 
country,  the  emperor  Montezuma. 

The  Indian  caziques  were  unwilling  to  admit  strangers  possessed  of 
such  formidable  weapons  as  muskets  and  artillery  into  the  interior  of  their 
country  ;  and  Montezuma,  who  was  of  a  weak  and  cowardly  disposition, 
was  still  more  reluctant  to  receive  a  visit  from  strangers,  of  whose 
prowess  he  had  received  an  exaggerated  description.  He  therefore  re- 
solved to  temporize,  and  sent  ambassadors  to  Cortez  with  rich  presents, 
declining  the  proposed  interview.  But  these  magniticent  gifts  served 
only  to  increase  the  rapacity  of  the  Spaniards.  Cortez  resolved  to  tem- 
porize ;  he  changed  his  camp  into  a  permanent  settlement,  which  sub- 
sequently grew  into  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  patiently  watched  from 
his  intrenchments  the  course  of  events.  He  had  not  long  continued  in 
this  position,  when  he  received  an  embassy  from  the  Zempoallans,  a 
tribe  which  had  been  long  discontented  with  the  government  of  Monte- 
zuma. He  immediately  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  these  disaf- 
fected -subjects,  and  sent  an  embassy  to  Spain  to  procure  a  ratitication 
of  his  powers,  and  set  fire  to  his  fleet,  in  order  that  his  companions,  de- 
prived of  all  hope  of  escape,  should  look  for  safety  only  in  victory.  Hav- 
ing completed  his  preparations,  he  marched  through  an  unknown  coun- 
try to  subdue  a  mighty  empire,  with  a  force  amounting  to  five  hundred 
foot,  fifteen  horsemen,  and  six  pieces  of  artillery.  His  first  hostile  en- 
counter was  with  the  Tlascalans,  the  most  warlike  race  in  Mexico  ; 
their  country  was  a  republic,  under  the  protection  of  the  empire,  and 
ihey  fought  with  the  fury  of  men  animated  by  a  love  of  freedom.  But 
nothing  could  resist  the  superiority  which  their  firearms  gave  the 
Spaniards  ;  the  Tlascalans,  after  several  defeats,  yielded  themselves 
as  vassals  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  and  engaged  to  assist  Cortez  in  all 
his  future  operations.  Aided  by  six  thousand  of  these  new  allies,  he 
advanced  to  Cholula,  a  town  of  great  importance,  where,  by  Montezu- 
ma's order,  he  was  received  vviih  open  professions  of  friendship,  while 
plans  were  secretlj  devised  for  his  destruction.     Cortez  discovered  the 


"708  MODERN  HISTORY. 

plot,  and  punished  it  by  the  massacre  of  six  thousand  of  the  ciii7rnb  ; 
the  rest  were  so  terrified,  that,  at  the  command  of  the  Spaniard,  thev 
returned  to  their  usual  occupations,  and  treated  with  the  utmost  respect 
the  men  whose  hands  were  stained  with  the  blood  of  their  countrymen. 

As  a  picture  of  national  prosperity  long  since  extinct,  we  shall  here 
insert  the  description  given  by  Cortez  in  his  despatches  to  the  Spanish 
monarch  of  the  ancient  city  of  Tlascala,  which  still  exists,  though  much 
decayed  :  "  This  city  is  so  extensive,  so  well  worthy  of  admiration, 
that  although  I  omit  much  that  I  could  say  of  it,  I  feel  assured  that  the 
little  I  shall  say  will  be  scarcely  credited,  since  it  is  larger  than  Gra- 
nada, and  much  stronger,  and  contains  as  many  fine  houses  and  a  much 
larger  population  than  that  city  did  at  the  time  of  its  capture  ;  and  it  is 
much  better  supplied  with  the  products  of  the  earth,  such  as  corn,  and 
pvith  fowls  and  game,  fish  from  the  rivers,  various  kinds  of  vegetables, 
and  other  excellent  articles  of  food.  There  is  in  this  city  a  market,  in 
which  every  day  thirty  thousand  people  are  engaged  in  buying  and 
selling,  besides  many  other  merchants  who  are  scattered  about  the  city. 
The  market  contains  a  great  variety  of  articles  both  of  food  and  clothing 
and  all  kinds  of  shoes  for  the  feet ;  jewels  of  gold  and  silver,  and  pre 
cious  stones,  and  ornaments  of  feathers,  all  as  well  arranged  as  they 
can  possibly  be  found  in  any  public  squares  or  markets  in  the  world. 
There  is  much  earthenware  of  every  style  and  a  good  quality,  equal  to 
the  best  of  Spanish  manufacture.  Wood,  cog,l,  edible  and  medicinal 
plants,  are  sold  in  great  quantities.  There  are  houses  where  they  wash 
and  shave  the  heads  as  barbers,  and  also  for  baths.  Finallj^  there  is 
found  among  them  a  well-regidated  police  ;  the  people  are  rational  and 
well  disposed,  and  altogether  greatly  superior  to  the  most  civilized  Af- 
rican nation." 

From  Cholula,  Cortez  advanced  toward  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  had 
almost  reached  its  gates  before  the  feeble  JNIontezuma  had  determined 
whether  he  should  receive  him  as  a  friend  or  as  an  enemy.  After  some 
hesitation,  Montezuma  went  forth  to  meet  Cortez,  with  all  the  magnifi- 
cence of  barbarous  parade,  and  granted  the  Spaniards  a  lodging  in  the 
capital. 

But  notwithstanding  his  apparent  triumph,  the  situation  of  Cortez 
was  one  of  extraordinary  danger  and  perplexity.  He  was  in  a  city  sur- 
rounded by  a  lake,  the  bridges  and  causeways  of  which  might  easily  be 
broken  ;  and  his  little  band,  thus  cut  off  from  all  communication  with  its 
allies,  must  then  have  fallen  victims  to  superior  numbers.  To  avert 
this  danger,  he  adopted  the  bold  resolution  of  seizing  Montezuma  as  a 
hostage  for  his  safety,  and  he  actually  brought  him  a  prisoner  to  the 
Spanish  quarters.  Under  pretence  of  gratifying  the  monarch's  curiosity 
to  see  the  structure  of  European  vessels,  the  Spaniards  built  two  brig- 
antines,  and  launched  them  on  the  lake,  thus  securing  to  themselves  the 
means  of  retreat  in  case  of  any  reverse  of  fortune. 

The  ostensible  pretext  for  this  act  of  violence  was  that  a  cazique, 
named  Qualpopoca,  had  slain  several  Spaniards  in  the  city  of  Nautecal 
or  Almeira.  The  account  which  Cortez  gives  of  the  transaction  is  too 
singular  tob"*  omitted,  especially  as  his  despatches  are  utterly  unknown 
in  this  country.  It  will  be  seen  that  he  never  gives  Montezuma,  or  af< 
he  writes  his  name,  Muteczuma  the  title  of  king  or  emperor,  but  sDeab- 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION  709 

of  him  as  if  his  right  to  royalty  had  been  sacriilceJ  from  the  mouieui 
that  the  Spaniards  had  landed  in  his  country. 

The  offending  cazique,  Qualpopoca,  was  brought  to  the  capital,  as  our 
readers  are  probably  aware,  and,  with  his  followers,  was  burnt  alive. 
Cortez  tells  this  part  of  the  story  with  much  naivete :  "  So  they  were 
publicly  burnt  in  a  square  of  the  city,  without  creating  any  disturbance  ; 
and  on  the  day  of  their  execution,  as  they  confessed  that  Muteczuma 
had  directed  them  to  kill  the  Spaniards,  I  caused  him  to  be  put  in  irons, 
which  threw  him  into  great  consternation."  All  this  was  manifestly 
done  merely  from  the  motives  above  intimated,  aamely,  "  to  subserve 
the  interests  of  your  majesty  and  our  own  security  ;"  yet  Cortez  had 
some  apprehension  lest  he  might  offend  royal  sympathies,  and  so,  in  re- 
spect of  his  demeanor  toward  Montezuma,  he  writes  to  the  emperor : — 

"  Such  was  the  kindness  of  my  treatment  toward  him,  and  his  own 
contentment  with  his  situation,  that  when  at  different  times  I  tempted 
him  with  the  offer  of  his  liberty,  begging  that  he  would  return  to  his 
palace,  he  as  often  replied  that  he  was  well  pleased  with  his  present 
quarters,  and  did  not  wish  to  leave  them,  as  he  wanted  nothing  that  he 
was  accustomed  to  enjoy  in  his  own  palace  ;  and  that  in  case  he  went 
away,  there  would  be  reason  to  fear  the  importunities  of  the  local  gov- 
ernors, his  vassals,  might  lead  him  to  act  against  his  own  wishes,  and 
in  opposition  to  your  majesty,  while  he  desired  in  every  possible  man- 
ner to  promote  your  majesty's  service  ;  that  so  far  he  had  informed 
them  what  he  desired  to  have  done,  and  was  well  content  to  remain 
where  he  was  ;  and  should  they  wish  to  suggest  anything  to  him,  he 
could  answer  that  he  was  not  at  liberty,  and  thus  excuse  himself  from 
attending  to  them." 

Cortez  thus  describes  the  original  city  of  Mexico,  which  he  soon  af- 
terward totally  destroyed  :  "  This  great  city  of  Temixtitan  [Mexico]  is 
situated  in  this  salt  lake,  and  from  the  main  land  to  the  denser  parts  of 
it,  by  whichever  route  one  chooses  to  enter,  the  distance  is  two  leagues. 
There  are  four  avenues  or  entrances  to  the  city,  all  of  which  are  formed 
by  artificial  causeways,  two  spears'  length  in  width.  The  city  is  as 
large  as  Seville  or  Cordova ;  its  streets  (I  speak  of  the  principal  ones) 
are  very  wide  and  straight ;  some  of  them,  and  all  the  inferior  ones,  are 
half  land  and  half  water,  and  are  navigated  by  canoes.  *  *  *  This 
city  has  many  public  squares,  in  which  are  situated  the  markets  and 
other  places  for  buying  and  selling.  There  is  one  square  twice  as  large 
as  that  of  the  city  of  Salamanca,  surrounded  by  porticoes,  where  are 
daily  assembled  more  than  sixty  thousand  souls,  engaged  in  buying  and 
selling ;  and  where  are  found  all  kinds  of  merchandise  that  the  world 
affords,  embracing  the  necessaries  of  life,  as,  for  instance,  articles  of 
food,  as  well  as  jewels  of  gold  and  silver,  lead,  brass,  copper,  tin,  pre- 
cious stones,  bones,  shells,  snails,  and  feathers.  There  are  also  ex- 
posed for  sale  wrought  and  unwrought  stone,  bricks  burnt  and  uuburnt, 
timber  hewn  and  unhewn,  of  different  sorts.  *  *  *  Every  kind  of 
merchandise  is  sold  in  a  particular  street  or  quarter  assigned  to  it  exclu- 
sively, and  thus  the  best  order  is  preserved.  They  sell  everything  by 
number  or  measure  ;  at  least  so  far  we  have  not  observed  them  to  sell 
anything  by  weight.  There  is  a  building  in  the  great  square  that  is 
used  as  an  audience-house,  where  ten  or  twelve  persons,  who  are  ma- 


no  MODERN  HISTORY. 

gfistrates,  sit  and  decide  all  controversies  that  arise  in  the  market,  and 
order  delinquents  to  be  punished.  In  the  same  square  there  are  ollie: 
persons  who  go  constantly  about  among  the  people,  observing  what  i^ 
sold,  and  the  measures  used  in  selling  ;  and  they  have  been  seen  to 
break  measures  that  were  not  true.  This  great  city  contains  a  large 
number  of  tpmples,  or  houses  for  their  idols,  very  handsome  ediriccs, 
"A'hich  are  situated  in  the  different  districts  and  the  suburbs  :  in  the  prin- 
cipal ones  religious  persons  of  each  particular  sect  are  constantly  resi- 
ding, for  whose  use  beside  the  houses  containing  the  idols  there  arc 
other  convenient  habitations.  Ml  these  persons  dress  in  black,  and 
never  cut  or  comb  their  hair  from  the  time  they  enter  the  priesthood 
until  they  leave  it ;  and  all  the  sons  of  the  principal  inhabitants,  both 
nobles  and  respectable  citizens,  are  placed  in  the  temples,  and  wear  the 
same  dress  from  the  age  of  seven  or  eight  years  until  they  are  taken  out 
to  be  married  ;  which  occurs  more  frequently  w'^h  the  first-born  who 
inherit  estates  than  with  the  others.  The  priests  are  debarred  from  fe- 
male society,  nor  is  any  woman  permitted  to  enter  the  religious  houses. 
They  also  abstain  from  eating  certain  kinds  of  food,  more  at  some  sea- 
sons of  the  year  than  others.  Among  these  temples  there  is  one  which 
far  surpasses  all  the  rest,  whose  grandeur  of  architectural  details  no 
human  tongue  is  able  to  describe  ;  for  within  its  precincts,  surrounded 
by  a  lofty  wall,  there  is  room  enough  for  a  town  of  five  hundred  fami- 
lies. Around  the  interior  of  this  enclosure  there  are  handsome  edifices, 
containing  large  halls  and  corridors,  in  which  the  religious  persons  at- 
tached to  the  temple  reside.  There  are  full  forty  towers,  which  are 
lofty  and  well  built,  the  largest  of  which  has  fifty  steps  leadini;  to  its 
main  body,  and  is  higher  than  the  tower  of  the  principal  church  at 
Seville.  The  stone  and  wood  of  which  they  are  constructed  are  so 
well  wrought  in  every  part,  that  nothing  could  be  better  done,  for  the 
interior  of  the  chapels  containing  the  idols  consists  of  curious  imagery, 
wrought  in  stone,  with  plaster  ceilings,  and  woodwork  carved  in  relief 
and  painted  with  figures  of  monsters  and  other  objects.  All  these  tow- 
ers are  the  burial-places  of  the  nobles,  and  every  chapel  in  them  ia 
dedicated  to  a  particular  idol,  to  which  they  pay  their  devotions." 

But  danger  impended  over  Cortez  from  an  unexpected  quarter.  The 
governor  of  Cuba,  anxious  to  share  in  the  plunder  of  Mexico,  of  whose 
wealth,  great  as  it  really  was,  he  had  received  very  exaggerated  state- 
ments, sent  a  new  armament,  under  the  command  of  Narvaez,  to  deprive 
the  conqueror  of  the  fruits  of  his  victory.  Cortez,  leaving  a  small  gar- 
rison in  Mexico,  marched  against  Narvaez,  and  by  a  series  of  prudent 
operations,  not  only  overcame  him,  but  induced  his  followers  to  enlist 
under  his  own  banners.  This  reinforcement  was  particularly  valuable 
at  a  time  when  the  Mexicans,  weary  of  Spanish  cruelty  and  tyranny, 
had  resolved  to  make  the  most  desperate  efforts  for  expelling  the  inva- 
ders. Scarcely  had  Cortez  returned  to  Mexico,  when  his  quarters  were 
attacked  with  desperate  fury  ;  and  though  thousands  of  the  assailants 
were  slain,  fresh  thousands  eagerly  hurried  forward  to  take  their  place 
At  length  Cortez  brought  out  Montezuma  in  his  royal  robes  on  the  ram- 
parts, trusting  that  his  influence  over  his  subjects  would  induce  them  to 
iiuspend  hostilities.  But  the  unfortunate  emperor  was  mortally  wounded 
by  a  missile  flung  by  one  of  his  own  subjects  ;  and  Cortez,  having  done 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  71] 

everything  wluch  prudence  and  valor  could  dictate,  was  forced  to  aban 
don  the  capital.  The  Spaniards  suffered  severely  in  this  calamitous 
retreat ;  they  lost  their  artillery,  ammunition,  and  baggage,  together  with 
the  greater  part  of  the  treasure  for  which  they  had  encountered  so  many 
perils.  A  splendid  victory  at  Otumba,  over  the  Mexicans,  who  attempt- 
ed to  intercept  them,  restored'the  confidence  of  the  Spaniards,  and  they 
reached  the  friendly  territories  of  the  Tlascalans  in  safety.  Having  col- 
lected some  reinforcements,  and  by  judicious  arts  revived  the  courage 
of  his  men,  Cortez  once  more  advanced  toward  Mexico,  and,  halting  on 
the  borders  of  the  lake,  he  began  to  build  some  brigantines,  in  order  to 
attack  the  city  by  water.  While  thus  engaged,  he  succeaded  in  de- 
taching many  of  the  neighboring  cities  from  their  allegiance  to  the  new 
emperor,  Guatimozin  ;  and  having  obtained  some  fresh  troops  from  His- 
paniola,  he  prepared  for  a  vigorous  siege  by  launching  his  brigantines 
on  the  lake.  Guatimozin  made  a  gallant  resistance,  and  repulsed  the 
Spaniards  in  an  attempt  to  take  the  city  by  storm  ;  but  being  i.nable  to 
resist  the  slower  operations  of  European  tactics,  he  attempted  to  escape 
over  the  lake,  when  his  canoe  was  intercepted  by  a  brigantine,  and  the 
unfortunate  emperor  remained  a  prisoner.  As  soon  as  the  fate  of  their 
sovereign  was  known,  the  resistance  of  the  Mexicans  ceased,  and  all 
the  provinces  of  the  empire  imitated  the  example  of  the  capital.  Gua- 
timozin was  cruelly  tortured  to  extort  a  confession  of  concealed  treas- 
ure, and  his  unfortunate  subjects  became  the  slaves  of  their  rapacious 
conquerors.  Cortez  himself  was  treated  with  gross  ingratitude  by  his 
sovereign,  whose  dominions  he  had  enlarged  by  the  con.juest  of  an 
empire,  and  he  died  in  comparative  obscurity. 

The  first  thought  of  the  conquerors  was  to  propagate  the  Christian 
faith  in  their  new  dominions,  not  only  from  motives  of  bigotry,  but  in 
obedience  to  the  soundest  dictates  of  prudence.  Missionaries  were  in- 
vited from  Europe  to  aid  in  the  great  work  of  civilization  ;  between  the 
years  1522  and  1545,  numbers  of  monastics  came  from  various  parts  of 
the  world  to  aid  in  the  conversion  of  Mexico.  Many  practices  unknown 
to  the  Roman  ritual  were  admitted  and  consecrated. 

It  must  not  be  omitted  that  the  missionaries  honorably  exerted  them- 
selves to  protect  the  Mexicans  from  the  sanguinary  cruelty  of  the  Span- 
ia;ds;  Sahagun  and  Las  Casas  were  particularly  famous  for  their  ex- 
ertions in  behalf  of  the  vanquished  ;  they  obtained  bulls  from  the  pope, 
and  edicts  from  the  Spanish  government,  fully  recognising  the  claims 
of  the  Indians  to  the  rights  of  humanity,  and  though  they  failed  to  ob- 
tain a  full  measure  of  justice  for  the  native  Mexicans,  they  saved  them 
from  the  wretched  fate  which  swept  away  the  native  population  in 
almost  every  other  colony  of  Spain.  In  consequence  of  the  protection 
thus  accorded  them,  both  by  the  secular  and  regular  clergy,  the  attach- 
ment of  the  native  Mexicans  to  the  Romish  religion  became  more 
ardent  and  passionate  than  that  of  the  Spaniards  themselves,  and  i( 
Btill  continues  to  be  felt,  though  the  country  has  been  restored  to  in 
dependence. 

The  edicts  of  the  Spanish  monarchs  in  favor  of  the  Indians  were 
disregarded ;  the  population  began  to  decrease  rapidly,  and  a  new  sys 
tem  was  adopted  by  which  oppression  was  reduced  to  an  organized 
form,  and  aaielic>rated  by  being  placed  under  the  control  of  the  govern 


H"  MODERN  HISTORY. 

rrent.  It  was  determined  that  the  native  Americans  should  be  regaideil 
as  serfs  attached  to  the  soil,  and  distributed  into  encomicndas,  a  kind 
of  fiefs  or  estates  established  in  favor  of  the  Spanish  settlers,  who  took 
the  name  of  Conquistadores.  Slavery,  which  had  previously  been  ar- 
bitrary, was  thus  invested  with  legal  forms  ;  the  Indian  tribes  dividec 
into  sections,  some  of  which  contained  more  than  a  hundred  families, 
were  assigned  either  to  the  soldiers  who  had  distniguished  themselves 
m  the  war  of  invasion,  or  to  the  civilians  sent  from  Madrid  to  adminis- 
ter the  government  of  the  provinces.  It  was  fortunate  for  the  Mexicans 
that  their  masters  did  not  erect  fortified  castles,  like  the  feudal  baron's 
of  the  middle  ages  ;  instead  of  these  they  established  hacit-ndas,  or 
large  farms,  which  they  had  the  wisdom  to  govern  according  to  the  old 
forms  of  the  Mexican  proprietary.  There  was  no  change  or  interrup- 
tion :n  the  cultivation  of  plants  indigenous  to  the  soil ;  the  serf  cultiva- 
ted the  soil  acr  trding  to  hereditary  routine,  and  so  identified  himself 
with  his  master,  that  he  frequently  took  his  name.  There  are  many 
Indian  families  of  the  present  day  bearing  Spanish  na.nes,  whose  blood 
has  never  been  mingled  with  that  of  Europeans.  Anotlier  fortunate 
circumstance  contributed  to  the  preservation  of  the  native  Mexicans ; 
the  Spanish  settlers  in  that  country  did  not  enter  into  any  of  those 
mining  speculations  Avhich  led  their  brethren  in  Hispaniola  and  other 
islands  of  the  Antilles  to  sacrifice  the  natives  by  myriads  to  their  grasp- 
ing cupidity.  The  Conquistadores  had  neither  the  capital  nor  the  in- 
telligence necessary  for  such  enterprises ;  they  contented  themselves, 
in  imitation  of  the  natives,  with  washing  the  earth,  silt,  and  sands, 
brought  down  from  the  mountains  by  rivers  and  winter  torrents,  to  ex- 
tract the  grains  of  gold  which  they  contained.  The  mines  of  Mexico, 
which  have  spread  so  much  of  the  precious  metals  over  the  surface  of 
the  globe,  were  not  discovered  until  after  the  conquest,  and  brought 
very  trifling  profits  to  those  who  first  attempted  their  exploration.  The 
loss  of  these  speculators  was  a  positive  gain  to  humanity. 

Up  to  the  eighteenth  century  the  condition  of  the  Mexican  peasants 
was  very  little  difl^erent  from  that  of  the  serfs  in  Poland  or  Russia. 
About  that  period  their  condition  began  to  be  sensibly  ameliorated. 
Many  families  of  Conquistadores  became  extinct,  and  the  encomiendas 
were  not  again  distributed  by  the  government.  The  viceroys  and  the 
provincial  councils,  called  Audiencias,  paid  particular  attention  to  the 
interests  of  those  Indians  who  were  liberated  by  the  breaking  up  of  the 
encomiendas ;  they  abolished  every  vestige  of  compulsory  labor  in  the 
mines,  requiring  that  this  employment  should  be  voluntary,  and  fairly 
remunerated.  Several  abuses,  however,  prevailed  in  the  colonial  ad- 
ministration, from  the  monopolies  established  by  the  agents  ot  the  Span 
ish  governments ;  they  conferred  upon  themselves  the  exclusive  priv 
ilege  of  selling  those  articles  most  likely  to  be  used  by  an  agricultural 
population,  and  fixed  whatever  price  they  pleased  upon  these  commodi- 
ties. Having  thus,  by  a  system  of  force  and  fraud,  got  the  Indians 
deeply  into  their  debt,  they  established  a  law  by  which  insolvent  debt- 
ors became  the  absolute  slaves  of  their  creditors.  Mar.y  edicts  were 
issued  to  check  these  abuses,  but  they  were  not  effectually  remedied 
iintil  after  the  revolution  which  gave  independence  to  Mexico. 

We  shall  now  briefiy  state  thp  nJrcumstanres  which  led  to  the  as 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  713 

sertion  of  Mexican  independence.  On  the  8th  of  July,  ISC  8,  a  corveUe 
from  Cadiz  brought  intelligence  of  the  dethronement  of  the  Si)anisl. 
Bourbons,  by  Napoleon,  and  the  transfer  of  the  monarchy  to  Joseph 
Bonaparte.  The  viceroy  at  first  published  the  news  without  a  word 
of  comment,  but  soon  recovering  from  his  first  surprise,  he  issued  a 
proclamation  declaring  his  intention  to  preserve  his  fidelity  to  King 
Ferdinand,  and  exhorting  the  Mexican  people  to  maintain  the  rights  of 
their  legitimate  sovereign.  It  was  the  first  time  that  "  the  people"  had 
been  named  in  any  act  of  state,  emanating  from  the  colonial  govern- 
ment, and  this  was  among  the  chief  causes  of  the  extraordinary  enthu- 
siasm with  which  the  viceroy's  appeal  was  received.  It  was  proposed 
to  establish  a  provisional  government  on  the  model  of  the  juntas,  which 
had  been  formed  by  the  patriots  in  Spain.  This  proposition,  favorably 
received  by  the  viceroy,  was  rejected  by  his  council  as  inconsister. 
with  the  ascendency  which  had  hitherto  been  enjoyed  by  all  pure  Span- 
iards ;  three  months  were  spent  in  controversy,  until  at  length  the 
council  or  audiencia  took  the  bold  measure  of  arresting  the  viceroy, 
and  throwing  him  into  the  prisons  of  the  inquisition  on  a  charge  of 
heresy.  As,  however,  there  was  some  danger  that  the  populace  might 
rise  in  his  favor,  the  audiencia,  having  first  invested  itself  with  the 
functions  of  regency,  sent  the  governor  a  prisoner  to  Cadiz,  where  he 
was  long  confined  in  a  dungeon. 

The  Creoles  and  Indians  were  indignant  at  this  usurpation,  and  they 
were  still  more  enraged  by  the  undisguised  contempt  with  which  their 
claims  were  treated  by  the  Spanish  oligarchy.  Bataller,  one  of  the 
leading  members  of  the  council,  was  accustomed  to  say  that  "  no  na- 
tive American  should  participate  in  the  government,  so  long  as  there 
was  a  mule-driver  in  La  Mancha,  or  a  cobbler  in  Castille  to  represent 
Spanish  ascendency."  The  juntas  of  Spain,  though  engaged  in  a  des- 
perate struggle  for  their  own  freedom,  were  obstinate  in  their  resolu- 
tion to  keep  the  colonies  in  dependance,  and  they  sent  out  Venegas  as 
viceroy,  with  positive  orders  to  maintain  the  ascendency  of  the  Span- 
iards, and  keep  the  Creoles  and  Indians  in  their  own  condition  of 
degradation. 

A  pries  of  Indian  descent,  Hidalgo,  the  curate  of  Dolores,  raised 
the  standard  of  revolt ;  he  declared  to  his  congregation  that  the  Eu- 
ropeans bad  formed  a  plot  to  deliver  up  the"  country  to  the  French  Ja- 
cobins ;  he  exhorted  them  to  take  up  arms  to  defend  their  liberties  and 
their  religion,  and  to  march  boldly  to  battle  in  the  name  of  King  Fer- 
dinand and  the  blessed  Virgin.  On  the  ]  8th  of  September,  1810,  he 
made  himself  master  of  San  Felipe,  and  San  Miguel  el-Grande ;  he 
confiscated  the  property  of  all  the  Europeans,  declaring  thnt  the  soil  of 
Mexico  belonged  of  right  to  the  Mexicans  themselves.  Several  othei 
cities  were  conquered,  and  in  all  of  them  the  Indians  and  Creoles  sac- 
rificed every  European  without  mercy,  their  commander  seeming  to 
wink  at  their  excesses,  which  he  trusted  would  prevent  terms  of  peace 
Vom  being  offered  or  accepted. 

Venegas,  the  viceroy,  made  the  most  vigorous  efforts  to  check  the 
progress  of  this  rebellion  ;  he  conciliated  the  Creoles  by  investing  one 
of  their  body  with  high  military  rank ;  he  caused  Hidalgo  to  be  excora 
tnunicated  by  the    ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  he  paraded  an  ioiagt 


714  MODERN  HISTORY 

of  the  Virgin,  Lo  wliicli  superstition  attached  miracuh  us  powers,  hrougl. 
the  streets  of  Mexico.  This  last  expedient  caused  Hidalgo  to  stop 
short  in  the  midst  of  his  victorious  career,  and  at  a  time  when  he  was 
joined  by  several  regiments  of  provincial  militia,  and  by  the  curate 
Morelos,  whose  abilities  were  equivalent  to  a  host.  Hidalgo  retired 
from  before  the  walls  of  Mexico,  which  could  not  have  resisted  a  vigor- 
ous assauk.  He  was  overtaken  and  defeated  by  an  army  of  Spaniards 
and  Creoles  ;  several  of  the  towns  which  had  submitted  to  him  were 
recaptured,  and  the  victors  more  than  retaliated  the  sanguii\ary  excesses 
of  the  insurgents.  The  royal  army  continued  to  pursue  Hidalgo  and 
his  half-armed  associates ;  a  second  victory  completed  their  ruin ; 
Hidalgo  and  two  of  his  principal  officers  endeavoring  to  escape  to  the 
United  States  were  betrayed  to  the  Spaniards,  March  21,  1811,  and 
after  a  long  confinement,  in  which  they  were  vainly  tortured  to  obtain 
a  confession  of  the  extent  of  the  conspiracy,  they  were  publicly 
executed. 

The  dispersed  army  of  Hidalgo  divided  itself  into  separate  bands 
and  maintained  a  ruinous  guerilla  warfare  against  their  oppressors 
Rayon  and  Morelos  resolved  to  unite  them  once  more  in  a  grand 
scheme  of  patriotic  warfare.  Rayon  caused  a  national  junta  to  be  es- 
tablished in  the  district  where  the  Spaniards  had  least  power ;  and  in 
its  name  an  address  was  sent  to  the  viceroy  requiring  him  to  convoke 
a  national  cortes,  similar  to  that  which  had  been  assembled  in  Spain, 
and  insisting  on  the  equality  of  the  American  and  the  European  Span- 
iards in  all  political  rights.  The  tone  of  this  manifesto  was  equally 
firm  and  respectful,  but  it  gave  such  offence  to  the  viceroy  Venegas 
that  he  ordered  it  to  be  burned  by  the  common  hangman  in  the  market 
place  of  Mexico. 

Morelos,  who  had  succeeded  to  the  influence  of  Hidalgo,  prudently 
initiated  his  troops  to  habits  of  discipline  in  skirmishes  and  petty  enter- 
prises before  venturing  on  any  decisive  engagement  with  the  regulai 
armies  of  Spain.  His  defence  of  Cuantha,  where  he  was  besieged  by 
the  royalists  for  several  weeks,  gave  lustre  to  his  very  defeat.  Yield- 
ing to  famine,  he  evacuated  the  town,  and  led  his  army  to  Izucar,  with 
the  loss  of  only  seventeen  men.  The  barbarous  cruelties  perpetrated 
by  the  Spanish  General  Calleja  in  the  town  after  the  garrison  had  with- 
drawn, rendered  the  royali.st  cause  so  odious,  that  many  who  had  hith- 
erto supported  the  viceroy  passed  over  to  the  ranks  of  the  insurgents. 
It  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  the  battles,  skirmishes,  and  sieges 
which  filled  the  next  two  years  ;  we  must  limit  ourselves  to  saying  thai 
Morelos  was  continuously  successful  until  the  close  of  the  year  1813 
when  he  was  decisively  defeated  by  Iturbide.  Thenceforward  his 
career  was  one  continued  series  of  misfortunes,  until,  on  the  5th  of 
November,  1815,  he  was  surprised  by  an  overwhelming  force,  anu 
made  prisoner  after  a  desperate  resistance.  He  was  carried  in  chains 
to  Mexico,  degraded  from  his  clerical  rank,  and  executed.  The  Mexi- 
can junta,  or  congress,  was  soon  after  dissolved,  and  the  revolt  became 
once  more  a  confused  series  of  partial  and  desultory  insurrections  which 
the  Spaniards  hoped  to  quell  in  detail.  In  1817  the  younger  Mina  at 
toiiipted  to  rekindle  the  flames  of  insurrection  in  Mexico  ;  but,  as  he 
refused  to  assert  the  absolute  independence  of  the  cotm«''y,  he  did  not 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  715 

receive  such  entliusiastic  support  as  Hidalgo  or  Morelos.     After  a  bril 
liant  career,  in  which  he  displayed  the  most  extraordinary  bravery  and 
resources  of  genius,  he  was  overthrown,  made  prisoner,  ai.d  shot  as  a 
traitor. 

The  insurrection  in  Mexico  was  virtually  at  an  end,  when  news  ar- 
rived that  the  army  which  had  been  assembled  in  Spain  to  restore  the 
absolute  authority  of  the  sovereign  in  Amenca,  had  revolted  at  Cadiz, 
proclaimed  the  constitution,  aiid  demanded  the  convocation  of  the  cortes. 
The  viceroy,  Apodaca,  was  a  devoted  partisan  of  absolute  power  ;  he 
formed  a  plan  for  inviting  Ferdinand  to  Mexico,  and  there  restoring 
nim  to  his  despotic  authority,  and  he  employed  as  his  chief  agent  Don 
Augustin  Iturbide,  who  had  shown  himself  a  bitter  enemy  of  iMexican 
liberty  during  the  entire  course  of  the  preceding  insurrection.  Iturbide 
drew  up  a  very  different  plan  from  that  which  Apodaca  had  contem- 
plated ;  it  asserted  the  civic  equality  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  Mexico, 
established  a  constitution,  proclaimed  the  country  independent,  invited 
Ferdinand  to  become  its  sovereign  with  the  title  of  emperor,  and  in 
case  of  his  refusal  declared  that  the  crown  should  be  proffered  to  some 
other  prince  of  the  blood.  The  old  Spaniards  of  Mexico,  in  a  storm  of 
mingled  rage  and  fear,  deposed  Apodaca,  and  chose  Fr  mcisco  Novello 
viceroy  in  his  place.  This  false  step  rendered  Iturbide  irresistible  ; 
the  Creoles  and  Indians  flocked  to  his  standard  ;  several  Spanish  offi- 
cers, disliking  the  new  viceroy,  joined  him  with  their  regiments  ;  and 
on  the  27th  of  November,  1821,  the  royalist  army  surrendered  the  cap- 
ital, and  consented  to  evacuate  Mexico.  The  treaty  which  the  viceroy 
had  concluded  with  the  insurgents  was  annulled  by  the  cortes  of  Mad- 
lid,  and  the  effect  of  this  imprudence  was  the  utter  ruin  of  the  party 
which  clung  to  the  hope  of  seeing  a  Bourbon  prince  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  new  state. 

The  congress  which  assembled  in  Mexico  seemed  disposed  to  form 
a  federative  republic  ;  but  the  partisans  of  Iturbide  suddenly  proclaimed 
their  favorite  emperor,  and  the  deputies  were  constrained  to  ratify  their 
choice.  He  did  not  retain  the  sovereignty  for  an  entire  year  ;  he  was 
dethroned,  as  he  had  been  elevated,  by  the  army ;  the  congress  pro- 
nounced upon  him  sentence  of  perpetual  exile,  but  with  laudable  gen- 
erosity granted  a  considerable  pension  for  his  support.  Iturbide,  after 
the  lapse  of  rather  more  than  a  year,  returned  to  Mexico,  July  16th, 
1824,  in  the  hopes  of  reviving  his  party.  He  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
republicans,  and  was  immediately  put  to  death.  A  republic  was  then 
established ;  soon  after  the  fortress  of  St.  Juan  d'Ulloa,  the  last  posses- 
dion  of  the  government,  was  surrendered  by  capitulation,  and  the  stand- 
ard of  Castilcj  after  an  ascendency  of  more  than  three  hundred  years, 
disappeared  for  ever  from  the  coasts  of  Mexico. 

The  progress  of  the  Mexican  republic  since  the  establishment  of  its 
independence  has  not  been  prosperous.  Conspiracies,  insurrections, 
and  civil  wars,  have  kept  every  part  of  the  territory  in  misery  and  con- 
lision.  Texas,  one  of  the  richest  provinces,  has  separated  from  the 
Mexican  union,  and  established  its  independence.  All  European  Span- 
iards have  been  compelled  to  quit  the  territories  of  the  repul)lic,  which 
thus  drove  away  some  of  the  most  wealthy,  intelligent,  and  industrious 


716  MODERN  HISTORY 

of  its  citizens.     The  Mexican  finances  have  fallen  into  confusion   and 
the  army  seems  to  be  the  sole  ruling  power  in  the  state. 

Section  II. —  The  Establishment  of  the  Spaniards  in  Peru. 

The  discovery  of  a  passage  round  the  South  American  continent 
into  the  Pacific  ocean,  by  Magellan,  and  the  establishment  of  a  colony 
ut  Panama,  soon  after  Balboa  had  ascertained  the  nature  of  the  isthmus, 
incited  the  Spanish  adventurers  to  undertake  new  conquests.  Pizarro, 
one  of  the  most  enterprising  men  that  ever  visited  the  Nc"  World, 
having  with  great  difficulty  prepared  a  small  armament,  landed  m  Peru 
(a.  d.  1531),  and  though  at  first  disappointed  by  the  barren  appearance 
of  the  coast,  he  found  so  much  treasure  at  Coague  as  to  convince  him 
that  the  accounts  which  Balboa  had  received  of  the  riches  of  the  coun- 
try were  not  exaggerated.  When  the  Spaniards  first  appeared  in  Peru, 
the  nation  was  divided  by  a  civil  war  between  the  sons  of  the  late 
inca,  or  sovereign;  Huascar,  the  elder,  was  dethroned  by  his  brother 
Atahualpa,  and  detained  in  captivity,  while  his  partisans  were  secretly 
maturing  plans  for  his  restoration.  Pizarro  advanced  into  the  country 
with  the  professed  design  of  acting  as  mediator,  but  with  the  perfidious 
purpose  of  seizing  Atahualpa,  as  Cortes  had  the  unfortunate  Montezu- 
ma. He  prepared  for  the  execution  of  his  scheme  with  the  same  de- 
liberation, and  with  as  little  compunction,  as  if  he  had  been  engaged 
in  the  most  honorable  transaction.  When  the  Spaniards  approached 
the  capital,  the  inca  was  easily  persuaded  to  consent  to  an  interview  ; 
and  he  visited  the  invaders  with  a  barbarous  magnificence,  and  osten- 
tatious display  of  wealth,  which  inflamed  the  cupidity  of  the  Spaniards, 
almost  beyond  the  power  of  restraint.  When  Atahualpa  reached  the 
Spanish  camp,  he  was  addressed  by  Valverde,  the  chaplain  to  the  ex- 
pedition, in  a  long,  and  what  must  to  the  inca  have  appeared  an  incom- 
prehensible discourse.  The  priest,  after  a  brief  notice  of  the  mysteries 
of  creation  and  redemption,  proceeded  to  explain  the  doctrine  of  the 
pope's  supremacy.  He  then  dwelt  upon  the  grant  which  Pope  Alex- 
ander had  made  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  and  by  virtue  of  it  called  upon 
Auihualpa  at  once  to  embrace  Christianity,  and  acknowledge  himself  a 
vassal  of  the  Spanish  monarch.  The  inca,  completely  puzzled,  de- 
manded where  Valverde  had  learned  such  wonderful  things.  "  In  thia 
book,"  replied  the  ]  riest,  presenting  the  monarch  with  his  breviary.  The 
inca  took  the  book,  turned  over  the  leaves,  and  then  put  it  to  his  ear. 
"  This  tells  me  nothing !"  he  exclaimed,  flinging  the  breviary  on  the 
ground.  "  Blasphemy  !  blasphemy  !"  exclaimed  Valverde  •,  "  to  arme, 
to  arms,  my  Christian  brethren  !  avenge  the  profanation  of  God's  word 
by  the  polluted  hands  of  infidels." 

This  solemn  farce  appears  to  have  been  preconcerted.  Ere  Val- 
verde had  concluded,  the  trumpets  sounded  a  charge  ;  a  dreadful  fire 
of  artillery  and  musketry  was  opened  on  the  defenceless  Peruvians  ; 
and,  in  the  midst  of  their  surprise  and  consternation,  they  were  charged 
by  the  cavalry,  whose  appearance  to  men  who  had  never  before  beheld 
a  horse,  seemed  something  supernatural.  Atahualpa  was  taken  pris 
oner  and  conveyed  to  the  Spanish  camp,  while  the  invaders  satiated 
themselves  with  the  rich  spoils  of  the.  field.     The  unfortunate  inca  at 


HISTOllY  OF  COLONIZATION.  717 

tempted  to  procure  his  liberation  by  the  payment  of  an  enormous  ran- 
som, but  Pizarro,  after  receiving  the  gold,  resolved  to  deprive  the  credu- 
lous monarch  of  life.  He  was  brought  to  trial  under  the  most  iniqui- 
tous pretences,  and  sentenced  to  be  burned  alive ;  but  on  his  consent 
ing  to  receive  baptism  from  Valverde,  his  sentence  was  so  far  mitigated 
that  he  was  first  strangled  at  the  stake.  The  Spaniards  quarrelled 
among  themselves  about  the  division  of  the  spoils  ;  the  Peruvians  took 
advantage  of  their  discord  to  raise  formidable  insurrections,  and  the 
new  kingdom  seemed  likely  to  be  lost  almost  as  soon  as  it  was  gained. 
Pizarro  himself  was  murdered  by  Ahnagro,  the  son  of  one  of  his  old 
companions,  whom  he  had  put  to  death  for  treason,  and  hut  for  the  arri- 
val of  Vara  de  Castro,  who  had  been  sent  as  governor  from  Spain,  the 
confusion  produced  by  this  crime  would  probably  have  beer  withcit  a 
remedy.  De  Castro  conquered  Ahnagro,  and  by  his  judicit.as  meas- 
uies  restored  tranquillity  to  the  distracted  province.  Fresh  disturban- 
ces were  excited  by  the  ambition  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  and  it  was  not 
until  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  after  its  conquest,  that  me  ro}  al 
authority  was  firmly  established  in  Peru. 

The  government  established  by  the  Spaniards  in  Peru  was  far  more 
ii.iquitous  and  oppressive  than  that  of  Mexico,  because  the  Peruvian 
mines  were,  from  the  first  moment  of  the  conquest,  almost  the  only  ob- 
jects which  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Spanish  and  the  provincial 
governments.  A  horrible  system  of  conscription  was  devised  for  work- 
ing these  mines  ;  all  the  Indians  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and 
fifty  were  enrcUed  in  seven  lists,  the  individuals  on  each  list  being 
obliged  to  work  for  six  months  in  the  mines,  so  that  this  forced  labor 
came  on  the  unfortunate  Indians  at  intervals  of  three  years  and  a  half; 
four  out  of  every  five  were  supposed  to  perish  annually  in  these  deadly 
labors,  and  to  aid  to  the  misery  of  the  natives,  they  were  not  allowed 
to  purchase  the  necessaries  of  life  except  from  privileged  dealers,  who 
robbed  them  of  their  earnings  without  remorse  or  scruple.  Toward 
the  clcoe  of  the  last  century  two  serious  insurrections  of  the  native 
Peruvians  fil'ed  the  Spaniards  with  terror;  they  were  not  suppressed 
until  the  rebtilion  had  taxed  the  resources  and  pov  er  of  the  provincial 
government  to  the  utmost,  and  the  sanguinary  massacres  of  all  who 
were  suspected  of  having  joined  in  the  revolt,  left  the  country  in  a  state 
of  helples.snes s  and  exhaus  ioii  fiom  whiih  it  hud  not  recovered  at  the 
cominenctmeut  of  the  revolution. 

As  it  was  impossible  to  gratify  the  rapacicus  ciq  idity  of  all  the 
Spaniards  who  suuglxt  to  share  iii  the  proJui  e  of  the  Peruvian  m.aes, 
it  became  a  j.rinciple  of  colimial  policy  to  keep  alive  the  spirit  of  ad 
venture,  by  sending  divisions  to  wrest  new  tracts  of  land  from  the  na 
tives,  without  organizing  any  new  system  of  conquest.  It  was  thufc 
f.hat  Chill  necame  finally  annexed  to  the  Spanish  dominions  ;  but  the 
ofi'orts  made  for  its  conquest  were  desultory  and  separated  by  long 
intervals,  so  that  over  a  great  jiarl  of  the  country  the  sovereignty  of 
Spain  was  meiely  nominal.  The  colonists  and  nati\es,  however,  seem 
never  to  have  wished  for  independence,  until  the  desire  of  nationality 
was  pressed  upon  them  by  the  irresistible  force  of  circumstances,  and 
in  fact  their  first  revolutionary  movements  were  made  in  the  namo  of 
loyalty  and  obedience. 


718  MODERN  HISTORY. 

When  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  proclaimed  king  of  Spain  by  Napoleon, 
all  the  Spanish  colonies  of  South  America  resolved  to  remain  faithful 
to  the  ancient  dynasty.  It  was  suspected  that  the  European  Spaniard? 
were  disposed  to  mai^e  terms  with  the  French  emperor,  and  therefore 
native  juntas  were  elected  to  maintain  the  rights  of  Ferdinand.  In 
September,  1810,  the  Chilians  formed  a  junta  in  Santiago  ;  the  Spanish 
general  of  the  district  attempted  to  disperse  this  body ;  a  smart  skir- 
mish ensued,  and  the  Chilians,  having  obtained  the  victory,  became  de- 
sirous to  establish  a  perpetual  system  of  self-government.  The  strug- 
gle for  independence  in  Chili  and  Peru  resembled  the  Mexican  war  in 
its  general  outlines  :  at  first  the  patriots,  after  gaining  advantages  of 
which  they  did  not  know  how  to  make  use,  were  reduced  to  temporary 
submission.  But  the  Spanish  yoke,  always  heavy,  proved  intolerable 
to  men  who  had  obtained  a  brief  experience  of  freedom  ;  new  insurrec- 
tions were  raised  in  every  quarter,  the  superior  discipline  which  had 
previously  given  victory  to  the  royalists  was  acquired  by  the  revolters ; 
several  European  officers  joined  them,  the  Spanish  government  feebly 
supported  its  defenders,  and  the  viceroys  showed  themselves  destitute 
of  talent  either  as  generals  or  statesmen.  The  independence  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  South  America  was  nearly  completed  in  the  year 
1823,  but  the  last  Spanish  garrison  was  not  surrendered  until  the  26th 
of  February,  1826,  when  Rodil,  the  only  royalist  leader  who  had  ex- 
hibited courage,  fidelity,  and  talent,  surrendered  the  citadel  of  Callao  to 
the  patriots. 

Before  the  revolution  the  provinces  of  upper  Peru  formed  part  of  the 
viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres  ;  but  as  the  manners,  habits,  and  even  th«; 
language  of  the  Peruvians,  difTered  materially  from  those  of  the  people 
on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  the  latter,  after  forming  themselves  into  the 
Argentine  republic,  left  their  neighbors  free  to  pursue  any  course  they 
pleased.  A  general  assembly  of  the  Peruvian  provinces  solemnly  pro- 
claimed that  upper  Peru  should  henceforth  form  an  independent  nation, 
that  it  should  be  named  Bolivia  in  honor  of  Bolivar,  the  chief  agent  in 
Its  liberation,  and  that  the  rights  of  person  and  property  should  form  the 
basis  ol  its  republican  constitution.  A  million  of  dollars  was  voted  to 
Bolivar  as  a  tribute  of  national  gratitude,  but  that  chivalrous  general 
refused  to  receive  the  money,  and  requested  that  it  should  be  expended 
ill  furchasing  the  freedom  of  the  few  negroes  who  still  remained  slaves 
in  Bolivia. 

In  lower  Peru  the  Bolivian  constitution  was  far  from  being  so  popu- 
lar as  it  had  been  in  the  upper  provinces.  It  was  indeed  at  first  ac- 
cepted, and  Bolivar  chosen  president,  but  when  he  went  to  suppress 
an  insurrection  in  Columbia,  advantage  was  taken  of  his  absence  to  set 
aside  the  system  he  had  established.  Since  that  period  Columbia, 
Bolivia,  and  Peru,  have  suffeied  severely  from  intestine  wars  and  civi] 
commotions,  which  have  grea'ly  deteriorated  the  vast  natural  resources 
of  these  states.  Bolivia  has  indeed  regained  tranquillity,  and  its  rulers 
appear  dtjsirous  to  extend  its  counnerce  and  encourage  those  branches 
nfindustiy  most  likely  to  benefit  the  community.  It  is  the  only  one 
of  the  ni;w  republics  in  which  the  finances  are  in  a  wholesome  con- 
dition ;  its  revenues  are  not  only  sufficient  for  the  necessary  expense.i 
of  the  state,  but   there  is  a  considerable   surplus,  which  is  w  iselv  ex 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  719 

pended  on  the  maintenance  and  construction  of  roads,  and  on  facilita- 
ting the  means  of  communication  internally  among  the  inhabitants  them- 
selves and  externally  with  strangers. 

Previous  to  the  expeditions  of  Cortez  and  Pizarro,  Florida  had  been 
discovered  by  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon.  Its  verdant  forests  and  mag- 
nificent flowering  aloes  seemed  so  inviting,  that  a  colony  was  formed 
with  little  difficulty.  But  the  Indians  of  Florida  were  the  most  warlike 
of  the  native  races  in  America,  and  they  severely  harassed  the  settlers. 
Soto,  a  companion  of  Pizarro,  led  an  expedition  into  the  interior,  where 
he  discovered  the  Mississippi.  He  died  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
and  his  followers,  anxious  to  conceal  his  death  from  ,he  Indians,  aank 
his  body  in  the  stream.  A  plan  was  formed  by  the  leaders  of  the 
French  Huguenots  for  emigrating  to  Florida,  and  an  exploring  party 
was  sent  out,  but  the  jealousy  of  Spain  was  roused  ;  the  adventurers 
\vere  closely  pursued,  made  prisoners,  and  put  to  death.  Florida  re- 
mained subject  to  Spain  until  the  year  1818,  when,  in  consequence  of 
the  depredations  of  the  Indians,  which  the  governors  pleaded  their  in- 
ability to  restrain,  the  Americans,  under  General  Jackson,  entered  the 
province  and  annexed  it  to  the  United  Stales.  The  Spanish  govern- 
ment remonstrated,  but  had  not  the  means  of  obtaining  redress  ;  and  it 
finally  acceded  to  the  cession  (a.  d.  1821). 

Section  III. — Portuguese  Colonies  in  South  America. 

Brazil  was  accidentally  discovered  by  a  Portuguese  admiral  bound 
to  the  East  Indies,  in  the  year  1501,  but  he  did  not  ascertain  jvhether 
it  was  an  island  or  part  of  the  continent,  a  subject  which  long  remained 
a  matter  of  doubt.  No  effort  was  made  to  colonize  the  country  for 
nearly  half  a  century  ;  this  apparent  neglect  arose  from  the  reluctance 
of  the  Portuguese  to  interfere  with  the  pretensions  of  the  court  of  Spain, 
for  the  papal  grant  of  newly-d.'scovered  countries  to  the  Spanish  mon- 
arch was  held  by  the  court  of  Madrid  to  include  the  whole  American 
continent.  At  length  the  king  of  Portugal,  envious  of  the  wealth 
acquired  by  the  Spaniards,  sent  out  a  small  body  of  colonists,  who 
founded  St.  Salvador  (a.  d.  1549).  These  settlers  reported  that  the 
native  Brazilians  were  far  lower  in  the  scale  of  civilization  than  the 
Mexicans  or  Peruvians  ;  they  were  divided  into  a  number  of  pretty 
tribes  or  states,  constantly  at  war  with  each  other,  and  the  invaders, 
though  few  in  number,  were  easily  able  to  subdue  the  Indian  tribt^s  in 
detail,  by  fomenting  their  animosities  and  cautiously  holding  the  bal- 
ance between  their  contending  interests.  This  course  of  policy  was 
rendered  necessary  by  the  personal  bravery  of  the  native  Brazilians ; 
though  ignorant  of  discipline  and  unable  to  act  in  masses,  they  dis- 
played great  individual  courage  in  battle  ;  thty  wtsre  bkiiful  in  the  use 
of  bows,  darts,  wooden  clubs,  and  shields  and  frequently  were  victori 
Dus  in  petty  skirmishes.  But  they  were  unable  to  resist  Euiopean 
tactics  and  European  policy,  and  hence  they  were  finally  reduced  under 
the  yoke,  with  which  they  soon  appeared  to  be  contented.  The  facility 
with  which  the  Portuguese  made  themselves  masters  of  this  rich  ter 
ritory  excited  the  cupidity  of  other  powers,  and  they  were  successively 
httacked    by  the  Spaniards,  the   French,  and  the    Dutch.     The    latter 


■'^0  MODERN  HISTORY. 

were  the  most  dangerous  enemies,  they  had  just  efTected  their  delivci- 
ance  from  the  iron  despotism  of  Spain,  under  which  the  Portuguese 
themselves  groaned  at  the  period,  and  hence  they  had  such  a  party  in 
the  country  that  their  conquest  would  have  been  certain  had  they  not 
alienated  their  sup. porters  by  attempting  to  establish  odious  monopolies. 
From  the  time  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Dutch,  the  Portuguese  made 
it  theii  object  to  keep  everything  connected  with  Brazil  a  profound 
secret,  and  little  was  known  of  the  country  until  it  asserted  its  inde- 
pendence. 

For  more  than  three  centuries  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile 
regions  of  the  globe  was  thus,  by  the  policy  of  Portugal,  restricted 
from  all  intercourse  and  commerce  with  the  other  nations  of  Europe, 
and  even  the  residence  or  admission  of  foreigners  was  equally  pro- 
hibited. The  vessels  of  the  allies  of  the  mother-country  were  occasion- 
ally permitted  to  anchor  in  its  ports,  but  neither  passengers  nor  crew 
were  allowed  to  land  excepting  under  the  superintendence  of  a  guard 
of  soldiers. 

Previously  to  the  year  1808,  though  the  viceroy  resident  in  Rio  de 
Janeiro  was  nominally  the  highest  functionary  of  the  government,  yet 
this  personage  was,  in  reality,  invested  with  but  little  political  power 
except  in  the  province  of  Rio,  where  alone  he  acted  as  captain-general, 
the  virtual  administration  of  the  colony  being  intrusted  chiefly  to  similar 
officers,  one  of  whom  was  appointed  to  each  province.  They  were 
nominated  for  three  years  only,  and  received  their  instructions  from  the 
court  of  Lisbon,  to  which  they  were  compelled  to  render  an  account  of 
their  proceedings.  They  were  not  only  prohibited  from  marrying  within 
the  sphere  of  their  jurisdiction,  but  also  from  the  transaction  of  any 
commercial  pursuits,  as  well  as  from  accepting  any  present  or  emolu- 
ment, in  addition  to  the  stipend  allotted  them  by  the  government.  For 
the  management  and  application  of  the  public  finances  bodies  were  ap- 
pointed denominated  "  Juntas  de  Fazenda,"  Juntas  of  Finance  ;  of 
which  the  captains-general  of  the  respective  provinces  were  the  presi- 
dents. 

1  he  highest  functions  of  the  judicial  power  were  confided  to  a  court 
of  appeal  composed  of  ditjembargadores,  or  chief  judges,  to  whom  suc- 
ceeded the  onvidoies,  or  itinerant  judges,  who  were  under  the  obliga- 
tion of  making  an  annual  circuit  to  the  districts  committed  to  their  charge, 

o  ...  . 

for  the  purpose  of  passing  judgment  in  criminal  cases.  P'or  the  adju- 
dication of  certain  cases,  judges  termed  "  Juizes  de  Fora,"  who  were 
Sflec'.ed  fiom  amorg  such  as  hfid  taken  their  degree  in  Coimbra  as 
bachelors  of  law,  were  a])pointeJ,  who,  as  well  as  the  officers  of  iho 
higher  tribunals,  were  all  nominated  by  the  court  of  Portugal.  In  the 
less  populous  and  inferior  districts,  "  Juizes  ordinarios,"  with  the  same 
attributes  as  the  "  Juizes  de  fora,"  were  also  occasionally  selected  by 
the  votes  of  individuals  denominated  "  Bous  de  pivo,"  the  qualification 
for  which  title  was  to  have  held  office  in  the  municipalities.  From  the 
sentence  of  these  "  Juizes"  appeal  could  be  made  to  the  court  of  di?em- 
bargadores  in  Rio,  and  from  this  again,  ultimately,  to  the  "  Disembargo 
do  Baco"  in  Lisbon.  Unless,  however,  the  appellant  were  possessed 
either  of  great  interest  at  court,  or,  in  default  of  it,  could  bribe  higher 
thiin  his  antagonist,  these  final  appeals  were  seldom  of  any  real  utilitv 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  721 

The  siatutes  on  which  the  decisions  of  the  judicial  power  were  found- 
od,  was  the  Poitiiguese  code  framed  during  the  reigns  of  the  two  Philips 
and  entitled  "  Ordnacoens  do  Reino,"  to  which  were  appended  all  the 
"  Cartas  de  Lei"  and  decrees  issued  since  the  accession  of  the  house 
of  Braganza,  forming  altogether  about  nine  volumes. 

Though  in  ordinary  cases  the  decision  of  both  civil  and  crimina 
causes  was  left  exclusively  to  the  judicial  authorities,  the  mand  tte  of 
the  captains  general  was  at  any  time  sufficient  either  to  suspeni  or  sol 
aside  the  ordinary  operation  of  the  law. 

The  municipalities  were  close  corporations,  formed  on  the  model  of 
those  of  Portugal ;  where  those  bodies  had  formerly  ^cen  intrusted  with 
the  nomination  of  deputies  to  the  supreme  cortes  :  though  this  as  well  us 
many  other  important  privileges,  had  latterly  fallen  into  desuetude 

On  occasions  of  public  ceremony  the  national  banner  was  atill  car- 
lied  in  their  processions,  and  they  were  still  recognised,  in  appearance 
at  least,  as  the  representatives  of  the  people.  In  Brazil  also  their  power 
was  once  considerable,  and  instances  have  occurred  of  the  deposition 
of  the  captains  general  by  the  municipalities,  and  of  this  exercise  of 
authority  having  been  sanctioned  by  the  entire  approbation  of  the 
government  of  Lisbon,  though  toward  the  end  of  the  last  century  their 
powers  had  been  restricted  almost  exclusively  to  the  improvement  of 
roads,  the  construction  of  bridges,  the  control  of  the  markets,  and  other 
objects  of  minor  importance.  Their  executive  officers,  who  were  en- 
titled "  Juizes  Almotaceis"  were  nominated  by  the  municipalities  them 
selves  every  three  months,  and  were  charged  with  the  power  of  exacting 
fines  and  enforcing  imprisonment  according  to  certain  established 
regulations. 

The  regular  troops  were  recruited  according  to  the  direction,  ami 
placed  entirely  at  the  disposition  of  the  captains-general,  but  the  officers 
were  nominated  by  the  court  of  Lisbon.  The  militia,  or  troops  of  the 
second  line,  were  enlisted  by  the  officers  of  each  respective  corps,  and 
the  officers  themselves  were  also  appointed  in  Lisbon,  at  the  proposition 
of  the  captams-general.  Though  serving  gratuitously,  this  latter  force 
was  often  employed  in  very  laborious  and  odious  services,  and  its  mem- 
bers as  well  as  the  regular  troops  were  amenable  to  martial  law  in  all 
matters  relative  to  their  military  duty. 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  were  the  Ordenan^as,  or  troops  of  the 
third  line,  who  by  the  regulations  of  their  institution  ought  to  have  been 
composed  exclusively  of  such  individuals  as  were  incapacitated  by 
physical  defects  or  otherwise  from  serving  in  the  militia.  Thtir  duty 
was  to  defend  the  country  in  cases  of  emergency,  but  this  service  was 
merely  nominal,  and,  by  a  perversion  of  the  real  objects  of  the  institu- 
tion, it  became  customary  for  all  possessed  >f  sufficient  patronage  to 
obtain  a  post  in  the  Ordenan^as  for  the  express  object  of  avoiding  enrol 
ment  in  the  militia.  The  fidalgos,  or  Portuguese  noblemen  of  the  firsl 
rank,  were  exempt  from  personal  service  altogether. 

The  orders  of  knighthood  were  those  of  Santo  I  ago,  San  Bento  de 
Aviz,  and  the  order  of  Christ,  of  all  of  which  the  sovereigns  of  Portugal 
were  the  grand  masters  and  perpetual  administrators.  Among  the 
privileges  appertaining  to  the  office  of  grand  master  of  the  order  of 
Christ  a  pontifical  bull  had  conferred  that  of  an  entire  ecclesiastics 

46 


r22  MODERN  HISTORY 

jurisdiction  over  ultra-marine  conquests,  and  by  virtue  of  this  title,  th» 
crown  of  Portutral  sliortly  after  the  discovery  of  Brazil  appropriated  tc 
Us  own  use  all  the  tithes  levied  in  the  country  ;  with  however  a  proviso 
binding  the  monarch  to  provide  for  the  celebration  of  public  worship 
and  to  pay  a  stipulated  sum  for  the  adequate  maintenance  of  the  various 
clergy.  By  the  same  authority  the  presentation  of  ecclesiastial  bene- 
fices was  also  constituted  one  of  the  exclusive  privileges  of  royalty, 
though,  at  the  proposition  cif  the  bishops,  with  an  injunction  that  the 
natives  of  the  respective  captaincies,  and  more  especially  the  descend- 
ants of  the  ancient  nobility  who  were  among  the  first  emigrants  to  Brazil, 
should  on  all  occasions  be  preferred,  the  right  of  presentatu  n  still  beinp 
restricted  to  the  sovereign. 

The  stipulations  made  for  the  maintenance  of  he  established  religion, 
and  the  due  support  of  the  clergy,  were  nevertheless  but  very  imper- 
fectly complied  with. 

Many  priests  came  to  be  dependant  on  the  mere  fees  of  their  office 
for  subsistence,  and  the  stipend  paid  to  the  highest  dignitarit  s  of  the 
church  was  but  trifling  when  compared  with  what  would  have  accrued 
to  them,  had  they  been  allowed  to  retain  possession  of  their  tithes. 
The  revenue  of  the  archbishop  of  Bahia,  the  head  functionary  of  the 
Brazilian  church,  never  amounted  to  more  than  ten  contos  of  rees  per 
animm,  at  par,  2,812/.  \0s.  sterling  ;  nor  was  the  bishopric  of  Rio  do 
Janeiro,  embracing  within  its  limits,  the  provinces  of  Rio  Grande, 
Espirito  Santo,  and  Santa  Catherine,  ever  worth  to  its  incumbent  more 
than  six  contos  of  rees,  or,  1,687/.  10s.  per  annum.  These  peculiarities 
in  the  condition  of  the  clergy  are  perhaps  worthy  of  more  particular 
note  than  the  circumstances  of  any  other  class,  since  they  will  be  found 
to  have  exercised  a  most  important  influence  during  the  period  of  the 
subsequent  revolution. 

The  jealousy  of  the  Portuguese  government  constantly  led  them  to 
dread  the  growth  of  every  power  or  corporation  which  might  hereafter 
militate  against  the  exercise  of  its  authority ;  and  on  this  account  not 
only  were  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  functionaries  brought  more  imme- 
diately under  control  than  in  the  mother-country,  but  even  the  increase 
of  capitalists  and  large  proprietors  was  systematically  prevented.  The 
entailmer^  of  landed  property  could  be  eifected  only  by  virtue  of  an  ex- 
press permission  from  the  sovereign  ;  and  all  manufactures,  excepting 
the  preparation  of  sugar,  were  most  rigidly  prohibited. 

During  the  year  1769  a  conspiracy  vvas  formed  by  a  few  influential 
individuals  in  Villa  Rica,  not  so  much,  however,  with  the  design  of 
proclaiming  an  independent  republic,  as  from  a  desire  to  ascertain  what 
co-operation  they  were  likely  to  meet  with  in  case  that  step  should 
subsequently  be  adopted.  From  a  diminution  in  the  product  of  the 
coal-mines  in  this  district,  several  of  the  individuals  working  them  were 
in  considerable  arrear  for  taxes.  These  arrears  the  government  in 
Lisbon  had  ordered  to  be  paid  up,  with  but  little  regard  to  the  practica- 
bility of  the  demand.  Much  irritation  had  in  consequence  been  excited, 
and  a  military  officer  of  the  name  of  Joaqiiim  Joze  da  Silva  Xaviei^ 
commonly  termed  "  Tiradentes,"  or  the  Tooth-drawer,  was  sent  off"  foi 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  disposition  of  the  inhabitants  of  Ric 
laueirc.     He:e  the  imprudence  of  Tiradentes  led  to  an  immediate  dn* 


HISTORY  OF  JOLONIZATION.  723 

covery  of  the  association,  tne  members  of  which  were  forthwith  arrested. 
AUogether,  however,  their  numbers  did  not  amount  to  forty,  yet,  though 
little  could  be  urged  in  evidence  against  them,  they  were  all  sentenced 
to  death,  banishment,  or  the  galleys,  according  to  the  different  degrees 
of  their  supposed  guilt. 

These  sentences  w-ere  nevertheless  mitigated  in  favor  of  all,  excepl 
the  unfortunate  Tiradentes,  who,  though  but  an  instrument  in  the  hands 
of  others,  was,  after  the  lapse  of  two  years,  condemned  to  be  hanged, 
decapitated,  and  quartered ;  by  the  same  sentence  it  was,  among  othex 
ignominious  provisions,  enacted  that  his  head  should  be  exposed  in  the 
public  square  in  Villa  Rica,  his  house  razed  to  the  ground,  and  his 
children  and  grandchildren  declared  infamous.  A  conspiracy,  origi- 
nating exclusively  among  the  people  of  color,  was  tlso  organized  in 
Bahia  during  the  year  1801,  but  like  the  former,  it  was  discovered 
before  any  attempt  had  been  made  to  put  it  into  execution.  The  com- 
munication between  the  different  provinces  was  neither  sdfficient  to 
facilitate  a  general  revolt,  nor  indeed  were  the  free  population  disposed 
to  it.  Their  condition,  as  contrasted  with  that  which  is  the  result  of 
European  civilization,  was  wretched  ;  yet  the  tyranny  exercised  over 
them  was  of  a  negative  rather  than  of  a  positive  character.  Their 
wants  were  few,  and  from  the  almost  total  absence  of  nobility,  large 
proprietors,  or  powerful  ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  there  was  an  equality 
throughout  their  entire  association  which  prevented  their  being  sensible 
of  any  undue  privations.  Could  they  have  been  exempted  from  all  ex- 
traneous impulse,  ages  might  have  rolled  away,  and  Brazil  have  been 
known  to  Europe,  only  as  the  colossal,  yet  submissive,  and  unaspiring 
dependancy  of  Portugal.  But  events  were  occurring  elsewhere,  about 
ihe  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  elTects  of  which  were  fated  to 
extend  their  influence  to  the  very  ends  of  the  earth.  The  young  re- 
public of  France  emerged  from  amid  the  storms  of  the  revolution,  and 
the  crowned  heads  of  all  the  surrounding  states  entered  into  one  mighty 
coalition  to  crush  the  intruder.  In  this  attempt  their  efforts  were  par- 
tially successful,  yet  their  aggressive  policy  was,  ere  long,  followed  up 
by  a  fearful  and  overwhelming  counteraction.  They  raised  up  a  spirit 
which  they  afterward  in  vain  attempted  to  exorcise.  They  called  tbrth 
a  conqueror  who  f'^r  a  while  scattered  all  their  armaments  before  him, 
and  who  burst  and  riv^eted  at  will  the  manacles  of  many  nations.  The 
re^alts  of  his  victories  were  not  bounded  by  the  hemisphere  wherein 
they  were  achieved.  They  gave  birth  to  the  immediate  independence 
of  all  the  Spanish  colonies  in  South  America,  and  by  compelling  the 
royal  family  of  Portugal  to  seek  refuge  in  Brazil,  they  created  as  it  were 
!*  new  era  in  her  history. 

The  royal  family  of  Portugal  sailed  from  Lisbon  under  the  escort  of 
a  British  squadron,  and  reached  Rio  Janeiro  on  the  7th  of  March, 
1808.  As  Portugal  was  occupied  by  a  French  army,  it  would  have 
oeen  absurd  to  maintain  the  ancient  monopoly  of  trade,  and  the  ports 
of  Brazil  were  thrown  open  to  foreigners  of  every  nation  by  a  royal 
decree.  As  the  dowager-queen  of  Portugal  was  in  a  state  of  mental 
imbecility,  the  government  was  administered  by  her  son,  Don  John, 
with  the  tiile  of  regent;  he  introduced  several  great  improvements  into 
the  government ;  Brazil  was  no  longer  treated  as  a  colony      it    wm 


r24  MODERN  HISTORY. 

raised  to  ihe  dignity  of  a  nation,  and  the  progress  of  amelioration  in  iii 
financial  and  commercial  condition  was  unusually  rapid. 

The  first  cause  of  discontent  was  the  preference  which  the  court 
naturally  showed  for  officers  of  Portuguese  birth  ;  and  this  jealousy 
was  increased  by  the  contempt  with  which  the  Europeans  treated  every 
one  of  Brazilian  birth.  Indeed,  a  Portuguese  general  formally  pro 
posed  that  all  Brazilians  should  be  declared  incompetent  to  hold  a  high- 
er rank  than  that  of  captain,  and  though  no  such  law  was  formally 
enacted,  its  spirit  was  acted  upon  in  every  department  of  the  adniiuis- 
trauon.  Dissatisfaction  was  silent,  but  it  was  deeply  felt  and  rapidly 
extending,  when  in  October,  1820,  intelligence  arrived  of  the  revolt  in 
Portugal  in  favor  of  a  constitutional  government.  On  the  26th  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1821,  the  king  was  compelled  to  proclaim  the  constitutioii  m  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  and  to  promise  that  he  would  convoke  a  Brazilian  cortes. 

In  the  meantime  the  cortes  at  Lisbon  began  to  form  projects  for  so- 
curing  to  Portugal  its  ancient  monopoly  of  Brazilian  commerce,  and  to 
render  its  provinces  once  more  colonies  dependant  on  the  mothet*- 
country.  These  projects  were  eagerly  supported  by  the  Portuguese  in 
Brazil,  who  trusted  to  revive  their  ancient  ascendency  over  the  colo- 
lists  and  natives.  Violent  disputes,  frequently  ending  in  bloodshed 
arose  between  the  Portuguese  and  the  Brazilians ;  Don  John,  who  had 
assumed  the  title  of  king  on  his  mother's  death,  returned  to  Lisbon, 
leaving  his  son,  Don  Pedro,  at  the  head  of  the  Brazilian  government, 
which  he  clearly  saw.  would  not  long  remain  dependant  on  Portugal. 
The  cortes  of  Lisbon  assumed  the  right  of  legislating  for  the  colonies 
without  consulting  their  inclinations  ;  they  abolished  the  tribunals 
which  had  been  created  in  Rio  Janeiro,  and  passed  a  decree  recalling 
Don  Pedro  to  Europe.  These  decrees  were  resisted  by  the  Brazilians, 
and  after  some  delay  they  took  the  decisive  step  of  declaring  their  in- 
dependence, and  establishing  a  constitutional  monarchy  under  Don  Pe- 
dro as  emperor. 

We  have  elsewhere  noticed  the  revolution  in  which  Pedro  was  de- 
throned and  a  regency  established  in  the  name  of  his  son.  Since  that 
period  Brazil  has  enjoyed  more  tranquillity  than  any  of  the  other  South 
American  states,  and  but  for  the  difficulties  which  arise  from  the  con- 
tinuance of  negro  slavery  in  the  country,  it  would  seem  to  have  every 
fair  prospect  of  advancing  rapidly  in  social  prosperhy  and  political  im- 
portance. 

Paraguay  can  not  with  propriety  be  reckoned  among  the  colonics 
either  of  Spain  or  Portugal,  though  both  governments  have  claimed  it 
as  their  own.  It  was  first  brought  under  European  control  by  the  Jes- 
uit missionaries,  who  professed  a  nominal  obedience  to  the  crovvn  of 
Spain.  Their  success  in  making  converts  was  greater  than  that  of 
their  brethren  in  any  other  quarter  of  the  globe  ;  they  instructed  the 
Indians  who  embraced  Christianity  in  agriculture  and  the  arts  of  social 
life  ;  the  surrounding  tribes  were  not  slow  in  perceiving  the  advantages 
which  their  countrymen  had  derived  from  the  change,  and  they  came 
voluntarily  to  seek  instruction.  In  a  very  short  time  the  Jesuits  became 
complete  masters  of  the  country  ;  in  order  to  perpetuate  their  dominion, 
ihey  carefully  excluded  all  foreigners  from  Paraguay,  and  infused  inti; 


HISTORY  OP  COLONIZATION.  725 

the  minds  of  the  natives  a  suspicious  jealousy,  or  rather  liatred  of  for- 
eigueis,  which  has  never  since  been  eradicated. 

When  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  was  abohshed,  Paraguay  was  all  but 
left  to  itself,  and  its  name  was  scarcely  mentioned  in  Europe,  until  it 
xiok  a  share  in  the  revolutionary  movement  which  established  so  many 
aew  states  in  South  America.  Doctor  Francia  headed  the  revolution 
of  Paraguay,  and  obtained  absolute  power  for  himself,  with  the  title  of 
dictator.  He  established  as  rigid  a  system  for  excluding  foreigners  as 
the  Jesuits  themselves,  and  his  successors  appear  to  continue  the  same 
course  of  policy. 

Section  IV. —  The  English  in  America. 

Englaivd  had  shared  in  the  ardor  for  discovery  which  the  successful 
enterprise  of  Columbus  diffused  throughout  Europe.  Newfoundland 
was  visited  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  ;  and  two 
unsuccessful  voyages  were  made  to  the  southern  seas,  by  the  same 
navigator,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  But  the  object  which  long 
continued  to  be  the  favorite  one  of  the  English  adventurers,  was  the 
discovery  of  a  passage  through  the  northern  seas  to  India  and  China. 
Sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  and  Richard  Chancellor,  hoped  that  this  might 
be  attaine'?  by  sailing  to  the  northeast ;  the  latter  reached  Archangel, 
a  port  then  unknown  in  western  Europe,  and  though  he  failed  in  his 
principal  object,  he  laid  the  foundation  of  an  active  commerce  between 
Great  Britain  and  Russia.  The  company  of  Merchant  Adventurers, 
incorporated  by  Edward  VI.,  were  indefatigable  in  their  efforts  to  open 
new  courses  of  trade,  by  encouraging  maritime  and  inland  discovery ; 
while  their  navigators  penetrated  to  Nova  Zembla  and  the  river  Oby, 
Reveral  of  their  factors  accompanied  some  Russian  caravans  into  Per- 
sia, by  the  route  of  Astrachan  and  the  Caspian  sea ;  and  the  accounts 
which  they  published  on  their  return,  first  gave  British  merchants  ac- 
curate intelligence  concerning  the  state  of  the  remote  regions  of  the 
east.  These  enterprises  were  renewed  under  the  reign  of  Elizabeth ; 
a  commercial  treaty  was  concluded  with  the  shah  of  Persia,  and  such 
information  obtained  respecting  India,  as  greatly  increased  the  national 
ardor  for  opening  a  communication  with  that  country  by  sea.  But 
every  effort  to  discover  a  northwest  or  northeast  passage  failed  ;  Mar- 
tin Frobisher,  like  every  navigator  from  his  days  to  those  of  Sir  John 
Ross,  found  the  seas  blockaded  with  fields  of  ice,  through  which  no 
opening  could  be  made.  This  disappointment  might  have  damped 
the  spirit  of  the  English,  but  for  the  successful  enterprise  of  Sir  P'ran- 
cis  Drake,  who  circumnavigated  the  globe  with  a  small  squadron,  and 
returned  home  with  an  account  of  many  important  discoveries  in  the 
Pacific  ocean.  War  with  Spain  rendered  this  information  peculiarly 
important ;  and  the  English  resolved  to  attack  their  enemies  through 
their  colonies,  and  thus  cut  off  the  sources  of  the  wealth  which  ren- 
dered Philip  II.  formidable  to  Europe. 

In  the  sketch  of  the  history  of  the  United  States  will  be  found  au 
account  of  the  colonies  planted  by  the  English  within  the  limits  of  that 
country 

Canada  was  the  first  colony  established  by  the  French  in  Canada 


726  MODERN  HISTOttY 

but  the  early  settlers  stiflered  so  many  misfortunes,  that  tie  country 
was  several  times  on  the  point  of  being  abandoned.  It  began,  however, 
to  prosper  after  the  foundation  of  Quebec,  by  Champlain  (a.  d  1608) 
and  the  formation  of  a  new  colony  at  Montreal.  The  contests  of  the 
French  with  the  Iroquois  and  the  Hurons  were  less  perilous  than  those 
of  the  New  Englanders  with  the  Pequods  and  Narragansets,  but  they 
were  less  ably  conducted,  and  more  injurious  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
colony. 

At  a  much  later  period,  the  French  colonized  Louisiana  (a.  d.  1686), 
with  the  hope  of  securing  the  fertile  countries  watered  by  the  Misissip- 
pi.  The  settlement  was  more  valued  by  the  government  than  Canada, 
because  it  was  supposed  to  contain  mines  of  gold,  and  for  the  same 
reason  possession  of  it  was  equally  coveted  by  the  English  and  the 
Spaniards.  Having  two  colonies,  one  at  the  northern  and  one  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  British  settlements,  the  French  government 
prepared  to  connect  them  by  a  chain  of  forts  which  would  have  com- 
pletely hemmed  in  the  English.  A  furious  war  ensued  between  the 
two  nations  in  the  back  woods,  which  ended  in  the  complete  overthrow 
of  the  French.  Canada  and  Louisiana  were  ceded  to  England  by  the 
peace  of  1763  ;  but  the  latter  is  now  joined  to  the  United  States,  while 
the  former  still  continues  under  British  government.  In  the  history  of 
the  other  British  American  colonies  there  is  nothing  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  deserve  a  place  in  this  summary.  The  most  important  of 
them  now  form  a  great  republiq  which  must  for  the  future  occupy  a 
conspicuous  position  in  Modern  History  ;  and  among  the  best  guides  to 
a  correct  estimate  of  their  future  career,  is  a  knowledge  of  the  cir- 
cumstances attending  their  foundation. 

Sectiox   V. — Colonization  of  the  West  Indies. 

We  have  already  mentioned  the  settlements  of  the  Spaniards  in  His- 
paniola,  Puerto  Rico,  and  Cuba,  and  shall  now  briefly  give  a  sketch  of 
the  colonization  of  the  other  principal  islands.  Barbadoes,  one  of  the 
earliest  English  settlements,  was  totally  uninhabited  when  the  English 
took  possession  of  it  (a.  d.  1623).  Its  prosperity  first  began  to  attract 
notice  when  some  of  the  Dutch,  who  were  expelled  from  Brazil  by  the 
Portuguese,  introduced  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  and  the  cultivation  of 
the  cane,  from  which  that  useful  article  is  extracted.  Negroes  were 
not  imported  as  slaves  until  about  the  year  1630;  previously  to  which 
time  the  planters  are  said  to  have  been  frequently  guilty  of  kidnapping 
the  Caribs.  The  negroes  multiplied  so  fast,  that  they  frequently  con- 
tpired  to  massacre  all  the  white  inliabitants,  and  take  possession  of  the 
Mand,  but  their  plots  were  discovered  and  punished  with  remorseless 
severity. 

St.  Lucia  was  first  settled  by  the  English  (a.  d.  1637),  but  the  colo- 
nists were  soon  massacred  by  the  Caribs,  after  which  it  was  seized  by 
the  French,  who  are  said  to  have  instigated  the  revolt  of  the  native 
tribes.  The  island  frequently  changed  masters  in  the  wars  between 
France  and  England,  but  it  now  belongs  to  the  latter  power.  St.  Vin- 
cent and  the  Grenadine  islands  were  similarly  contested,  and  now  belojiy 
\o  England. 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  727 

Martinico  and  Guadaloupe  were  colonized  by  the  French,  in  the  be 
i»inninor  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Their  prosperity  received  very 
severe  checks  in  the  frequent  wars  between  France  and  England.  At 
the  late  treaty  of  peace  they  were  restored  to  France.  The  other  Car- 
ibbee  islands  are  possessed  by  the  Dutch,  the  Danes,  the  Swedes,  and 
the  English,  but  the  largest  share  belongs  to  the  English.  Antigua  ib, 
perhaps,  the  most  flourishing  of  these  islands,  but  there  is  nothing  re- 
markable in  its  history. 

Tobago  was  colonized  by  the  Dutch,  conjointly  with  the  Courlanders 
(a.  d.  1632).  It  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  French,  who  subse- 
quently ceded  it  to  the  English  (a.  d.  1737). 

Trinidad  is  a  large  and  fertile  island  on  the  coast  of  South  America, 
remarkable  for  a  lake  of  asphaltum,  or  mineral  pitch.  It  was  early 
colonized  by  Spain,  but  was  captured  by  the  English  in  1*797,  and  ia 
still  retained  by  them.  It  is  one  of  the  veiy  k\v  of  these  isk^ids  which 
contains  any  portion  of  its  ancient  population. 

The  Bahama  islands,  though  discovered  by  Columbus,  were  com- 
pletely neglected  until  they  were  accidentally  visited  by  an  Englishman 
named  Sayle  (a.  n.  1667),  who  was  driven  to  seek  shelter  among  them 
by  stress  of  weather.  The  account  which  he  gave  of  their  climate  and 
productions,  on  his  return  home,  induced  some  spirited  adventurers  to 
combine  for  their  colonization.  The  early  settlers  suffered  very  severe- 
ly from  hurricanes  and  the  hostility  of  the  Spaniards,  but  they  sur- 
mounted these  difficulties,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  communities  which 
are  now  flourishing  and  prosperous. 

The  Bermudas,  or  Summer  islands,  were  discovered  but  never  colo- 
nized by  the  Spaniards.  An  Englishman  named  May  was  shipwrecked 
on  one  of  them ;  he  and  his  companions  built  a  vessel  of  the  native  ce- 
dar, and  returned  to  Europe,  where  they  published  a  very  exaggerated 
account  of  the  beauty  and  fertility  of  these  islands,  which  gave  rise  to 
many  poetic  fictions.  A  colony  was  planted  on  St.  George's  island,  by 
the  Virginia  company,  but  it  narrowly  escaped  destruction  in  its  infancy 
from  a  very  singui.:r  visitation.  Some  rats,  imported  in  European  ves- 
sels, multiplied  so  prodigiously,  that  they  covered  the  ground  and  built 
nests  in  the  trees.  Their  devastations  were  continued  during  five 
years,  when  they  suddenly  disappeared,  but  from  what  cause  is  uncer- 
tain. Since  that  period  the  prosperity  of  these  islands  has  been  unin- 
teTupted ;  and  of  late  years  vast  works  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
hc/te  a  naval  arsenal  have  been  in  progress,  and  are  now  near  com- 
pletion. 

Jamaica  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  and  soon  aftei  colonized  by 
the  Spaniards,  who  massacred  the  greater  part  of  the  native  inhabitants 
As  there  were  no  mines  in  the  island ,  it  was  neglected  by  the  Span 
iards,  and  was  easily  wrested  from  them  by  a  British  armament,  undei 
ihe  command  of  Penn  and  Venables,  during  the  protectorate  of  Crom- 
well. The  position  of  Jamaica  afforded  manj^  facilities  for  attacking 
whe  Spanish  settlements,  and  it  was  therefore  the  great  rendezvous  of 
ihe  formidable  combination  of  pirates  called  the  bucaniers.  This 
confratennty  was  composed  of  adventurers  from  various  nations,  and  the 
Spanish  ships  and  colonies  were  their  chief  objects  of  attack.  They 
were  not,  however,  very  scrupulous  in  ascertaining  to  what  nation  any 


728 


MODERN   HISTORY. 


k 


richly-laden  vessel  belonged;  and,  to  prcA'ent  any  discovery  of  thoii 
crimes  they  generally  massacred  the  crews.  Morgan  was  their  nios' 
noted  leader  ;  he  conquered  Panama,  and  several  other  rich  towns  be 
longing  to  the  crown  of  Spain  ;  and  having  by  his  continued  successes 
gained  the  command  of  a  large  force,  appears  to  have  meditated  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  independent  sovereignty.  Subsequently  he  abandoned 
his  piracies,  submitted  to  the  English  government,  and  received  the 
lionor  of  knighthood.  The  bucaniers  being  no  longer  protected  in 
Jamaica,  removed  to  the  French  settlement  in  Hispaniola,  and  long 
continued  to  be  the  .error  of  the  American  seas.  Jamaica  has  often 
been  harassed  by  negro  insurrections,  but  since  the  mountains  have 
been  opened  by  roads,  the  insurgent--^,  deprived  of  any  place  of  shelter, 
have  found  themselves  unable  to  make  considerable  stand. 

To  the  north  of  the  river  Amazon,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  South 
America,  lies  a  vast  level  tract,  known  by  the  general  name  of  Guiana, 
possessed  by  the  Portuguese,  the  French,  Butch,  and  English.  The 
land  is  exuberantly  fertile,  but  the  climate  unhealthy.  Formerly  the 
Dutch  settlements  were  the  most  considerable,  but  the  chief  of  them 
were  captured  in  1797  by  the  English,  and  are  now  in  their  possession. 
This  is  the  only  portion  which  bears  the  appearance  of  regular  coloni- 
zation, the  other  tracts  being  either  held  by  the  natives,  or  mainly  used 
by  the  European  rulers  as  penal  settlements. 

Hispaniola,  or  St.  Domingo,  after  having  been  long  an  object  of  con- 
tention between  the  French,  Spaniards,  and  English,  is  now  an  inde- 
pendent negro  state,  and  has  resumed  its  old  native  name  of  Hayti. 


Skction  VI. —  TJie  Portuguese  in  India. 

The  colonies  we  have  just  described  owe  their  origin  to  the  discov 
eries  of  Columbus  ;  we  must  now  direct  our  attention  to  those  in  the 
opposite  division  of  the  globe,  which  were  consequent  on  the  discovery 
of  a  passage  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  Vasco  de  Gama.  The 
first  enterprises  of  the  Portuguese,  when  a  way  was  opened  for  them 
to  Hindustan,  were  limited  to  securing  their  commerce  ;  but  under  the 
guidance  of  the  illustrious  Albuquerque,  they  procured  a  grant  of  ground 
from  one  of  the  native  sovereigns,  and  founded  a  strong  fortress.  The 
Mohammedans,  who  had  hitherto  engrossed  the  entire  commerce  of 
India,  formed  a  league  to  expel  the  intruders,  in  which  they  were  en- 
couraged by  the  Venetians,  who  purchased  Indian  spices  and  other 
goods  from  the  Arabs,  v/ith  which  they  supplied  the  principal  markets 
of  Europe.  This  enterprise  was  defeated,  and  soon  after  Don  Alphonzo 
Albuquerque  laid  the  foundation  of  the  future  supremacy  of  the  Portu- 
guese by  reducing  Goa,  which  afterward  became  the  seat  of  govern 
ment,  and  was  also  erected  into  an  archbishop's  see  by  the  pope.  This 
was  the  first  commencement  of  territorial  acquisition  by  European  pow- 
ers in  India,  a  system  strongly  deprecated  by  Vasco  de  Gama,  and 
which  it  is  impossible  to  defend  on  any  principles  of  national  justice 
\lbuqiierque  defended  himself  by  declaring  that  it  would  be  impossible 
for  Portugal  to  command  the  trade  unless  it  shared  in  the  empire  of 
India,  a  pretext  whose  obvious  weakness  it  is  not  necessary  to  expose 
Albuquerque  ?Iso  subdued  the  city  of  Malacca,  and  the  island  of  Ormuz 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZAIION.  729 

m  the  Persisri  giilf.  The  efforts  of  his  successors  were  principally  di- 
rected to  the  maintenance  of  Albuquerque's  acquisitions,  and  to  check- 
in  f  the  progress  of  the  Turks,  who,  after  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  made 
several  attempts  to  establish  themselves  on  the  coast  of  Malabar.  Had 
they  succeeded,  it  is  probable  that  the  Christians  would  never  have  oc- 
cupied India,  for  the  Mussulmans  spread  over  the  peninsula  would  have 
united  to  support  a  power  equally  favorable  to  their  religious  prejudices 
'ind  their  temporal  interests.  In  about  sixty  years  the  Portuguese  had 
established  an  empire  in  the  east,  whose  extent  and  power  were  truly 
wonderful.  On  one  side,  their  authority  extended  as  far  as  the  utmost 
limhs  of  the  coast  of  Persia,  and  over  all  the  islands  in  the  Persian 
gulf;  some  of  the  Arabian  princes  were  their  tributaries,  others  their 
allies,  and  through  the  whole  Arabian  peninsula  none  dared  to  confess 
themselves  their  enemies.  In  the  Red  sea,  they  were  the  only  power 
that  commanded  respect,  and  they  had  considerable  influence  over  the 
emperor  of  Abyssinia  and  the  rulers  of  eastern  Africa.  They  possessed 
che  whole  coast  of  Malabar,  from  Cape  Ramoz  to  Cape  Comorin ;  they 
were  masters  also  of  the  Coromandel  coast,  the  bay  of  Bengal,  the  city, 
'ortress,  and  peninsula  of  Malacca.  The  potent  islands  of  Ceylon,  Su- 
matra, and  Java,  paid  them  tribute,  as  did  the  Moluccas  ;  and  they  had 
obtained  a  settlement  in  China  (Macao),  and  a  free  trade  with  the  islands 
3f  Japan. 

The  ruin  of  this  empire  arose  chiefly  from  the  union  of  Portugal  with 
Spain  (a.  d.  1580).  Immediately  after  that  event,  Philip  II.  issued  an 
edict,  prohibiting  the  Dutch  from  trading  with  Lisbon,  and  thus  com- 
pelled them  to  seek  for  the  spices  and  wares  of  India  in  other  quarters. 
The  enterprising  republicans  were  then  hardy  and  necessitous,  and  had 
everything  to  gain  and  nothing  to  lose  ;  the  Portuguese,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  divided  in  their  counsels,  depraved  in  their  manners,  and 
detested  by  their  subjects  and  neighbors.  The  Dutch  first  established 
themselves  in  some  distant  islands,  whence,  being  joined  by  new  set- 
tlers from  home,  partly  by  force  of  arms  and  partly  by  taking  advantage 
of  the  errors  committed  bytlie  Portuguese,  they  finally  supplanted  them 
everywhere,  and  stripped  them  of  their  dominions  in  far  less  time  than 
they  haJ  acquired  them. 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  Portuguese  settlements  was  the  island 
of  Orrauz.  It  if  nothing  more  than  a  salt  and  barren  rock  in  the  Persian 
gulf,  destitute  of  water,  save  where  rain,  which  rarely  falls,  is  collected 
in  natural  or  artificial  cavities  ;  but  its  commodious  situation  rendered 
it  the  most  flourishing  commercial  mart  in  the  eastern  seas.  Ite  road- 
stead was  frequented  by  shipping  from  all  parts  of  the  Indies,  from  the 
coasts  of  Africa,  Egypt,  and  Arabia,  while  it  possessed  an  extensive 
caravan  trade  with  the  interior  of  Asia,  through  the  opposite  ports  of 
Persia.  The  wealth,  the  splendor,  and  the  concourse  of  traders  at  Or- 
muz,  during  ita  flourishing  condition,  gave  the  world  a  memorable  exam- 
ple of  the  almost  omnipotent  power  of  commerce  :  in  the  trading  seasons, 
which  lasted  from  January  to  March,  and  from  the  end  of  August  to  the 
beginning  of  November,  not  only  was  there  an  unparalleled  activity  of 
traffic,  but  a  display  of  luxury  and  magnificence  which  seemed  to  real- 
ize the  extravagances  of  fiction.  The  salt  dust  of  the  streets  was  coa 
cealed  and  kept  down  by  neat  mats  and  rich  carpets  ;  canvass  awningf-' 


'''30  MODERN   HISTORY. 

were  extended  from  the  roofs  of  the  houses  to  exclude  the  scorching, 
rays  of  the  sun ;  the  rooms  next  the  street  w^ere  opened  like  shops 
adorned  with  Indian  cabinets  and  piles  of  porcelain,  intermixed  with 
Ddoriferous  dwarf  trees  and  shrubs,  set  in  gilded  vases,  elej^anlly  adometl 
with  figures.  Camels  laden  with  water-skins  stood  at  the  corner  of 
every  street,  while  the  richest  wines  of  Persia,  the  most  costly  perfumes 
and  the  choicest  delicacies  of  Asia,  were  poured  forth  in  lavish  profu- 
fiion.  The  Portuguese,  in  the  insolence  of  prosperity,  provoked  thf 
hostility  of  Shah  Abbas,  the  most  powerful  of  the  Persian  monarchs,  and 
quarrelled  with  the  English,  just  as  they  were  beginning  to  obtain  con- 
skleration  in  the  east.  A  league  was  formed  between  Shah  Abbas  and 
the  English  ;  their  united  forces  assailed  Ormuz  (a.  d.  1622)  ;  it  was 
taken  with  little  difficulty,  and  the  value  of  its  plunder  was  estimated  a' 
two  millions.  Thenceforward  the  trade  of  Ormuz  rapidly  declined  :  its 
merchants  transferred  their  capital  and  enterprise  to  other  quarteih,  the 
very  materials  of  its  splendid  edifices  were  taken  away  by  the  Dutch 
ships  as  ballast,  and  it  soon  relapsed  into  its  original  condition  of  a  bar 
ren  and  desolate  rock.  Scarcely  the  smallest  remains  are  now  left 
to  vindicate  the  records  of  history,  or  to  prove  that  this  was  once  the 
flourishing  capital  of  extensive  commerce,  and  the  principal  magazine 
of  the  east. 

Section  VII. —  The  Spaniards  in  the  East  Indies. 

We  have  before  seated  that  the  object  of  the  first  voyage  of  Columbus 
was  to  discover  a  western  passage  to  the  East  Indies,  and  this  project 
was  not  forgotten  by  the  Spaniards,  even  after  a  new  world  had  been 
opened  to  their  ambition.  After  the  discovery  of  the  passage  round  the 
extremity  of  South  America  by  Magellan,  they  prepared  to  occupy  some 
of  the  Moluccas,  but  were  prevented  by  the  papal  division  of  newly- 
discovered  countries  between  them  and  the  Portuguese.  But  when 
Portugal  was  united  to  Spain,  under  Philip  II.,  Lopez  de  Lega^pi  re- 
solved to  form  a  settlement  in  a  valuable  cluster  of  these  islands,  which 
ne  called  the  Philippines,  in  honor  of  his  sovereign.  The  city  of  Ma- 
nilla was  speedily  built  and  fortified  ;  scarcely  were  its  defences  com- 
plete, when  it  was  attacked  by  the  native  islanders,  instigated  by  the 
Chinese,  who  appear  to  have  been,  at  some  remote  period,  masters  of 
the  country.  With  some  difficulty  the  insurrection  was  suppressed  ;  but 
more  formidable  rivals  soon  appeared  :  the  Dutch  occupied  the  most 
valuable  of  the  Moluccas,  and  tlie  Spanish  court  seriously  contemplated 
the  abandonment  of  the  Philippine  islands.  But  though  these  settle- 
ments have  been  frequently  attacked  both  by  thf  Dutch  and  English, 
they  have  been  preserved  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  and  are  now  almost 
the  only  remnant  of  the  extensive  colonial  empire  once  possessed  by 
that  monarchy. 

Section   VIII. —  The  Dutch  in  tlie  East  InOiea 

It  was  the  intolerable  cruelty  of  the  Spanish  government  that  drove 
ixQ  Dutch  to  re\'olt ;  and  the  incurable  bigotry  of  Philip  II.  prevented 


HISTORY  or  COLONIZATION.  731 

the  insurgents  from  ever  seeking  an  accommodation.  But  the  same 
sanguinary  and  short-sighted  policy  laid  the  foundation  of  the  future 
prosperity  of  Holland,  and  enabled  the  Dutch  to  attain,  in  a  very  short 
period,  an  unrivalled  ascendency  in  commerce.  To  check  the  growing 
spirit  of  freedom  in  the  Netherlands,  the  Spaniards  destroyed  the  trade 
of  Antwerp,  discouraged  every  effort  made  for  its  restoration,  and  thus 
drove  its  merchants  to  increase  the  establishments  and  the  trade  of  Am- 
sterdam. Desirous  of  humbling  the  Portuguese,  Philip's  ministers  laid 
the  most  vexatious  restraints  on  the  commerce  of  Lisbon,  and  thus  com- 
pelled the  Dutch,  whose  subsistence  almost  wholly  depended  on  the 
carrying-trade,  to  seek  out  means  for  the  direct  importation  of  Indian 
commodities.  It  was  still  hoped  that  a  northeast  passage  to  the  Indian 
seas  might  be  discovered,  and  three  fruitless  expeditions  were  sent  out 
on  this  hopeless  inquiry.  In  the  meantime,  Cornelius  Houtman,  who 
had  been  made  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards  at  Lisbon,  obtained  such  in- 
formation from  the  Portuguese  respecting  the  course  of  their  voyages 
round  the  cape  of  Good  Hope,  that  on  his  escape  to  Anisterdam,  he  in- 
duced some  of  the  leading  merchants  to  form  a  company  fur  sending 
him  out  with  an  expedition  ;  and  a  fleet,  well  provided,  sailed  from  the 
Texel  (a  d.  1595).  The  Spaniards  first  attempted  to  defeat  the  enter- 
prises of  the  Dutch  by  main  force,  but  being  soon  convinced  of  their 
inferiority  at  sea  to  tho  hardy  republicans,  they  sent  emissaries  to  the 
principal  eastern  sovereigns,  describing  the  new  adventurers  as  pirates. 
But  the  Dutch  admiral,  Heemskirk,  having  captured  a  rich  Portuguese 
vessel,  on  her  way  from  Macao,  treated  his  prisoners  with  so  much 
generosity,  that  letters  of  thanks  were  addressed  to  him  from  the  prin- 
cipal Spanish  authorities  in  the  east ;  these  letters  he  produced  in  every 
port  at  which  he  touched,  and  thus  satisfactorily  refuted  the  calumnies 
which  had  been  heaped  upon  his  nation.  A  company  was  soon  incor- 
porated in  Holland  for  managing  the  Indian  trade  ;  and  the  rest  of  the 
subjects  of  the  United  Provinces  were  prohibited  from  trading  with 
Asia,  either  by  the  cape  of  Good  Hope  or  Cape  Horn.  They  first  oc- 
cupied the  Moluccas,  or  Spice  islands,  from  which  they  were  driven 
by  the  Spaniards,  but  soon  retrieved  their  losses.  Ere  long,  the  Dutch 
and  English  East  India  companies,  excited  by  mutual  jealousy,  began 
to  assail  each  other's  possessions.  The  island  of  Java  was  the  chief 
object  of  their  mutual  am'^ition ;  after  a  long  struggle,  the  Dutch  pre- 
vailed, and  immediately  secured  their  acquisition  by  building  the  city 
of  Batavia.  Soon  afterward,  all  the  English  merchants  resident  at  Am- 
boyna  were  massacred,  and  by  this  act  of  treachery  the  Dutch  succeed- 
ed in  securing  for  a  long  time  the  monopoly  of  the  spice  trade.  They 
also  wrested  the  Japanese  trade  from  the  Portuguese,  and  continue 
even  now  to  be  the  only  Europeans  admitted  to  trade  with  the  empire 
of  Japan. 

The  next  great  object  of  the  Dutch  was  to  gain  possession  of  the 
island  of  Ceylon,  from  which  they  not  only  expelled  the  Portuguese, 
but  reduced  the  native  princes  under  their  dommion,  and  thus  gained 
thf?  monopoly  of  the  cinnamon  trade.  They  long  kept  possession  of 
this  valuable  island,  but  during  the  wars  of  the  French  revolution  it  waa 
wrcoted  from  them  by  the  English,  under  whose  pow'er  it  still  continues 

The  influence  of  the  Jesuits  at  the  court  of  Pekin  baffled  all  the  ef* 


k 


7ii'-i  MODERN  HISTORY. 

fort?  of  the  Dutch  to  open  a  trade  with  the  Chinese  empire  ;  but  tlu) 
succeeded  in  establishing  a  flourishing  settlement  on  the  island  of  For 
mosa,  which  opened  to  them  a  lucrative  traflic  with  the  Indo-Chinese 
nations.  But  soon  after  the  conquest  of  China  bj  the  Mantchew  Tar- 
tars, the  Forniosans,  joined  by  a  large  army  from  China,  besieged  the 
Dutch  settlement  and  compelled  the  garrison  to  surrender.  Since  that 
period,  Formosa  has  been  annexed  to  the  empire  of  China,  and  is  nc 
longer  visited  by  Europeans. 

The  Dutch  adopted  a  more  exclusive  system  of  policy  than  the 
Spaniards  or  Portuguese,  and  this  was  the  principal  cause  of  the  ruin 
of  the  empire  they  had  acquired.  Their  harsh  conduct  to  the  natives 
produced  frequent  civil  wars  or  insurrections,  which  greatly  weakened 
their  settlements.  In  Java  especially,  their  dominion  was  maintained 
only  by  an  enormous  expenditure  of  blood  and  treasure ;  and  as  other 
European  nations  began  gradually  to  obtain  a  share  in  the  spice  trade, 
the  Dutch  East  India  company  found  the  i)rofits  of  its  monopoly  rapidly 
diminishing.  During  the  wars  of  the  French  revolution,  most  of  the 
Dutch  colonies  were  occupied  by  the  English,  but  some  of  them  were 
restored  at  the  general  peace.  England,  however,  kept  the  two  of 
greatest  importance,  the  cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  island  of  Ceylon  ; 
but  Holland  still  possesses  the  island  of  Java,  and  the  monopoly  of  the 
trade  with  Japan. 

Section  IX. —  The  Danes  in  the  East  Indies. 

An  association  was  formed  at  Copenhagen  for  opening  a  trade  with 
the  East  Indies  (a.  d.  1612),  in  consequence  of  the  riches  which  so 
lucrative  a  branch  of  commerce  seemed  to  have  brought  into  the  neigh- 
boring nations.  A  small  expedition  was  sent  out  to  the  Coromandel 
coast,  where  the  adventurers  were  hospitably  received  by  the  rajah  of 
Tanjore,  from  whom  they  received  permission  to  establish  a  settlement 
at  Tranquebar.  Many  circumstances  contributed  to  check  the  pros- 
perity of  the  Danish  East  India  company,  but  none  more  than  the  per- 
tinacious jealousy  of  the  Dutch,  who  excluded  them  from  the  most 
profitable  branches  of  trade.  But  though  the  Danes  did  no*  attain  to 
any  remarkable  eminence  in  East  Indian  commerce,  they  were  honor- 
ably distinguished  by  their  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the  Christian 
religion  ;  and,  notwithstanding  their  limited  means,  they  have  succeed- 
ed in  difl^using  the  principles  of  true  religion  through  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  south  of  India. 

Section  X. —  The  French  in  the  East  Indies. 

Maritime  afTairs  were  long  neglected  in  France  ;  and  though  Fran- 
cis I.  and  Henry  III.  issued  edicts,  exhorting  their  subjects  to  under- 
take long  voyages,  yet  either  a  want  of  enterprise  in  the  people,  or  the 
mability  of  the  government  to  afford  pecuniary  assistance,  prevented 
any  efiort  being  made  meriting  notice.  After  some  attempts  to  form 
an  association  of  merchants,  productive  of  little  advantage,  an  East 
India  company  was  founded  (a.  d.  1616),  but  meeting  with  some  mis- 
f(«tuiies,  the  members   resolved  to   abandon  the  Indian  trade,  and  to 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  733 

.lirect  their  artention  to  the  establishment  of  a  settlement  in  the  island 
of  Madagascar.  Toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
French  purchased  the  town  of  Pondicherry  from  the  king  of  Visapur, 
and  began  to  form  a  settlement  there  with  every  reasonable  prospect  of 
success.  It  was,  however,  wrested  from  them  by  the  Dutch  (a.  d. 
1  693),  but  was  subsequently  restored  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick  (a.  d. 
1697).  Thenceforward,  the  prosperity  of  the  colony  progressively  in- 
creased, and  the  subsequent  acquisition  from  the  Dutch  of  he  islands 
called  the  isles  of  France  and  Bourbon,  but  previously  tha  Mauritius 
and  the  Mascarenhas,  led  the  French  to  hope  that  they  might  acquire 
an  important  share  in  eastern  commerce.  A  new  career  of  ambition 
was  opened  to  them  by  the  sanguinary  struggles  which  arose  between 
the  new  states  formed  out  of  the  fragments  of  the  empire  of  Delhi  ; 
M.  Dupleix,  the  governor  of  Pondicherry,  hoped  by  embroiling  the 
natives  with  each  other,  to  obtain  territorial  acquisitions  as  the  price  o.^ 
his  assistance  to  some  of  the  combatants.  The  English  adopted  the 
same  course  of  policy,  and  ihiis  the  ancient  hostility  between  the  two 
nations  extended  its  influence  to  India.  The  talents  of  Clive,  however, 
carried  the  English  triumphantly  through  an  arduous  struggle,  which 
ended  in  the  almost  total  expulsion  of  the  French  from  the  peninsula, 
and  *he  cession  of  most  of  their  settlements,  by  the  peace  of  1763. 
They  jfterward  intrigued  with  the  native  princes.  Hyder  Ali  and  Tip- 
poo  Sultan,  a.gainst  their  successful  rivals,  but  they  have  been  utterly 
unable  to  regain  any  portion  af  their  former  influence. 

Section  XI. — The  English  in  India. 

A  HUNDRED  years  have  not  elapsed  since  the  possessions  ol  the 
British  East  India  company  were  limited  to  three  settlements  of  narrow 
extent,  inhabited  by  a  few  hundred  Europeans,  who  were  scarcely  able 
to  defend  themselves  against  pirates  and  banditti,  much  less  compete 
with  the  powL-^  of  the  native  princes.  Now  this  association  of  mer- 
chants, Irom  its  court  in  Leadenhall  street,  rules  over  an  empire  con- 
tauung  a  hundred  nallions  of  suojects,  raises  a  tribute  of  more  than 
th-ee  mi;lioas  ani.ually,  possesses  an  army  of  more  ihan  two  hundred 
thousand  r-^nk  and  file,  has  princes  for  its  servants,  and  emperors  pen- 
sioners on  lis  bounty.  Calcutta,  from  a  miserable  village,  has  become 
tile  inetr»<polis  of  the  east;  Bombay  possesses  more  trade  than  Tyre, 
ui  the  da/s  of  its  ^dory  ;  and  Madras,  in  spire  of  its  perilous  suif,  rval:j 
the  commercial  prosj)erity  of  Carthage.  There  is  no  parallel  to  such  a 
career  in  the  annals  of  the  world  ;  conquenn's,  indeed,  have  acquired  a 
more  extensive  dominion  in  a  shorter  space  of  time,  but  they  failed  to 
establish  a  permanent  empire  ;  after  a  few  years,  the  ci-aces  of  their 
tempesluous  passage  were  as  completely  effaced  as  the  track  of  a  vessel 
iu  the  waves  of  the  ocean. 

In  the  preceding  chapters,  we  have  incidentally  noticed  the  progress 
of  the  company's  empire  in  its  relation  to  the  general  politics  of  Europe 
but  it  is  of  importance  to  mark  more  definitely  the  successive  steps  bj 
which  such  vast  acquisitions  have  been  won  and  secured.  The  histor) 
of  the  East  India  company,  indeed,  has  more  than  ordinary  claims  ou 
uui'  utteaiion  ;  it  is  iutiniateiy  connected  with  our  national  character 


Td4 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


and  national  welfare,  and  all  must  desire  to  know  whetlier  our  ea&tor/. 
empire  has  advanced  the  great  cause  of  civilization,  and  whether  out 
domination  is  likely  to  endure,  or  to  meet  at  some  time  or  other  a  pre 
cipilate  overthrow. 

The  London  company  for  trading  with  the  East  Indies  was  incor 
porated  by  Queen  Elizabeth  (a.  d.  1600),  and  remained  without  a  rival 
for  nearly  a  century,  when  the  necessities  of  the  state  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  English  company  (a.  d.  1G98)  ;  it  was  soon  found  that  tlie 
rivalry  between  these  bodies  was  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  both, 
and  at  the  recommendation  of  his  majesty  King  William  III.,  the  two 
companies  agreed  to  form  one  association,  to  be  designated  "  The  United 
Company  of  Merchants  of  Engldiid,  trading  to  the  East  Indies."  The 
first  English  settlement  of  importance  wis  Bantam,  ii  the  island  of 
Java  ;  but  in  1058,  they  obtained  a  grant  of  land  on  the  Coromandel 
f.oast,  near  Madras,  where  they  erected  a  stronghold.  Fort  Si  George. 
In  1G68,  the  island  of  Bombay,  ceded  by  the  crown  of  Pc  tugal  to 
Charles  II.,  as  a  part  of  the  dowry  of  the  infanta  Catharine,  was  grant- 
ed by  the  king,  and  appointed  the  capital  of  the  British  settlements  in 
India.  Bengal  was  not  at  first  estimated  at  its  true  value,  but  toward 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  (a.  d.  1698),  the  English  had  a 
settlement  at  Calcutta,  the  French  at  Chandernagore,  and  the  Dutch  at 
Chinsura,  all  situated  on  the  river  Hooghly.  An  embassy  was  sent  to 
the  court  of  Delhi  with  presents  ;  fortunately  one  of  its  members  was 
an  eminent  physician,  and  his  professional  aid  was  rer^uired  by  the  em- 
peror Ferrokshir.  In  gratitude  for  the  services  of  Dr.  Hamilton,  Fer- 
rokshir  granted  valuable  frmdns,  or  patents  of  privileges  to  the  com- 
pany, which  gave  them  great  advantages  over  their  European  rivals 
The  viceroy  of  Bengal,  jealous  of  the  privileges  granted  to  the  English, 
advanced  against  Calcutta,  took  the  town,  and  confined  one  hundred  and 
forty-Rix  in  a  dungeon  called  the  Black  Hole,  so  narrow  and  confined, 
that  only  twenty-three  of  the  captives  survived  till  the  morning  (a.  d 
17.56).  Colonel  Clive,  who  had  already  given  proofs  of  his  military 
talents  in  the  Madras  presidency,  was  sent  into  Bengal.  He  soon  re- 
covered Calcutta,  and  took  Chandernagore  from  the  French.  Finding 
that  the  viceroy  of  Btsngal,  Suraj-u-Dowlah,  was  obstinate  in  his  oppo 
aition  to  the  company's  interest,  Clive  adopted  the  bold  resolution  of 
deposing  him  wuhout  waiting  for,  or  indeed  asking  the  emperor's  sanc- 
tion, although  the  company  was  at  peace  with  the  court  of  Delhi.  Act- 
ing pconiptiy  on  this  determination,  Clive  attacked  the  viceroy's  troops 
at  PLisscy  (June  23,  1757),  and  gained  a  decisive  victory.  Suraj-u- 
Dowlah  was  deposed,  and  his  post  given  by  the  conquerors  to  Jalfier 
Ali  Khan. 

Afier  Cli\  e's  retura  to  England,  the  government  of  Calcutta  was  in 
irusted  to  a  council,  of  which  Mr.  Vansittart  was  appointed  president 
The  rapidity  with  which  the  English  had  acquired  supremacy  in  Ben 
gal,  inspired  them  with  feelings  of  contemptuous  superiority,  which  in- 
volved them  in  angry  disputes  with  the  new  viceroy.  At  length,  the 
council  of  Calcutta,  induced  by  a  bribe  of  200,000/.,  resolved  to  depose 
Jafiier,  and  confer  the  viceroyship  on  Cossim  KX\  Khan.  But  Cossini 
was  soon  as  odious  as  his  predecessor.  The  servants  of  the  East  India 
company  claimed  an  exemption  from  all  duties  on  commerce   and  ihup 


HISTORY  OF  COLONiZATION.  735 

mined  the  native  merchants  ;  Cossim,  after  many  remonsCiances  to  the 
council  of  Calcutta,  abolished  the  transit  duties  altogether ;  and  this  act 
of  justice  to  his  own  subjects,  though  extorted  by  necessity,  was  loudly 
exclaimed  against  as  an  infringement  of  his  engagements  with  the  com- 
pany, and  two  agents  were  sent  to  demand  the  repeal  of  the  decree. 
While  negotiations  were  pending,  the  English  resident  seized  the  cita- 
del of  Patna,  and  though  it  was  immediately  retaken  by  Cossim  Ali, 
his  rage  was  so  excited  by  what  he  regarded  a  deliberate  act  of  treach- 
ery, that  he  put  all  the  English  prisoners  to  death.  War  was  instantly 
declared,  Cossim  Ali  was  defeated  and  deposed,  and  Jaffier  Khan  was 
unce  more  declared  viceroy  of  Bengal.  It  is  not  known  at  what  price 
Jaffier  purchased  his  restoration,  but  he  did  not  long  enjoy  it ;  he  died 
a  few  months  before  Clive,\\ho  had  been  recently  elevated  to  the  peer 
age,  returned  as  governor-general  to  Calcutta. 

Lord  Clive  found  the  affairs  of  the  presidency  in  a  deplor^Lle  con- 
dition :  their  troops,  goaded  to  madness  by  the  insolence  and  rapacity 
of  their  officers,  were  in  open  mutiny  ;  the  fertile  province  of  Bengal 
was  "  marred  to  a  wilderness"  by  the  most  corrupt  of  all  the  corrupt 
bodies  ever  intrusted  with  its  destinies ;  friendly  native  powers  were 
estranged  by  systematic  extortion  ;  hostile  princes  were  confirmed  ir. 
their  enmity  by  witnessing  such  excesses  of  profligacy  and  peculation  ; 
and,  to  complete  his  lordship's  difficulties,  his  proceedings  were  con- 
trolled by  a  subordinate  committee,  wholly  unused  to  subordination. 
Clive's  zeal  in  reforming  such  crying  abuses,  procured  him  a  host  of 
enemies,  whose  resistance  was  encouraged  by  their  friends  and  patrons 
in  the  court  of  directors  at  home.  The  first  outbreak  of  opposition  was 
a  general  mutiny  of  the  military  officers,  supported  by  a  large  subscrip- 
tion from  the  civilians  in  Calcutta.  Through  a  defect  in  the  mutiny 
act,  the  governor-general  was  not  able  to  sentence  any  of  the  criminals 
to  death,  not  even  those  who  were  found  guilty  of  planning  his  assassi- 
nation. Sir  Robert  Fletcher,  the  general  in  command  of  the  army,  was 
subsequently  proved  to  be  the  instigator  of  the  whole  plot,  and  having 
been  convicted  by  a  court-martial,  he  was  cashiered.  But  it  nuist  be 
added,  that  this  very  officer  was  subsequently  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  of  Madras,  whore  he  headed  tae  mutinous  opposition 
by  which  Lord  Pigot  was  removed  from  that  governm-^ut.  AmUhor  of 
the  mutineers,  sent  home  by  Clive,  on  charges  that  affected  his  life, 
obtained  a  very  high  appointment  in  the  civil  service  of  Bengal  by  his 
party  interest  in  the  court  of  directors. 

Clive's  firmness  restored  order  in  Calcutta  ;  and  soon  aftt;r,  the  sub- 
stitution of  British  rule  for  the  native  viceroyalties  in  Bengal,  removed 
the  chiei  source  of  intrigue  and  peculation.  But  in  the  meantime,  the 
presidency  at  Madras  was  biought  to  the  brink  of  ruin  by  tie  arms  of 
Ilvder  Ali,  whose  abilities  had  raised  him  from  the  rank  of  a  private 
soldier  to  that  of  an  independent  sovereign.  After  a  protracted  war, 
Sir  Eyre  Coote  retrieved  all  the  losses  of  the  English,  anl,on  the  death 
of  Hyder  (a.  d.  1782),  concluded  a  treaty  with  his  son,  Tippoo,  on 
terms  very  advantageous  to  the  company. 

The  charters  granted  at  various  times  to  the  company,  only  secured 
to  V.  the  exclusive  right  of  trade  ;  when,  therefore,  it  bt-gan  to  make 
territorial    acquisitions,    it    became    a    serious    constitutional    question 


736  MODERN  HISTORY. 

whether  the  British  crown'  did  not  possess  an  inherent  right  to  all 
provinces  conquered  by  its  subjects.  The  ministers,  and  especially 
Lord  North,  already  embarrassed  by  the  American  war,  were  unwilling 
to  atte'Jipt  the  decision  of  a  matter  encumbered  with  so  many  difficulties  ; 
but  the  right  of  the  British  parliament  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of 
India,  was  virtually  asserted,  by  passing  various  acts  of  regulation, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  custom  of  time-bargains  with  the  company, 
which  were,  in  fact,  mere  expedients  to  escape  from  difficulties  becom- 
ing more  complicated  every  hour. 

The  administration  of  Mr.  Warren  Hastings  greatly  extended  the 
company's  territories,  and  rendered  its  influence  paramount  in  northern 
India  ;  but  the  means  which  he  employed  were  not  always  consistent 
with  European  notions  of  equity  ;  and  the  disputes  which  arose  between 
him  and  kis  council,  fixed  the  attention  of  the  British  parliament  and 
the  British  nation  on  the  affairs  of  India.  Mr.  Fox,  who  was  then  in 
power,  introduced  a  bill  for  transferring  the  government  of  India  from 
the  court  of  directors  to  a  parliamentary  committee,  but  the  measure 
was  frustrated  by  the  reluctance  of  the  king,  and  the  dismissal  of  the 
ministry.  We  have  already  noticed  the  impeachment  of  Mr.  Hastings 
and  his  acquittal,  after  a  trial  of  unparalleled  duration,  by  the  house  of 
lords. 

At  length  an  important  change  was  made  in  the  government  of  India, 
by  the  establishment  of  a  board  of  control,  according  to  a  plan  proposed 
by  Mr.  Pitt  (a.  d.  1784).  The  principal  object  of  the  new  measure 
was  to  secure  the  obedience  and  responsibility  of  the  company's  ser- 
vants to  the  authorities  in  England,  and  to  remedy  the  most  glaring 
abuses  of  pationage  by  the  court  of  directors.  This  measure,  though 
not  so  stringent  as  it  was  originally  intended  to  be,  produced  very  bene- 
ficial eflects,  and  introduced  a  system  of  subordination,  in  which  the 
presidencies  had  long  been  deficient. 

Lord  Cornwaliis  was  sent  out  as  governor-general,  under  the  new 
system  ;  he  exerted  himself  to  remedy  some  of  the  most  flagrant  abuses 
in  thj  aduiinistnition,  and,  though  opposed  by  a  majority  of  the 
supreme  court  at  Calcutta,  he  partially  succeeded.  He  soon  began  to 
look  \vitii  s  Jspicitin  on  the  ambitious  projects  of  Tippoo  Sultan,  who 
had  inherited  his  father  Hyder's  hostility  to  the  English.  Tippoo's 
intrigues  were  secretly  encouraged  by  the  French  govenunent,  for  suf- 
ficiently obvious  reasons.  The  French  had  been  the  first  to  try  the 
plan  ofacquidnsj  territorial  jiossessious  by  interference  in  native  wars, 
oftf;n  ex(  ited  by  themselves  :  and  they  had  been  completely  defeated, 
while  the  English  had  as  completely  succeeded.  Anger  at  this  failure, 
too  high  an  estimate  of  the  injury  which  the  British  power  had 
received  from  the  loss  of  the  American  colonies,  and  a  confident  belief 
that  our  empire  in  tlie  east  was  as  insecure  as  it  had  proved  in  the 
west,  were  popular  feelings  in  France,  and  were  just  as  rife  in  the  court 
of  Versailles  as  they  were  at  a  later  period  in  the  jacobin  clubs  of  Paris. 
The  danger  which  Lord  Cornwaliis  anticipated,  seemed  more  formid- 
able to  Mr.  Pitt  than  to  the  court  of  directors,  and  led  to  a  serious  dis 
pute  between  the  ministry  and  the  company.  The  premier,  through 
the  board  of  control,  insisted  on  sending  regular  British  troops  to  India, 
and  compelling  the   company  to  pay  for  ♦heir  support.     This  was  re 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  737 

garded  by  the  court  of  directors  as  an  indirect  effort  on  the  part  of  tho 
crown  to  grasp  the  patronage  of  the  Indian  army,  and  was,  of  course, 
strenuously  resisted.  Mr.  Pitt  settled  the  matter  by  forcing  through 
parliament,  with  all  the  influence  at  his  command,  an  act  of  explana- 
tion ;  but  he  had  the  mortification  to  encounter  a  fierce  opposition  frona 
many  who  were  generally  his  stanchest  supporters.  The  war  with 
Tippoo,  which  rendered  the  English  authority  supreme  from  the  rivei 
Krishna  to  Cape  Comorin,  soon  followed.  Lord  Cornwallis  having 
brought  it  to  a  prosperous  termination,  returned  home,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Sir  John  Shore,  afterward  Lord  Teignmouth. 

During  Sir  John  Shore's  peaceful  administration,  the  organization 
of  the  internal  government  of  Lidia  was  considerably  improved  ;  but 
its  most  remarkable  events  were  the  interference  of  the  English,  as 
arbitrators,  in  the  disputed  succession  to  the  throne  of  Oude  ;  and  the 
commencement  of  discontents,  almost  amounting  to  mutinies,  among 
the  officers  of  the  Indian  army,  in  consequence  of  the  reduction  of  their 
field  allowances  by  the  court  of  directors.  The  latter  subject  soon  be- 
came one  of  increasing  annoyance,  and  even  danger  ;  but  the  calamities 
which  it  threatened  were  fortunately  averted  by  judicious  measures  of 
conciliation. 

Lord  Mornington,  afterward  marquis  of  Wellesley,  was  next  ap- 
pointed governor-general.  His  first  efforts  were  directed  to  lessen 
the  growing  influence  of  the  French  in  Hindustan  ;  finding  Tippoo 
indisposed  to  form  new  engagements  with  the  British  government,  war 
was  declared  against  him,  which,  as  we  have  already  stated,  ended  in 
the  defeat  and  death  of  that  turbulent  monarch.  A  subsequent  war 
with  the  Mahratta  powers  completely  established  British  supremacy 
in  India,  and  made  the  company  supreme  in  the  Peninsula.  But 
notwithstanding  his  brilliant  services,  the  marquis  of  Wellesley  was 
thwarted  in  many  important  points  of  policy  by  the  court  of  directors. 
The  chief  of  these  were,  the  employment  of  India-built  ships,  the 
establishment  of  a  college  for  the  education  of  civil  servants  at  Calcutta, 
and  the  patronage  of  certain  appointments,  which  the  court  wished  to 
reserve  for  its  favorites.  This  last  difference  led  to  very  angry  re- 
monstrances, both  from  the  marquis  of  Wellesley  and  Lord  Clive,  who 
was  governor  of  Madras.  Lord  Clive  resigned  his  situation  ;  and  ou 
quitting  Madras,  addressed  a  spirited  remonstrance  to  the  court  of 
directors,  it.  which  the  inefficiency,  insubordination,  and  delinquency 
of  many  of  their  servants,  were  directly  traced  to  the  abuse  of  patron- 
age, and  to  the  encouragement  which  the  idle  and  the  dissolute 
possessing  interest  with  the  court,  received  from  authority  superior  to 
the  local  government.  Lord  Wellesley,  supported  by  the  board  of 
control,  retained  his  place  in  defiance  of  the  court,  and,  by  his  succeaa- 
lul  management  of  the  Mahratta  war,  bore  down  all  opposition. 

The  great  extent  of  country  gained  in  the  Mahratta  war,  gave  rise  to 
serious  embarrassments  after  the  marquis  of  Wellesley  had  returned  to 
Europe  ;  his  successor,  Lord  Cornwallis,  died  before  completing  the 
requisite  arrangements,  and  Sir  George  Barlow,  who  acted  as  vice- 
governor,  adopted  a  line  of  policy  directly  contrary  to  that  which  had 
received  the  sanction  of  his  predecessor.  This  change  led  to  an  angry 
controversy  with  the  English  ministers  (Lord  Grenville  and  Mr.  Fox"' 

47 


738  MOLERN  HISTORY. 

wspecting  the  appointment  of  a  successor  to  tlie  marquis  of  CoirwiiUis 
The  ministers  nominated  Lord  Lauderdale  to  the  vacant  office,  the  court 
of  Jirectors  insisted  that  Sir  George  Barlow  should  retain  his  power. 
A.fter  a  very  long  negotiation,  both  parties  agreed  to  withdraw  the  rival 
candidates,  and  they  finally  concurred  in  selecting  Lord  Minto  as 
governor-general . 

When  Lord  Minto  reached  Madras,  his  attention  was  directed  tc 
certain  transactions  in  that  presidency,  too  important  to  be  omitted 
oven  in  this  brief  outline  of  Indian  history.  Lord  William  Bentinck 
succeeded  Lord  Clive  (afterward  earl  of  Powis)  in  the  government 
of  Madras,  and,  like  his  predecessor,  was  involved  in  serious  disputes 
with  the  local  council  and  the  subordinate  servants  of  the  company. 
In  the  midst  of  these  discussions,  a  dangerous  mutiny  of  the  native 
Indian  army  at  Vellore,  furnished  a  pretext  for  recalling  the  obnoxious 
governor  with  something  like  censure.  In  the  Indian  army  no  native 
could  attain  the  rank  of  commissioned  officer  ;  many  of  the  sepoys  were 
Mohammedans,  and  they  could  not  forget  how  very  recently  the  whole 
peninsula  of  India  was  their  own  ; .  the  deposed  dynasty  of  Mysore, 
including  Tippoo's  family  and  several  of  his  ministers,  were  on  the 
spot,  to  aggravate  these  feelings  of  natural  discontent ;  and  the  fakirs, 
or  preaching  friars  of  Mohammedanism,  lent  their  aid  to  fan  the  flame. 
A  regulation  respecting  the  head-dress  of  the  troops  was  the  pretext 
for  revolt ;  though  the  shape  of  the  sepoy  turban  had  no  more  connex- 
ion with  the  real  cause  of  the  mutiny,  than  the  color  of  the  roses  with 
the  rival  claims  of  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster.  The  insurrec- 
tion was  suppressed,  but  the  leniency  which  Lord  William  Bentinck 
was  disposed  to  show  toward  the  mutineers,  though  sanctioned  by  Lord 
Minto,  gave  such  displeasure  to  many  influential  persons,  that  the 
governor  returned  home. 

When  Lord  Minto  reached  Calcutta  (a.  d.  1809),  he  prepared  to 
adopt  a  system  of  policy,  vv'hich  had  long  been  a  favorite  scheme  with 
the  court  of  directors  and  indeed  with  the  great  majority  of  the  people 
of  England.  This  was  simply  to  introduce  the  European  principle  of 
a  balance  of  power  in  India  ; — no  plan  could  be  more  excellent  in 
theory,  but  it  was  impossible  to  reduce  it  to  practice,  for  no  materials 
existed  in  the  disorganized  governments  of  India,  from  which  such  a 
system  could  be  constructed.  The  company  had  ever  opposed  the 
colonization  of  India  by  Europeans,  and  had  therefore  rather  occupied 
than  possessed  its  successive  acquisitions  ;  with  the  exception  of  its 
hired  servants  (and  not  all  of  them),  there  was  not  a  single  individual 
interested  in  maintaining  its  sway  ;  its  soldiers  were  mere  mercenaries, 
its  subjects  utterly  indiflferent  to  the  continuance  of  its  rule.  In  pursuit 
of  this  favorite  but  hopeless  project,  the  establishment  of  a  balance  of 
power,  Lord  Minto  committed  many  serious  errors,  but  his  administra- 
tion was  on  the  whole  very  beneficial  to  England,  especially  as  he  was 
among  the  first  to  appreciate  the  value  of  the  Indian  archipelago,  with 
which  our  commerce  is  so  rapidly  increasing,  both  in  extent  and  im- 
portance. His  prudence  terminated  a  very  serious  dispute  between  the 
civil  and  military  authorities  at  Madras,  which  had  nearly  produced  the 
most  calamitous  results  :  he  tried  the  experiment  of  neutral  policy  with 
greater  success  than  could  have  attended  such  a  system  in  less  ablt 


uistohy  of  colonization.  739 

iiaiidb  ;  and  wlien  he  at  length  perceived  that  'balance  of  p.nver"  was 
inapplicable  to  the  state  of  society  in  India,  he  acknowledged  ihe  change 
in  his  opinions  with  a  manly  candor  which  is  too  rarely  met  with 
among"  modern  statesmen. 

The  earl  of  Moira,  afterward  marquis  of  Hastings,  succeeded  Lord 
Minto  in  the  government.  He  was  forced  to  abandon  the  neutral  line 
of  policy,  by  which  the  Goorkas,  or  wild  tribes  of  the  mountains  of 
Nepaul,  had  been  encouraged  to  encroach  upon  the  territories  both  of 
the  British  and  their  allies.  War  was  declared  ;  the  Goorkas  proved 
more  formidable  enemies  than  the  company's  troops  had  yet  encoun- 
tered, but  they  were  finally  overcome,  and  the  provinces  ceded  by  the 
Nepaulese,  as  the  price  of  peace,  brought  the  English  dominions  into 
close  contact  with  the  frontiers  of  the  Chinese  empire.  In  the  mean- 
time central  India  was  devastated  by  ferocious  bands  of  freebooters, 
known  by  the  name  of  Pindarries,  and  extensive  combinations  were 
formed  for  their  suppression.  The  treachery  and  luplicity  of  several 
of  the  native  powers  on  this  occasion  compelled  the  marquis  of  Has- 
tings to  demand  froim  them  considerable  cessions  of  territory ;  and,  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  war,  the  company  felt  itself  bound  to  retain 
those  acquisitions,  not  only  as  essential  to  its  own  interests,  but  to  those 
of  the  native  inhabitants.  Of  greater  importance  than  all  these  prov- 
inces was  the  establishment  of  a  British  settlement  at  Singapore 
(a.  L.  1819),  by  which  its  present  share  in  the  lucrative  commerce  of 
the  Indian  archipelago  was  secured  to  Great  Britain. 

The  earl  of  Amherst,  who  had  previously  been  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  China,  was  the  next  governor-general  (a.  d.  1823).  In  a  few  months 
after  his  arrival,  he  found  himself  constrained  to  adopt  active  measures 
for  repressing  the  insults  and  encroachments  of  the  Burmese.  The  war 
was  one  of  more  than  ordinary  difficulty,  but  it  finally  terminated  to  the 
advantage  of  the  British,  who  obtained  possession  of  many  new  and 
valuable  provinces.  Scarcely  less  important  was  the  capture  of  Bhurt- 
pore,  a  fortress  which,  having  been  on  two  former  occasions  assailed  in 
vain  by  the  British,  was  fondly  believed  impregnable  by  the  natives  of 
Hindustan  (a.  d.  1826)  ;  its  conquest  therefore  tended  not  a  little  to 
incrcjLse  that  general  sense  of  British  superiority  on  which  the  security 
of  our  Indian  empire  mainly  depends. 

Earl  \mherst  was  succeeded  by  Lord  William  Bentinck,  whose 
generally  peaceful  administration  is  principally  remarkable  for  a  series 
of  financial  reforms  in  every  department  of  the  government.  But  the 
expiration  of  the  company's  charter,  and  the  arrangements  for  its 
renewal,  led  to  a  total  change  of  system  (a.  d.  1833).  The  company 
was  deprived  of  its  exclusive  right  of  trade  ;  the  commerce  with  India 
and  Chma  was  opened  freely  to  all  British  subjects  :  the  political  gov- 
ernment of  Hindustan  was  continued  to  the  company  for  twenty  years 
out  all  its  other  rights  and  possessions  were  ceded  to  the  nation  for  an 
annuity  of  six  hundred  and  thirty  tho.usand  pounds,  secured  by  a  guar- 
antee fund  of  two  millions  sterling. 

The  East  India  company  was  not  the  only  power  that  profited  by  the 
overthrow  of  the  Mogul  empire ;  two  new  kingdoms,  that  of  the 
A-fghans  and  that  of  the  Sikhs,  were  founded  on  the  northwest  of 
Hindustan,  aiid  both  have  risen  to  great  importance.     The   Afghans 


740 


MODERN  HISTORY 


were  originally  subject  to  Persia,  but  toward  the  close  of  the  seveii 
teenth  century  they  revolted  against  their  rulers  and  nearly  conquered 
the  whole  Persian  empire.  Nadir  Shah  restored  the  Persian  supremacy, 
but  on  his  death  an  Afghan  leader  proclaimed  the  independence  of  hia 
country,  and  while  the  Persians  wasted  their  strength  in  civil  wars, 
founded  a  new  kingdom  at  Cabul.  The  Afghan  monarchy  continued 
to  prosper  until  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  when  it 
was?  distracted  by  the  wars  arising  out  of  a  disputed  succession.  Three 
brothers,  Zeman,  Mahmud,  and  Sujah,  contended  for  the  crown,  and 
each  prevailed  in  turn,  according  to  the  will  of  the  chief  vizier,  who 
was  head  of  the  Baurikzye  tribe.  At  length  Zeman  was  blinded, 
Sujah  driven  into  exile,  and  Mahmud  placed  on  the  throne.  Unfor- 
tunately he  permitted  his  son  Kemran  to  assassinate  the  vizier,  upon 
which  the  Baurikzye  brothers  revolted,  and  compelled  Mahmud  to  seek 
shelter  in  Herat. 

Under  the  Baurikzye  brothers,  Afghanistan  was  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  petty  independent  states,  each  governed  by  one  or  more  chief- 
tains of  this  powerful  family ;  the  principal  being  Dost  Mohammed,  the 
ruler  of  Cabul,  whose  supremacy  was  nominally  recognised  by  all  the 
rest.  Soon  after  Lord  Auckland  had  succeeded  Lord  William  Bentinck 
as  governor-general  of  India,  an  embassy  was  sent  to  Cabul  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  a  commercial  treaty  which  might  open  the  markets 
of  central  Asia  to  British  manufactures.  When  the  Persian  court, 
yielding  to  Russian  suggestions,  had  determined  to  advance  against 
Herat,  the  mission  to  Cabul  was  changed  from  a  commercial  to  a 
political  legation,  and  a  treaty  was  proposed  to  Dost  Mohammed  which 
it  was  believed  miglit  avert  the  danger  of  Russian  influence  being 
established  on  the  banks  of  the  Indus.  The  ruler  of  Cabul  demanded 
as  the  price  of  his  adhesion  that  the  territory  of  Peshawer,  recently 
seized  by  the  king  of  Lahore,  should  be  restored  to  the  Afghans,  and 
when  this  was  refused  he  manifested  a  disposition  so  hostile  to  English 
interests  that  the  envoy  was  recalled,  and  a  resolution  formed  to  restoit 
Shah  Sujah  to  his  throne  by  the  aid  of  a  British  army. 

The  army  of  the  Indus  having  surmounted  all  the  toils  and  difficui 
ties  of  its  march  through  previously  untraversed  countries,  soop  ainved 
at  the  capital  of  Afghanistan,  and  Shah  Sujah  was  reinstated  upon  the 
throne  of  his  ancesters. 

Shah  Sujah's  government  was  not  popular,  and  indeed  did  not  de 
serve  to  be  so;  general  dissatisfaction  continued  to  exist,' but  haiJ  noi 
begun  to  show  itself  in  a  dangerous  shape  when  General  Elphm.stone 
took  the  command  of  the  occupying  force,  in  April,  1841.  In  the  fol- 
lowing November  a  formidable  insurrection  unexpectedly  exploded  in 
Cabul ;  Sir  Alexander  Burnes,  and  several  other  Englishmen,  were 
treacherously  massacred,  while  the  most  deplorable  want  of  energy  and 
decision  was  displayed,  both  by  the  envoy  and  the  militaiy  authorities. 
The  fort  in  which  the  provisions  for  the  troops  were  stored  was  per- 
mitted to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  wiihout  an  efibrl  being  made 
to  relieve  its  feelde  garrison  ;  and  after  the  means  of  holding  out  in 
Cabul,  until  relief  could  be  obtained  from  the  other  divisions  of  the 
army,  had  been  sa(  rificed,  it  was  resolved  to  commence  a  retreat. 

The  only  result  from  this  calamitous  w^r,  is  the   occupation  of  the- 


HISTORY  OF  COLONIZATION.  741 

territories  of  Scinde,  which  have  been  formally  annexed  to  the  British 
dominions.  The^e  districts  command  the  navigation  of  the  lower  In- 
dus, and  would  possess  some  value  and  importance  if  that  river  could 
be  rendered  available  for  the  purposes  of  commercial  navigation,  but  in 
the  present  distracted  condition  of  central  Asia,  it  does  not  appear 
jjrobable  that  the  peaceful  pursuits  of  trade  will  be  found  lucrative  for 
many  years  to  come,  and  it  is  therefore  very  doubtful  whether  the  ac- 
cnpatiou  of  Scinde  will  produce  such  a  demand  (nr  British  manufac- 
\\iT a  as  to  defray  the  htiavj'-  expenses  which  its  reiention  will  neces- 
sarily involve. 


'i'42  MrtDERN  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  XIU. 

HISTORY    OF    CHINA. 

The  Chinese,  like  the  ancient  Egyptians,  lay  claim  to  a  most  ex 
travagant  antiquity,  but  their  authentic  history  does  not  commence  till 
the  age  of  Confucius,  who  flourished  about  five  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  At  the  time  of  his  birth,  China  was  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  independent  states,  which  harassed  each  other  by  mutual  wars,  and 
his  earliest  efforts  as  a  reformer  were  directed  to  unite  them  in  one  great  ■ 
confederation.  He  collected  the  old  traditions  of  the  country,  and  from 
them  deduced  a  series  of  moral  and  political  lessons,  designed  to  form 
the  basis  of  good  government.  His  main  principle  was,  that  outward 
decorum  is  both  the  emblem  and  the  test  of  goodness  of  heart ;  ho 
therefore  constructed  a  ritual  strictly  regidating  every  relation  of  life, 
both  public  and  private,  which  was  gradually  received  as  a  standard 
authority  by  the  nation. 

Ching-whang,  the  founder  of  the  Tsin  dynasty,  was  the  first  who 
united  all  the  Chinese  under  one  sovereign ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
name  China  was  adopted  from  that  of  his  family.  He  is  said  to  have 
erected  the  Great  Wall,  to  restrain  the  incursions  of  the  Tartars  (b.  c. 
240),  but  this  service  was  overbalanced  by  his  cruelty  and  inveterate 
hostility  to  men  of  letters.  Under  the  Han  dynasty,  which  arose  b.  c. 
202,  the  Huns  began  to  invade  China  and  frequently  devastated  the 
country ;  they  at  length  were  induced  to  direct  their  march  westward, 
and  burst  like  a  torrent  into  the  Roman  empire,  while  China  continued 
tranquil.  Under  the  Han  dynasty,  foreigners  came  to  China  for  the 
first  time  ;  literature  was  zealously  cultivated,  the  art  of  printing  invent- 
ed, and  the  laws  collected  into  <in  orderly  system.  For  these  reasons 
the  memory  of  the  Hans  is  still  cherished  in  China ;  their  dynasty 
ended  a.  d.  264. 

No  very  important  event  occurred  in  the  history  of  China  from  the 
extinction  of  the  Han  dynasty  until  the  invasion  of  the  empire  by  the 
Mongols,  under  the  celebrated  Zingis  Khan  (a.  d.  1234).  The  sover- 
eign who  then  ruled  was  cruel  and  cowardly ;  town  after  town  sub- 
mitted to  the  invaders,  and  at  his  death  the  Mongols  possessed  the 
greater  part  of  the  country,  though  the  conquest  was  not  completed  till 
the  year  1279,  by  Kublai  Khan,  the  grandson  of  Zingis.  Ze-ping,  the 
infant  sou  of  the  last  emperor,  sought  shelter  in  the  fleet,  but  the  Mon- 
gols soon  prepared  a  navy  and  pursued  him.  The  Chinese  and  Mongol 
fleets  met,  and  after  an  engagement  which  lasted  an  entire  day,  the 
former  was  totally  defeated.  When  the  Chinese  admiral  saw  that 
escape  was  impossible,  he  went  to  the  prince,  who  stood  on  the  deck, 
and  said,  "  It  is  better  to  die  free  than  to  dishonor  our  ancestors  by  ox. 


HISTORY  OF  CHINA  74J 

inglorious  captivity,"  then,  without  waiting  for  a  reply,  he   caught  the 
prince  in  his  arms  and  jumped  into  the  sea,  where  they  both  perished. 

The  Mongols,  though  foreigners,  were  wise  and  beneficent  rulers ; 
Kublai  Khan  constructed  several  canals,  and  made  every  possible  ex- 
ertion to  restore  the  agricultural  prosperity  of  China ;  his  grandson, 
Timur  Khan,  extirpated  the  bands  of  robbers  that  infested  the  countr>' 
and  both  labored  to  promote  commercial  intercourse  with  foreign  na- 
tions. But  on  the  failure  of  the  direct  royal  line,  the  Mongols  were 
so  weakened  by  a  war  of  disputed  succession,  that  the  Chinese  easily 
drove  them  from  the  country,  and  placed  a  native  dynasty  on  the  throne 
(a.  d.  1388). 

Choo-quen-chang,  the  conqueror  of  the  Mongols  and  founder  of  the 
Ming  dynasty,  was  the  son  of.  a  poor  laborer.  In  early  ]ife  he  was 
destined  for  the  priesthood,  but  his  martial  spirit  induced  him  to  enlist 
as  a  soldier.  He  very  soon  became  so  distinguished  for  courage  and 
conduct  that  he  was  promoted  to  high  rank  ;  his  marriage  to  a  lady  of 
great  wealth  strengthened  his  influence,  and  he  soon  began  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  leader  of  a  party.  So  great  was  the  hatred  of  the 
Chinese  to  their  barbarian  conquerors,  that  it  required  only  a  few 
months  to  drive  the  Mongols  beyond  the  Great  Wall;  they  were  pur- 
sued in  their  retreat  and  slaughtered  without  mercy.  The  new  em- 
peror was  a  wise  and  prudent  ruler ;  his  early  death  was  a  national 
misfortune,  especially  as  it  involved  the  country  in  the  calamities  of  a 
disputed  succession. 

The  last  of  the  Ming  dynasty  was  Hvvae-tsung.  Very  soon  after  his 
accession  the  king  of  the  Manlchew  Tartars  advanced  toward  the  fron- 
tiers, and  issued  a  proclamation,  declaring  that  he  had  been  divinely 
summoned  to  assume  the  empire  of  China.  There  would  have  been, 
however,  little  reason  to  fear  this  invasion,  had  not  rebellions  in  other 
quarters  distracted  the  attention  of  the  emperor.  Bands  of  robbers  in- 
fested the  roads,  and  uniting  themselves  together  under  favorite  chiefs, 
bade  defiance  to  the  imperial  army.  One  of  these,  named  Le,  gained 
the  favor  of  the  populace  by  promising  a  remission  of  taxes  ;  crowds 
flocked  to  his  standard,  and  entire  battalions  of  the  imperial  army  de- 
serted to  him.  Le  no  longer  scrupled  to  declare  himself  emperor  ;  he 
marched  to  Pekin,  the  soldiers  intrusted  with  its  defence  threw  down 
their  arms,  and  the  emperor  was  abandoned  even  by  his  domestic  ser- 
vants. In  his  despair,  he  slew  his  children,  and  then  strangled  him- 
self, leaving  behind  him  a  written  request  that  the  conqueror  would  hi 
aatiijfied  with  the  destr^-ction  of  the  royal  family,  and  not  inflict  any  cru- 
elty on  the  people. 

Wco-san-kivei,  a  celebrated  general,  was  stationed  with  a  Ixrge  army 
on  the  frontiers  of  Mantchew  Tartary,  when  he  received  intelligence  of 
these  events.  He  resolved  to  avenge  his  master,  and  punish  the  usurp- 
er '  for  this  purpose  he  had  not  only  made  peace  with  the  Mantchews, 
but  solicited  their  active  assistance.  The  Tartars  gladly  assented  to  a 
proposal  which  opened  them  a  passage  into  China  ;  and  acting  with  a 
rapidity  of  which  their  opponents  had  no  idea,  their  progress  was  irre- 
sistible. The  usurper  Le  was  defeated  in  three  great  battles,  but  when 
the  general  wished  to  dismiss  his  allies,  they  not  only  refused  to  return, 
but  took  possession  of  Pekin,  and  proclaimed  a  Mantchew  prince  cm- 


744 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


pnror  For  many  years  the  Chinese  in  difTereni  provi  jces  sternly  re- 
sisted the  domination  of  the  Tartars,  but  there  was  no  harmony  in  theii 
councils  and  no  concert  in  their  actions  ;  they  were  therefore  succes- 
sively subdued,  but  not  until  the  entire  country  had  been  so  devastated 
that  it  almost  became  a  desert  (a.  d.  1644).  During  this  calamitous 
period,  a  pirate,  named  Coxinga,  kept  the  entire  coast  of  China  in  con- 
titant  alarm  ;  he  expelled  the  Dutch  from  the  island  of  Formosa,  which 
for  a  time  flourished  as  an  independent  kingdom  :  but  after  his  ^leath, 
his  son  submitted  to  the  Mantchews.  and  this  noble  island  was  annexed 
to  the  empire  of  China. 

Kang-he,  the  second  of  the  Mantchew  emperors,  was  vt  ry  anxiout* 
to  make  his  subjects  acquainted  with  the  arts  and  sciences  of  Europe  ; 
he  patronised  the  Jesuit  missionaries  who  cauie  to  his  court,  and  profit- 
ed so  much  by  their  instructions,  as  to  become  himself  the  author  of  a 
clever  treatise  on  geometry.  All  his  wishes,  however,  to  give  a  new 
turn  to  Chinese  literature  were  frustrated ;  the  native  men  of  letters  re- 
fused to  quit  the  tracks  of  their  ancestors,  and  nothing  ri'^-w  was  conse- 
quently produced.  Equally  able  in  the  cabinet  and  in  the  field,  Kang-he 
was  unquestionably,  next  to  Kublai  Khan,  the  greatest  prince  who  ever 
sat  on  the  throne  of  China.  He  revived  the  empire,  distracted  by  re- 
peated rebellions,  impoverished  by  long  and  ruinous  wars,  and  oppressed 
by  vicious  administration.  When  he  died  (a.  d.  1722),  peace  and  tran- 
quillity pervaded  all  the  provinces,  and  the  unruly  barbarians  on  the  fron- 
tiers had  been  reduced  to  obedience. 

Yung-ching  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne,  but  did  not  pursue 
the  same  enlightened  policy.  He  put  an  effectual  stop  to  improvement, 
by  banishing  the  missionaries  who  had  spread  themselves  over  all  the 
Chinese  provinces,  and  only  retained  a  few  individuals  at  court,  with 
whose  services  he  could  not  dispense.  It  must,  however,  be  confessed, 
ihat  the  intriguing  spirit  of  the  Jesuits  had  given  some  reasonable  grounds 
for  alirm,  and  that  their  extravagant  assertions  of  papal  supremacy  might 
have  infused  suspicions  of  their  designing  to  render  the  emperor  de- 
pendant en  the  pope.  In  other  respects  Yung-ching  was  a  good  sov- 
ereign ;  he  preserved  peace  during  his  reign,  and  by  prudent  precau- 
tions h3  aveited  the  horrors  of  those  famines  that  periodically  devastated 
China.  He  died  a.  d.  1735,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  illegitimate  son, 
Keon-1  m^'. 

1'he  lo.ng  reijfn  of  Keen-lung  was  almost  wholly  spent  in  wars  with 
I  he  varouj  1  ar^ar  m?  roces  on  the  whcle  western  frontier  of  China. 
There  is  p,o  interest  m  the  record  of  these  savage  contests,  which  were 
for  the  mjst  part  a  series  of  ruthless  massacres.  Fie  cruelly  persecuted 
the  Christians,  whom  he  accused  of  treasonable  designs  without  a 
shadow  oj"  reason  ;  and  the  relentless  fu-'y  he  displayed  was  eagerly 
seconded  by  the  mandarins,  who  had  been  jealous  of  the  superior  intel- 
ligence of  the  missionaries.  Keen-lung  always  thought  that  he  had  a 
just  cause  when  he  butchered  whole  tribes.  After  the  defeat  and  mas- 
sacre of  the  Kalmuks,  he  erected  a  stone  tablet  at  Ele,  with  the  follow- 
ing inscription  :  "  The  tree  which  Heaven  plants,  though  man  may  fell 
It,  can  not  be  unrooted  :  the  tree  which  Heaven  fells,  though  man  may 
j-eplant  it,  will  never  grow." 

The  fame  of  Keen-lung  extended  to  Europe,  and  missions  from  Hoi 


HISTORY  OF  CHINA.  745 

and,  England,  and  Russia,  were  sent  to  his  court.  These  embasisiea 
did  not  produce  the  good  expected  from  them  :  the  Chinese,  wilh  all  the 
conceit  of  ignorance,  believed  or  pretended  to  believe  themselves  the 
only  enlightened  nation  in  the  universe,  and  claimed  homage  from  all 
others  as  barbarians.  The  emperor  himself  appears  to  have  been  free 
from  these  prejudices,  but  all  the  officers  of  state  were  opposed  to  an  in- 
crease of  foreign  intercourse,  which  they  feared  would  be  fatal  to  theii 
privileges. 

After  a  reign  of  sixty  years,  Keen-lung  abdicated  the  throne  in  favor 
of  his  fifth  son,  Kia-king  (a.  d.  1795),  and  died  three  years  afterward 
at  the  age  of  eighty-eight.  His  successor  had  all  his  vices,  without 
any  of  his  redeeming  qualities  ;  his  misconduct  provoked  frequent  in- 
surrections, while  his  feeble  administration  encouraged  the  pirates  to 
renew  their  depredations  in  the  Chinese  seas.  Unfortunately  the  great- 
est maritime  power  in  the  world  submitted  to  receive  laws  .'rom  this 
feeble  government.  In  1808,  a  British  squadron  commanded  by  Admi- 
ral Drury  was  sent  to  take  possession  of  the  Portuguese  settlement  of 
Macao,  and  prevent  it  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  The 
Chinese  authorities  at  Canton  became  alarmed,  and  threatened  to  stop 
all  trade  unless  the  English  garrison  was  withdrawn  from  Macao  ;  their 
demands  were  granted  with  a  precipitation  which  closely  resembled 
cowardice,  and  the  Chinese  erected  a  pyramid  to  commemorate  wha* 
they  were  pleased  to  call  tligir  victory  over  the  English.  It  must  be  ac- 
knowledged that  the  concessions  then  made  to  their  arrogance  have  been 
the  chief  cause  of  the  repeated  insults  they  have  since  offered  to  tho 
British  flag. 

Kia-king's  bitter  hatred  of  Europeans  was  supposed  by  many  to  have 
arisen  from  the  misrepresentations  of  the  Canton  authorities,  and  it  was 
therefore  resolved  to  send  Lord  Amherst  as  an  ambassador  to  Pekin,  for 
the  purpose  of  establishing  amicable  relations  between  England  and 
China.  This  embassy  completely  failed  ;  the  officers  of  the  imperial 
court  prevented  Lord  Amherst  from  obtaining  an  audience,  and  he  re- 
turned to  Canton.  In  the  meantime  the  Chinese  had  shown  a  disposi- 
tion to  insult  the  naval  forces  that  had  conveyed  the  embassy,  but  a  few 
shots  from  one  of  the  frigates  brought  them  to  their  senses,  and  the 
mission  returned  in  safety. 

Kia-king  died  in  1820,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  reigning  emperor, 
Tao-kwang,  who  is  even  more  prejudiced  against  Europeans  than  his 
predecessor.  Proclamations  against  the  importation  of  opium  were  is- 
sued by  the  Chinese  government,  but  the  prohibited  article  continued 
JO  be  laigely  smuggled  into  the  country.  At  length  Captain  Elliot,  the 
English  resident  at  Canton,  was  compelled  by  the  Chinese  authorities 
to  consent  to  the  destruction  of  several  cargoes  of  opium,  and  his  prot- 
ests against  the  restraint  to  which  he  was  subjected,  were  disregarded. 
War  was  declared  against  the  emperor  of  China  by  the  English  goveri  - 
ment,  and  a  large  naval  and  military  force  sent  against  Canton.  Canton 
and  Ningpo,  two  of  the  most  important  cities  in  China,  were  taken  by 
mere  handfuls  of  British  troops,  and  the  immense  masses  collected  in 
the  imperial  armies  were  unable  to  withstand  an  organized  force  rarely 
amounting  to  the  tenth  of  their  numbers.  A  treaty  was  at  length  nego- 
tiated, in  which  great  concessions  were  very  reluctantly  made  to  tho 


^46  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Enolish  demands  :  the  island  of  Hong-kong  was  reded  to  thtm  in  pel 
petuity,  five  ports  were  freely  opened  to  their  trade,  and  the  emperoi 
consented  to  pay  a  large  sum  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  war,  and 
compensate  for  the  large  quantities  of  opium,  the  property  of  the  British 
subjects,  which  had  been  destroyed  at  the  commencement  of  the  war. 

A  nation  so  completely  isolated  by  natural  boundaries  as  the  Chinese, 
having  no  neighbors  but  the  barbarous  tribes  of  Tartary,  is  of  course 
disposed  to  indulge  in  national  vanity.  They  believe  that  their  country 
occupies  the  centre  of  the  globe,  and  that  "  the  middle  kingdom,"  aa 
they  therefore  call  it,  is  unequalled  on  the  earth.  Their  own  laws  and 
usages,  the  origin  of  which  is  lost  in  remote  antiquity,  appear  to  them 
perfect,  and  every  successive  government  has  shown  itself  a  decided 
he  to  innovation.  But  the  Chinese  are  the  only  people  that  have  per- 
severed in  treating  all  foreigners  as  barbarians,  and  even  when  com- 
pelled to  abate  their  absurd  claims  for  the  time,  have  invariably  revived 
them  on  a  moie  favorable  opportunity.  Hence  it  is  impossible  to  nego- 
tiate with  them  according  to  the  rules  of  European  diplomacy,  for  until 
intimidated  by  defeat  or  terror,  they  will  look  upon  attempts  to  form  a 
treaty  as  signs  of  submission.  It  is  singular  that  the  Tartar  conquerors 
of  China  have  invariably  adopted  the  institutions  and  prejudices  of  the 
vanquished  ;  but  they  have  not  succeeded  in  winning  the  affections  of 
the  nation.  During  the  greater  part  of  a  century,  insurrections  have 
followed  each  other  with  frightful  rapidity,,  and  the  Mantchew  domina- 
tion has  been  more  than  once  on  the  point  of  ruin.  Secret  societies 
exist  at  the  present  moment,  formed  to  restore  the  ancient  sunremac} 
of  the  native  Chinese,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  any  signal  huniilia- 
don  of  the  imperial  forces  may  leuJ  to  a  revohitioii. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  "47 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Ln  the  "Manual  of  Ancient  History,''  we  sketched  the  history  of  the 
Jews  from  the  days  of  the  patriarchs  to  the  suppression  of  the  revolt  of 
Bar-Cochab  (a.  d.  136)  :  it  now  remains  to  trace  the  fortunes  of  this 
singular  race  down  to  our  own  times,  and  briefly  to  exhibit  their  condi- 
tion at  the  present  day. 

Though  the  number  of  Jews  who  perished  in  the  successive  over- 
throws of  their  nation  was  doubtless  very  great,  we  are  by  no  means  to 
believe  that  on  any  of  these  occasions  the  whole  body  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  victor  ;  in  proof  of  the  contrary,  we  may  refer  to  the  Jewish  colo- 
nies which  we  early  find  in  places  to  which  their  conquerors  would 
not  have  transported  them,  and  where,  consequently,  we  must  look  upon 
them  as  located  by  their  own  choice.  Beside  other  places  of  less  im- 
portance, we  have  mention  of  a  flourishing  Jewish  community  in  Rome 
before  the  Christian  era  ;  and  ihe  travels  of  the  apostles  furnish  evidence 
that  shortly  after  that  period  they  were  to  be  met  with  in  almost  every 
part  of  Asia,  Greece,  and  northern  Africa.  Though  their  fathers  in 
their  own  land  had  been  noted  for  a  proud  contempt  for  all  literature  bu* 
ilieir  own,  these  colonists  did  not  neglect  the  opportunities  of  mental 
culture  thus  laid  open  to  them,  and  accordingly  we  find  that  many  of 
ihe  most  learned  philosophers  of  Alexandria  were  either  Jews,  or  in 
aabits  of  such  intimacy  with  them,  as  imply  that  the  sciences  were  pur- 
sued W'th  equal  ardor  by  both  parties.  Indeed,  it  was  only  under  such 
circumsiances  that  that  strange  mixture  of  pagan,  Jewish,  and  Christian 
dogmas,  called  Gnosticism,  could  have  originated  ;  and  this  we  know  to 
have  taken  its  rise  in  the  schools  of  Alexandria. 

Though  the  Jews  who  spread  over  the  east  seem  chiefly  to  have  re- 
sorted to  the  more  polished  regions  of  Egj'pt  or  Babylon,  circumstances 
induced  many  of  them  to  repair  to  Arabia,  and  others  penetrated  even 
to  China,  where  their  reception  s'^ems  to  have  been  favorable.  In  thti 
days  of  Mohammed,  great  numbers  of  Jews,  wealthy,  and  possessed  of 
political  power,  were  found  settled  in  the  peninsula,  whom  the  impostoi 
endeavored  in  vain  to  conciliate.  His  successors  granted  them  tolera 
tion,  and  both  parties  being  animated  by  a  like  hatred  of  the  Christians 
we  often  find  them  acting  in  concert,  especially  during  the  Saracen  con 
quest  of  Africa  and  Spain. 

The  Abbaside  khaliphs,  who  seized  the  throne  of  Islam  from  the 
Ommiade  dynasty,  were  geneially  tolerant  of  the  Jews  ;  the  khaliph. 
Almanzor,  irdeed.  went  so  far  as  to  restore  their  academies,  and  evinced 


748  MODERN  HISTORY. 

some  taste  or  Hebrew  liferature  himself.  In  the  beginning  of  the  tiinti. 
century,  the  khaliph  Mamun  caused  the  best  of  the  Jewish  books  to  be 
translated  into  Arabic,  for  the  purpose  of  diffusing  a  taste  Cor  literature 
and  science  among  his  subjects.  Several  eminent  men  or  Jewish  race 
flourished  at  liis  court ;  they  were  particularly  famous  for  their  skill  in  as- 
tronomy and  medicine,  which  had  up  to  this  period  been  very  slightly 
cultivated  by  the  Saracens.  The  fame  of  the  Jewish  physicians  was 
spread  over  all  the  Mohammedan  countries,  so  that  few  of  any  other 
race  could  find  employment ;  but  the  wealth  acquired  by  this  lucrative 
professici.  excited  the  cupidity  of  several  of  the  later  khaliphs,  who 
availed  themselves  of  religious  prejudices  to  gratify  their  avarice.  Du- 
ring this  season  of  persecution  the  Jews  were  frequently  duped  by  false 
prophets  and  pretended  messiahs,  who  induced  them  to  raise  partial  in. 
surrections,  wliich  only  served  to  furnish  a  pretext  for  renewed  perse- 
cutions. In  the  midst  of  their  difficulties  the  khaliphate  was  overthrown 
by  the  barbarous  Mongols,  and  the  Jews  were  exposed  to  renewed  per- 
secutions from  the  Saracens,  who  attributed  to  their  impiety  all  the  ca- 
lamities of  the  empire. 

From  the  death  of  Timur  Lenk  to  the  accession  of  Shah  Abbas,  the 
Jews,  like  the  other  inhabitants  of  Media  and  Persia,  had  to  endure  all 
the  calamities  arising  from  a  violent  war,  a  rapid  conquest,  and  the  long 
series  of  sanguinary  wars  for  succession  between  the  conqueror's  de- 
scendants. At  the  accession  of  Shah  Abbas,  Persia  was  almost  unin- 
habited ;  and  in  order  to  obtain  subjects,  that  monarch  granted  large 
privileges  to  all  strangers  willing  to  settle  in  his  dominions.  Numbers 
of  Jews  who  were  oppressed  in  other  eastern  countries  accepted  his 
ofTers,  but  their  wealth  soon  excited  suspicions,  and  the  shah  issued  an 
edict  that  they  should  either  embrace  Islamism  or  prepare  for  death. 
The  remonstrances  of  the  Mohammedan  priests  prevented  the  execution 
of  this  sanguinary  edict,  but  legal  protection  was  withdrawn  from  the 
persecuted  race,  and  has  not  been  again  restored  in  the  provinces  sub- 
ject to  Persia. 

The  Jews  from  Africa  crossed  into  Spain,  and  thence  to  Gaul,  Ger- 
many, and  even  Britain.  In  Spain  they  were  often  subject  to  persecu- 
tion undt  ■  the  Gothic  monarchs,  which  induced  some  to  dissemble 
iheir  faith,  and  others  to  leave  the  country.  Of  these  latter,  many  re- 
tired to  Africa,  whence  they  returned  with  the  Saracens,  whom  they 
materially  assisted  in  the  conquest  of  the  country.  Under  the  rule  of 
the  Spanish  Moslems,  the  condition  of  the  Jews  was  highly  prosperous  ; 
they  cultivated  science,  were  intrusted  with  the  highest  offices  of  the 
state,  and  enjoyed  complete  toleration ;  indeed  to  this  era  belong  the 
names  of  Rabbi  Hasdai,  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  Isaac  of  Cordova,  and 
numerous  others,  whose  works  have  been  preserved,  and  which  prove 
their  proficiency  in  almost  every  art  or  science  then  known. 

In  more  northern  countries  their  state  was  materially  different 
Though  their  industry  and  abilities  rendered  them  valuable  to  theit 
rulers,  and  some  few  are  to  be  found  even  in  the  courts  of  princes,  they 
were  as  a  body  subject  to  the  most  galling  restrictions,  being  in  the  eyo 
of  the  law  mere  chattels  of  the  superior  lord,  not  human  beings. 
Charlemagne,  and  his  immediate  successors,  employed  many  of  the 
Jews  as  their  physicians,  or  as  bankers,  and  even  despatched  them  or 


HISTOllY  OF  THE  JEWS.  749 

mportant  embassies ;  but  about  the  year  870,  by  a  decree  of  the 
council  of  Meaux,  they  were  declared  incapable  of  filling  any  civil 
offices,  and  under  Philip  Augustus  (a.  d.  1180)  they  were  stripped  of 
their  property,  and  banished  from  France.  They  soon  returned,  but 
were  exposed  to  the  most  rigorous  and  unjust  treatment;  Louis  IX.. 
whose  right  to  the  title  of  Saint  appears  more  than  questionable,  began 
the  career  of  renewed  persecution  by  forbidding  the  legal  officers  to 
seize  the  persons  or  estates  of  Christians  indebted  to  Jews  in  default 
of  payment ;  catholics  were  strictly  prohibited  from  employing  Jewish 
physicians  ;  it  was  ordained  that  they  should  have  only  one  synagogue 
and  burial-ground  in  each  diocese,  that  they  should  not  exercise  any 
of  the  higher  industrial  arts,  and  that  they  should  wear  some  distinctive 
mark  on  a  conspicuous  part  of  their  dress.  In  1288  the  Darliam.ent  of 
Paris  fined  the  Jews  for  singing  too  loud  in  their  synagogues.  Philip 
the  Long  pronounced  sentence  of  banishment  against  them,  but  granted 
charters  of  protection  to  a  few  who  were  able  to  gratify  his  cupidity  by 
large  bribes.  A  strict  search  was  made  for  those  who  dared  to  remain 
in  the  kingdom  ;  several  were  burned  alive,  and,  as  an  additional  insult, 
dogs  were  thrown  on  the  funeral  pile.  A  great  number  were  slain 
with  less  ceremony  by  the  populace,  who  practised  all  sorts  of  cruelty 
upon  the  unfortunate  sufferers.  In  1350  John  revoked  the  edicts  of 
'banishment,  and  the  Jews,  grateful  for  his  kindness,  cheerfully  aided 
him  in  raising  the  large  ransom  with  which  he  purchased  his  deliver- 
ance from  captivity  in  England.  This  tranquillity  was  disturbed  by 
the  renewal  of  persecution  under  Charles  VI.,  but  the  edicts  of  in 
tolerance  were  found  so  difficult  of  execution  that  they  were  permitted 
soon  to  sink  into  oblivion. 

Many  of  the  popes  commiserated  the  sufferings  of  the  Jews,  and  en- 
deavored to  restrain  the  fanaticism  of  their  persecutors.  Honorius  III. 
issued  a  bull,  forbidding  the  use  of  force  in  converting  them  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  menacing  excommunication  against  those  who  insulted  or 
injured  them  on  account  of  their  religion.  Gregory  IX.,  when  a  sudden 
burst  of  bigotry  threatened  the  extermination  of  the  Jews  in  every 
country  in  which  they  had  settled,  not  only  protected  them  in  his  own 
states,  but  wrote  urgent  letters  in  their  behalf  to  all  the  monarchs  of 
Europe.  When  the  holy  see  was  transferred  to  Avignon  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  favor  shown  to  t^ie  .Jews  in 
Italy  was  continued,  and  the  lot  of  those  in  France  greatlj  alleviated. 
Avignon  itself  became  the  chief  residence  of  the  wealthy  Jews,  and 
their  riches  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  splendor  of  the  pontifical 
court. 

After  the  popes  had  returned  to  Rome,  several  pontiffs  exhibited  less 
wise  and  humane  policy  toward  the  Jewish  race.  Gregory  XllL,  who 
celebrated  the  atrocious  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  with  public 
ihanksgivings,  was  of  course  a  persecutor  of  the  Jews.  He  ordained 
'.hat  they  should  be  oubject  to  trial  before  the  incjuisition,  for  blasphemy, 
for  ridiculing  the  ceremonies  of  thG  catholic  religion,  or  for  reading  the 
Talmud  and  similar  prohibited  books.  He  further  enjoined  that  all  the 
Jews  in  Rome,  above  twelve  years  of  age,  should  be  nssemblt-d  once  a 
•veek  to  listen  to  a  sermon  in  condemnation  of  their  religion.     Sixtus 

V  was  a  pontiff  of  a  different  character  ;  on  the  22d  of  October,  158G, 


750  MODERN  HISTORY. 

he  re-established  the  Jews  in  all  their  municipal  privileges,  allowel 
them  full  right  of  citizenship  in  the  Roman  states,  with  power  to  hold 
houses  and  lands  ;  he  restored  their  synagogues  and  burial-grounds, 
imposing  on  them  only  a  very  moderate  tribute,  and  promising  ihem 
exemption  for  the  future  from  all  arbitrary  exactions.  Subsequen 
popes  revoked  the  tolerant  edicts  of  Sixtus,  but  they  did  not  revive  the 
cruel  code  of  Gregory  XIII.,  and  in  general  the  Jews  have  been  per- 
mitted to  enjoy  greater  freedom  and  to  hold  their  property  with  greater 
tranquillity  in  the  papal  states,  than  in  most  other  countries  of  Christen 
dom.  Hence  while  the  Spanish  Jews  generally  favored  the  reformation, 
those  of  Italy  regarded  the  progress  of  protestant  opinion  with  complete 
indifference,  and  sometimes  with  avowed  hostility. 

In  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  most  of  the  great  German  cities 
had  among  their  inhabitants  numerous  Jews,  wealthy,  intelligent,  and 
polished  in  their  manners,  but  their  prosperity  was  at  all  times  at  the 
mercy  of  their  rulers,  and  it  was  only  by  means  of  their  purchased  and 
precarious  protection  that  even  their  lives  were  secure.  At  length 
arose  the  crusading  spirit,  and  the  Jews  in  Germany,  to  the  number 
of  many  thousands,  were  its  first  victims.  Again  the  fanatics  who 
were  preparing  to  march  to  the  third  crusade  (a.  d.  1188),  butchered 
all  the  Jews  they  met  with  in  Germany  and  Italy,  and  similar  bar- 
barities were  exercised  in  this  and  other  countries,  so  that  the  annihila- 
tion of  the  devoted  race  seemed  inevitable  ;  but  this,  like  other  storms, 
passed  away.  After  a  while  the  Jews  again  arose  from  the  dust,  some 
returned  to  their  ancient  habitations,  and  others  pusVied  forward  into 
the  then  almost  unknown  regions  of  Poland,  where  they  at  length  be- 
came, and  still  continue,  a  very  influential  part  of  the  population. 

At  what  period  the  Jews  first  reached  Britain  does  not  distinctly  ap- 
pear ;  but  in  the  eighth  century  we  find  them  reckoned  among  the 
property  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings,  who  seem  to  have  exercised  abso- 
lute power  over  both  their  lives  and  goods.  In  this  state  they  re- 
mained under  the  Norman  princes  and  the  early  Plantagenets,  as  is 
sufficiently  testified  by  their  butchery  in  the  reign  of  Richard  I. ;  the 
conduct  of  John,  who  drew  out  a  tooth  daily  till  he  obtained  a  large 
sum  of  money  from  a  rich  Jew  ;  the  enormous  fines  levied  on  them  by 
Henry  III. ;  and  their  expulsion  by  Edward  I.  (a.  d.  1290),  after  the 
confiscation  of  all  their  property.  The  conduct  of  the  monarchs  was 
of  course  imitated  by  the  nobles  to  the  extent  of  their  power,  and  the 
hatred  of  all  classes  was  excited  by  marvellous  stories  of  the  cru- 
cifixion of  Christian  children,  the  profanation  of  the  sacraments,  and 
other  improbable  outrages,  of  which  they  were  said,  but  never  proved, 
to  be  guilty. 

As  the  Arabs  loat  their  hold  on  Spain  the  Jews  found  lhemselve> 
exposed  to  all  the  horrors  of  persecution.  The  inquisition  was  intro 
duced,  and  after  great  numbers  had  been  burnt,  all  who  refused  to  be 
come  Christians  were  expelled  the  kingdom,  being  allowed  to  retain 
only  their  moveable  property  (a.  d.  1492)  ;  their  number  is  said  to 
have  exceeded  800,000,  and  they  chiefly  took  refuge  in  Africa  and 
Turkey.  They  were  treated  in  a  similar  manner  in  Portugal  But  it 
soon  appeared  that  Judaism,  though  suppressed,  was  by  no  means  ex- 
tinguished  in  the   peninsula,  and  the  severity  of  the  inquisition  was 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS.  7ol 

then  exercised  upon  the  nominal  Christians  ;  such  was  the  case  also 
in  Italy.  Thus  persecuted  in  every  country  under  the  influence  of  the 
see  of  Rome,  the  Jews  at  the  era  of  the  reformation  eagerly  flocked 
toward  the  rising  protestant  states,  where  they  were  at  least  sure  of 
personal  safety.  This  was  more  especially  the  case  in  Holland,  where 
llicy  were  equitably  treated,  and  where  they  are  now  exceedingly 
numerous. 

Although  no  repeal  of  the  edict  for  their  banishment  had  taken 
place,  the  Jews  entered  into  some  negotiations  with  Oli-  er  Cromwei! 
for  their  return  to  England,  but  which  do  not  appear  to  have  led  to 
any  result.  At  the  time  of  the  restoration  they  came  in,  in  small  num- 
bers, without  exciting  any  particular  notice,  and  have  ever  since  re- 
mained unmolested.  In  1753.  an  act  was  passed  to  facilitate  theii 
naturalization,  but  it  Avas  speedily  repealed,  and  though  popular  feeling 
is  less  strong  at  present  on  the  subject,  the  attempt  to  place  them  upon 
the  same  footing  as  other  British  subjects,  though  several  times  made, 
has  been  unsuccessful. 

In  the  course  of  the  last  and  the  present  centuries  the  condition  of 
the  Jews  in  European  countries  has  been  greatly  ameliorated.  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  and,  after  her,  most  of  the  German  states,  have 
granted  them  equal  privileges  with  Christians ;  in  France  they  enjoy 
every  civil  right;  in  Poland  they  form  the  only  middle  class,  and  are 
found  engaged  in  agriculture  and  manufactures  ;  in  Italy,  Spain,  and 
Portugal,  they  now  reside  unmolested,  and  in  many  of  the  British  colo- 
nies (as  Malta,  Gibraltar,  and  Jamaica),  they  are  among  the  principal 
merchants  and  traders.  Indeed,  Russia  is  the  only  civilized  state  where 
they  are  now  subject  to  anything  like  their  former  restrictions,  or  are 
looked  upon  with  much  of  the  antipathy  of  former  days.  In  Moham- 
medan countries,  however,  they  are  still  an  obnoxious  sect,  against 
whom  the  most  improbable  charges  are  readily  credited,  a  circum- 
stance frequently  taken  advantage  of  by  the  local  governors. 

As  might  be  expected  with  regard  to  a  people  so  widely  scattered, 
the  most  contradictory  statem.ents  of  the  number  of  the  Jews  have  been 
made,  few  of  them  being  anything  more  than  mere  conjecture.  The 
most  probable  statement  seems  to  be  that  of  the  Weimar  Almanac,  which 
gives  a  total  of  about  3,200,000,  reckoning  near  2,000,000  in  Eij-ope, 
740,000  ir  Ania.  500,000  in  Africa,  and  5,000  in  America. 


^52 


MODERN  HISTOHY 


CHAPTER  XV. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 


Section  I. — Coloniac  History. 

Several  unsuccessful  attempts  to  plant  colonies  within  the  limits  of 
the  United  Slates  were  made  in  the  sixteenth  century  ;  but  no  perma- 
nent settlement  was  effected  until  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
Before  the  close  of  that  century,  however,  all  the  colonies  composing 
the  original  thirteen  states  were  established  except  one,  that  of  Georgia 

In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  of  England,  the  whole  country  between  the 
thirty-fourth  and  forty-fifth  degrees  of  north  latitude,  received  the  name 
of  Virginia,  in  honor  of  the  queen.  In  the  next  reign  it  was  granted 
by  royal  charter  to  two  companies  formed  for  the  purpose  of  settling  it, 
the  southern  portion,  called  South  Virginia,  to  the  London  company, 
and  the  northern,  called  North  Virginia,  to  the  Plymouth  company. 

In  1607,  one  hundred  and  fifteen  years  from  the  discovery  of  San 
Salvador  by  Columbus,  the  first  permanent  settlement  was  made  al 
Jamestown  under  the  auspices  of  the  Loudon  company :  and  thus  com- 
menced the  planting  of  the  colony  of  Virginia. 

In  1613  the  settlement  of  New  York  was  begun  by  the  Dutch,  on 
the  island  of  New  York,  then  called  Manhattan.  The  same  year,  a 
naval  force  from  Virginia  compelled  the  Dutch  to  acknowledge  the 
sovereignty  of  the  king  of  England  :  but  it  was  not  until  1664  that  the 
colony  was  finally  conquered  and  occupied  by  the  English. 

In  1620  the  colony  of  Plymouth  was  planted  by  English  indepen- 
dents, who  had  for  some  years  been  settled  in  Holland.  Two  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  had  been  previously  made  to  form  settlements  in  New 
England,  one  by  the  Plymouth  company  in  1607,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Kennebec  river ;  the  other,  a  little  later  by  the  celebrated  Capt.  John 
Smith,  the  father  of  the  Virginia  colony. 

In  1628  the  Massachusetts  colony  was  established  by  a  company 
under  a  grant  of  lands  from  the  Plymouth  company.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  at  Salem.  Shortly  after  Charlestown,  Boston,  and  the  towns 
adjacent,  were  settled.  In  1692,  the  Plymouth  colony  was  incorpo- 
rated with  that  of  Massachusetts.  Up  to  this  time  it  had  remained  a 
voluntary  association,  governed  by  regulations  made  by  the  settlers 
among  themselves. 

In  1623,  the  settlement  of  New  Hampshire  was  begun  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Piscataqua  river,  and  subsequently  at  Dover,  Portsmouth,  and 
Exeter.  These  three  settlements  continued  cnstinct  and  independent 
governments  until  1641,  when  they  united  in  coming  under  the  govern- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  753 

flient  of  Massachusetts.     In  1C79  New  Hampshire  was  by  a  royal  or- 
dinance erected  into  a  separate  province. 

New  Jtrsey  was  first  settled  by  the  Danes  about  the  year  1624  ;  and 
shortly  ufter  some  Dutch  families  planted  themselves  in  the  vicinity  of 
New  York.  In  1655,  Peter  Stuyvesant,  the  Dutch  governor  of  New 
York,  conquered  the  country,  which  was  finally  occupied  by  the  English 
on  the  conquest  of  New  York  in  1664. 

Delaware  was  first  occupied  by  the  Swedes  in  1627.  'J'he  Dutch, 
however,  disputed  the  possession  of  it  with  tliem,  from  the  first,  and  ir. 
1655  obtained  and  held  it  until  it  fell  into  the  power  of  tlie  EnglisL 
along  with  New  York  and  New  Jersey  in  15G4.  Most  of  the  Swedes, 
after  the  Dutch  conquest,  left  the  country. 

Maine  was  settled  in  1639.  The  first  town  bunded  w.-is  York 
This  province  was  united  to  Massachusetts  in  1652,  and  so  conti.  ued 
until  1820. 

Maryland  was  settled  in  1634  by  English  Roman  catholics,  undtr  a 
patent  to  Cecil  Calvert,  Lord  Baltimore,  by  whom  a  colony  was  planted 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Potomac,  at  a  place  called  St.  Mary. 

The  first  settlement  in  Connecticut  was  begun  in  1635  at  Hartford 
and  its  vicinity,  by  a  company  from  Massachusetts.  In  1638,  Niw  Ha- 
ven was  settled,  and  with  the  towns  around  it  was  called  the  colony  of 
New  Haven  ;  but  in  1662,  it  was  united  to  the  colony  of  Connecticut. 
The  settlement  of  Rhode  Island  dates  from  1636,  when  Roger  Wil- 
liams, banished  from  Massachusetts  on  account  of  his  religious  princi- 
ples (which  were  those  of  the  baptists),  established  the  town  of  Provi- 
dence. Rhode  Island  itself  was  occupied  in  1638,  by  persons  also 
driven  from  Massachusetts  by  religious  persecution.  Roger  Williams 
was  a  man  far  in  advance  of  his  time.  To  him  belongs  the  eminent 
glory  of  giving  the  first  practical  example  of  religious  toleration. 
The  Providence  and  Rhode  Island  colonies  were  politically  united  in 
1644. 

North  Carolina  was  occupied  by  settlers  from  Virginia  between  the 
years  1640  and  1650.  They  estabUshed  themselves  on  lands  north  of 
Albemaile  sound.     It  became  a  distinct  colony  in  1729. 

In  1670  the  settlement  of  South  Carolina  was  begun  at  Port  Royal  ; 
but  the  colony  removed  the  next  year,  and  founded  a  town  which  was 
called  Charleston;  but  in  1680  this  place  was  abandoned,  and  the 
settlement  of  the  present  city  of  Charleston  commenced. 

Permsi/lvania  was  settled  in  1682,  under  a  royal  grant  to  William 
Penn.  Thi  colony  had  a  more  rapid  and  prosperous  growth  than  any 
of  the  other  colonies,  owing  partly  to  the  later  date  of  its  settlement 
when  the  obstacles  to  colonization  had  become  less,  and  partly  to  the 
mildiiess  aiid  equity  of  its  laws  and  administration. 

Georgia  vvas  not  colonized  till  1733.  It  was  theu  settled  under  a 
patent  granted  to  tweiuy-one  trustees,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  land 
gratu  tobsly  to  inligont  subjecrs  of  Great  Britain.  Liberal  donations 
were  made  by  benevolent  persons  to  defray  the  expense  of  transporting 
and  providing  for  the  settlers.     The  first  place  founded  was  Savannah. 

The  limits  of  this  sketch  will  not  permit  any  details  in  regard  to  tho 
history  of   the  separate  colonies,  the  dates  of  whose  settlement  hsvr 

48 


75i  MODERN  HISTORY. 

now  been  given  A  few  matters  of  more  general  interest  can  only  bt 
noted. 

In  1643,  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  New- 
Haven,  formed  a  union  by  articles  of  confederation,  under  the  style  oi 
"  The  United  Colonies  of  New  England."  To  protect  themselves 
against  the  Indians,  and  against  the  claims  and  encroachments  of  the 
Dutch  of  New  Netherlands  (as  New  York  was  then  called),  were  the 
motives  of  this  confederation.  Rhode  Island,  refusing  to  merge  hei 
political  existence  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts,  was  excluded 
from  the  union.  The  conquest  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Dela- 
ware, in  1664,  brought  the  whole  country,  from  Maine  to  Carolina, 
under  the  dominion  of  the  English. 

In  1675  New  England  was  afflicted  by  a  memorable  war  with  the 
Indians,  called  King  Philip's  ivar,  from  the  name  of  an  Indian  sachem 
of  great  abilities,  who  combined  the  Indian  tribes  against  the  English. 
The  capture  and  death  of  Philip  the  following  year  put  an  end  to  the 
war,  in  which  New  England  suffered  the  loss  of  six  hundred  men,  the 
flower  of  her  strength,  twelve  or  thirteen  towns  destroyed,  and  six 
hundred  dwellings  consumed. 

In  1676  a  rebellion  broke  out  in  Virginia,  known  as  "  Bacon's  rebel- 
lion" from  the  name  of  the  leader,  an  able  and  ambitious  man,  who 
seized,  and  for  some  months  maintained,  the  supreme  authority.  His 
death  put  an  end  to  the  civil  war.  The  causes  of  this  rebellion  were 
oppressive  restrictions  on  commerce,  and  heavy  taxes  imposed  by 
Governor  Berkley. 

During  the  reign  of  James  II.  the  New  England  colonies  were 
severely  oppressed.  The  king  revoked  the  charters  and  assumed  tht 
government  into  his  own  hands,  appointing  Sir  Edmund  Andros  gov- 
ernor. Under  his  arbitrary  and  tyrannical  administration  the  rolonicf? 
suffered  until  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  in  1689. 

The  news  of  the  abdication  of  James,  and  the  accession  of  William 
and  Mary  to  the  English  throne  was  the  signal  for  a  revolutioM  in  New 
England.  Sir  Edmund  Andros  was  deposed  and  imprisoned.  Con- 
necticut and  Rhode  Island  resumed  their  charters  and  were  allowed  to 
retain  them.  Massachusetts  obtained  a  new  charter,  in  some  respects 
preferable  to  its  former  one. 

In  New  York,  where  Sir  Edmund  Andros  had  formerly  been  the 
tyrannical  governor,  and  where  his  successors  had  generally  followed 
liis  example,  the  discontents  of  the  people  led  likewise  to  a  revolution, 
which  at  length  resulted  in  a  constitution  ;  but  the  collisions  between 
the  colonial  assemblies  and  the  royal  governors  retarded  the  restoration 
of  peace  and  prosperity  to  the  colony. 

It  will  be  proper  here  to  advert  to  the  forms  of  government  which 
prevailed  in  the  several  colonies.  These  were  of  three  sorts^ — the 
charter ;  the  royal ;  and  the  proprietary. 

1.  The  CHARTER  governments.  These  were  confined  to  New  Eng 
land.  By  their  charters  the  people  of  these  colonies  were  expressly 
entitled  to  all  the  privileges  of  British  born  subjecis  ;  and  invested  witli 
the  legislative,  judicial,  and  executive  powers  of  government.  They 
sliose  their  governors  and  legislative  bodies   and  estabashed  their  owr. 


I 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OP  AMERICA.  755 

courls.  Their  legislatures  were,  however,  restrained  from  passing  any 
laws  contrary  to  those  of  England.  The  crown  claimed  the  right  of 
levoking  the  charters  ;  but  this  was  denied  by  the  colonists,  unless  they 
vvere  forfeited  for  cause.  They  were  sometimes  declared  forfeited,  or 
forcibly  revoked,  as  we  have  just  seen  in  the  reign  of  James  II.  The 
disputes  arising  on  this  subject  were  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
revolution. 

2.  The  ROY.A.L  governments.  These  were  Virginia,  New  York,  and 
subsequently.  North  and  South  Carolina  and  New  Jersey.  In  these 
colonies,  the  people  had  legislative  assemblies  of  their  own  choosing ; 
but  the  governor  and  council  were  appointed  by  the  crown,  who  had  a 
negative  on  all  proceedings  of  the  popular  assemblies,  and  also  the 
appointment  of  the  judges  and  most  of  the  administrative  officers. 
The  sources  of  grievance  in  these  colonies  were  the  arbitrary  conduct 
of  the  governors,  and  the  claim  of  absolute  power  by  the  crown  p 
negative  the  acts  of  the  assemblies. 

3.  The  PROPRIETARY  governments.  These  were  Maryland  and  Penn- 
sylvania, and,  at  first,  the  Carolinas  and  Jerseys,  ^n  these  colonies, 
the  proprietors,  or  individuals  to  whom  the  territories  had  been  granted 
by  the  crown,  were  empowered,  under  certain  limitations  reserved  by 
the  crown,  to  establish  civil  governments  ar.d  to  make  laws.  There 
were  in  most  cases  colonial  assemblies,  partly  summoned  by  the  pro- 
prietors, and  partly  chosen  by  the  people.  Perpetual  quarrels  arose  be- 
tween the  people  and  the  proprietors,  chiefly  respecting  the  prerogative 
exercised  by  the  latter  of  repealing  or  negativing  the  acts  of  the  as- 
semblies. 

At  the  time  of  the  accession  of  William  III.,  in  1689,  the  population 
of  the  colonies  is  estimated  to  have  exceeded  two  hundred  thousand 
There  was  but  little  trade  or  commerce  except  with  England,  whence 
the  colonists  derived  all  their  merchandise,  sending  thither  in  return 
tobacco,  paltry,  some  pork,  and  fish.  Agriculture  was  the  principal 
employment  ;  and  the  manufactures  in  use  were  principally  limited  to 
the  most  common  articles  of  necessity  and  convenience,  and  these  were 
mostly  imported  from  England. 

The  year  1G'j2  is  signalized  in  the  annals  of  New  England  by  the 
commencement  of  the  trials  for  witchcraft.  This  fanatic  delusion  went 
on  increasing  until  about  twenty  persons  were  publicly  executed  ;  one 
hundred  and  fifty  were  in  prison,  and  two  hundred  more  were  accused. 
The  j)hrensy  then  subsided  as  suddenly  as  it  had  sprung  up  and  spread. 
The  principal  theatre  of  these  deplorable  scenes  was  in  Salem,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  the  neighboring  towns,  though  there  were  some  cases  in 
Connecticut. 

The  English  revolution,  which  placed  William  HI.  on  the  throne, 
while  it  freed  the  colonies  from  the  oppressions  they  endured  during 
the  reign  of  his  predecessor,  involved  them  in  the  calamities  of  the  wax 
between  France  and  England,  which  lasted  from  1690  to  the  peace  of 
Ryswick  in  1697.  The  French  in  Canada  directed  an  expedition 
Igainst  the  English  colonies,  instigating  the  Indians  to  join  them  in 
their  hostilities.  In  return,  an  armament  was  fitted  out  by  Massachu- 
gotts  for  the  invasion  of  the  French  settlements.     Port  Royal  in  Nova 


?r>G  MODERN  HISTORY 

Scotia  was  tal<fri.  A  second  expedition  was  undertaken  by  the  colo 
nies  of  New  York,  Connecticut,  and  Massachusetts,  for  the  leduction 
of  Montreal  and  Quebec.  It  failed  in  its  object,  and  had  the  effect  of 
producing  dissatisfaction  among  the  Indian  tribes  in  New  York,  who 
were  the  allies  of  the  English.  This  war,  commonly  called  King  Wih 
ham's  imr,  was  marked  by  the  most  savage  atrocities  on  the  part  of  the 
French  and  Indians. 

Scarcely  had  the  colonies  begun  to  recover  from  this  war,  when  iii 
1702  they  were  plunged  into  another  with  the  French,  Indians,  and 
Spaniards,  commonly  called  Queen  Anne's  war,  arising  from  dispute? 
about  the  boundaries,  which  had  been  left  unsettled  at  the  peace  of 
Ryswick.  The  colonies  of  Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire  were 
the  chief  sufferers,  being  most  exposed  to  the  devastating  and  murder- 
ous incursions  of  the  French  and  Indians  from  Canada.  Several  expe- 
ditions were  sent  into  Canada  ;  but  the  only  success  that  attended  the 
English  arms  was  the  taking  again  of  Port  Royal,  which  had  been  re- 
stored to  the  French  at  the  close  of  the  former  war.  It  was  now 
named  Annapolis.  The  ]ieace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  put  an  end  to  the 
w'ar  in  the  northern  colonies  ;  but  South  Carolina  ccmtinued  to  be  an- 
noved  for  some  time  by  the  Indians.  By  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  France 
ceded  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia  to  England. 

In  1744,  England  again  declared  war  against  France  and  Spain, 
which  again  involved  the  colonies  in  hostilities  with  the  enemies  ■)f  the 
mother-country  and  with  their  Indian  allies.  The  principal  event  of 
this  war,  in  America,  was  the  capture  of  Louisburg  from  the  French  by 
forces  from  New  England.  The  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748 
again  gave  peace  to  the  colonies.  Prisoners  were  to  be  released  on 
both  sides  without  ransom,  and  all  conquests  to  be  mutually  restored. 

This  war  was  extremely  disastrous  to  the  colonies.  Many  lives 
were  lost ;  the  growth  of  population  was  checked  ;  great  losses  were 
sustained  in  the  commercial  interests  of  the  country  ;  and  finally  a  bur- 
densome debt  of  several  millions  had  been  incurred  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war.  With  the  return  of  peace,  however,  commerce 
rey^ived  ;  the  settlements  began  to  extend,  and  public  credit  was  restored 

But  only  a  brief  interval  of  repose  was  allowed  to  the  colonies.  In 
1756,  eight  years  from  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Cha})elle,  Great  Britain 
again  declared  war  against  France,  on  the  ground  of  the  encroachments 
of  the  French  upon  the  English  territories  in  America. 

Some  years  previous  to  this  war  the  French  had  commenced  a  chain 
of  posts,  designed  to  extend  from  the  head  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the 
Mississippi,  with  a  view  to  maintain  a  communication  between  their 
northern  possessions  and  Louisiana. 

In  1750,  the  English  government  granted  a  large  tract  of  land  on  the 
Ohio  river  to  a  company  called  the  Ohio  rornpani/,  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  settling  the  couniry,  and  carrying  o.i  a  trade  hi  furs  wi-h  ihe 
Indians.  The  French  governor  of  Canada,  apprehending  both  the  loss 
of  the  fur-trade  and  the  interruption  of  his  coannunications  with  Louis- 
iana, claimed  the  whole  country  between  the  Ohio  and  the  Alleganies, 
and  prohibited  the  further  encroachmenrs  of  the  English.  He  also 
opened  a  new  communication  between  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio,  and 
Rl'itioned  troops   at  posts  along  the  line.     The   Ohio  company,  thu? 


HISTOEY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  7&T 

threatened  in  their  trade,  persuaded  Governor  Dinwiddle  of  Virginia^ 
in  1753,  to  send  a  remonstrance  to  the  French  commandant.  George 
Washington  was  the  bearer.  The  commandant  returned  for  answer 
that  he  had  taken  possession  of  the  country  by  order  of  the  governor- 
general  of  Canada,  whose  orders  alone  he  could  regard. 

The  British  government,  on  learning  the  claim  set  up  by  the  French, 
lirected  the  Virginians  to  resist  it  by  force.  In  1754,  an  expedition 
was  conducted  against  the  French  by  Washington  ;  but  the  superior 
force  of  the  French  obliged  him  to  capitulate,  with  the  privilege  of  re- 
turning with  his  troops  to  Virginia.  This  was  properly  the  commence- 
ment of  what  is  commonly  styled  the  French  war,  although  the  formal 
declaration  was  not  yet  made. 

In  the  meantime,  the  British  government  recommended  the  colonies 
to  unite  for  their  common  defence.  A  convention  of  delegates  from  all 
the  northern  colonies  accordingly  met  at  Albany  in  1754,  ai.d  adopted 
a  plan  of  union  ;  but  it  was  rejected,  both  by  the  provincial  assemblies 
and  by  the  home  government :  by  the  former  because  it  gave  too  much 
power  to  the  crown,  and  by  the  latter  because  it  gave  too  little. 

In  the  spring  of  1755,  vigorous  preparations  were  made  for  carrying 
on  the  war.  An  expedition  was  sent  against  Nova  Scotia,  which  met 
with  entire  success  :  the  colonial  forces,  with  trifling  loss,  subdued  the 
French,  and  gained  complete  and  permanent  possession  of  the  whole 
country. 

An  expedition  under  General  Braddock,  directed  against  the  French 
on  the  Ohio,  was  unfortunate.  Owing  to  the  arrogance  and  rashness 
of  the  commander,  the  British  troops  were  surprised  and  defeated  with 
great  loss  by  a  very  inferior  force  of  French  and  Indians.  General 
Braddock  was  mortally  wounded,  and  the  conduct  of  the  retreat  de- 
volved on  Washington,  who  was  in  coinma-nd  of  the  colonial  militia,  and 
by  whom  the  army  was  saved  from  total  destruction. 

The  American  arms  were  more  successful  in  the  north.  The  French 
were  signally  defeated  on  the  borders  of  Lake  George,  and  their  com- 
mander, Baron  Dieskau,  was  mortally  wounded.  The  moral  effect  of 
this  victory,  following  within  a  kw  weeks  the  discomfiture  of  Braddock, 
was  very  great  and  salutary  in  its  influence  upon  the  colonies. 

Th(  next  year,  1756,  war  was  formally  declared  between  Great 
Britain  and  Frai  oe  ;  and  in  Europe  began  what  is  called  the  seven 
years^  war,  in  whii^h  Prussia  was  united  with  England  against  France. 
In  America  the  campaign  of  1756  was  very  disastrous  to  the  colonists  ; 
they  were  imable  even  to  attempt  gaining  possession  of  Niagara  and 
Crown  Point,  places  of  great  importance  in  the  hands  of  the  French, 
and  the  reduction  of  whicl-  was  in  the  plan  of  operations.  The  French, 
under  Montcalm,  took  Fori  Oswego,  thus  gaining  entire  command  of 
Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  besides  uiflicting  upon  the  English  a  very  se- 
vere loss,  amounting  to  sixteen  hundred  men  made  prisoners,  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  cannon,  with  fourteen  mortars,  two  sloops-of-war,  and 
two  hundred  bateaux. 

The  British  government  made  great  preparations  for  the  campaign  of 
1757.  A  large  force  was  destined  for  the  reduction  of  Louisburg ;  bur 
the  indecision  and  incapacity  of  Lord  Loudon,  the  commander-in-chief, 
caused  the   expejition  to  be   abandoned.     Meantime,   Montcalm,  tlit^ 


7i>8  MODERN  HISTORY 

French  commander,  besieged  and  took  Fort  William  Henry,  on  Lalif 
George,  after  a  most  spirited  defence  by  Colonel  Munroe.  The  Eng 
lish  troops,  after  being  admitted  to  honorable  capitulation,  were  treach- 
erously massacred  by  the  Indians  attached  to  Montcalm's  armj-. 

The  campaign  of  1758  was  more  prosperous.  Lord  Chatham  had 
now  become  prime  minister,  and  infused  new  energy  into  the  prosecu- 
Lion  of  the  war.  In  answer  to  a  call  made  by  him  upon  the  colonies, 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  New  Hampshire,  united  in  raising  fif- 
teen thousand  men.  The  tide  of  success  now  turned  in  favor  of  tht 
English.  Three  expeditions  had  been  planned  :  one  against  Louisburg, 
another  against  Ticonderoga,  and  the  third  against  Fort  du  Quesne  on 
the  Ohio.  Louisburg  was  taken,  with  great  loss  to  the  French  in 
prisoners,  ships,  and  munitions  of  war.  Fort  du  Quesne  was  abandoned 
by  the  French,  taken  possession  of  by  the  Eiglish,  and  named  Pitts- 
burgh. The  expedition  against  Ticonderoga  failed,  but  the  failure  was 
compensated  by  the  capture  of  Fort  Frontinac,  an  important  fortreos  at 
the  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario. 

The  campaign  of  1759  commenced  with  a  nearly  simultaneous  attack 
upon  all  the  French  strongholds  in  Canada,  namely,  Ticonderoga,  Crown 
Point,  Niagara,  and  Quebec.  One  division  of  the  army,  under  General 
Amherst,  the  commander-in-chief,  proceeded  against  Ticonderoga  and 
Crown  Point,  which  were  successively  taken.  Another  division,  under 
General  Prideaux,  advanced  and  took  Niagara.  General  Wolfe  was  no 
less  successful  in  the  great  enterprise  of  conquering  Quebec.  The 
French,  under  Montcalm,  were  defeated  on  the  plains  of  Abraham,  and 
Quebec  fel.'  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  General  Wolfe  died  upon 
the  field  of  battle. 

In  1760,  the  French  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  recover  Quebec. 
In  less  than  a  year  from  the  capture  of  that  city,  Montreal,  Detroit,  and 
all  other  places  in  the  possession  of  the  French,  were  surrendered  to  the 
British,  and  the  conquest  of  Canada  was  completed. 

By  the  treaty  of  peace  definitively  concluded  at  Paris  in  1763,  Nova 
Scotia,  Canada,  Cape  Breton,  and  all  other  islands  Ln  the  gulf  and  rivel 
St.  Lawrence,  were  ceded  to  the  British  crown. 

Thus  it  appears  that  in  the  seventy-one  years  from  1689  to  1760,  the 
colonies  were  involved  in  four  wars,  occupying  in  all  tioenty-seven  years. 
Yet  during  this  period  the  population  had  increased  from  two  hundred 
thousand  to  about  three  millions.  The  arts  and  manufactures,  being 
opposed  by  the  mother-country,  made  but  little  progress  ;  but  there  was 
a  steady  advancement  in  agriculture.  Trade  and  commerce  had  gone 
on  very  greatly  increasing — so  much,  that  in  the  ten  years  preceding 
the  revolutionary  war,  the  average  annual  exports  to  Great  Britain  and 
elsewhere  amounted  to  four  million  pounds  sterling,  and  the  imports  to 
three  and  a  half  millions. 

In  the  meantime,  colleges  and  other  superior  institutions  of  learning 
had  been  established  in  nearly  all  the  colonies,  and  popular  instruction 
provided  for,  especially  in  New  England  ;  the  country  was  advancing 
in  intellectual  culture  ;  and  more  than  all,  the  necessity  of  uniting  for 
the  common  defence,  and  the  "iitercourse  between  the  colonies  thai 
grow  out  of  it,  had  tended  to  create  a  naiionaJ  spirit  which  the  eventr 


HISTORY  OF  THK  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  7^'*! 

of  the  twelve  years  succeedinfr  the  peace  of  Paris  still  further  dev  eluiit;(J 
and  strengthened. 

Section  II. — Revolutionary  History. 

In  1775,  twelve  years  from  the  peace  of  Paris,  began  the  war  which 
terminated  in  the  final  separation  of  the  United  States  from  the  British 
empire.     We  will  briefly  glance  at  the  causes  of  this  revolution. 

The  colonists,  from  the  first,  always  cherished  a  jealous  sense  of 
their  rights  :  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  it  was  a 
settled  doctrine  among  them  that  the'  authority  of  parliame  it  was  limited 
to  the  regulation  of  trade,  and  that  taxes  could  not  be  imposed  upon  them 
without  their  own  consent.  PreA'ious,  indeed,  to  the  peace  of  Paris,  the 
home  government  had  never  attempted  tc  .'nterfere  witn  inttrnal  taxji- 
tion.  For  a  century,  however,  before  that  event,  a  variety  of  restric- 
tions had  from  time  to  time  been  imposed  upon  the  trade  of  the  colonies, 
the  object  of  which  was  to  oblige  the  colonists  to  buy  and  sell  exclu- 
sively in  the  English  markets.  Colonial  manufactures  were  also  in 
every  possible  way  discouraged.  These  restrictions  produced  much 
discontent  and  ill-blood. 

In  1764,  the  first  act  avowedly  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  revenuo 
in  America  was  passed  in  parliament.  This  was  followed  the  next 
year  (March  22,  1765)  by  the  famous  Stamp  Act,  making  void  all  bonds, 
notes,  and  such  like  instruments,  unless  written  on  stamped  paper,  upon 
which  a  duty  to  the  crown  was  imposed.  These  acts  excited  great  dis- 
pleasure throughout  the  colonies  ;  and  in  October  a  congress  of  delegates 
from  Rhode  Island,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jer- 
sey, Maryland,  and  South  Carolina,  met  at  New  York,  and  passed  sev- 
eral resolutions,  acknowledging  the  rightful  authority  of  parliament,  but 
denouncing  the  stamp  act  and  other  acts,  as  subversive  of  the  just  right? 
and  liberties  of  the  colonists  as  natural-born  English  subjects.  The 
proceedings  of  this  body  were  sanctioned  by  all  the  colonies.  The. 
public  indignation,  inflamed  by  newspapers,  pamphlets,  and  popular 
meetings,  rose  to  the  highest  pitch  ;  combinations  were  everywhere 
formed  to  abstain  from  using  articles  of  British  merchandise,  and  in 
every  way  to  oppose  the  measure?  of  the  home  government.  The  ofii- 
cers  appointed  under  the  stamp  act  were  in  many  places  insulted,  abused, 
and  forced  to  resign  ;  and  when  the  first  of  September,  the  day  for  the 
act  to  go  into  operation,  arrived,  neither  stamps  nor  stamp-oflicers  were 
to  be  found.  Business  of  all  kinds  requiring  stamps  was  for  a  time 
suspended  ;  law  proceedings  were  stayed,  the  courts  shut,  and  mar- 
iidges  ceased  to  be  celebrated. 

The  next  year  (March  18,  1766)  the  stamp  act  was  repealed,  though 
the  repeal  was  accompanied  by  a  declaration  of  the  "  right  of  parliament 
to  bind  the  colonies  in  all  cases  whatsoever."  In  a  few  months  from  this 
time,  a  new  ministry  came  into  power,  and  a  new  plan  for  taxing  Amer« 
ica  wa.i  introduced  into  parliament,  namely,  by  laying  a  duty  on  glass 
paper,  pasteboard,  painters'  colors,  and  tea,  imoorted  into  the  colonies 
Tho  bill  imposing  these  duties  and  providing  for  their  collection  by  r 
new  customLouse  system,  was  passed  June  29,  1767.  A  body  ot 
troops  was  scon  after  sent  out  and  quartered  in  Boston.     These  me^s 


'^^  MODERN   HISTOR\ 

ures  pTod  joed  great  exasperation  in  the  colonies,  and  led  to  conibhiatio/is 
against  using  the  articles  subjected  to  duty.  In  1770,  this  act  was  re- 
pealed, with  the  exception  of  the  duty  on  tea  The  colonists  were  only 
the  more  decided  in  renouncing  the  use  of  that  article.  An  act  of  par- 
liament was  passed  in  1773,  allowing  the  East  India  company  such  a 
drawback  of  duties  on  teas  exported  to  America  that  they  could  aflbrd 
to  sell  them  there  cheaper  than  in  England.  This  was  done  with  the 
hope  of  inducing  the  colonists  to  return  to  the  use  of  the  article.  Large 
shipments  were  accordingly  made  ;  but  the  Americans  refused  to  pay 
the  slight  duty  upon  it  ;  the  cargoes  sent  to  New  York  and  Philadelphi:; 
were  not  suffered  to  be  landed  ;  in  Charleston  it  was  not  allowed  to  be 
put  to  sale  ;  and  at  Boston  it  was  thrown  into  the  sea  by  a  party  of  men 
disguised  as  Indians.  These  proceedings  excited  the  fierce  displeasure 
Df  the  British  government,  especially  against  Boston  ;  and  in  March, 
1774,  the  "  Boston  Port  Bill"  so  called,  was  passed,  prohibiting  all 
commercial  intercourse  with  that  town.  Another  bill  subverted  the 
charter  government  of  Massachusetts,  vesting  the  appointment  of  the 
council  and  judges  in  the  crown  ;  and  i  third  shortly  after  empowered 
the  governor  to  send  persons  indicted  lor  capital  off'ences  to  another 
colony  or  to  Great  Britain  for  trial. 

These  violent  proceedings  awakened  the  greatest  indignation  through- 
out the  colonies.  All  made  conunon  cause  with  Massachusetts.  On 
the  5th  of  September  a  general  congress  met  at  Philadelphia,  and 
adopted  a  declaration  of  rights  and  grievances,  and  agreed  to  an  entire 
suspension  of  all  commercial  intercourse  with  Great  Britain  until  the 
repeal  of  the  acts  of  which  they  complained.  They  likewise  voted  an 
address  to  the  king,  another  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain,  and  a  third 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Canada.  These  peaceful  measures  for  redress 
proving  ineffectual,  the  feeling  of  the  necessity  of  resisting  by  force 
became  quite  general  in  the  colonies.  Preparations  began  to  be  made  ; 
warlike  stores  were  collected,  and  the  citizens  began  to  arm. 

In  Massachusetts  Governor  Gage  had  convoked  the  legislative  as- 
sembly for  the  5th  of  October,  1774,  but  afterward  judged  it  expedient 
to  countermand  the  writs.  The  assembly  notwithstanding  convened,  and 
the  governor  not  appearing,  organized  themselves  and  adopted  a  plan 
for  the  defence  of  the  province.  In  November  they  met  again  and 
resolved  to  raise  a  force  of  twelve  thousand  men,  and  to  request  the 
other  New  England  states  to  increase  the  number  to  twenty  thousand. 

Early  the  next  year,  1775,  parliament,  in  spite  of  the  conciliatory 
counsels  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  proceeded  to  pass  a  bill  restraining 
still  further  the  trade  of  New  England.  Soon  after  they  imposed  re- 
strictions upon  the  middle  and  southern  colonies,  except  New  York, 
Delaware,  and  North  Carolina.  This  exception  was  made  with  a  view 
to  produce  dissension  among  the  colonies :   but  it  failed  of  its  object. 

This  brings  us  to  the  commencement  of  actual  hostilities.  General 
Gage,  the  royal  governor  of  Massachusetts,  sent  a  detachment  of  eight 
hundred  soldiers  to  destroy  some  military  stores  deposited  at  Concord, 
On  their  way,  they  arrived  at  Lexmgton  on  the  morning  of  the  19th  of 
April,  1775,  where  they  found  a  company  of  provincial  militia  assem- 
oled  on  parade.  This  company,  not  instantly  obeying  an  order  to 
throw  down  their  arms  and  disperse,  were  fired  upon  and  eight  of  theii 


HISTORY  OF   THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  761 

number  killed.  The  detachment  proceeded  to  Concord  and  destroyed 
,he  stores,  though  not  without  opposition  and  bloodshed.  But  the 
spirit  of  the  people  was  up,  and  on  their  return  to  Boston  the  British 
were  harassed  the  whole  way,  and  continually  fired  upon  from  behind 
walls,  buildings,  and  fences.  The  British  loss,  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
missing,  amounted  to  nearly  three  hundred  :  the  American  to  less  than 
a  hundred. 

The  war  was  now  begun  in  good  earnest.  The  important  fortresses 
of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  were  taken  by  the  Americans  ;  and 
soon  after  (June  17,  1775)  the  memorable  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill  was 
fought.  The  result  of  this  engagement,  though  the  Americans,  from 
failure  of  ammunition,  were  obliged  to  retreat,  was  in  its  moral  effect 
equal  to  a  victory.  The  British  loss  wa^  wo  hundred  and  twenty-six 
killed,  and  eight  hundred  and  twenty-eight  wounded.  The  Americans 
lost  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine  killed,  and  three  hundred  and  fourteer 
wounded  and  missing. 

The  second  continental  congress  was  at  this  time  in  session,  having 
met  at  Philadelphia  on  the  lOlh  of  May,  and  resolved  to  organize  au 
army.  On  the  15th  of  June,  George  Washington  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief.  He  proceeded  at  once  to  the  American  army 
amounting  to  about  14,000  men,  posted  in  the  environs  of  Boston. 
The  British  occupied  Boston,  Bunker's  and  Breed's  hill,  and  Boston 
Neck.  The  first  cares  of  the  commander-in-chief  were  directed  to  in- 
'roducing  discipline,  order,  and  system,  into  the  army. 

Meantime,  an  expedition  against  Canada  was  planned.  St.  John's 
and  Montreal  were  successively  taken  ;  Quebec  was  unsuccessfully 
besieged.  General  Montgomery,  the  commander  of  the  expedition, 
fell  beneath  its  walls.  The  Americans,  for  want  of  adequate  forces, 
were  obliged  to  retire  from  Canada. 

In  March,  1776,  General  Washington  executed  a  plan  for  driving  the 
British  from  Boston,  by  seizing  and  fortifying  Dorchester  heights,  and 
thus  getting  command  of  the  harbor  and  British  shipping.  On  the  17th 
the  British  forces  evacuated  the  town  and  sailed  for  Halifax. 

In  the  month  of  June,  General  Clinton  and  Sir  Peter  Parker  made  an 
attack  on  Fort  Moultrie,  near  Charleston,  South  Carolina ;  but  were 
repulse i  with  considerable  loss. 

Congress  meanwhile  continued  in  session,  and  on  the  4th  of  July 
adopted  the  memorable  Declaration  of  Independence.  This  declaration 
was  received  with  every  dem.oustration  of  joyous  enthusiasm  throughout 
the  colonies.  The  royal  authority  had  been  everywhere  entirely  sub- 
verted the  year  before :  the  revolution  was  now  in  a  political  sense 
completed ;  but  the  war  for  its  establishment  was  yet  to  be  waged. 

Shortly  after  the  evacuation  of  Boston  by  the  British,  General  Wash- 
ington removed  to  New  York,  making  that  place  his  headquarters. 
The  American  forces  in  and  around  the  city  were  about  17,000  men, 
of  whom  a  part  were  encamped  near  Brooklyn,  on  Long  Island,  under 
.he  command  of  General  Sullivan.  In  June  following.  General  Howe 
with  the  forces  from  Halifax,  arrived  near  New  York,  and  w^as  shortly 
after  joined  by  his  brother  Admiral  Lord  Howe,  with  a  reinforcement 
of  troops,  a  strong  naval  force,  and  abundant  military  stores.  The 
army  under   General   Howe    now  amounted   to  twenty-four  thousand 


762 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


On  the  37th  of  August,  the  Americans  on  Long  Ishmd  wtre  attacke.l 
and  defeated  with  the  loss  of  upward  of  a  thousand  men.  Generals 
Sullivan,  Woodhull,  and  Lord  Sterling,  Avere  taken  prisoners.  General 
Washington  crossed  over  from  New  York  during  this  engagement  and 
witnessed  the  defeat  of  his  best  troops  with  indescribable  anguish.  He 
immediately  withdrew  the  American  forces  from  Long  Island  and 
shorlly  afterward  from  New  York,  which  was  taken  possession  of  by 
the  British.  Washington  at  first  took  position  at  Harlem  heights,  but 
soon  retired  to  White  Plains.  Here  on  the  28th  of  September  a  battle 
was  fought,  but  without  any  decided  advantage  to  either  side.  General 
Washington  had  adopted  the  policy  of  wearing  out  the  enemy  by  keep- 
ing them  in  perpetual  pursuit,  and  avoiding  any  general  engagement 
for  the  present,  and  by  engaging  in  skirmishes  whenever  he  could  do 
so  with  decided  advantage.  In  pursuance  of  this  policy  he  withdrew 
from  White  Plains,  leaving  part  of  his  army  in  a  position  a  few  miles 
from  there,  crossed  the  Hudson,  and  took  post  near  Fort  I^ee.  The 
British  general  having  been  thus  far  baffled  in  his  attempts  to  draw  on 
a  general  engagement,  turned  his  forces  against  Fort  Washington  and 
Fort  Lee.  The  former  was  first  attacked;  and  after  a  spirited  defence 
was  taken,  with  between  2,000  and  3,000  men  made  prisoners.  The 
garrison  of  Fort  Lee  abandoned  the  place  and  joined  Washington,  who 
was  now  at  Newark. 

The  forces  with  the  commander-in-chief  were  now  reduced  to  three 
thousand  men,  and  they  were  destitute  of  tents,  blankets,  and  even  of 
utensils  to  cook  their  provisions.  Pursued  by  the  enemy,  Washington 
retreated  successively  to  Brunswick,  Princeton,  Trenton,  and  finally 
across  the  Delaware  into  Pennsylvania.  So  hot  was  the  pursuit  that 
the  rear  of  the  American  army  was  often  in  sight  of  the  van  of  thp 
enemy. 

This  retreat  through  New  Jersey  was  the  darkest  hour  of  the  revolu- 
tionary struggle.  On  the  same  day  that  Washington  was  driven  across 
the  Delaware,  the  British  took  possession  of  Rhode  Island.  They 
were  already  in  possession  of  New  York  and  New  Jersey.  The  divis- 
ion of  the  army  with  W^ashington  was  continually  diminishing  by  the 
discharge  of  the  militia  whose  term  of  service  expired^  and  by  desertion 
of  the  regulars.  The  militia  of  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  disre- 
garded the  call  made  upon  them  ;  and  the  handful  of  men  that  remained 
with  Washington  were  exposed  in  an  open  country,  without  tools  to 
intrench  themselves,  suffering  the  greatest  hardships  and  privations  in 
the  midst  of  a  population  of  whom  many  were  hostile  and  all  disheart- 
ened. A  general  gloom  and  despondency  hung  over  the  country.  Bui 
nothing  could  shake  the  constancy  of  Washington.  Being  at  length 
reinforced  by  some  militia  and  by  the  second  division  of  the  regular 
army  that  had  been  left  in  New  York  under  General  Lee,  but  which 
^in  consequence  of  that  general  being  surprised  and  taken  prisoner  by 
the  British)  was  then  in  command  of  General  Sullivan,  his  forces  now 
amoimted  to  about  7,000  men.  Feeling  the  absolute  necessity  of  doing 
something  to  rouse  the  army  and  the  country  from  the  depression  that 
was  weighing  down  all  minds,  Washington  crossed  the  Delaware  with 
a  detachment  of  his  army,  surprised  and  took  prisoners  a  body  of  a 
thousand  Hessians,  with   the  loss  of  but  nine  men  on  his  own  side 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  763 

•Soon  after  evading  by  night  the  British  who  were  eiicampec  at  Tren- 
ton in  the  confident  expectation  of  forcing  him  to  a  general  engagement 
the  next  day,  he  marched  upon  Princeton  where  a  part  of  the  British 
force  had  been  left,  routed  and  put  to  flight  two  regiments  which  he 
met  on  his  way,  and  captured  nearly  the  whole  of  another.  These 
brilliant  affairs  turned  the  tide.  The  British  immediately  evacuated 
Trenton,  and  retreated  to  New  Brunswick ;  the  inhabitants,  stung,  to 
luvenge  by  the  brutalities  they  had  suffered,  took  courage,  and  the 
enemy  were  driven  from  every  post  in  New  Jersey,  except  Amboy  and 
New  Brunswick :  and  Washington  went  into  secure  winter  quarters  at 
Morristown.     Thus  closed  the  campaign  of  1776. 

During  the  darkest  period  of  this  campaign  the  American  congress 
hhowed  no  sign  of  dismay.  They  adopted  articles  of  confederation  foi 
a  perpetual  union  of  the  states  ;  took  measures  for  raising  a  new  array 
with  a  larger  term  of  enlistment ;  created  a  paper  currency  ;  and  sol- 
emnly proclaimed  that  they  would  listen  to  no  terms  of  peace  short  of 
independence.  They  sent  commissioners  to  France  to  treat  for  the 
acknowledgment  of  their  independence  and  for  aid  in  their  struggle. 
The  cause  of  America  was  popular  at  the  French  court ;  countenance 
and  assistance  were  at  once  in  A'arious  ways  secretly  given.  Many 
French  officers  became  desirous  of  enlisting  in  the  struggle,  among 
whom  was  the  young  Marquis  de  la  Fayette,  who  arrived  in  season  to 
take  part  in  ihe  next  campaign. 

The  campaign  of  1777.  In  May,  Washington  broke  up  his  winter 
encampment  at  Morristown.  His  army  now  amounted  to  little  more 
than  7,000  men.  The  British  also  removed  from  New  Brunswick. 
No  decided  movement  was  made  till  August,  when  General  Howe,  the 
British  commander,  sailed  for  the  Chesapeake  with  16,000  men. 
Washington  immediately  put  his  army  in  motion  to  save  Philadelphia 
from  falling  into  the  enemy's  hands.  The  two  armies  met  at  Brandy- 
wine,  September  11,  and  the  Americans,  after  fighting  nearly  all  day, 
■were  forced  to  retire.  In  this  battle  La  Fayette  was  wounded  in  the 
leg  After  another  ineffectual  attempt  to  save  Philadelphia,  Washing- 
ton was  obliged  to  withdraw  his  force,  and  General  Howe  entered  the 
city.     Congress  adjourned  to  Lancaster. 

On  the  4th  of  October,  Washington  attacked  a  part  of  the  British 
army  posted  at  Germa7itoiun,  but  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  double  that 
of  the  enemy.  After  this  the  British  remained  for  some  time  inactiA'e 
fvt  Philadelphia. 

But  while  the  southern  army  under  Washington  accomplished  so 
little,  brilliant  success  crowned  the  army  of  the  north.  As  a  part  of 
the  plan  formed  by  the  British,  General  Burgoyne  invaded  the  states 
from  the  north,  with  a  view  to  form  a  communication  between  Canada 
and  New  York,  and  cut  off  New  En<i,Jand  from  the  more  southern 
states.  After  various  movements — in  the  course  of  which  Ticonderoga 
was  abandoned  by  the  Americans,  aud  a  detachment  of  the  British  was 
defeated  at  Bennington — the  two  armies  met  at  Saratoga,  where,  after  two 
t;8vere  engagements,  General  Burgoyne,  finding  himself  hemmed  ir. 
without  chance  of  escape,  and  his  provisions  reduced  to  a  three  dayo 
:;upply,  found  himself  under  the  necessity  of  surrendering  to  G^norcl 


ra4 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


Gates,  with  liis  whole   army,  consisting  of  five  thousuntl    and    ticxa?. 
hundred  effective  men. 

This  event  was  haile  1  throughout  the  country  with  transports  of  joy 
Its  moral  effect  was  every  way  important.  Among  its  consequences 
was  the  acknowledgment  of  the  independence  of  the  United  S'ates  by 
France,  and  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  alliance  and  commerce  be- 
tween the  two  nations.  The  campaign  was  terminated  by  the  British 
army  going  into  winter  quarters  at  Philadelphia,  and  the  American  at 
Valley  Forge,  about  fifteen  miles  distant.  The  hardships  and  suffer- 
ings of  the  American  army  this  winter,  from  badness  of  shelter,  destitu- 
riou  of  clothing,  and  scarcity  of  food,  with  consequent  sickness,  were 
intense. 


Campaign  of  1778.  The  intelligence  of  the  alliance  between  Amer- 
ica and  France,  determined  the  British  to  evacuate  Philadelphia.  They 
began  their  retreat  to  New  York  on  the  18th  of  June.  General  Wash- 
ington crossed  the  Delaware  in  pursuit,  and  on  the  28th  an  engagement 
took,  place  at  Monmouth,  in  New  Jersey.  Night  broke  off  the  battle, 
but  the  Americans  on  the  whole  gained  the  advantage,  passing  the  night 
on  the  field,  intending  to  renew  the  attack  in  the  morning.  But  under 
cover  of  the  night,  the  Britisii  general  made  good  his  retreat. 

Toward  the  close  of  this  year,  the  southern  states  became  the  Uicatre 
of  the  operations  of  the  enemy.  Savannah  was  taken,  and  with  it  the 
whole  state  of  Georgia  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English. 

The  campaign  of  1779  was  marked  by  nothing  memorable  or  deci- 
sive. An  attempt  was  made  to  recover  Savannah  and  Georgia  by  tho 
combined  forces  of  the  Americans,  under  General  Lmcoln,  and  the 
French,  under  Count  D'Estaing,  who  had  arrived  the  year  before  with 
twelve  ships-of-the-line  and  six  frigates.  Several  British  vessels-of-war 
were  taken,  but  the  attempt  to  reduce  Savannah  failed.  D'Estaing  left 
the  continent. 

The  enemy  limited  their  efforts  this  year  chiefly  to  predatory  expedi- 
tions, fitted  out  from  New  York,  with  a  view  to  distress  and  impoverisn 
the  country.  An  exoedition  of  this  kind  was  sent  to  Virginia  ;  New 
Haven,  in  Connecticut,  was  plundered  ;  and  Fairfield,  Norwalk,  and 
some  other  towns  in  the  same  state,  were  wantonly  burnt. 

With  the  exception  of  taking  Stony  Point  (July  15),  and  sendmg  an 
expedition  against  the  Six  Nations  of  Indians,  little  was  done  or  at- 
tempted by  the  Americans.  This  is  attributable  partly  to  the  disappoint- 
ment of  the  country  with  respect  to  the  advantage  they  expected  from 
the  aid  of  D'Estaing  and  the  French,  but  still  more  to  the  embarrass- 
ments and  difficulties  which  resulted  from  the  depreciation  of  the  "  con- 
tinental currency,"  as  the  bills  of  credit  issued  by  Congress  were  called 
The  amount  in  circulation  had  now  risen  to  nearly  two  hundred  millioiia 
of  dollars  ;  and  so  great  was  the  depreciation,  that  it  is  said  "  four 
months'  pay  of  a  private  would  not  procure  his  family  a  single  bushe^ 
of  wheat,  and  the  pay  of  a  colonel  would  not  purchase  oats  for  his 
horse."  Under  circumstances  like  these,  the  wisdom  and  pru- 
dence of  Washington  were  tasked  to  the  utmost  to  keep  an  army 
together 


HIdTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  765 

The  campaign  of  1780  was  marked  by  more  important  events.  Sir 
il(mry  Clinton,  leaving  General  Kniphausen  in  command  at  New  York, 
conducted  a  force  of  between  seven  and  eight  thousand  men  against 
Charleston,  South  Carolina.  General  Lincoln,  who  was  in  command 
of  the  army  of  the  south,  attempted  to  defend  the  place,  but  was  obliged 
to  capitulate,  and  his  army,  amounting  to  five  thousand  men,  became 
prisoners.  Sir  Henry  Clinton  soon  returned  to  New  York,  leavino 
Lord  Cornwallis  with  four  thousand  men  in  South  Carolina. 

General  Gates  succeeded  General  Lincoln  in  command  of  the  Amer- 
ican army  of  the  south.  On  the  16th  of  August,  a  bloody  battle  v/a-j 
fought  at  Camden,  in  which  the  Americans  were  defeated. 

Meanwhile,  at  the  north,  the  British  continued  their  system  of  im 
poverishing  the  country  by  marauding  expeditions  sent  out  from  New- 
York. 

In  July,  arrived  at  Rhode  Island  a  Frei  ch  fleet  of  seven  suil-of- 
the-line,  five  frigates,  and  five  smaller  armed  vessels,  and  several  trans- 
ports, with  six  thousand  men,  under  the  command  of  Count  de  Rocham- 
beau.  Great  was  the  joy  and  great  were  the  hopes  inspired  bv  thi& 
''vent ;  bur  the  British  n.aval  force  was  still  the  greatest ;  and  I  o.h  the 
French  fleet  and  army  were  for  some  time  prevented  from  aiding  the 
Americans,  by  being  blocked  up  at  Rhode  Island. 

This  year  is  memorable  in  the  annals  of  the  war,  for  the  treachery 
of  General  Arnold,  and  the  sad  fate  of  Major  Andre.  Arnold  was  in 
command  of  the  important  fortress  of  West  Point,  and  engaged  to  betray 
it  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  Major  Andre  was  the  agent  emjdoyed 
by  the  British  general  in  conducting  the  negotiation.  The  plot  was 
discovered ;  Arnold  fled  to  the  British,  and  Andre  was  taken  and  hung 
as  a  spy. 

The  campaign  of  1781  was  opened  by  an  inauspicious  e\'ent,  the  re- 
volt of  the  Pennsylvania  line-of-the-army,  occasitmed  by  want  of  ptiy, 
clothing,  and  provisions.  Their  grievances  weie  co  isideralely  ex..un- 
ined  and  red/esfeed  by  congress,  and  tb.e  mutiny  sibsiled. 

Virginia  was  meanwhile  suflering  from  the  mirauding  incursions  of 
the  British,  commanded  by  the  traitor  Arriold. 

In  the  south,  General  Greene  succeeded  Gt  neial  Gates.  Lird  Com- 
wallis  was  preparing  to  invade  Nonh  Carolina,  but  unwillinj  to  1jc.V6 
an  enemy  m  his  rear,  •*-'nt  Cokmel  Tarletoi  to  enifa^e  Geteral  M  >i  gin, 
whom  Grtjene  had  pui  m  comm  ind  of  cue  div.sicn  jf  Lis  urmv ,  ai.d  &.a- 
tioned  in  the  western  part  of  South  Carolina.  They  mot  at  Ct  up'TiS, 
on  the  17th  of  Jam  :r}',  and  more  than  one  thousand  of  tie  chci.:est 
vetv^raas  of  the  British  army  wero  defeated  by  s>car  ;el}  fi\c  h.ndnd 
Americans,  chiefly  militia.  This  was  the  most  brilliant  aflair  of  the 
wa'-. 

Her  ^up")n  Lo  d  Con  wa.lis  V  em  in  pi  r.  u  t  ol  Greene  w'.'o  vnilel 
him  ui  til  ihe  Stli  of  M  ich,  whi;ri,  havnig  receivid  a  reiii'"orcomt  n%  ha 
marched  agamst  the  ]  r'ti-h,  a.iid  a  g(  ndal  ongM.gam-'nt  took  pUce  ai 
Gm'/o''d  C'ourthousf,  which  wa.s  decided  in  f  ivor  of  the  eiien.y.  (-icm- 
eral  Greene  then  led  his  forces  lo  Suu;h  Car^dinu,  ;o  aitaek  L>)rd  Raw- 
don  at  C'jmlen.  A  buttle  was  foi.;ght,  March  2.0,  and  Greene  was 
obllsred  to  retreal.     Meanwhil-^  Geiienil  Lee.  with  a  dctachaieut  des- 


?66 


MODERN  HISTORY 


patched  for  that  purpose,  took  possession  of  a  post  at  Mottob,  near  liit 
junction  of  the  Santee  and  Congaree  rivers.  This  led  the  British  tc 
evacuate  Camden  and  tlieir  whole  line  of  posts,  except  Ninety-six  and 
Charleston.  Not  long  after,  Ninety-six  was  abandoned,  and  the  British 
encamped  at  Eutaw  Springs,  forty  miles  from  Charleston.  Here,  on 
the  8tl.  of  September  following,  an  indecisive  battle  was  fouglit.  I'he 
British  now  retired  to  Chariest jn. 

After  the  battle  of  Guilford,  Lord  Cornwallis  began  his  march  to  Vir- 
ginia, where  he  arrived  on  the  20th  of  May.  General  Lafayette  hast- 
BT^ed  to  oppose  him,  and  to  cut  off  the  reinforcements  which  were  march- 
ing to  join  hiin.  In  this  he  failed.  Cornwallis's  force  now  amounted 
to  eight  thousand  men,  Lafayette  was  obliged  by  inferiority  of  num- 
bers to  avoid  a  battle,  and  continued  to  retreat,  manoeuvring  with  great 
prudence  and  skill.  Cornwallis  at  lengtli  retired  to  Yorktown,  near  the 
month  of  York  river,  and  fortified  himself  there. 

The  plan  of  the  campaign,  as  first  formed  by  Washington,  had  for  its 
main  project  the  siege  of  New  York,  in  concert  with  a  French  fleet 
under  Count  de  Grasse,  expected  to  arrive  in  August.  Being  advised, 
however,  that  De  Grasse  would  arrive  at  the  Chesapeake  instead  of 
New  York,  Washington  changed  his  whole  plan  of  operations,  and 
began  to  move  upon  Yorktown  with  a  combined  force  of  Americans  and 
French  amounting  to  twelve  thousand,  while  Count  de  Grasse  with  his 
fleet  occupied  the  mouth  of  York  river,  and  thus  cut  off  the  retreat  of 
Cornwallis  in  that  direction. 

The  siege  of  Yorktown  commenced  on  the  6lh  of  October,  and  on 
the  19lh  Lord  Cornwallis  was  obliged  to  capitulate,  surrendering  his 
whole  force,  amounting  to  seven  thousand  men,  and  one  hundred  and 
sixty  pieces  of  artillery. 

With  so  much  skill  laad  Washington  arranged  his  measures  for  with- 
Irawing  his  army  from  New  York,  and  combining  his  forces  for  the 
blockade  of  Yorktown,  that  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  the  British  commander- 
in-chief,  then  at  New  York,  did  not  suspect  his  designs  till  he  was  far 
oii  his  way  to  Virginia.  On  the  very  day  that  Cornwallis  surrendered 
Clinton  left  New  York  with  a  reinforcement  of  seven  thousand  men  ;  and 
fi/e  days  after,  arrived  olf  the  capes  of  Virginia.  Receiving  intelligence 
of  the  late  of  Cornwallis,  he  returned  to  New  York. 

Tnis  great  and  important  victory  tilled  the  country  with  joy  and  ex- 
ultation. Congress  jjsissed  resolutions  of  thard\S  to  the  generals,  officers 
and  soldifrs,  and  wen"  in  procession  to  church  to  render  solemn  thanks 
to  Almighty  God  :  and  appointed  the  30th  of  December  as  a  festival  of 
national  ihanksgiving. 

Thus  p.aded  the  campaign  of  1781,  and  with  it  the  war  was  substan- 
tially ended.  The  British  held  a  few  posts  of  importance — Nev/  York, 
Charlesto.i,  and  Savannan— but  the  country  at  large  was  wrested  from 
their  possession. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1782,  the  British  house  ot  commons  passed  a 
resolution  that  "  the  house  would  consider  as  enemies  to  his  majesty 
and  to  the  country  all  those  who  should  advise  or  attempt  the  furthei 
prosecution  of  oflensive  war  on  the  continent  of  North  xVmerica."  The 
government  immediately  ajtpointed  Sir  Guy  Carleton  commander-in- 
chief,  in  place  of  Sir  Henry  Clir.ton.     In  obedience  to  his  instructions 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  767 

Sir  Guy  made  advances  for  negotiations,  buv  congress  refused  lo  nogo- 
iiate  except  in  concert  with  the  French  government.  Not  long  after,  a 
the  instance  of  the  French  court,  commissioners  were  appointed  to  ne 
gotiate  a  peace.  These  were  John  Adams,  Benjamin  Franklin,  John 
Jay,  and  Henry  Laurens.  The  commissioners  on  the  part  of  Ensland 
were  Mr.  Fitzherbert  and  Mr.  Oswald.  Provisional  articles  of  peace 
were  signed  on  the  30th  of  November,  1782.  The  definitive  treaty  was 
not  signed  until  September  30,  1783.  A  formal  proclamation  of  the 
cessation  of  hosiilities  was  made  to  the  army  on  the  1 9th  of  April,  1783 
In  July,  the  British  evacuated  Savannah  ;  in  November,  New  York  ;  and 
in  December,  Charleston. 

On  the  3d  of  November,  the  army  of  the  United  States  was  disband- 
ed ;  and  on  the  23d  of  December,  Washington  appeared  in  person  .n 
the  hall  of  congress,  and  resigned  his  commission  as  commander-in- 
chief.  The  moral  grandeur  of  that  act  and  of  that  scene  is  without  par- 
allel in  history.  Washington  concluded  his  address  on  that  occasion 
as  folLows  : — 

"  I  consider  it  an  indispensable  duty  to  close  the  last  solemn  act  of 
my  official  life  by  commending  the  interests  of  our  dearest  country  to 
the  protection  of  Almighty  God,  and  those  who  have  the  superintend- 
ence of  them  to  his  holy  keeping.  . 

"  Having  now  finished  the  work  assigned  to  me,  I  retire  from  the 
great  theatre  of  action  ;  and,  bidding  an  affectionate  farewell  to  this 
august  body,  under  whose  orders  I  have  long  acted,  I  here  oifer  my 
commission,  and  take  my  leave  of  all  the  employments  of  public  life." 

Mr.  Mifflin,  president  of  congress,  in  behalf  of  that  body,  replied  to 
this  address,  expressing  their  high  sense  of  his  wisdom  and  ability  in 
the  conduct  of  the  war;  concluding  in  these  words  :  — 

"  We  join  you  in  commending  the  interests  of  our  dearest  country  to 
the  protection  of  Almighty  God,  beseeching  him  to  dispose  the  hearts 
and  minds  of  its  citizens  to  improve  the  opportunity  afforded  them  of 
becoming  a  happy  and  respectable  nation. 

"And  for  yju,  we  address  to  him  our  earnest  prayer  that  a  life  so 
beloved  may  be  fostered  with  all  his  care  ;  that  your  days  may  be  as 
happy  as  they  have  been  illustrious  ;  and  that  he  will  finally  give  you 
that  reward  which  this  world  can  not  give." 

Well  for  the  nalion  if  it  alv\  ays  remember  the  cvainplo  aid  die  lesson 
here  presented  ! 

During  the  war,  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  country  were  neurly 
destroyed.  Agriculture  was  greatly  interrupted  and  dejiressed  ;  but  the 
necessity  of  providing  articles  which  could  no  longer  be  imported,  led 
to  a  greater  progress  in  manufactures  than  at  any  former  period.  The 
population  of  the  country  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  about  three  mil- 
lions and  a  quarter. 

Section  III. — Constitutional  History. 

The  return  of  peace  found  the  country  burdened  with  more  than  forty 
millions  of  dollars  of  debt,  due  partly  to  foreign  holders,  and  partly  to 
the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  revolutionary  war.  By  the  articles  of 
confederation,  undei  which  the  general  goveinment  ol'  the  country  b.ad 


708 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


been  carried  on  since  1777,  congress  had  exclusive  right  to  declare  vfai 
make  peace,  borrow  money,  issue  bills  of  credit,  and  make  requisitions 
upon  tlie  states  for  men  and  money :  but  it  had  no  power  to  discharge 
the  national  debt.  It  could  only  recommend  the  states  to  raise  money 
Various  plans  were  proposed,  to  redeem  the  credit  of  the  country,  among 
which  was  that  of  the  states  granting  congress  power  to  impose  a  duty 
oi  five  per  cent,  on  foreign  goods.  But  this  was  defeated  by  the  oppo- 
sition of  Rhode  Island  and  New  York.  The  interest  of  the  public  debt 
remained  unpaid  ;  the  certificates  of  it  depreciated  every  day,  and  many 
of  the  poor  officers  and  soldiers  who  held  them  were  obliged  to  sell 
them  for  almost  nothing.  Some  of  the  states  made  attempts  to  main- 
ain  their  credit ;  Massachusetts  imposed  a  heavy  tax  to  this  end,  but  it 
produced  an  armed  insurrection  (a.  d.  178G),  which  was  with  some  diffi 
culty  put  down. 

In  this  disturbed  and  distressed  condition  of  affairs,  it  became  obvi 
ous  that  the  common  danger  from  foreign  war  being  over,  the  confedera- 
tion was  an  insufficient  basis  for  the  government  of  the  country.  Ac- 
cordingly, in  the  month  of  May,  1787,  a  conven-lion  of  delegates  from 
all  the  states,  exc<;pt  Rhide  Islknd,  assembled  at  Philadelphia,  and  after 
about  four  months'  session,  adojted  the  present  constiturion  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  with  a  resolution  that  as  .soon  as  it  should  be  ratifietl  by  nine 
states,  it  should  be  earned  into  operation  by  congress.  July  14,  1788, 
ten  states  having  acceded  to  it,  it  was  declared  ratified  and  adopted  by 
congress.  The  olher  states  subsequently  assented  to  it :  New  York, 
July  26,  1788  ;  North  Carolina  in  November,  1789  ;  and  Rhode  Island 
in  May,  1790. 

George  Washington  was  unanimously  elected  the  first  president 
under  the  new  constitution  :  John  Adams  vice-president.  The  first  con- 
gress assembled  at  New  York,  March  4, 1789  ;  and  on  the  30th  of  April, 
Washington  was  inaugurated.  The  most  important  aff'airs  pressed  upon 
the  attention  of  congress  :  the  government  was  to  be  organized  ;  the  ad- 
ministrative and  judiciary  departments  to  be  established  ;  and  a  revenue 
tj  b(i  provided.  These  measures  occupied  the  first  session  of  congress, 
which  terminated  on  the  29th  of  ycplember. 

Tne  second  session  of  the  first  congress  began  Januar5-  8,  ]  790. 
Agreeably  to  a  plxn  submitted  by  Mr.  Hamilton,  secretary  of  the  treas- 
ury', congress  proceeded  to  make  provision  for  discharging  in  full  the 
fcreitjn  and  domestic  debt,  and  asi^^umed  also  the  debts  incurred  by  the 
si.ve:al  btaijs  in  canyir.g  o.i  the  war.  To  this  object  the  proceeds  of 
the  jiablic  lands  lying  iu  the  western  territory,  the  surplus  rev^enue  from 
the  duties  on  imports,  and  a  loan  of  two  millions,  were  appropriated, 
'fhi.-  ra;asire  imiieliatsly  restored  jublic  credit ;  ciu-tificates  of  publi3 
debt  rose  to  par  ;  and  those  who  had  purchased  low,  realized  inmienso 
fortunes.  Business  of  all  kinds  revived,  and  the  country  entered  upon 
aca'eCi'ol  pnspercus  icti  dtji  an  1  eite /pri-ie. 

At  the  n>;xt  session  of  congiess,  at'ier  a  j.roiratted  debaie,  a  bill  was 
^assi.;d  imp'.'siiig  a  tax  on  domestic  sjuritSjfor  the  purpose  of  paying  the 
interest  on  rhe  state  debts  assumed  by  thi3  Union.  A  national  bank  was 
also  establi:ihed,  not  without  o]po.-itii)n,  mainly  on  the  ground  of  its  mi- 
cons'itution  ili'y.  The  parly  lines  between  the  federaliyis  and  anti 
fiideralists  (as  they  were  called),  v/hii.h  had  begr.:i  to  appear  wbii;  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  769 

adoption  of  the  new  constitution  was  under  discussion,  bcca,mc  tlii^ 
session  more  broad  and  clear.  A  regular  opposition  to  the  adniinistra- 
".ion  began  to  be  organized. 

Meantime  the  hostilities  of  the  Indians  northwest  of  the  Ohio  made 
It  necessary  to  send  an  expedition  against  them.  General  Harmar  was 
put  in  command,  but  he  was  defeated  with  considerable  loss  in  a  battle 
near  Chilicothe.  General  St.  Clair,  who  succeeded  in  conmiand,  was 
also  totally  defeated.  A  bill  then  passed  congress  for  raising  an  addi- 
tional force  to  the  army.  The  measure  was  bitterly  resisted  by  the  op- 
position, chiefly  on  the  ground  that  standing  armies  were  dangerous,  ■.x.wd 
ihat  the  proposed  increase  showed  the  existence  of  monarchical  designs 
on  the  part  of  the  administration.  An  unsuccessful  at  empt  was  made 
the  next  session  to  reduce  the  military  establishment ;  and  the  opposi 
tion  introduced  various  resolutions,  evincing  their  hostility  to  the  admin- 
istration. The  public  press  became  also  the  vehicle  of  vehement  attacks, 
particularly  upon  the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  Mr.  Hamilton  ;  and  party 
spirit,  from  day  to  day,  grew  stronger  throughout  the  country. 

On  the  expiration  of  his  lirst  term  of  office,  Washington  was  never- 
theless unanimously  re-elected  president,  March,  1793  ;  Mr.  Adams 
again  vice-president.  Beside  the  still  unsettled  condition  of  Indian  af- 
fairs, this  term  of  Washington's  administration  was  embarrassed  by  new 
difficulties,  growing  out  of  the  French  revolution.  The  French  republic 
I  dd  just  declared  war  against  England  and  Holland  ;  and  so  strong  in 
(lie  United  States  was  the  hatred  of  the  people  to  the  British,  and  so 
Lvely  their  sympathy  with  the  French,  that  the  opinion  was  entertained 
in  many  quarters  that  America  was  bound  by  every  consideration,  both 
.)f  gratitude  to  an  old  ally,  and  sympathy  with  the  cause  of  republican- 
ism, to  make  common  cause  with  France. 

Immediately  on  receiving  intelligence  of  the  declaration  of  war,  Wash- 
ington convened  a  cabinet  council,  and  by  their  unanimous  advice,  issued 
a  proclamation,  enjoining  strict  neutrality  to  be  observed  on  the  part  of 
Jie  United  States  toward  the  belligerant  pov/ers,  April  22,  1793.  The 
opposit'on  (anti-federalist)  party,  through  the  press,  bitterly  inveighed 
Against  this  proclamation,  denouncing  it  as  a  high-handed  assumption 
A'  power  on  the  part  of  the  president,  "  a  royal  edict,"  evincing  his  mon- 
archical disposition,  and  a'^io  as  dishonorable  and  ungrateful  toward 
France. 

In  this  state  of  things,  Mr.  Genet,  the  new  minister  appointed  by  the 
French  repubUc,  arrived  in  the  country,  with  the  object  of  engaging  the 
co-operation  of  the  United  States  against  England.  Misled  by  the  flat- 
tering reception  he  met  with  at  Charlestnn,  where  he  landed,  he  imme- 
diately began,  even  before  he  had  been  recognised  as  minister,  to  excite 
the  people  against  the  government ;  and  carried  his  audacity  so  far,  as  to 
set  at  defiance  the  proclamation  of  neutrality,  fitting  out  expeditions,  and 
giving  commissions  to  American  vessels  to  cruise  against  the  enemies 
of  France,  and  assuming  the  power  to  hold  admiralty  courts,  for  the  trial 
ind  sale  of  prizes  thus  made.  In  these  measures  he  was  supported  by 
the  opposition,  or  as  it  began  to  be  called,  the  democratic  party,  which 
now  began,  under  the  influence  of  the  French  minister,  and  in  imitation 
of  the  affiliated  clubs  in  France,  to  form  democratic  societies  throughon' 
the  country. 

49 


rrO  MODERN  HISTORY. 

Washineion  demanded  the  recall  of  Mr.  Genet.  The  French  govern 
meiit  complied,  ami  instructed  his  successor  to  express  its  entire  ilisap 
proval  of  Genet's  conduct. 

When  congress  assembled  in  December  following,  the  proclamation 
')f  neutrality,  and  the  conduct  of  Washington  toward  Genet,  were  ap- 
proved by  that  body,  as  they  were  finally  by  the  great  body  of  the 
nation. 

1794.  Congress  this  year  passed  a  bill  providing  for  a  naval  forct 
to  protect  American  commerce  against  the  Algerines.  The  slave-trade 
was  likewise  prohibited. 

There  seemed  now  reason  .0  apprehend  the  necessity  of  another  war 
with  England.  In  addition  to  severe  and  unjust  commercial  restrictions 
imposed  by  that  government,  she  had  proceeded  to  capture  and  condemn 
neutral  vessels  having  on  board  French  goods,  or  carrying  corn  and  other 
supplies  to  France.  In  anticipation  of  a  war,  congress  passed  several 
bills — for  imposing  an  embargo  ;  for  organizing  the  militia  ;  and  for  in- 
creasing the  standing  army.  Meanwhile  information  was  received  that 
the  British  government  was  disposed  to  redress  the  grievances  com- 
plained of,  and  amicably  adjust  all  differences.  John  Jay  was  accord- 
ingly nominated  and  approved  as  envoy  to  Great  Britain. 

All  attempts  to  make  peace  with  the  Indians  having  failed,  the  wai 
was  renewed.  General  Wayne  was  appointed  to  succeed  General  St. 
Clair.  On  the  20th  of  August,  he  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  a  large 
body  of  the  Miamies,  and  then  proceeded  to  lay  waste  their  country. 
This  victory  prevented  a  general  war  with  the  Six  Nations  and  with 
the  tribes  northwest  of  the  Ohio. 

The  "  Whiskey  Insurrection"  in  Pennsylvania  is  one  of  the  events  of 
this  year.  It  grew  out  of  the  duty  on  domestic  spirits  ;  this  tax  pressed 
heavily  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  west,  and  was  besides  considered  un- 
just in  principle.  The  proclamation  of  the  president  being  disregarded, 
a  considerable  force  of  militia  (fifteen  thousand  men),  under  Governor 
Lee  of  Maryland,  was  ordered  out.  On  their  approach,  the  insurgents 
Hid  down  their  arms,  and  promised  submission  to  the  laws. 

1795.  This  year  Mr.  Jay  having  concluded  a  treaty  of  amity,  com- 
merce, and  navigation,  with  Great  Britain,  the  senate  was  convoked  U: 
con.siJer  it.  Meanwhile,  its  contents  having  been  disclosed,  the  most 
violent  opposition  was  made  to  it ;  public  meetings  were  held,  and  peti 
tions  against  »*  were  sent  from  all  quarters  of  the  country.  The  parti- 
sans of  France  and  the  enemies  of  England  denounced  it  in  the  mos' 
unmeasured  teriir3  The  objections  to  it  "  were,  generally,  that  it  wanted 
reciprocity  ;  that  it  gave  up  all  compensation  for  negroes  carried  away 
contrary  to  the  treaty  of  peace,  and  for  the  detention  of  the  western 
posts  ;  that  it  contravened  the  French  treaty,  and  sacrificed  the  interest 
of  our  ally  to  that  of  Great  Britain  ;  that  it  gave  up  in  several  important 
instances  the  law  of  nations,  particularly  in  relation  to  free  ships  making 
free  goods,  cases  of  blockade,  and  cojitraband  of  war  ;  that  it  improperly 

interfered  with  the  legislative  powers  of  congress and  that  the 

commercial  part  gave  few  advantages  to  the  United  States."*  The 
treaty  was,  however,  ratified  by  the  senate,  and  signed  by  th«?  preside at< 
August  14,  1795. 

•  Pitkin   Civil  History  of  the  United  States 


I 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  77j 

In  October,  after  a  long  negotiation,  a  treaty  was  made  with  Spain, 
settling  some  questions  of  boundary,  and  acquiring  for  the  United  States 
rhe  right  of  navigating  the  Mississippi.  Treaties  were  also  concluded 
with  Algiers,  and  with  the  Indians  in  the  west. 

179G.  On  the  assembling  of  congress  this  year,  it  became  necessary 
to  make  appropriations  and  pass  resolutions  for  carrying  these  treaties 
into  effect.  This  gave  occasion  for  a  new  display  of  hostility  to  the 
British  treaty  ;  and  it  was  only  after  a  debate  of  seven  weeks,  that  the 
Piecessary  resolutions  passed  the  house  of  representatives,  and  then  onlv 
by  a  majority  of  three.  Public  opinion  at  length  gradually  settled  in 
favor  of  this  treaty,  as  the  only  means  of  saving  the  country  from  be- 
coming involved  in  the  wars  of  the  French  revolution  ;  and  in  th?  secjue 
it  proved  of  great  advantage  to  the  United  States. 

The  close  of  the  second  term  of  Washington's  administration  was  now 
approaching.  Signifying  his  intention  to  retire  from  public  life,  the 
Father  of  his  country  took  occasion  to  issue  a  fareuwU  address  to  his 
countrymen,  replete  with  maxims  of  political  wisdom,  and  sentiments 
of  patriotism  and  virtue.  If  anything  in  this  incomparable  document 
may  be  signalized,  where  all  should  be  profoundly  weighed,  the  conclu- 
sion rpay  justly  claim  attention  :  "  Of  all  the  dispositions  and  habits 
which  lead  to  political  prosperity,  religion  and  morality  are  indis- 
pensable supports Whatever  may  be  conceded  to  the  influence 

of  refined  education  on  minds  of  peculiar  structure,  reason  and  experi- 
ence both  forbid  us  to  expect  that  national  morality  can  prevail  in  exclu- 
sion of  religious  principle ."  This  was  said,  let  it  be  considered,  at  a  time 
when  the  infidel  spirit,  the  sneering  spirit,  of  French  atheism,  was  fash- 
ionable, almost  the  prevailing  spirit,  among  the  higher  classes  through- 
out the  land 

The  personal  influence  of  Washington,  due  alike  to  his  wisdom,  his 
virtues,  and  his  eminent  services,  was  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the 
first  working  of  the  new  government.  During  the  eight  years  of  his 
administration,  all  differences  with  foreign  nations  had  been  peaceably 
settled,  except  those  with  France  ;  and  at  home  the  Indian  tribes  had 
been  pacified.  "  Public  and  private  credit  was  restored  ;  ample  provis- 
ion made  for  the  security  and  ultimate  payment  of  the  public  debt ; 
American  tonnage  had  nearly  doubled ;  the  exports  had  increased  from 
nineteen  to  more  than  fif;y-six  millions  of  dollars ;  the  imports  in  about 
the  same  proportion  ;  and  the  amount  of  revenue  from  imposts  bad  ex 
ceedea  .he  most  sanguine  calculations."*  The  population  had  increased 
from  three  and  a  half  to  five  millions  ;  and  agriculture  and  all  the  indus- 
trial interests  of  the  country  were  in  a  flourishing  state. 

The  oidy  drawback  to  this  picture  of  pros])erity  were  the  difficulties 
with  France.  Discontented  at  the  neutral  policy  of  America,  the  French 
republic  continued  to  make  demands  upon  the  gratitude  of  the  United 
States,  which  could  be  yielded  to  only  by  surrendering  the  right  of  self- 
government.  Finding  all  attempts  to  involve  America  in  its  wars  with 
Europe  ineffectual,  and  feeling  aggrieved  at  the  treaty  with  its  enemy 
.he  French  government  proceeded  to  retaliate,  by  adopting  certain  reso- 
lutions injurious  to  American  commerce,  under  the  operation  of  which, 
moreover,  several  hundred  American  vessels  were  seized  and  confip- 

•  Pitkin. 


772 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


oatcd.  Just  before  his  retirement  from  office,  Washington  had  recallen 
Mr.  Monroe,  and  despatched  Mr.  Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckncy  t<i 
France,  as  minister  plenipotentiary,  to  settle  the  difficulties  between  the 
two  nations. 

Such  was  the  state  of  the  country  at  the  close  of  Washington's  ad 
ministration. 


On  the  4th  of  March,  1797,  John  Adams  became  president.  The 
French  republic  refusing  to  receive  Mr.  Pinckney  ;  a  subsequent  mis- 
sion extraordinary  to  that  government  having  also  totally  failed  ;  and 
spoliations  upon  American  commerce  continually  increasing  ;  congress 
began  to  adopt  vigorous  measures  for  defence  and  retaliation.  The 
treaties  with  France  were  declared  no  longer  obligatory  on  the  United 
States  ;  an  army  was  raised  ;  and  Washington  was  appointed  comman- 
der-in-chief. Several  engagements  at  sea  took  place  between  French 
and  American  vessels.  The  French  government  now  signified  indi- 
rectly a  willingness  to  treat,  and  envoys  were  again  sent  from  the  Uni- 
ted States.  Before  their  arrival,  the  revolution  of  the  1 8ih 'Br  urn  aire 
(November  10,  1799)  had  taken  place  ;  the  directorial  government  was 
overthrown,  and  Bonaparte  was  at  the  head  of  affairs  as  first  consul. 
This  event  changed  the  policy  of  the  French  government ;  negotiations 
were  commenced,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded  September  30,  1800. 

On  the  14th  of  December,  1799,  died  George  Washingto.v,  mourned 
by  the  nation  as  no  other  man  was  ever  mourned  by  any  people.  There 
have  been  great  men  superior  perhaps  to  him  in  particular  qualities  and 
endowments  ;  but  in  the  perfect  proportion  and  harmony  of  all  the  quali- 
lies  of  his  nature,  intellectual  and  moral,  in  the  entireness  and  unity  of 
his  character,  he  is  distinguished  above  all  the  great  men  whom  history 
presents  to  our  contemplation.  In  this  consisted  the  secret  of  the  re- 
pose, dignity,  and  grandeur,  that  through  his  whole  life  made  so  strong 
an  impression  upon  all  who  approached  him,  and  gave  him  such  power 
over  them. 

Party  spirit  ran  high  during  Tvlr.  Adams's  administration.  Its  meas- 
ures were  violently  assailed  by  the  opposition,  particularly  the  "  alien" 
and  "  sedition"  laws  :  by  the  former  of  which,  any  alien  considered  dan- 
gerous might  be  ordered  to  depart  from  the  country ;  and  by  the  latter, 
combinations  to  oppose  the  government,  libellous  publications,  &c.,  were 
made  penal.  The  unpopularity  of  these  and  some  other  measures  gave 
great  strength  to  the  democratic  party,  and  defeated  the  re-election  of 
Mr.  Adams. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1801,  Thomas  Jefferson  succeeded  Mr.  Ad- 
ams as  president  of  the  United  States 

At  the  next  session  of  congress,  several  of  the  most  important  acts 
of  the  preceding  period  were  repealed,  particularly  those  imposing  inter 
nal  taxes,  and  reorganizing  the  United  States  courts. 

Among  the  most  important  events  of  this  period  was  the  purchase  of 
Louisiana  from  the  French  for  fifteen  millions  of  dollars. 

Mr.  Jefferson's  term  of  office  expiring,  he  was  re-elected,  and  coni« 
niencfid  a  second  term.  Match  4,  1805.  The  same  year  a  war,  whict 
had  been  carried  on  lor  several  years  with  Tripoli,  was  brought  to  r, 
close  by  a  treaty  of  peace. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  773 

The  close  of  the  year  1806  is  marked  by  the  explosion  of  Aaron 
Burr's  plot  for  revolutionizing  the  western  and  southwestern  territory. 
This  ambitious  and  unprincipled  man  was  engaged  in  the  western  coun 
try  ostensibly  with  the  purpose  of  settling  a  tract  of  country  on  the 
Washita,  in  Louisiana  ;  but  the  nature  of  his  preparations,  the  character 
of  the  men  he  was  collecting,  &c.,  excited  suspicions — which  the  in- 
discreet disclosures  of  some  of  his  associates  confirmed — that  his  real 
object  was  to  seize  New  Orleans,  and  establish  himself  at  the  head  of 
a  new  empire  in  the  southwestern  territory  of  the  United  States  ;  or, 
failing  that,  in  Mexico.  He  was  seized  and  brought  to  trial  the  next 
year,  but  no  overt  act  being  in  proof  against  him,  he  was  discharged. 
He  was,  however,  generally  believed  to  be  guilty  ;  and  under  the  odium 
thus  incurred,  joined  with  that  which  attached  to  him  for  his  murderous 
duel  with  General  Hamilton  in  1804,  he  sunk  to  abject  contempt  and 
wretchedness. 

The  interests  of  the  United  States  were  now  becoming  complicated 
with  policy  of  the  belligerant  powers  of  Europe.  The  peace  of  Amiens 
(a.  d.  1802)  gave  but  a  short  repose  from  war;  hostilities  were  soon 
renewed  between  France  and  England,  and  all  the  powers  of  Europe 
became  involved  in  them.  The  United  States  maintained  a  strict  neu 
trality,  and  engaged  in  an  extensive  and  profitable  carrying-trade. 

But  in  1806,  the  English  government,  by  an  order  of  council,  declared 
the  blockade  of  all  the  ports  and  rivers  from  the  Elbe  to  Brest.  Napo- 
leon retaliated  by  the  famous  "  Berlin  decree,"  declaring  all  the  British 
islands  in  a  state  of  blockade.  This  was  met  by  another  British  order 
of  council,  prohibiting  all  coasting-trade  with  France. 

While  these  measures,  which  were  partly  in  contravention  of  the  law 
of  nations,  operated  very  injuriously  upon  the  commerce  of  America, 
and  tended  to  embroil  her  with  both  the  belligerant  powers,  an  old  diffi- 
culty with  England  was  aggravated  by  a  special  outrage.  Great  Britain 
had  always  claimed  the  right  of  searching  American  vessels,  and  of 
impressing  from  them  native-born  British  subjects.  They  had  also  im- 
pressed some  thousands  of  American  seamen,  under  the  pretext  that 
ihey  were  British  born.  In  this  course  the  English  government  per- 
sisted in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  the  United  States.  In  June,  1807, 
Commodore  Barron,  commanding  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake,  re- 
fusing to  deliver  three  men  claimed  by  the  British,  the  Chesapeake  was 
attacked  by  the  British  frigate  Leopard  off  the  capes  of  Virginia,  very 
ranch  injured  and  crippled,  and  the  men  in  question  forcibly  taken  away. 
The  public  mind  was  greatly  exasperated  by  this  outrage.  The  pres- 
ident, by  proclamation,  ordered  all  British  armed  vessels  off  the  waters 
of  the  United  States,  until  satisfaction  should  be  made,  which  the  Amer- 
ican minister,  Mr.  Monroe,  was  instructed  to  demand  forthwith,  as  well 
as  security  against  future  impressments  from  American  vessels.  The 
British  government  declined  to  treat  concerning  the  general  question  ot 
search  and  impressment,  but  sent  a  special  envoy  to  the  United  States, 
JO  S'^ttle  the  particular  injury  in  the  case  of  the  Chesapeake.  Mr.  Rose 
was  instructed,  however,  not  to  treat  until  the  president's  proclamation 
wa.".  revoked.  This  being  refused,  the  matter  rested  ;  and  was  not 
fin=)lly  adjusted  until  four  years  later,  when  satisfactory  reparation  was 
mi/lo  by  the  British  government. 


r74  MODERN   HiyTORY 

Meantime,  on  tho  i7th  of  December,  1807,  Bonaparte,  in  retaliatum 
for  the  British  order  in  council,  issued  "  the  Milan  dccrcf,'"  declaring; 
every  vessel  denationalized  that  should  submit  to  search  by  the  Biitish. 
and  every  vessel  a  good  prize  taken  sailing  to  or  from  Great  Britain  oi 
its  colonies,  or  any  place  occupied  by  British  troops. 

The  embargo  failing  to  compel  the  belligerant  powers  to  revoke  meas- 
ures so  injurious  to  American  commerce,  and  so  subversive  of  the  rights 
of  neutrals,  it  was  repealed  on  the  1st  of  March,  1809,  and  a  law  passed 
prohibiting  all  trade  and  intercourse  with  France  and  England. 

Mr.  Jefferson  declining  a  re-election,  w;6  succeeded,  March  4, 1809 
by  James  Madison. 

The  state  of  the  cour  try  was  gloomy.  Her  commerce  was  suffering 
both  from  foreign  and  domestic  restrictions  ;  and  it  seemed  that  she  must 
indefinitely  submit  to  this  condition  of  things,  or  make  war  with  the 
belligerants. 

In  passing  the  non-intercmirse  act  of  March  1,  congress  had  empow- 
ered the  president  to  repeal  it  by  proclamation  in  regard  to  either  of  the 
hostile  parties  revoking  their  edicts.  The  British  minister  at  Washing- 
ton engaged  for  his  government  the  repeal  of  the  orders  of  council,  so 
far  as  the  United  States  were  concerned.  The  president  accordingly 
notified  the  renewal  of  commercial  intercourse  with  Great  Britain.  Bu' 
the  English  government  disavowed  the  engagement  of  its  minister,  and 
non-intercourse  was  again  proclaimed. 

On  the  23d  of  March,  1810,- Napoleon  retaliated  the  non-intercourso 
act  of  congress  by  issuing  the  "  Ramboulllet  decree'^ — ordering  all  ves- 
sels arriving  in  French  ports,  or  the  ports  of  countries  occupied  by 
French  troops,  to  be  seized  and  condemned.  On  the  1st  of  May,  con- 
gress passed  an  act  excluding  British  and  French  armed  vessels  from 
the  waters  of  the  United  States — with  a  provision  for  renewing  inter 
course  with  whichever  nation  should  within  a  given  time  cease  to  violate 
the  commercial  rights  of  neutral  nations.  In  consequence  of  this  act, 
the  French  decrees  were  revoked,  and  intercourse  with  France  was 
renewed. 

It  had  been  made  a  condition  on  the  part  of  the  French  government, 
in  revoking  its  decrees,  that  the  English  orders  of  council  should  be 
also  revoked.  But  England,  affecting  to  question  the  fact  of  the  actual 
revocation  of  the  French  decrees,  continued  to  enforce  its  orders,  sta- 
tioning vessels-of-war  just  out  the  harbors  of  the  United  States,  searching, 
and  in  many  instances  capturing  and  condemning  American  merchant 
vessels.  In  the  period  between  1803  and  the  close  of  1811,  nine  hun- 
dred American  vessels  had  been  thus  captured. 

On  the  3d  of  April,  1812,  an  act -was  passed  by  congress  laying  an 
embargo  for  ninety  days  on  all  vessels  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States.  And  on  the  4th  of  June  following,  war  was  declared 
against  Great  Britain.  The  grounds  of  war  alleged  were  the  impress- 
ment of  American  seamen,  and  the  violation  of  neutral  rights. 

The  feeling  of  the  nation  was  by  no  means  unanimous  in  favor  of  the 
war.  It  was  protested  against  by  a  strong  minority  in  congress,  as  un- 
necessary, impolitic,  and  immoral ;  and  was  generally  condemned  ny 
'ho  federal  party  throughout  the  country. 


illSTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  776 

Thus  the  United  States  were  again  at  war  with  England.  The  con- 
test lasted  for  nearly  three  years.  The  limits  of  this  history  forbid  any- 
thing but  a  slight  sketch  of  its  events. 

In  the  campaign  of  1812,  nothing  of  any  importance  was  achieved 
Dy  land.  The  invasion  of  Canada  was  planned  :  forces  were  drawn  to 
the  northern  frontier  of  the  Union,  and  naval  preparations  made  upon 
the  lakes.  No  footing  was,  however,  gained  in  the  British  territory  ;  on 
the  contraiy,  Detroit  and  all  the  forts  and  garrisons  in  Michigan  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  British,  together  with  a  considerable  force  under  the 
command  of  General  Hull,  who  surrendered  without  a  battle,  August 
19  ;  and  the  Americans  were  repulsed  in  an  attack  on  Queenslown,  and 
obliged  to  surrender,  October  13. 

But  on  the  ocean  the  American  arms  were  more  successful.  Tne 
series  of  brilliant  naval  victories  which  distinguished  the  war  was  com- 
menced by  the  capture  of  the  British  frigate  Guerriere  by  the  Constilu- 
tion.  Captain  Isaac  Hull,  August  10.  This  was  followed  (August  13) 
by  the  capture  of  the  Alert  by  the  Essex,  Captain  Porter  ;  of  the  Frolic 
by  the  Wasp  (October  17);  of  the  Macedonian  by  the  United  States, 
Commodore  Decatur  (October  25)  ;  and  of  the/aua  by  the  Constitution, 
then  commanded  by  Commodore  Bainbridge. 

On  the  4ih  of  March,  1813,  Mr.  Madison  was  re-elected  presi- 
dent. 

The  military  operations  of  this  year  extended  along  the  whole  line 
of  the  northern  frontier.  The  Americans  were  signally  defeated  at 
Frenchtown  by  a  body  of  British  and  Indians,  and  five  hundred  men 
made  prisoners,  who  were  nearly  all  massacred  by  the  Indians  after 
their  surrender.  York  (now  Toronto),  the  capital  of  Upper  Canada, 
was  taken  by  the  Americans,  with  a  large  quantity  of  military  stores. 

On  the  1st  of  June,  this  year,  the  American  navy  suifered  a  severe" 
loss  in  the  capture  of  the  frigate  Chesapeake,  Ca.piB.ni  Lawrence,  by  tho 
Britis-.  frigate   Shannon.     In  the  engagement.  Captain  Lawrence  and 
several  brave  officers  were  killed.     This  was  followed  (August  14)  b}' 
the  loss  of  the  Argus. 

These  losses  were  counterbalanced  by  the  capture  ot  tne  British  brig 
Boxer  by  the  Enterprise,  on  the  5th  of  September,  and  by  a  brilliant 
victory  gained  (Se;^tember  10)  by  the  fleet  on  Lake  Erie,  under  the 
command  of  Commodore  Perry.  This  made  the  Americans  masters  of 
the  lake,  and  opened  the  way  to  Detroit,  which  was  soon  after  taken  ; 
its  fall  being  preceded  by  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  in  which  the  I^ritish 
and  Indian  forces,  under  the  command  of  General  Proctor,  were  totally 
defeated  by  General  Harrison.  This  victory  had  the  effect  o'i  putting 
an  end  to  the  Indian  war  in  the  northwest,  and  of  giving  security  to  that 
frontier. 

The  invasion  of  Canada  was  again  attempted  ;  but  unexpected  cir- 
cumstances concurred  to  disarrange  the  plan  of  operations,  and  at  length 
the  northern  army  went  into  winter-quarters,  without  having  effected 
anything  toward  the  accomplishment  of  the  object.  High  expectations 
had  been  formed  of  the  success  of  this  campaign,  and  the  public  disap- 
pointment was  proportionably  great. 

At  the  south,  the  Creek  Indians,  instigated  by  the  British,  had  taken 
up  arms  against  the  United  States,  and  a  sanguinary  war  was  carried  on 


ne 


MODERN  HISTORY. 


in  tlut  quarter  Juring  the  year  1813, .and  until  in  the  suinniir  of  1814, 
when  General  Jackson,  having  reduced  the  enemy  in  several  engage- 
ments, at  length  inflicted  upor  them  an  almost  exterminating  defeat  u\ 
Horseshoe  Bend.  The  remnant  of  the  tribe  submitted,  and  the  war  wae 
at  an  end.  General  Jackson  was  soon  after  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  forces  at  New  Orleans. 

In  the  spring  of  1814,  the  American  frigate  Essex  was  captured  by  a 
superior  British  force  in  the  bay  of  Valparaiso.  But  about  the  same 
time,  the  British  brigs  Epervier  and  Reindeer  were  captured,  the  former 
bv  the  United  States  sloop-of-war  Peacock,  the  latter  by  the  sloop 
Wasp. 

After  some  ineffectual  movemeni.s  at  the  north  by  General  Wilkinson, 
little  was  attempted  by  either  nation  until  midsummer,  when  the  Britisii 
government,  freed  from  the  burden  of  the  European  war  by  the  abdica- 
tion of  Napoleon,  augmented  their  armies  in  America  by  the  addition 
uf  fourteen  thousand  of  the  veteran  troops  of  Wellington,  and  at  the 
same  time  sent  a  strong  naval  force  to  blockade  the  harbors,  and  ravage 
the  towns  upon  the  coast. 

On  the  3d  of  July,  General  Brown  crossed  .he  Niagara  river  from 
Buffalo,  and  took  the  British  fort  Erie  ;  and  on  the  4th,  after  an  obsti- 
nate and  bloody  engagement,  gained  a  victory  over  the  British  at  Chippe- 
wa. On  the  25th,  was  fought  the  battle  of  Bridgewnter,  near  the  falls 
of  Niagara,  one  of  the  most  bloody  battles  of  modern  times.  The  Brit- 
ish force  amounted  to  nearly  five  thousand  men  ;  the  American  was  one 
third  less.  The  loss  of  the  English  was  eight  hundred  and  seventy- 
eight  ;  of  the  Americans,  eight  hundred  and  sixty.  The  Americana 
were  left  in  possession  of  the  field. 

About  the  middle  of  August,  a  large  British  fleet  arrived  in  the  Ches- 
apeake bay.  Six  thousand  men,  under  the  command  of  General  Ross, 
landed  and  proceeded  to  Washington,  burnt  the  capitol,  the  president's 
house,  and  the  buildings  of  the  executive  departments  ;  and  then  by 
rapid  marches  retired  to  the  ships,  having  lost  about  one  thousand  men 
in  the  expedition. 

On  the  r2th  of  September,  an  attack  was  made  on  Baltimore  ;  but 
the  place  was  so  gallantly  defended  by  militia  and  the  inhabitants,  that 
tilt  enemy  abandoned  the  attempt.  General  Ross,  -the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  British  forces,  was  among  the  killed. 

While  the  Fuglish  were  thus  repulsed  from  Baltimore,  signal  success 
attended  the  American  arms  at  the  north.  The  naval  force  of  the  ene- 
my on  Lake  Champlain  was  annihilated  by  Commodore  M'Donough. 
The  engagement  took  place  ofi'  Plattsburgh  ;  and  while  it  was  raging, 
Sir  George  Provost,  with  a  force  of  fourteen  thousand  men,  commenced 
an  assault  on  the  American  works  at  Plattsburgh  :  but  he  met  with  such 
a  deMructivo  fire  from  the  Americans  under  General  Macomb,  that  he 
was  compelled  to  retire,  with  the  loss  of  twenty-five  hundred  men,  aba.n 
doning  his  military  stores,  his  sick  and  wounded. 

Tlie  close  of  the  year  1814  is  memorable  in  the  annals  of  the  coun 
try  on  account  of  the  celebrated  Hartford  convention.  The  federal 
party,  as  has  been  said,  was  from  the  first  op})osed  to  the  war,  as 
unjust  and  impclitic.  The  opposition  was  particularly  strong  in  the 
Nic-w   England  states.     As,  the  war  advanced,  the   opposition    becamt 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STAIES  OF  AMERICA.  777 

?till  moie  dticided,  and  serious  apprehensions  were  expressed  tliul  the 
measures  of  the  general  government  would  involve  the  country  in  ruin. 
The  opposition  was  aggravated  by  a  misunderstanding  between  the  gov 
ernors  of  those  states  and  the  president  in  relation  to  the  requisition? 
made  by  the  latter  for  the  militia  to  be  placed  under  the  conunand  of 
officers  of  his  appointment.  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Con 
necticut,  were  at  this  time  unprotected  by  any  national  troops  agaiiist 
the  enemy's  forces  hovering  on  the  coast. 

In  this  state  of  things,  a  convention  of  delegates  from  the  New  Eng- 
land states  met  at  Hartford  on  the  15th  of  December,  1814  ;  and  after  a 
session  of  three  weeks,  published  a  statement  of  grievances,  and  recom- 
mendations for  redress.  "  The  convention  recommended — 1.  That  the 
states  they  represent  take  measures  to  protect  their  citizens  from  '  forcible 
drafts,  conscriptions,  or  impressments,  not  authorized  by  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  ;'  2.  That  an  earnest  application  be  made  to 
the  government  of  the  United  States,  requesting  their  consent  to  some 
arrangement,  whei-eby  the  states  separately,  or  in  concert,  may  assume 
upon  themselves  the  defence  of  their  territory  against  the  enemy,  and 
that  a  reasonable  portion  of  the  taxes  collected  within  the  states  be  ap- 
propriated to  this  object ;  3.  That  the  several  governors  be  authorized 
by  law  to  employ  the  military  force  under  their  command  in  assisting 
any  state  requesting  it  to  repel  the  invasions  of  the  public  enemy  ;  4. 
That  several  amendments  of  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  cal- 
culated in  their  view  to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  the  evils  of  which  they 

complain,  be  proposed  by  the  states  they  represent  for  adoption ; 

5.  Lastly,  that  if  the  apphcation  of  these  states  to  the  government  of 
the  United  States  should  be  unsuccessful,  and  peace  should  not  be  con- 
cluded, and  the  defence  of  these  states  be  still  neglected,  it  would,  in 
their  opinion,  be  expedient  for  the  legislatures  of  the  several  states  to 
appoint  delegates  to  another  convention,  to  meet  at  Boston,  in  June, 
with  such  powers  as  the  exigency  of  a  crisis  so  momentous  may  re- 
quire. 

"  The  effect  upon  the  public  mind  in  the  aggrieved  states  was  alike 

seasonable  and  salutary served  greatly  to  allay  the  passions,  and 

to  inspire  confidence  and  hope.  Nor  was  the  influence  of  this  body 
uoon  the  national  councils  less  perceptible.  Within  three  weeks  after 
tne  adjournment  of  the  convention,  and  the  publication  of  their  report, 
an  act  passed  both  houses  of  the  national  legislature,  and  received  the 
signature  of  the  president,  authorizing  and  requiring  him  to  '  receive 
into  the  ^service  of  the  United  States  any  corps  of  troops  which  may 
have  been  jr  may  be  raised,  organized,  and  officered,  under  the  author- 
ity of  any  of  the  states,'  to  be  '  employed  in  the  state  raising  the  same, 
or  an  adjoining  state,  and  not  elsewhere,  except  with  the  consent  of  the 
executive  of  the  state  raising  the  same.'  Before  the  commissioners  who 
were  sent  to  confer  with  the  government  could  reach  Washington,  a  bill 
passed  the  senate,  providing  for  the  payment  of  the  troops  and  militia 
already  called  into  service  under  the  authority  of  the  states.  The  arri- 
Vfil  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  at  this  juncture,  arrested  all  further  proceed- 
ings."* 

While  the  Hartford  convention  was  in  session,  on  the  2  l-th  of  Do 
•  Holmes's  Aanals. 


r78 


MODERN  H  [STORY 


cember,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Ghent.  But  before  its  arrival 
the  last  and  most  memorable  battle  of  the  war  was  fought  at  New  Or 
leans.  On  the  8th  cf  Jarmary,  1815,  the  American  forces,  amounting  tc 
about  six  t/iousand,  chielly  militia,  under  the  command  of  General  Jack 
son,  intrenched  before  the  city,  were  attacked  hy  fifteen  thnnsand  British 
troops,  comn.anded  by  Sir  Edward  Packenham.  After  three  charges, 
in  which  they  were  swept  down  with  incredible  slaughter,  the  British 
(led  in  confusion  leaving  their  dead  and  wounded  on  the  field  of  battle. 
General  Packenham  was  killed  while  rallying  his  troops  to  the  second 
charge  ;  General  Gibbs,  who  succeeded  in  command,  fell  mortally 
wounded  in  the  third  charge.  The  loss  of  the  British  in  killed  was 
seven  hundred ;  in  wounded,  fourteen  hundred ;  in  prisoners,  five  hun- 
dred :  in  all,  twenty-six  hundred.  The  Americans  lost  seven  killed  and 
six  wounded. 

The  joy  excited  by  this  victory  was  merged  in  the  still  livelier  joy 
with  which  the  news  of  the  treaty  of  peace  was  soon  after  received. 
On  the  17th  of  February,  the  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  president  and 
senate.  This  treaty  made  no  allusion  to  the  causes  of  the  war,  and  set- 
tled none  of  the  matters  in  dispute,  and  for  which  it  was  professedly 
declared.  All  parties,  however,  welcomed  the  return  of  peace.  At  a 
subsequent  convention,  signed  by  plenipotentiaries  of  the  two  countries 
appointed  for  the  purpose,  various  articles  for  the  regulation  of  com- 
merce between  England  and  the  United  States  were  adopted. 

Before  the  expiration  of  the  time,  within  which,  by  the  treaty,  all 
vessels  taken  by  either  party  were  to  be  held  good  prizes,  several  en- 
gagements at  sea  were  fought,  and  several  captures  made.  Among 
them  the  American  frigate  President  was  captured  by  a  British  squad- 
ron ;  and  the  British  ships  Cyane,  Levant,  and  Penguin,  were  taken  by 
the  Americans. 

At  the  next  session  of  congress,  a  bill  was  passed  incorporating  the 
"  bank  of  the  United  States,"  with  a  capital  of  thirty-five  millions  of  dol- 
lars. The  charter  was  to  continue  in  force  until  the  3d  of  March,  1836. 
This  measure  was  the  subject  of  a  very  earnest  and  protracted  debate, 
both  as  to  its  constitutionality,  and  as  to  the  principles  on  which  the 
bank  should  be  established. 


Mr.  Madison  was  succeeded  in  the  office  of  president  by  James 
xMoNROE,  March  4,  1817. 

The  country  was  now  at  peace,  but  its  condition  was  by  no  means 
prosperous.  Commerce  had  not  yet  revived,  and  the  manufactures 
which  had  been  carried  on  during  the  war  were  entirely  broken  down 
by  the  influx  of  foreign  merchandise. 

In  1818,  a  war  broke  out  between  the  Seminoles  and  the  United 
States,  occasioned  by  the  removal  of  some  Indians  from  lands  ceded  to 
the  United  States  by  the  Creeks  in  1814.  The  Indians  were  entirely 
subdued  by  General  Jackson. 

In  1819,  another  convention  was  made  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  granting  to  American  citizens  the  right  to  fish  on  the 
banks  of  Newfoundland  ;  establishing  a  portion  of  the  northern  bounda- 
ry ;  and  extending  for  ten  years  longer  the  commercial  convention  con 
eluded  four  years  before. 


HISTORY  OF  THf-  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  779 

A  treaty  was  also  this  year  concluded  with  Spain,  by  which  Eas* 
find  West  Florida,  with  the  islands  adjacent,  were  ceded  to  the  United 
States. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1821  Mr.  Monroe  was  unanimously  elected  to 
a  second  term  of  omce.  Much  less  unanimity,  however,  was  displayed 
hi  the  deliberations  of  the  next  congress.  Some  important  commercia' 
acts  were  passed  ;  revolutionary  soldiers  were  provided  for  by  pensions  : 
and  the  ratio  of  population  and  representation  fixed  at  one  representa- 
tive to  forty  thousand  inhabitants. 

The  year  1824  is  signalized  in  the  annals  of  the  country  by  a  visit 
from  La  Fayette,  the  friend  and  companion-in-arms  of  Washington,  to 
whose  services  in  the  dark  day  of  the  revolutionary  war  the  nation 
owed  so  much.  He  passed  about  a  year  in  the  country,  visiting  evei7 
part  of  it,  and  receiving  everywhere  the  most  enthusiastic  tokens  of 
homage  and  gratitude.  He  returned  to  his  own  country  in  a  national 
frigate  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  named,  in  honor  of  him,  the  Bran- 
dywine — the  name  of  the  battle  in  which  he  was  wounded  nearly  fifty 
years  before.  During  his  visit,  congress  appropriated  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars,  and  a  township  of  land  in  Florida,  as  an  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  eminent  services. 

Mr.  Monroe  retired  from  office  with  the  respect  and  good  will  of  all 
parties.  His  administration  of  affairs,  both  foreign  and  domestic,  had 
been  uninfluenced  by  party  spirit,  and  characterized  by  uprightness, 
prudence,  and  good  sense.  The  country  was  everywhere  peaceful  and 
prosperous. 

No  choice  of  a  successor  to  Mr.  Monroe  having  been  made  by  the 
electors,  the  choice  devolved  upon  the  house  of  representatives. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1825,  John  Quincy  Adams  was  inaugurated 
president  of  the  United  States. 

Among  the  noticeable  events  during  this  administration,  the  first  to 
be  mentioned  is  a  controversy  between  the  general  government  and  the 
executive  of  Georgia,  in  relation  to  certain  lands  held  by  the  Cherokees 
and  Creeks  in  that  state.  The  general  government  had  agreed  to  ex- 
tinguish, for  the  benefit  of  Georgia,  the  Indian  title  to  those  lands — ■ 
"  whenever  it  could  be  peaceably  done,  upon  reasonable  terms."  But 
the  Creeks,  at  a  national  council,  refused  to  alienate  their  territory.  Af- 
ter the  council  had  broken  up,  and  a  majority  of  the  chiefs  had  departed, 
a  few  who  remained  were  induced  to  make  a  treaty,  ceding  the  lands 
in  question  to  the  United  States.  This  treaty  was  repudiated  by  the 
Creek  nation.  But  the  governor  of  Georgia  determined  to  act  upon  if 
as  valid.  To  prevent  a  war,  the  president  ordered  General  Gaines  to 
repair  to  the  Creek  country,  for  the  protection  of  the  Indians  ;  and  di- 
rected Governor  Troup  of  Georgia  to  suspend  his  intended  measures. 
Congress  approved  the  course  of  the  president ;  and  at  length  a  treaty 
was  formed  with  the  Creeks,  which  gave  satisfaction  to  all  parties  ex- 
cept the  state  of  Georgia. 

The  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  1  idependence  (July  4 
1826)  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  death  of  ex-presidents  Adams 
and  Jefferso.v. 

The  most  important  among  the  measures  whicli  occupied  the  iirsit 


780 


MODaaN  niSTORY 


,-ession  of  the  twentieth  congress,  was  the  revision  of  the  taitff,  with  3 
view  to  afford  protection  to  American  manufactures.  The  principle  of 
a  protective  tariff  was  warmly  opposed  by  the  south,  and  by  a  large 
portion  of  the  commercial  body  at  the  north  ;  wnile  the  details  of  the 
hill  which  was  passed  were  far  from  satisfactory  to  the  friends  of  pn- 
tection. 

During  the  last  yeai  of  Mr.  Adams's  administration,  the  most  absorb- 
ing subject  of  public  interest  was  the  approaching  election  ;  and  nc/ei 
before  had  party  spirit  displayed  itself  in  such  virulent  and  unjustifiable 
attacks  upon  private  life  and  character.  Mr.  Adams  was  defeated.  Du- 
ring his  administration  the  prosperity  of  the  United  States  had  increasod 
to  an  unexampled  height.  Agricuhure,  commerce  and  manulactures, 
were  everywhere  flourishing.  The  public  debt,  which  at  the  close  of 
the  war,  amounted  to  nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars, 
was  almost  extinguished.  The  annual  revenue  largely  exceeded  the 
demands  of  government ;  and  at  the  close  of  Mr.  Adams's  term,  there 
was  a  surplus  of  more  than  five  millions  in  the  treasury. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1829,  Andrew  Jacksox  was  inaugurated  jues- 
ident  of  the  United  States. 

The  new  president  signalized  his  accession  to  office  by  a  sweeping 
removal  from  office  of  the  functionaries  of  the  general  government  ap- 
pointed by  his  predecessors.  Besides  the  principal  officers  of  the  treas- 
ury, marshals,  district  attorneys,  revenue  and  land  officers,  nearly  five 
hundred  postmasters  were  removed  from  office.  During  Mr.  Adams's 
administration  there  were  but  two  removals,  both  for  cause.* 

Among  the  most  important  measures  which  engaged  the  attention  of 
the  twenty-first  congress,  were,  the  modification  of  the  tariff;  Indian 
affairs  ;  internal  improvements  ;  and  the  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the 
United  States  bank. 

It  was  not  until  1832  that  a  memorial  came  before  congress  for  a  re- 
newal of  the  charter  of  the  United  States  bank.  A  bill  to  that  effect  passed 
Loth  houses  of  congress  ;  but  on  the  10th  of  July  it  was  returned  by  the 
president  with  objections. 

The  poli  ",y  of  making  appropriations  for  internal  improvements  was 
adopted  during  Mr.  Jefferson's  term  of  office,  and  had  continued  through 
all  the  succeeding  administrations.  To  this  policy  General  Jackson 
was  opposed,  and  accordingly  returned,  with  his  veto,  several  bills  ma- 
king such  appropriations. 

In  1832,  the  hostility  of  the  south  to  the  protective  tariff  assumed  in 
South  Carolina  an  attitude  dangerous  to  the  peace  of  the  country.  A 
convention  of  delegates  assembled  at  Columbia,  November  24  ;  pro- 
nounced the  acts  of  congress  imposing  duties  for  protection  unconstitu- 
tional, and  of  no  binding  force  in  that  state  ;  and  that  it  was  the  duty  of 
the  state  legislature  to  pass  laws  to  prevent  the  payment  or  enforcement 
of  such  duties.  The  remedy  thus  proposed  received  the  name  of  nulli' 
jication. 

President  Jackson  immediately  issued  a  proclaniation,  containirg  ao 

•  Washington  removed  from  office nt«<  ;  John  Adams,  ten;  Jefferson,  ihirty-r.ine  : 
Madison,  Jice ;  Monroe,  nv-c :  making,  with  the  two  removed  by  John  Q.  Adam^ 
siventy-fovLT  in  aU. 


HISrORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  781 

adiTurable  exposition  of  the  principles  and  powers  of  the  genera,  gov 
cmment,  and  expressing  a  firm  determination  to  maintain  the  laws 
This  only  increased  the  exasperation  in  South  Carolina :  the  govenioi 
of  the  state,  by  the  authority  of  the  legislature,  issued  a  counter-procla- 
mation, urging  the  people  to  be  faithful  to  their  primary  allegiance  to  the 
state,  and  to  resist  the  general  government  in  any  attempt  to  enforce  the 
tariff  laws.  General  orders  were  also  issued  to  raise  volunteers  for  re- 
pelling invasion,  and  supporting  the  rights  of  the  state. 

General  Jackson  hereupon  addressed  a  message  to  congress,  recorn 
mending  such  measures  as  would  enable  the  executive  to  suppress  the 
spirit  of  insubordinatioii,  and  sustain  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 

Everything  thus  betokened  a  civil  war.  But  an  appeal  to  South 
Carolina  by  the  general  assembly  of  Virginia,  and  the  passage  of  a  bill 
modifying  the  tariff  (introduced  by  Henry  Clay,  and  commonly  known 
as  the  "  compromise  act"),  joined  with  the  manifestation  of  firmness 
ind  energy  on  the  part  of  the  executive,  served  to  allay  the  ferment  in 
South  Carolina,  and  lead  to  a  repeal  of  the  nuUifi/ing  ordinances. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1833,  Andrew  Jackson  entered  on  a  second 
term  of  office. 

The  charter  of  the  United  States  bank  being  about  to  expire,  the 
president,  who  had  before  expressed  to  congress  his  doubts  of  the  ex- 
pediency of  continuing  that  institution  the  depositary  of  the  funds  of  the 
Ui.:ted  States,  directed  the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  Mr.  Duane,  to 
remo\e  the  government  "  deposites"  from  the  bank.  This  Mr.  Duane 
declined  to  do.  He  was  immediately  removed  from  office  by  the  presi- 
dent ;  and  Mr,  Taney  was  appointed  in  his  place,  by  whom  the  depos- 
ites were  removed,  and  placed  in  the  custody  of  several  state  banks. 
This  measure  was  strongly  censured  by  a  resolution  which  passed  the 
senate,  June  9,  1834. 

The  country  was  now  disturbed  with  serious  apprehensions  of  a  col- 
lision with  France.  By  a  treaty,  negotiated  in  1831,  by  Mr.  Rives,  the 
French  government  had  agreed  to  make  indemnity  for  spoliations  com- 
mitted on  American  commerce  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  ;  but  it  had 
failed  to  fulfil  its  stipulations.  In  December,  1834,  the  president  rec- 
ommeided  -eprisals  upon  French  commerce.  This  was  deemed  by 
congress  not  expedient  at  present.  Happily,  however,  the  danger  of 
hostile  collision  was  removed  in  the  course  of  the  next  year  by  the 
action  of  the  French  government  in  making  provision  to  fulfil  its  stipu 
lutions. 

The  most  important  act  of  the  first  session  of  the  twenty -fourth  con- 
fess, which  began  December  7,  1835,  was  a  law  directing  the  depos- 
Ue,  under  certain  regulations,  of  the  moneys  of  the  United  States  in 
several  of  the  state  banks,  and  dis^.ributing  the  surplus  revenue  among 
the  several  states. 

In  December,  1835,  one  of  the  most  destructive  fires  on  record  oc- 
curred in  the  city  of  New  Y.,.rk.  The  amount  of  property  destroyed  if 
computed  not  to  have  fallen  much  short  of  twenty  milUons  of  dollars 
without  estimating  the  injury  and  loss  from  suspension  and  derangement 
.of  business. 

Near  the  close  Df  this  vear,  the  Seminole  Indians,  refusing  to  remove 


TP'i 


MODERN  HISTORY 


from  Florida  to  the  lands  appropriated  for  them  west  of  the  Ml saissippi 
the  country  became  involved  in  a  war  with  them  ;  and  it  was  not  until 
1812  that  they  were  finally  subdued  and  sent  west. 

On  the  llth  of  July,  1836,  the  receivers  of  public  money  were  in 
structed,  by  a  circular  from  the  treasury  department,  to  receive  nothing 
Diit  gold  and  silver  in  payment  for  public  lands. 

On  the  16lh  of  January,  1837,  the  "  expunging  resolution"  (so  called) 
introduced  by  Mr.  Benton,  passed  the  senate  oy  a  small  majority.  By 
this  act,  the  resolution  of  the  senate  passed  June  9,  1834 — censuring 
the  president  for  removing  Mr.  Duane,  and  ordering  the  withdrawal  ot 
the  United  Slates  deposites  from  the  bank  of  the  United  States — was 
expunged  from  the  journal  of  the  senate.  Against  this  proceeding,  Mr. 
Webster,  of  Massachusetts,  in  behalf  of  himself  and  his  ^'olleagues,  read 
a  solemn  protest. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1837,  Martin  Van  Biiren  became  president 
of  the  United  States. 

Mr.  Van  Buren's  administration  was,  in  its  general  policy,  a  continu- 
ation of  that  of  his  predecessor.  Scarcely,  however,  had  he  entered 
upon  office,  Avhen  the  country  was  overwhelmed  by  one  of  the  most 
severe  commercial  revulsions  ever  known. 

For  several  years  previous,  the  wildest  spirit  of  speculation  had  pre* 
vailed  throughout  the  country.  Vast  public  works  were  undertaken  by 
states  and  chartered  companies  ;  immense  importations  of  foreign  goods 
were  made  ;  and  real  estate,  especially  lots  in  cities  and  towns,  went  up 
a  hundred  fold,  not  to  say  in  many  cases  a  thousand  fold,  beyond  its  in- 
trinsic value.  The  multitude  of  state  banks  that  had  been  chartered, 
after  the  expiration  of  the  charter  of  the  United  States  bank,  and  the 
consequent  excessive  expansion  of  the  paper  currency,  had  contributed 
to  increase  the  spirit  of  speculation.  At  length  a  crisis  came  ;  and  the 
revulsion  was  proportionably  severe.  Some  idea  of  it  may  be  formed 
from  the  fact  that  a  list  of  failures  in  the  city  of  New  York  (including 
only  the  more  considerable,  and  omitting  himdreds  of  less  importance) 
sho\  3  a  total  amount  of  more  than  nixly  millions  of  dollars.  All  credit, 
all  confidence,  was  at  an  end. 

On  the  lOlh  of  May,  all  the  banks  of  the  city  of  New  York  suspend- 
ed specie  payments,  and  the  suspension  became  general  throughout  the 
country.  The  gsneral  government  became  involved  in  the  universal 
embarrassment — the  banks  in  which  its  deposites  were  placed  having 
stopped  in  the  general  suspension.  The  government  still  insisted,  how- 
ever, upon  all  postages  and  duties  being  paid  in  specie  or  its  equivalent, 
and  even  reiused  its  own  checks  and  drafts  when  offered  in  payment  of 
customhouse  bonds. 

In  this  state  of  things,  the  president  convoked  an  extra  session  of 
congress,  which  began  on  the  4th  of  September.  Agreeably  to  the  rec- 
ommendation of  the  executive,  as  measures  for  the  immediate  relief  of 
the  general  government,  congress  passed  a  law  postponing  to  the  1st  of 
January,  1839,  the  payment  to  the  states  of  the  fourth  instalment  of  the 
surplus  revenue  ;  and  authorizing  the  issue  of  ten  millions  of  treasury 
notes,  to  be  receivable  In  payment  of  public  dues.  The  president  alsc 
recommended  the  "  separation  of  the  fiscal  on«rations  of  the  government 


HISTORY  OF  THE  IJNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  783 

fvuiu  those  of  corporations  or  individuals."  A  bill  in  accordance  with 
this  recommendation — commonly  called  the  sub-treasury  bill,  placing 
ihe  public  money  in  the  hands  of  certain  receivers-general,  sul)ject  to 
the  order  and  control  of  the  treasurer  of  the  United  States — passed  the 
senate,  but  was  lost  in  the  house. 

At  the  next  regular  session  of  congress  (December,  1837 — July,  1838), 
a  reissue  of  treasury  notes  was  authorized.  The  sub-treasury  system 
vas  again  urged  upon  the  attention  of  congress,  but  was  not  adopted. 

On  the  13th  of  August,  1838,  the  banks  throughout  the  country  gen- 
erally resumed  specie  payments  :  but  in  October  following,  the  banks  of 
Philadelphia  again  suspended,  and  their  example  was  followed  by  the 
banks  in  Pennsylvania,  and  in  all  the  states  south  and  west.  The 
banks  of  New  York  and  New  England  continued  to  pay  specie. 

The  twenty-sixth  congress  commenced  its  first  session  December  2, 
1839.  Among  its  acts,  two  only  need  be  mentioned  :  one  for  taking 
the  sixth  census  of  the  United  States  ;  the  other,  "  for  the  collection, 
safe  keeping,  transfer,  and  disbursement,  of  the  public  revenue" — being 
the  sub-lreusury  system  so  earnestly  recommended  by  the  president. 

At  the  second  session  of  this  congress,  nothing  was  done  of  sufficient 
importance  to  find  a  place  in  this  sketch. 

The  administration  of  Mr.  Van  Buren  was  drawing  to  a  close.  He 
was  a  candidate  for  re-election  ;  William  Henry  Harrison,  of  Ohio,  was 
ihe  candidate  of  the  opposition.  After  a  contest  unprecedented  for  in 
tensity  of  political  excitement,  Mr.  Van  Buren  was  defeated. 

On  the  4th  of  March,  1841,  William  Henry  Harrison  was  inau- 
gurated president  of  the  United  States. 

Scarcely  had  the  new  president  entered  upon  his  office,  and  organ- 
ized his  administration  by  the  appointment  of  his  cabinet,  when  he  was 
stricken  with  sickness  ;  and  on  the  4th  of  April,  one  month  from  the 
day  of  his  inauguration,  he  expired.  "  In  death,  as  in  life,  the  happi- 
ness of  his  country  was  uppermost  in  his  thoughts  " 

By  the  death  of  General  Harrison,  John  Tyler,  of  Virginia,  the  vice- 
president,  becaii:3,  according  to  the  constitution,  president  of  the  United 
States. 

The  passage  o^  a  general  bankrupt  law  was  one  of  the  earliest  meas- 
ures passed  by  congress.  This  law  was,  however,  subsequently  re- 
pealed. The  tariff  was  modified  with  a  view  to  further  protection  of 
American  industry.  To  the  influence  of  this  measure,  the  friends  of 
protection  mairdy  attribute  the  return  of  the  country  to  a  state  of  pros- 
perity as  great  as  ever  before.  It  has,  however,  created  great  dissatis- 
^'action  in  some  of  the  southern  states,  where  it  is  considered  an  infrac- 
tion of  the  compromise  act. 

Among  the  most  memorable  events  of  this  administration  is  the  trzuiy 
of  Washington,  concluded  in  September,  1842,  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  Stales,  by  Lord  Ashburton  and  Daniel  Webster,  by 
which  the  differences  about  the  boundary  line  between  Maine  and 
Lower  Canada,  long  a  matter  of  dispute  and  ill-blood,  were  amicably 
and  satisfactorily  adjusted. 

The  disturbances  in  Rhode  Is  and  are  a  less   agreeable  subject   ijf 


784  MODERN  HISTORY. 

lecord  ;  though  happily  the  apprehensions  they  excited  have  been  dis- 
pelled. In  1841,  a  convention  of  inliabitants  of  Rhode  Island  frameu 
a  new  constitution,  giving  the  right  of  suffrage  (which  under  the  exist- 
ing government  was  extremely  limited)  to  all  free  white  inhabitants  ; 
and  proceeded  to  organize  a  new  government  under  this  constitution. 
They  elected  a  legislative  body,  and  chose  Thomas  W.  Dorr  goveri  or 
of  the  state.  All  these  proceedings  were  considered  as  unlawful  and 
revolutionary  by  those  opposed  to  them,  inasmuch  as  they  had  taken 
place  without  any  legal  warrant,  and  without  being  in  any  way  initiated 
by  the  lawful  and  actual  government.  A  civil  war  seemed  inevitable. 
The  legal  government  applied  to  the  president  of  the  United  States, 
who  detached  several  companies  of  troops  to  Newport  to  await  events. 
Dorr  mustered  a  considerable  force  of  armed  men,  with  two  pieces  of 
artillery,  and  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  gain  possession  of  the  ar- 
senal at  Providence.  Shortly  after,  he  took  a  position  at  Chepachei, 
where  his  force  was  increased  by  volunteers  from  New  York  and  othei 
states.  Upon  the  approach  of  a  body  of  the  state  militia,  under  General 
xM'Neil,  Dorr  and  his  party  broke  ground  and  fled,  June  25,  1842.  Hi? 
government  fell  to  pieces.  After  two  years,  Dorr  returned  to  Rhode 
Island  ;  was  tried  and  convicted  of  treason,  and  sentenced  to  the  state- 
prison  for  life.  This  sentence,  however,  the  government  of  the  state 
have  signified  their  readiness  to  revoke,  whenever  Dorr  shall  acknowl- 
edge his  allegiance  to  the  existing  government — which  now  rests  upon 
a  new  constitution,  legally  formed  and  adopted  by  the  people  of  the 
state  since  the  commencement  of  the  disturbances,  making  the  right  of 
suffrage  as  extensive  as  in  that  proposed  by  the  revolutionary  party,  ex 
cept  that  two  years' residence  in  the  state  is  required  instead  of  one. 

During  the  last  session  of  congress,  Mr.  Tyler  communicated  to  tho 
senate  a  treaty  formed  with  the  republic  of  Texas,  by  which  that  state 
was  to  become  a  member  of  the  Union.  The  treaty  was  not  ratified  by 
the  senate. 

During  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1844,  the  election  of  presiden 
was  the  absorbing  subject  of  public  interest.  The  candidates  of  the 
rival  parties  were  Henrv  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  for  president,  and  Theo- 
dore Frelixghuvsen,  of  New  Jersey,*  for  vice-president,  on  the  one 
side;  and  James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennessee,  and  George  M.  Dallas,  of 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  other. 

Thus  have  been  briefly  sketched  the  leading  events,  political  and 
civil,  of  the  history  of  the  United  States,  from  the  first  feeble  and  scat- 
tered colonial  establishments  to  the  formation  of  a  great  and  prosperous 
nation.  The  great  problem  of  the  possibility  of  a  permanent  and  well- 
ordered  republic,  on  so  extensive  a  scale,  doubtless  yet  remains  to  be 
solved.  It  depends  on  the  intelligence  and  virtue  of  the  people, 
whether  it  shall  be  solved  as  the  friends  of  free  institutions  desire. 
Theoretically  the  most  perfect  of  all  forms  of  human  government,  it  re- 
quires, beyond  any  other,  the  presence  of  these  conditions  to  preserve 
it  from  being  practically  the  worst.     May  the  Almighty  Ruler  of  nations 

•  Mr.  Frelinghuysen  has  for  five  years  past  resided  in  New  York,  as  chanceUciT 
31"  the  university  of  that  city. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA.  785 

dispose  the  hearts  and  minds  of  the  people  to  such  a  religious  observ. 
ance  of  his  holy  commandments,  that  the  history  of  the  nation  in  all 
coming  ages  may  be  as  glorious  as  its  rise  and  progress  have  beeu 
wonderful !  "  Blessed  are  the  people  who  have  the  Lord  for  their  God  ; 
yea,  happy  are  the  people  that  are  in  such  a  cu^o  '" 

50 


786 


CONTEMPORARY  DYNASTIES, 


Sabmatians. 


Jeneral  movement  of 
the  Sarmatian  tribes 
toward  Southern  and 
Western  Emope ;  for 
six  centuries  their 
history  obscure. 


Germans 


Movements  of  the  Sax- 
ons to  England  ; 
tlie  Franks  to  Gau. ; 
the  Goths  to  Italy  ; 

the  Lombards  to  Pan- 
nonia.and  in  the  next 
century  to  Italy  ; 

theAlemanni  to  the  Ro- 
man provinces  on  the 
Rhine,  iic. 


Franks  and  Gauls. 


FIFIH 

I 


420  Pharamond. 

449  Merovaeus. 

481  Clovis,  who,  by  the 
defeat  of  Syagrius, 
established  the  pow- 
er of  the  Franks  in 
Gaul. 


476  End  of  Western 
empire.  ' 

—  Odoacer   becomes  i 
king  of  Italy. 

493  Establishment  of 
the  Gothic  kingdom  I 
of  Italy,  by  Theodo-! 
ric. 


SIXTH 


France. 

Italy. 

Spaiw. 

511  Thierry  I. 

Ostrogoths. 

Visigoths. 

Clotaire  I. 
534  Theodobert. 
561  Canbert. 

Gontram,  Sigibert. 

Chilperic. 
593  Childehert. 
6t)6  Theodobert  II. 

526  Athalaric. 
534  Theodobalus. 
536  Vitiges. 

540  Heldibadus. 

541  Elaric. 

551  Theia,  conquered  by 

507  Gesalric. 
526  Amalaric. 
531  Theudis. 

548  Theodogesil. 

549  Agila. 

554  Athanagild. 

Thierry  II. 

Lombards. 

572  Leovigild. 

566  Recared  I.;  he  renouncoa 

968  Alboinus. 

Arianism  and   establishes 

573  Clephes. 

orthodox  Cliristianity. 

5H6  Antharis. 

590  Agilulphus. 

569  Longinus,  Exarch  of  Ra- 

venna ;     his     successors 

tributary  to  the  Lombards. 

1 

SEVENTH 


Fbanck. 


r 

j614  Clotaire  II 
628  Dagobert  I 
638  Sigebert  II. 
—   Clovis  II. 
660  Clotaire  III. 
669  Chiideric  II. 
!672  Daeobert  II.  (Pepin 
I        Heristal.) 
1673  Thierry  III. 
'690  C'.ovis  III. 
1095  Childebert  II. 

iTbe  kinjfdom  frequent- 
I        Ifdiviied 


Italy. 


Lombards. 
616  Ada  oaldus. 
626  Ana  ^aldus. 
638  Rotnaris. 
654  Rodoaldus. 
6'>9  Aribertus. 
662  Gundebertus 

672  Garibald 

673  Pertharit. 
691  Cunibertus. 

The  Exarchate  of  Ra- 
venna nominallyheld 
by  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire, but  tribute  paid 
by  its  governors  to 
the  Lombards. 


Visigoths. 
603  Witeiic. 
610  Gondomar. 
612  Sisebad. 
621   Recared  II. 
—   Suintilla  I. 
631   Sisenaud  I. 
636  Sisenaud  II. 
640  Tulca. 
f42  Chwidaswind. 
649  Recheswind. 
672  Wamba. 
680  Ervig. 
687  Egiga. 

Toward  the  close  of 
the  century  tbeMoors 
beipn  to  tlireaten  the 
.South  of  Spun. 


England. 


Heptarchy. 

617  Rodoald. 
East  Anglia. 

624  Edwin. 

Northumberland. 

643  O.swyn  unites  sev- 
eral kingdoms. 

656  Ceadwalla,  Siisifi: 
and  Wessex. 

688  Ina,  Wessex. 

The  native  Britone 
seek  slieltnr  in  Scot- 
land and  Wales  from 
the  Saxoii  invadeio 


787 


FROM  A.  D.  400.  TO  a.  d.  1840 


CENTURY. 


I      Under  the  Vandals. 
,438  Rechilda. 
,448  Rechiarius. 
;456  Maldias. 
'4fi0  Fumarius. 

463  Regismund. 
Under  the  Visigoths. 

451  Therismond. 

^52  Theodoric  II. 

466  Euaric. 

484  Alaric 

The  Vandals  conquer- 
ed by  the  Visigoths. 


Britain. 


Sastebn  Emfibk. 


-f- 


426  Relinquished 
the  Romans. 

Under  the  Britons. 

445  Vortigern. 
454  Vortimer. 
465  Ambrosias. 


454  Hengist  in  Kent. 
491  Ella  in  Sussex. 


by 


408  Theodosins  III.  and 

Pulcheria. 
450  Marcian. 
457  Leo  I.  (Thracian). 
474  Leo  IL 
—   Zeno. 
491  Anastasius  I. 

Rise  of  the  factions  of 
the  Circus. 


1 

Progress   op    Civiu-i 

ZATION.  I 


Bells  used  in  Churchtc. 


Commencement  of  the 
middle  or  dark  ages. 


Establishment   of  the 
Salic  Law. 


Introduction  of  Chnst; 
anity  into  Prince. 


CENTURY. 


England. 

Scotland. 

Eastern  Empire. 

Progress   of    Civili- 
zation, 

519  Cerdic, 

501  Goran. 

518  Justin  I. 

Silk  worms  brought  to 

Kingdom  of  Wes- 

535  Eugene  IIL 

527  Justinian  I. 

Europe. 

■ 

558  Congal  II. 

(Belisarius.  Narses). 

569  Kmathal. 

565  Justin  11. 

Code    of     Civil     Law 

527  Erchenwin, 

570  Aldan. 

5T8  Tiberius  II. 

formed. 

Kingdom  of  Essex. 

562  Maurice. 

547  Ida, 

Water-mills  erected  at 

Kingdom  of  North- 

Rome. 

'        umberland. 

J  575  Uifa, 

The  Anglo-Saxons  con- 

Kingdom  of    East 

verted  to  Cnrislian- 

1        Anglia. 

ity. 

582  Cridda, 

Kingdom  of  Mercia. 

The  Saxons  were  join- 

ed tv  the  Angles  and 

Jutts  from  Germany. 

CENTURY. 


604  Kenneth  I. 

605  Eugene  IV. 
622  Fercliard  I. 
636  Donald  IV. 
650  Ferchard  II 
668  Maidrum. 
688  Eugene  V. 
093  Eugene  VI. 


Eastern  Empire. 


602  Phocas. 
6!0  Heraclius  I. 
641  Constantine  III. 

—  Heraclius   Heracli- 
anus. 

—  Constans  H. 
668  Constantine  IV. 
685  Justinian  II. 
695  Leontius. 

698  Tiberius    U. 


622  Hejir*,  or  Flight  of 
Mohammed  from 
Mecca. 

632  Ahu  Bekr. 

634  Omar. 

644  Ottiman. 

6.'.6  AM. 

660  Hassan. 

661  Moawiyah.  founder 
of  the  Oinimade 
dynasty. 

679  Yezid  I. 
683  Merwan  I. 
Ctt4  Abdalniaier. 


PROOHESS     of     CIVILI' 
ZATION. 


Latin  disused  as  a  liv- 
ing language. 

Pens  made  from  quilla. 

Glass  manufactured  ill 
England. 

The  Alexandrian  Libii- 
ry  destroyed. 

The  Greek  firo  iri- 
vented. 


rss 


TABLES  OF 


EIGHTH 


Fkxncs. 


71 1  Dagobert  III. 
715  Chilperic  II. 

Charles  Maitel. 
717  Clotaire  IV. 
720  Thierry  IV. 

741  Pepin  (regent). 

742  Childeric  III. 
752  Pepin  (king) 
768  Charlemagne. 

The  Merovingian  dy- 
nasty set  aside  by 
Pepin,  father  of  Char- 
lemagne, and  foun- 
der of  the  Carlovin- 
l^inn  dynasty. 


liombards 

700  Luitpertus. 

701  Arinibertus. 
712  Auspraniliis 

—    Luilprandus 

743  Ilildobrand. 

744  Rachisius. 
750  Astolphus. 
756  Desiderius. 


752  Ste[.  len  III. 

757  Paul  I. 

7()8  Steplien  IV. 

772  Ac'Man  I. 
Tlie     dynasty    of    the  1795  Leo    11. 
Lombards  subverted  1 
by  Charlemagne. 


Popes. 
The  Popes  raised  to  the 
rank     of     temporal 
princes     by     Pepin, 
king  of  France. 


7J2  Dyna.sty  of  the  Visi- 
goths   subverted    by 
the   Saracens    uiuier 
Tank  and  Vlusa. 
755  Abderrahman,     in-i 
dependent  khaliph.  { 
The  power  of  his  suc-i 
cessors,  who  reign  in 
Spain  until  a.  d.  1051, 
is  gradually  weaken- 1 
ed   both   by   int(!rnal| 
discords  and  continu- 
ed wars  with  Chiis- 
tian  insurgents.  I 

718  Pelagius  founds  a| 
petty  (Christian , 
kingdom  in  the  j 
Asturian  mount- 1 
ains. 


NINTH 


Northern 
Nations. 


762       Regular 
government 
esiablislied 
in  Russia  by 
Ruric. 

'Denmark 

I     formed   into 
a  kingdom. 

Sweden 

foimed   into 
a  kingdom. 

;  The  petty  prin- 
cipalities of 
Norway 
formed  into 
a  kingdom 
'  by  Haro'd 
i     Harfager. 


Austrian. 
Dominions. 


794  TheMagyars 
occupy  Hunga- 
ry, tlie  ancient 
Pannonia. 

The  Moravians 
become  a  for- 
midable nation. 

Bohemia  form- 
ed into  a  reg- 
I  ular  state,  and 
("liristiamty  in- 
troduced. It 
was  generally 
governed  by 
dukes  tributary 
to  the  emperors 
of  Germany. 


Western  Empire. 


800  Charlemagne,  emperor  of  the  West. 
814  Louis  the  Pious. 
843  Empire  divided. 


Germany. 

843  Louis  the 
German. 

876  Carlo- 
man  and 
Louis  III. 

881  Charles 
the  Fat. 

887  Arnulph. 

899    Louis 
the  Child. 


ItallJ,   S;C. 

843  Lothaire  I. 

855  Lothairell. 

879  IJoson, 
duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. 

The  great  feu- 
datories of 
tlie  crown  as- 
sume the 
power  of  so- 
vereign prin- 
ces in  various 
parts  of  the 
empire. 


France. 

843  Charles 

the  Bald. 
877  Louts   the 

Stammerer. 
879  Louis  III. 

Carloman. 
887  Eudes. 
898  Charles 

the  Simple. 

The  family  of 
the  (;apets 
begins  to  u- 
surp  the  royal 
authority. 


816  Stephen  V. 

817  Pascal  I. 

824  Eufeenius  II.  | 

827  Valentine. 

828  Gregory  IV. 
814  Sergius  1!. 
847  Leo  IV. 

855  Benedict  III 
858  Nicholas  I. 
867  Adrian  II. 
872  John  Vlll. 
882  Martin  II. 

884  Adrian  III. 

885  Stephen  VI. 
891  Formosus. 
896  Boniface  VI 

—  Stephen  VII 
898  Theodore  II 

—  John  IX. 

900  Benedict  IV.  j 


TENTH 


Scandinavia. 


992  Christiani- 
ty established 
in  Denmark. 

991  Christiani- 
ty estal;l;shed 
in  Norway. 

The  Scandina- 
vian pirates 
formidable  ta 
Southern  and 
Western  Eu- 
rope. 

ce'.and  und 
Greenland 
dis(overed 
and    coloniz- 


Russia  and 
Poland. 


975  Wladimir 
the  Great  ex- 
tendstheRus 
sian  monar- 
chy, aud 

988  Establish- 
es Christiani- 
ty. 

942  Poland  be- 
comes a  king- 
dom. 


Hungary, &c. 


Germany. 


994  Christiani- 
ty introduced 
intolJungary. 

997  Stephen  I. 
establishes 
the      Hunga- 
rian    \:\  mar- 
chy. 

990  Bodeslaus 
111.  indepen- 
dent in  Bohe- 
mia. 

The  Letti.*c., 
established  in 
Lithuania 
and  Prussia. 


912  Conrad  I. 
of  Franconia. 

919  Henry  the 
Fowler. 

e36()tho  the 
Great. 

9fi2  Empire  of 
the  West  re- 
stored and  gi- 
ven  to  Otho. 

973  Otho  II. 

983  Utho  HI. 

Jealousies  be- 
gin to  ari>e 
between  the 
emperors  and 
the  popes.     • 


France. 


922  Robert. 

923  Rodolph. 
9:<3  Louis 

Outremer. 
954  Lothaire. 

986  Louis  V. 
the  Idle. 

987  Hugh  Ca- 
pet, founder 
of  a  new  dy- 
nasty. 

996  Robert  the 
Wise. 

The  province 
of  Neustria 
assiuned  to 
the  Normans,  i 
and  thence] 
called  Nor- 1 
manly.  I 


PCPES. 


904  Leo  V. 

—   Cliristophei. 

905  Sersius  111. 

913  Anastasius 

914  l.ando     [HI. 

915  John  X. 
92b  Leo  V|. 

929  Stephen  VIlI 
93!  John  XI. 
936  Leo  VII. 
9.39  Stephen   IX. 
913  .Martin  IH. 
946  Afrapetus  II. 
956  John  XII. 

963  Leo  Vlll. 

964  Benedict  V. 
[965  John  XIII. 

9T2  "enedict  VL 

974  Don  us  II. 

975  Bened.ct  VII 
982  John  XIV. 
9'i5  John  XV. 

—  .lohn  \'v; 
flOfi  0'e£r.>'-v  ■^'. 
999  •^vlvi-sfer  V. 


CENTURY. 


CONTEMPORARY  DYNASTIES. 


789 


England. 


iThe   Heptarchy   still 
'  continues,    but    the 

states        frequently 

vary  both  in  number 

and  extent 

17  Ethelbald  in  Mer- 

CA. 

07  Offa  unites  East 
Anglia  to  Mercia; 
but  toward  the  close 
of  the  century  Wes- 
Rex  becomes  the  pre- 
dominant state. 


702  Ambes 

Keleth. 
704  Eugene 

VII. 
721  Mordacb 
730  Elfinius. 
761    Eugene 

VIII. 
764     Fergus 

III. 
767  Salva- 

thus. 
787  Achaius. 


Eastern  Empire. 


705  Justinian  II.  re- 
stored, [nes. 

711  Philippicus  Barda- 

713  Anastasius  II. 

716  Theodosius  HI. 

718  Leo  III.  Isauricus. 

741  Constantino  V. 
Copronymus. 

775  Leo  IV. 

780  Constantine  VI. 
Porphyrogennetus. 
(Irene.  Nicephorusi). 

During  the  greater 
part  of  this  century 
the  empire  is  dis- 
tracted by  the  Icono- 
clast controversy. 


Saracens 


Progress    o( 
Civilization 


[HI. 
Yezid 


705  Walid  I. 

714  Suleiman, 
717  Omar  II. 
7l9  Yezid  II. 
723  Hasheni. 

742  Walid  II 

743  Merwan  ; 

750  Abu  I'Abbas,  foun- 
der of  the  Abasside 
dynasty. 

7.^3  Almanzor. 

775  Mohadi. 

7i^5  Al  Hadi. 

786  Harun-al-Rashid. 

The  seat  of  the  Kha- 
liphate  fixed  at  Bag- 
dad, A.  D.  702. 


Paper  made 
from  cot 
ton. 

Carpets  in 
troduced      | 

Schools     of 
learning 
founded  bv 
the      Sara- 
cens. 

Greek  worke 
of    science 
translated 
intoArabic. 


CENTURY. 


Gradual  de- 
cay of  the 
Saracenic 
power. 

Foundation 
of  the 

Christian 
kingdoms 
of  Navarre 
and    Leon. 


828  End     of 
the  Heptar- 
chy. Egbert 
the    Great. 
king         of 
England. 
838      Ethel- 
wolf,  [bald. 
857      Ethel- 
866  Ethelred 
872      Alfred 
the  Great. 
England  fre- 
quently ra- 
vaged     by 
Danish  and 
Norwegian 
pirates. 


Scotland. 


Eastern 
Empire. 


819  Congal 
HI. 

824  Dongal. 

831  Alpin. 

833  Kenneth 
II. 

831  Alpin. 

854  Donald 
V. 

858  Constan- 
tine 11. 

874  Ethus. 

875  Gregory 
the  Great. 

892  Donald 
VI. 

The  Picts 
subdued  and 
expelled  by 
Kenneth  II. 


811  Mi- 
chael I. 

8i:<LeoV 

820  Mi- 
chael II 

829Theo- 
philus. 

841  Ila- 
run. 

842  Mi- 
chael HI 

867  Basi- 

lius  I. 
886    Leo 

VL 


809  Al  Amin. 
814  Al  Marnun. 
833  Motassem. 
846  Motawakkel 

861  Montaser. 

862  Mostain 

Fall  and  division 
of  the  Khahph- 
ate. 

Fatimate  dynas- 
ty founded  768, 
by  Motaz. 

The  seat  of  the 
Fatimites 
transferred     in 
the  next  centu- 
ry to  Egypt. 


Progress  of  I 
Civilization.  1 

4 

streets  of  I 
Cordova  ' 
paved. 

Saxon  code 
of  laws 
formed. 

Clocks 
brought    to 
Western 
Europe 

Oxford  uni- 1 
versity  \ 
founded.      | 

Agriculture  i 
and  h:>rt!  j 
culture  en- 1 
couraged  in 
Germany. 


CENTURY. 


England. 

Scotland. 

Eastern  Empire.!        Saracens. 

Progress  cf 
Civilization. 

901  Edward      I. 

903      Constantine 

900  Alexander.         Tlie    Khaliphs    in 

University          of 

the  Elder. 

III. 

911  Constantine        subjection         to 

Cambridge  foun- 

925 Athelstan. 

943  Malcolm  I. 

VII.       Porphyro- 

their        Turkish 

ded. 

941  Edmund  I. 

958  Indulph. 

gennetus. 

mercenaries, 

946  Edred 

968  Dutfus. 

919  Romanus  I. 

whose  chief 

Figures   of   arith- 

955 Edwy. 

972  Cullen. 

—   Constantine     1935  Takes  the  title 

metic  introduced 

95G  Edgar. 

977  Kenneth  HI 

VIII. 

of  Emir  al  Omrah 

from  the  Arabs. 

975  Edward     II. 

994  Constantine 

959  Romanus  II. 

997   The   Ghazne- 

the  Martyr. 

IV. 

96:i  Nicephorus  II. 

vid            dynasty 

Mining      in      the 

978  Ethelred  II. 

995  Grimus. 

969  .lohn  Zimisces 
976  Basilius        H. 

founded. 

Hartz  mountains. 

The   Danes    ac- 

and  Constantine 

The  Fatimite  Kha- 

Wine  presses  first 

quire      posses- 

IX. 

.iphs    possess    a 

introduced     into 

sion  of  a  great 

powerful  empire 

Italy. 

portion  of  Eng- 

The  prosperity  of 

ir.  Egypt. 

;  Jand 

the   empire    par- 

, 

tially  restored  in 

1 

coiisequence    of 

t 

the  decline  of  the 

1 
1 

Saracenic  power. 

1 

.1 


790 


TABLES  OP 


ELEVENTH 


Norway. 


Denmark.  |    Sweden.    |  Russia.  |  Poland. 

i  I  I 


France 


Swe/T.,  king  of  both 

countries. 
H  ranule  the  Great, 

king  of  England. 


II  Olavus  II. 
32  Sueno. 
36      Magnus 

Oleron. 
47  Ilaj-old  in 

Haardrade. 
C6  Olavus  n. 
7<i  Magnus  1. 
67  Hacon. 
89      Magnus 

If. 


36  Hardica- 

nute. 
42  Magnus. 
47       Sweyn 

Elpisden. 
74       Harold 

VII. 
76      Canute 

the  Saint. 
85  Olaus  II. 
95  Eric  III. 


1  Olaus. 
19  Aniund  I. 
35    Edmund 

II. 
40    Hacquin 

III. 
61     Sturkill. 
75  Ingo    the 

Good. 


The  nations  of  the  Nortli  abandon  their 
piratical  habits,  and  make  great  ad- 
vances in  civilization. 


15  Sva- 
topole  I. 

16  Jaro- 
laus. 

54  Isila- 

us  I. 
78    Vse- 
volod   I. 
93    Sva- 
topole  II 

Russia 
scarcely 
yet 

emerg- 
ed  from 
barba- 
ism. 


25  Miesi;o 

II. 
37  Casimii 

1 .    Anar- 

cliy. 
41  Casimir 

recalled. 
58    Boles- 

laus      II. 

the  Bo.d. 
77         Bo- 

leslaus 

takes  the 

title      of 

king. 
81  Wladis- 

laus  I. 


38  Peter. 

41  Expel- 
led, aiiJ 
succeed- 
ed by 
Otto. 

44  Peter 
restored. 

47  Ancliar 
I. 

61  Bela   I. 

63  Solo- 
mon. 

74  Giezal. 

77  Ladis- 
laus  I. 

95  C -lo- 
rn art. 


2  Henry  II. 
24  Conrad  II. 

of    Franco- 

nia,      who 
32     Inherits 

Burgundy. 
39  Henry  III 
56  Henry  IV 

Wars  with 
the  Saxons: 
and  with 
the  Popes 
on  the 

question  of 
ecclesiasti' 
cal  investi- 
tures. 


31  Hen-, 
ry  I.      I 

60  Philip  I 
1.  tiie 
Amo- 


95  Commencemenl  of 
the  Crusades,  first 
preached  by  Peter 
the  Hermit,  and 
then  sanctioned  by 
the  Popes. 


TWELFTH 


r 


Northern 
Natio.ns. 


Norway, 
3  Sigurd. 
62  Magnus  III. 


Denmark. 
7  Nicholas. 
35  Eric  IV. 
39  Eric  V. 
47  Canute  V. 
55  Sueno  IV. 
57  Waidemar  I. 
82  Canute  VI. 


r- 


Suieden. 


10  Ingo  IV. 
29  Ragwald. 
40  Suercher  II. 

60  Eric   X.  the 
Holy. 

61  Charlas  VII. 
68  Canute. 

99  Sueicher  HI. 


Russia. 


14  W^lademir 

II. 

25  Motislaus 
32  Jaropohk. 
38  Vzevolod 

II. 
46  IsialausII 

56  .lourje  or 
George  I. 
the  found- 
er of  Mos- 
cow. 

57  Andrewl. 
reigning  at 
Wladimir. 

75  Michael  I. 


2  Boleslaus 
III. 

Civil  dissen- 
sions and 
constant 
wars  with 
the  Letli  in 
Lithuania 
and  Prus- 
sia. 

38  Wladis- 
laus  II. 

46  Boleslaus 
IV. 

73  Miesko 
III. 

77  Expelled 
by  Casimir 
II.,  the  Just 

95  Lescho  V. 


Hungary  <fc 
Bohemia. 


Hungary. 
14     Stephen 

II. 
31  Bela      It. 
41  Giezall. 
61     Stephen 

HI. 
74  Bela    HI. 
96  Emeric. 


Bohemia. 

40  Wladisla- 
us  III  duke. 

75  Freder- 
ick, duke. 

90  Conrad  II. 
duke. 

97  Premisla- 
us  Ottoa- 
cie  I.  king. 


Germany 


6  Henry 
V. 

25  Lo- 
thaire  II. 
the  Sax- 
on. 

37  Conrad 
III. 

52  Frede- 
ric I.  Bar- 
barossa. 

90  Henr)' 
VI.  As- 
per. 

98  Philip 
(Otho). 


France 


6  Louis 

VI.  the 
Fat. 

37  Louis 

VII.  the 
Young. 
80  Philip 
II.     Au- 
gustus. 

The 
great 
feudato- 
ries    of 
the 

crown 
gradual- 
ly      re- 
duced to 
obedi- 
ence, 
and   the 
royal 
authori- 
ty estab> 
lished. 


Popes. 


18  Gelasius  II. 

19  Calixtus  II. 
24  Honorius  II. 
30  Innocent  II. 
43  Celestine  II. 
41  Lucius  H 

45  Eugenius  HI. 

53  Anastasius 
IV. 

54  Adrian  IV. 

59  Alexander  II. 
81  Lucius  III. 
85  Urban  III. 
87  Gregory  VHl. 
—  Clement  III. 
91  Celestine  III. 
98  Innocent  HI. 


1 


Ci-NTURY. 


CONTEMPORARY  DYNASTIES. 


791 


CENTURY, 


SouthernItaly 


England  and'       Eastern 
Scotland.  Empire. 


2  Roger    II.  of 

Naples. 
30  Roger       III., 

king  of  Naples 

and  Sicily. 
54  William  I.  the 

Good. 
66  ■William      II. 

the  Bad. 
89  Tancred. 
94  William  III. 

The  Two  Sicilies 
united  to  tae 
Emp.ro. 


Aragon. 

4  Alphonso  I. 
34  Ramirez  II. 
37  Petronillo  and 

Raymond. 
62  Alphonso  II. 
95  Peter  il. 


Castile. 

9  Alphonso  Vn. 
'42  A.ptiousoVm 

57  Ferdinand  II. 

58  Al.  honso   IX. 
the  Noble. 


Portugal, 

:'9  Alphonso  I. 

Hennques 

king. 
65  Sancho  I. 


I  Continued  wars 
with  the  Moors. 


0  Henry  I. 
Beauclerk. 

35  Stephen  of 
Bloi?,  Usurp- 
er. 

54  Henry  II. 
first  of  the 
Plantagenets 

89  Richard  I. 
Cceur-de-Lion 

99  John  Lack- 
land. 

Ireland  con-] 
quered  by 
Henry  II. 


18  John  Comne- 

nus. 
43  Manuel  Com- 

nenus. 

80  Alexius  II. 
83  Andronicus. 
85  Isaac  II.   An- 

gelus. 


Turks 

AND 

Tartars. 


Scotland, 

7  Alexander  I 
24  David  I. 
53  Malcolm  IV 
65  William  the 

Lion. 


Kingdom  of 
Jerusalem. 

1099  Godfrey  of 

Bouillon. 

1  Baldwin  I. 
18  Baldwin  II. 
31  Foulke. 
44  Baldwin  III. 
62  Almeric. 
73  Baldwin  IV. 

85  Baldwin  V. 

86  Guy. 

92  Conrad. 
—  Heniy  of 

Champagne. 

87  The  kingdom 
overthrown  by 
Saladin. 


?!?3 
5  =  2 
cj  £.  ^ 
o-o  o 

§lf 
0--)  o'-^ 

N  M  3- 

?    6    S 

3 
a  c 

S'o. 

c 

i"i 

£  a. 
s'  ^ 


Progress   of 
Civihzation. 


The  cultiva-l 
of  the  sugar-' 
cane  intro-i 
duced  iiitol 
Sicily.  ] 

Glass  windows! 
used  in  Eng  i 
land. 


792 


TABLES  OF 


TinRTEENTH 


northi rn 
Nations. 


Russia. 


I  Norway. 

7  Ilacon  II. 
'63  Magnus  IV. 
|80  Eric  II. 
l99Hacon  III. 


Denmark 
2  Waidemar  II 
♦2  Eric  VI. 
51  Abel. 
62  Christopher. 
69  Eric  VII. 
86  Eric  VIII. 


I  Sieeden. 

lie  Eric  XI. 
i20  Jolm. 
1 23  Eric  XI. 
1 50  Waidemar  I 
176  Magnus  II. 
i8I  Birger  II. 
I 


JI3  Jourje  II 
Constantine 

38  larolaus  II. 

50  Aleianderl. 

63  Jarolaus  III 

71  Vasili  I. 

75  Demetrius  I 

94  Andrew  at 
Moscow. 

38  Conquered 
by  the  Mon- 
golian horde. 


Poland. 


2  Wladislaus 
II. 

6  Lesko  V.  re- 
stored. 
27  BoleslausV 
79  Lesko  VI. 
i9  Anarchy. 

95  Przemisla- 
us. 

96  Wladislaus 
IV. 

The  conquest 
of  Prussia  by 
the  Teutonic 
knights  be 
gunl230,com- 
pleted  1823. 


Hungary  and 
Bohemia. 


4  Ladislaus  IT 
—  Andrew  II. 
35  Bela  IV. 
40  Mogul  in- 
vasion. 
70  Stephen  IV. 
72Ladislausni 
90  Andrew  III. 


Bohemia. 
30   Wencesla- 

us  III. 
53  Premislaus 

Ottoacar  II. 
78  Anarchy. 
84    Wencesla- 

usIV. 


Germany. 


8  Otho  IV. 
12  Frederic  II. 
52  Conrad  IV. 
54  William, 

count  of    Hol- 
land 
56  Richard,   earl 

of  Cornwall. 

-Alphonso      of 

Spain. 
73  Rodolph       of 

Hapsburg. 
91  Adolphus    of 

Nassau. 
98  Albert    I.    of 

Austria. 


France. 


23  Louis 

VI II.,     ttie 

Lion. 
26  Louis  IX. 

the  Saint. 
70  Philip  III. 

the  Hardy. 
85  Philip  IV. 

the  Fair. 


The  Crusades. 

68  Capture  of  Antioch. 

91  and  of  Acre,  by  the  Egypt- 
ian sultan.  End  of  the  Cru- 
sades. 


FOURTEENTH 


Northern 
Nations. 


Norway. 
15  Magnus  V. 
26  Hacon  III. 
28  Magnus  VI. 
58  Ilacon  IV. 
75  Olaus  IV. 


Denmark. 
aiChristopherll 
32  Waidemar  HI 
75  Margaret. 


Russia. 


The 
country 
subject 
to  the 
Mongo- 
lian 
horde. 


Sweden. 

26  Magnus  III. 

6S  Albert  of 
Mecklenburg. 

97  Norway,Den- 
mark,  and 

Sweden, joined 
by  the  Union  of 
Calmar. 


Poland. 


0  Wences- 

laus. 
35     Casimir 

the  Great. 
70  Louis, 

king         of 

Han£;ary. 
85Hedwidge 

and  Uladis- 

laus  Jagel- 

lon. 


Prussia. 
Subject  to 
the  grand 
master  of 
the  Teuto- 
nic knights. 


hunoart  and 
Bohemia. 


I   Wencesla- 
us. 

5  Otho  of  Ba- 
varia. 

13        Charles, 
Robert. 

42  Louis  I. 

82    Mary    and 

86  Sigismund. 


Bohemia. 

5  Wencesla- 
us  V. 

6  Henry. 
lOJohn  of  Lux- 
emburg. 

46  Charles  IV. 
—  Joined  to 
the  empire. 


8  Henry  VII. 
of  Luxem- 
burg. 

13  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  & 

—  Frederic 
111., of  Aus- 
tria.     [IV. 

47     Charles 

78  Wences- 
laus. 

15  The  inde- 
pendence 
of  Switzer- 
land     pro- 
claimed, & 

86  establish- 
ed by  the 
battle  of 
Sempach. 


France. 


14  LouisX 

15  John  1. 

16  PhilipV 
23  Charles 

the  Fair. 
28  Philip 

VI. 

50  John  II. 
56  He     is 

taken   by 

the  Eng- 

hsh. 
64  Charles 

V.       the 

Wise. 
80  Charles 

VI. 


Popes. 


3  Benedict XI 
5  Clement  V. 

16  John  XXII. 

34  Benedict 
XII. 

42  CiementVI. 

52  Innocent  VI 

62  Urban  V. 

71  Gregory  XI 

schism  ofthb 
west. 

Popes  at  Rome. 
78  Urban  VI. 
89  Boniface  IX 
Popes  at  Avig 

nan. 
78  Clement 
VII.       [XIII. 
94  Benedict 


FIFTEENTH 


Db.smark. 


Russia  and 
Poland. 


Germany. 


Southern 
Italy. 


12  Eiic  IX. 

41  Christo- 
pher III. 

43  Christian 
I 

t!  .'.ohn  II 

The  Swedes 
.  engaged  in 
almost     in- 
I  cessant 
wars  to  re- 
cover their 
iodepend- 
'  enro    from 
'  the  Danes. 


Russia. 

25  VasdUthe 
Rlind. 

62  Ivan   Va 
silievitch  I 

74  Tartar 
Yoke  brok- 
en. 


_J 

Poland.       I 

34     Wladis- 1 

laus  V. 

4'     f  dsimir 

IV. 
92  John  I. 


L_ 


0  Rupert. 

10  Jodoohus. 

11  Sigismond,  king 
also  of  Hungary 
and  Bohemia. 

37  Albert  II. 

39  Frederic  IH. 

93  Maximilian  I. 

During  the  greater 
part  of  this  cen- 
tury, the  dukes 
of  Burgundy  ac- 
quire great  politi- 
cal inlluence.  At 
the  close,  their 
possessions  pass 
by .  marriage  into 
the  royal  family 
of  Austria. 


22  Henry  VI., 
of  England. 

—  Charles  VII 
of  Valois. 

61  Louis  XI. 

83  Charles VI II 

98  Louis  Xll. 

Rapid  increase 
of  the  royal 
power  in 

France  dur- 
ing ttus  cen- 
tury. Wars 
in  Italy  at 
the  close. 


Innocent  VII. 
Gregory  Xll. 
Alexander  V. 
.lohn  XXIH. 
Martin  V. 
Eugenius  IV. 
Felix  V. 
Nicholas  V. 
Calixtus  III. 
Pius  II. 
Paul  II. 
Sixtus  IV. ^ 
Innocent  VIII 
Alexander  VI. 


Sicily  and  Na- 
ples lose  their 
political  im- 
portance. 
Both  merge  in 
the  kingdom 
of  Spain  :  the 
former  at  the  [ 
beginning, 
the  latter  at' 
the  close  of  | 
t^e  century,  i 


.J 


CENTURY. 


CONTEMPORARY  DYNASTIES. 


793 


Popes. 


16  Honorius 

III.  (IX. 
27  Gregory 
41  Celestine 

IV.  [IV. 
43  Innocent 

1 54     Alexan- 

l  der  IV. 

i61  Urban  IV. 

|65    Clement 

I  IV.  [X. 
71  Gregory 
76InnocentV 

—  Adrian  V. 

—  JohnXXI. 
77Nichol.lII 
81  MartinlV. 
85  Honorius 

IV. 
68  Nicho.IV. 
94  Celestine 

V.  [VIII. 

—  Boniface 


Southern 
Italy. 


52  ConradIV 
(Emperor.) 

54  Manfred. 

66  Conrqdin. 

— Charles  of 
Anjou. 

82  Sicily 
conquered 
by  the  Icing 
of  Ara^on. 

85  Charles  II 
in  Naples. 

85  James  of 
Aragon  in 
Sicily. 

96  Frederic 
II.  in  Siciiy. 


Aragon. 
13  James  I. 
:6  Peter  III. 
85  Alphonso  III. 
91  James  II. 


Castile. 
14  Henry  I. 
17  Alphonso  X. 
26  Ferdinand  III. 
52  Alphonso  XI., 
the  Wise. 
84  Sancho  IV. 
95  FerdmandlV. 


Portugal. 

12  Alphonso   II., 
the  Fat. 

33  Sancho  II. 

46  Alphonso  III. 

79  Dionysius, 
the    father    of 
his  country. 


Enound  & 
Scotland. 


England, 

16  Henry  III 
65  House  of 
Commons 
formed. 
72  Edward  I. 
Wales  sub- 
dued. 


Scniland. 

14  Alexan- 
der II. 

49  Alexan- 
der III. 

85  Anarchy. 

92  John  Ba- 
liol. 

94  Anarchy 
(Sir  Wm. 
Wallace.) 


Eastern 
Empibe. 


1203   Con- 
Stan  ino- 
ple   taken 
by         the 
Latin  Cru- 
saders, 
and       the 
empire 
broken 
into    frag- 
ments.   It 
was     par- 
tially    re- 
stored   in 
the     mid- 
dle of  the 
century  by 
Michael 
Paleolo- 
gus. 


Turks   and  Propress  of  | 
Tartars.   I  Civilization  | 


1298  The  dy- 
nasty of  the 
Ottoman 
Turks  Is 
founded  in 
Bithynia  by 
Othman  I. 

The  Moguls 
subdue  the 
greater 
part  of  Asia 
and  North- 
eastern Eu- 
rope, but  in 
the  middle 
of  the  cen- 
tury their 
empire  is 
broken  up. 


Establish-  ■ 
mentofthe 
Inquisition 

Magna  i 

Charta. 

Represen-  | 
tatives  of , 
the  Com- , 
mons  in  ■ 
parUament 

Spectacles 
invented. 

Glass  mir-| 
rors  used. 

Clocks  toj 
strike  | 
made  in 
Europe,      i 

i 


CENTURY. 


Southern 
Italy. 

Spain. 

England  and 
Scotland. 

Eastern 
Empire. 

Ottoman 
Empire. 

Progress  of 
Civ  luxation.   | 

Naples. 

9  Robert  I. 
43  Joan  I. 
82  Charles  HI., 

of  Durazzo. 

Aragon. 
27  Alphonso  IV. 
36  Peter  IV. 
87  John  I. 
95  Martin. 

England. 

7  Edward  H. 
27  Edward  III. 
Ed  ward  claims 

the  crown  of 

France. 
75  Death       of 

the        Black 

Piince. 
77  Richard  II. 
99  Ifenry     IV. 

of  Lancaster. 
Scotland. 

6  Rooert 

Brace. 
S9  David  II. 
70  Robert    II., 

th«     first    of 

the  Stuarts. 
90  Robert  III. 

Through- 
out     this 
century  . 
the    East- 
ern empire 
gradually 
declines, 
and  at  the 
close     be- 
comes tri- 
butary   to 
the  Turks. 

26  The  empire 
of  the  Turks, 
established 
by  Othman  at 
Prusa. 

25  Orkhan. 

58  Amurath  I. 

89  Bayezid  I. 

Timur     Lenk 
subdues 
Western  and 
Central  Asia, 
and       estab- 
lishes a  migh- 
ty empire. 

Mariner's  cona-, 
pass       intro-j 
dured       intoi 
Europe.           , 

Paper      made' 
from       linen; 

Sicily. 
28  Frederic  I. 
37  Petel  II. 
42  Louis. 
55  Frederic  II 
67  Mary. 

Castile. 
12  Alphonso  XII. 
50  Peter  the  Cruel. 
69  Henry  l\ 
79  John  I. 
90  Henry  III. 

Portugal. 
25  Alphonso  IV 
57  Peter  the  Cruel. 
67  Ferdinand. 
85  John  I.,  the  Great. 

rags. 

Gunpowder      ) 
and     cannonj 
used  in  war.   i 

New      Testa, 
nient     trans- 
lated          by 
Wickliffe. 

Pins  and  play 
ing  cards  in- 
vented.          1 

1 

CENTURY. 


England  &  Scotland. 


Arcgon. 
'10  Ferdinand. 
16  Alphonso  V. 
58  John  II. 

74  Ferdinand    the    Ca- 
tholic. 


Castile. 

6  John  II. 
54  Henry  IV. 
74  Isabella.who  marries 

Ferdinand  of  Aragon, 

and  thus  unites   tlie 

two  crowns. 


j  Portugal. 

33  Edward.      [African. 

38  Alphonso     V.,     the 
181  John  II.        [tunate. 

yj  Emm'.nuel  the  For- 


England. 
13  Henry  V. 
22  Henry  VI. 

Wars  of  the  Roses. 
61  Edward  IV.  (York.) 
83  Edward  V. 
—  Richard  HI. 
85  Henry  VII.,  the  first 
of  the  Tudors 


Eastern  <k  C  ttoman 
Empires. 


Scotland. 
6  James  I. 
37  James  II. 
60  James  III. 
bb  Jarnes  IV. 

Great  civil  commotions 
in  Scotland. 


The  Greek  empire  gra- 
dually sinks  into  ruin, 
being  assailed  ^y  the 
Turkish  sultans 
3  Soleiinan. 

10  Moussa. 

13  Mohammed  I. 

21  Amurath  II. 

51  Mohammed  II.,  who 

53  takes  Constantino- 

81  Bayezid  II.        [pie. 

The  empire  of  Timur 
destroyed  by  the  civil 
wars  of  his  descend- 
ants, one  of  whom, 
Baber,  founds  the 
empire  of  Delhi,  or  of 
tlie  Great  Mogul,  in 
India 


Progress  ofCiviliz  a'.ion 


Maritime  enterprises 
encouraged. 

Air-gun  and  musket  in 
vented. 

The  art  of  printing 

Vatican  library  found- 
ed. 

Greek  philosophers 
seek  refuge  in  Italy. 

Algebra  borrowed  from 
the  Arabs. 

Discovery  of  America. 

Passage  round  tho  { 
the  Cape  of  Good, 
Hope  discovered. 


...J 


794 


TABLES  OF 


Denmark  and 
Sweden. 

Denmark. 
13  Christian  II 
23  Frederic  I 
34  Christian  III. 
59  Frederic  II. 
!  88  Christian  IV. 


I  Stveden. 

'23  Gustavus  Vasa 
establishes  the  in- 
dependence     of 
Sweden. 
60  Eric  XVI. 
63  John  III. 
Vi  Sigismund,  king 
ot  Poland. 
99  Charies  IX. 


Russu  AND  Poland  '     GERMANy,  <^'c. 


France. 


Russia. 
!)  Vasili  Ivanovitch. 
SH  IvanVasiliovitchll 
84  Feodor. 
98  Buns  Gudonof. 


Poland. 
1  Alexander. 
6  Sigisinund  I. 

48  Sigismiuid  II.  Au- 
gustus. 

'i  Henry  of  Valois. 

75  Stephen. 

87  Sigismund  III. 
who  also  became 
king  of  Sweden. 


Empire. 

19  Charles  V.  king 
of  Spain,  Ac. 

58  Ferdina.-'l  I. 

64  Maximilian  II. 

76  Rodolph  II. 

Prussia  rises  gradu- 
ally into  import- 
ance. 

Holland  rejects  the 
yoke  of  Spain,  and 

84  Maurice, prince  of 
Orange,  is  chosen 
Stadtholder  of  the 
United  Provinces. 


15  Francis  I. 
47  Henry  II. 
.VJ  Francis  II. 
60  Charies  IX. 
74  Henry  HI. 


Wars 


the 


of 

League. 
=9  Henry     IV 
of  Bouibon. 


SIXTEENTH 


3  Pius  III. 

—  Julius  II 
13  Leo  X. 

22  Adrian  VI. 

23  Clement  VII.  | 
34  Paul  HI.  I 
50  Julius  III.  1 
55  Marcellus  HI  I 

—  Paul  IV.  1 
59  Pius  IV.  , 
66  Pius  V.  , 
72  Gregory  XIII. 
85  Sixtus  V.         i 

90  Urban  VII. 

—  Gregory  XIV. 

91  Innocent  IX. 

92  Clement  VIII. 
40  Order  of Jesu- 
its estabhshed. 


SEVENTEENTH 


Denmark  and 

Sweden. 


Russia  and  Poland. 


German?,  &c. 


France. 


Denmark. 
48  Frederic  111. 
70  Christian  V. 
99  Frederic  IV. 


Sweden. 
II  Gustavus  Adolphus 
tlie  Great. 
32  Christina. 
54  Charles  X. 
60  Charles  XI. 
97  Charles  XII. 

I  Great  Northern  \VL:r. 


Russia. 

5  Demetrius. 

6  Vassili  Shuiski. 

13  Michael  Roniaaof. 

45  Alexis. 

76  Feodor. 

82  Ivan  and  Peter. 

96  Peter  alone. 


Poland. 
32  Wladislaus  VI. 
48  John  Casimir. 
69  Michael  Coryleat. 
74  John  Sobieski. 
97  Frederic    Augustus 
I.  of  Saxor.v. 


Empire. 

12  Matthias. 

19  Ferdinand  II. 

37  Ferdinand  III. 

58  Leopold  I. 

The  Thirty  Years'War. 

The  dutchy  of  Prussia 
increases  in  power. 

Holland  takes  a  promi- 
nent place  among  the 
European  States. 


10  Louis  XIII 
43  Louis  XIV. 

The  monarchy  of 
France  attains  the 
summit  of  its  great- 
ness, and  the  ambi-j 
tion  of  the  king  ex- 
cites the  jealousy  of 
the  principal  Euro- 
pean states. 


EIGHTEENTH  AND 


Denmark. 


30    Christian 

VI. 
46     Frederic 

V. 
06    Christian 

VH. 
84  Regency. 


Russia  and 
Poland. 


'  8     Frederic 
,  VI. 

;  14      Norway 
I  united      to 

Sweden. 
39   Christian 

VHL 

t 


18  Itlr  ca  Leo- 

noia. 
20  Frederic    I. 

of  Hesse  Cas- 

sel. 
51      Adolphus 

Frederic     of 

Holstein. 
71      Gustavus 

HI. 
92      GustaTi? 

Adolphus  II. 


9  Charles  Russia. 

XIII.  1  Alexander. 

10  Bemadotte  25  Nicholas. 


Russia. 

21  Peter  the 
Great  takes  the 
title  of  Empe- 
ror. 

25  Catherine  I. 

27  Peter  II. 

30  Annelvanofna 

—  Ivan,  a  minor. 

41  Ehzabeth. 

61  Peter  H. 

62  Catherine  II. 
96  Paul  I. 

Poland. 
Having  been 
long  distracted 
by  civil  com- 
motions, is  in 
1772  dismem- 
bered by  Rus- 
sia,Prussia,  and 
Austria. 


Germany,  <fec. 


France. 


Emvire- 

5  Josepii  I. 
n  Charies  VI. 
42  Charles     VII. 

of  Bavaria. 
45  Francis  I.  of 

Lorrfcine,     and 

Maria  Theresa. 
64  Joseph  II. 
9i  Leojolii  II. 
9*i  Francis  11. 


Prussia. 

1  Become*       a 

kingdom. 
40  Frederick   II. 

the  Gieat. 
b'  Fr.d.NVm.  TI. 
9t  Fred. Wm. LI. 


chasen 
Crown  prince 
19  Becomes 
king,  as 

Ch&rles  John. 


31  Attempted 
Polish  revolu- 
tion. 


14  LouisXV. 
74        Louis 

XVI. 
92   Republic 

Sanguinary 

tumults 

and      civil 

wars. 
9-3Napoleon, 

Fist    ton- 

eu  . 


Austria. 
4  Francis 
31  FeriUnand 
fciinperor 
&  ustna. 


Prtiisia. 
40  Fred  Wra.IV 


4  Napoleon 
Emperor. 

14  Louis 
.XVIII. 

15  Napoleon 
restored. 

—         Louis 

XVni.    re- 

SLOied. 

25  ChariesX 

30  L.  I'hih'j. 


0  Clement  XI. 
21  Innocent  XHI 
24  Benedict  XI H 
30  Clement  XII. 
40  Benedict  XIV 
58  Cleiuenl  XHI 
69  Clement  XIV 
75  Pius  VI. 
98  Roman  repub 

lie. 


0  Pius  VII. 

8  I 'ope  deposed 

14 re.'stored. 

23  Leo  XII. 

31  Gregory  XVI. 


Ho/land. 
1814  W;lUami. 
i840   WiJiar.U.' 
en  theat>>Ucaoion 


01  Ins  father 


"L     i 


CENTURY. 


CONTEMPORARY  JyYNASTIES. 


795 


Spain. 

England    and 
Scotland. 

Turks  and  Persians. 

Progress  of  Civili-    i 
zation. 

J 

4  Ferdinand  the  Cath- 
olic, alone. 

—  Philip  I.  0.  Austria. 

16  Charles  I.,  or  V.,  as 
emperor  of  Germjny. 

56  Philip  11. 

98  PhiUp  III. 

England. 
9  Henry  VIII. 
47  Edward  VI. 
53  Jane  Grey. 
—  Mary. 
58  Elizabeth. 

Turkey. 
i2  Selim  I. 
20  Solesman  11. 
66  Selim  11. 
74  Amuratli  III. 
95  Mohammed  III. 

The  Eeformation.          1 
The   Copernicaft   sys- 1 

tern. 
Reformation     ef    th* 

calendar. 
Stocking-fiai/iC             1 

Portugal. 
21  John  III. 
57  Sebastian. 
78  Henry  the  Cardinal. 
80  Portugal  is  united  to 
Spain. 

! 
1 

1                                 1 

Scotland. 

1 3. Tames  V. 

42  Mary. 

67  James  VI.  who,  at 
the  beginning  of  the 
next  century,  unites 
the  kingdoms  of  Eng- 
land    and     Scotland, 
which  are  hencefortli 
called  Great  Britain. 

Persia. 
I  The   Suriavean   dy- 
nasty founded  by  Is- 
mael. 

25  Siiah  Taurasp. 

77  Mohammed. 

64  Abbas  the  Great. 

Newspapers. 
Telescopes                    ' 
Toleration  legally  es- 
tablished in  France  by 
tb«  Edict  of  Nantes.  1 

..  ..  - 

CENTURY. 


Popes. 


5  Leo  XI. 

—  Paul  V. 

21  Gregory  XV. 

23  Urban  VIU. 

44  Innocent  X. 

55  Alexander 
VII. 
;t7  Clement  IX. 
'70  Clement  X. 
|76  Innocent  XI. 

89  Alexander 
VIII. 

91  Innocent  XII. 


Spain,  &c. 


Spain. 
21  Philip  IV. 
65  Charles  11. 


Portugal. 
Separates    from 

Spain  under 
40  JohJi    IV.   of 

Braganza. 
56  Alplwnso   IV. 
68  Peter  11. 


Great  Britain. 


3  James    VI.,   of 

Scotland,   and   I. 

of  England. 
25  Charles  1. 
42  Civil  war. 
49  Commonwealth 
53  Cromwell,  Lord 

Protector. 
58  Richard,  ditto. 
60  Charles  II. 
85  James  II. 

88  Revolution. 

89  William         III. 
and  Mary. 


Turks   and 
Persians. 


Turkey. 
4  Ahmed  I. 
17  Mustapha  I. 
23  Amurath  IV. 
40  Ibrahim. 
55  Mohammed  IV. 
87  Soleiman  III. 
90  Ahmed  II. 
98  Mustapha  II. 


Progress  of  Civili- 
zation. 


Persia. 
Declines  rapidly  un- 
der the  later  Suf- 
favean  princes. 


Logarithms.  ' 

Steam-engines.      ', 

Circulation  of  thel 
blood.  I 

Regular  posts. 

Thermometer  aitd 
barometer. 

Air-pump.  ' 

Jesuits'  bark. 

Bayonets.  . 

Plate  glass.  ' 

Bank  of  England) 
projected. 

National  Debt  be- 
gun. 


mNETEENTH  CENTURIES. 


0  Philip  V. 
of  Anjou. 

24  Louis. 

25  Philip    V. 
restored. 

46  Ferdinand 
VI. 

59  CharlesIIl 
88  ChailesIV 

The  Spanish 
monarchy 
gradually 
declines, 
the      court 
imbecile 
and     profli- 
gate. 


K 


8  Ferdinand 
'   VII. 
;  —  Joseph. 
!   Napoleon. 
1 1.4  Ferdinand 
!  VH.  restor- 
i   cd. 
rS3  Isabella  n 


6  John  V. 

50  Joseph  Em- 
manuel. 

77  Mary. 

96  Jolin,  Re- 
gent 

The  Portu- 
guese monar- 
chy declines 
like  the  Span- 
ish. 


9  Royal  fami- 
ly emigrate. 

14  French  ex- 
pelisd. 

21  John  VI. 

26  Mi?iiel 

31  Maria 
Gloria. 


da 


Great  Britain. 


2Anne(Stuart). 
14  George    I.   of 

Hanover. 
27  George  II. 
60  George  HI. 
83  The  American 
colonies  become 
independent 
states,  and  about 
the    same    time 
the     foundation 
is    laid    of     the 
British  empire  in 
Hindustan.  Eng- 
land during  the 
close  of  the  cen- 
tury  establishes 
its  naval  supre- 
macy. 


J(  George, 

Prince  Regent. 
20  George  IV. 
30  William  IV. 
37  Victoria. 

Belgium. 
1831         Leopold 
elected  king. 


Turks  and 
Persians. 


India,  &c. 


Progress  of 
Civihzation. 


Turkey. 
3  Ahmed  III. 

30  MohammedV. 

54  Ottoman  III 

57  Mustapha  III. 

74  Ahmed  IV. 

89  Selim  HI. 

Tlie  power  of 
Turkey  gradu- 
ally declines. 


Persia. 
For  a  while  be- 
comes power- 
ful under  Nadir 
Shah,  but  after 
his  death  it  is 
againdistracted 
by  civil  wars,  <fc 
the  sovereignty 
is  seized  by  the 
Turkish  tribe  of 
the  Kajars. 


-3^5.  to  S- 
2  o'S  !» 


3-  3  -a  s-  2. 
C.      0)  —  ^ 


Turkey.  0  Runjit 

7  Mustapha  IV.  Sing.ruler  of 

8  Mohammed  I  Punjab. 

VI.  39  Shah   Su- 

19  Abdul  Medjid.  jah,  restored 

to  the  throne 

Greece.  of  Cabul 

31  Otho  of  Bava- 1 40      English 

ria.  I  murdered  in 

,i"abui    S,  ah 

'Suiali  slain 


Porcelain  manu-! 
factured  in  Eu- 
rope. 

Inoculation  in- 
troduced. 

Chronometers,    i 

Cook's  voyages. 

Colonization  oil 
Australia.  ; 

Spinning  jennies 

Galvanism. 

Planet  Herschel 
discovered. 

Air  balloons. 

Telegraphs. 

Steam-boats  dig 
covered, but  not 
used  until  the 
next  century. 


Steam-vessels. 
Gas-lights. 
Lithography.       J 
New    processes 
of  engraving. 
Arctic    voyages. 
Railroads.  j 

Locomotive 


T9G 


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— 9  Ausnistiis, 

duke  of  Sasset 


—8  Ernest,  duke  i 
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tl837. 


— 2  Frederick, 
duke  of  York, 
1 1827. 


£t) 


2-3 


Gborob  IV.,    » 
1 1830.  j 


a, 

n 


QUESTIONS 


ON 


ANCIENT    HISTORY 


TO   ACCOMPANY 


A  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY, 


BY    W.    C.    TAYLOR. 


COMPILED    BY    REV.    L.L.    SMITH 


NEW  YORK: 
D.    liPPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

549    &    551    BROADWAY. 

1878. 


Entered,  accordinsr  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1944,  by 
D.  APPLETOX  AXD  COMPANY, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Couit  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District 

of  New  York. 


QUESTIONS 


ON 


ANCIENT      HISTORY 


CHAPTER   I. 


Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

1  The  first  country  in  which  a  government 

was  established  ? 

2  How   did  civilization  everywhere  com- 

mence ? 

3  What  has  Egypt  been  always  called  ? 

4  How  did  civilization  advance  along  the 

Nile? 

5  Where  does  the  Nile  enter  Egypt  ? 

6.  Dimensions  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile  ? 

7    How  was  Egj'pt  divided? 

S.  On  what  does  its  fertility  depend? 

9    By  what  are  these  inundations  caused? 
10.  The   appearance   of  the   Nile    early    in' 

August  ? 
!  1    When  do  the  waters  subside  ? 
i2.  The  eastern  side  of  the  vallej',  describe. 
13    The  western  side. 
14.  Benefit  of  this  ridge 
15    Mention  some  of  the  interesting  monu- 
ments of  Upper  Egypt. 

16.  What  is  said  of  lake  Moeris  ? 

17.  Where  was  the  labyrinth? 

18.  The  capital  of  Middle  Egypt  ? 

19.  What  is  said  of  it? 

iO.  The    most   remarkable    monura<>Tit3    of 

Middle  Egypt  ? 
•21.  What  is  said  of  Lower  Eg\7>t  ? 
•22.  Where  did  the  civilized   portion  of  the 

Egyptians  dwell  ? 
23.  The  great  object  of  sacerdotal  and  royal 

policy  ? 
ii4.  Whj  was  ever}'  shepherd  regarded  as  an 

abomination  to  the  Egyptians  ? 

Sec.  2. — Political  and  Social  Condition  of 
the  Egyptiiiiis. 

1.  Colour  of  the  Egyptians  ? 

i    What  conjecture  has  been  hazarded   re- 
specting them  ? 

J.   The  habits  and  manners  of  the  people  in 
the  /"iilerenf  districts ! 
51 


The  different  castes  among  th^^j,  ami 

their  relative  rank? 
The  central  point  of  every  colon>  '^ 
What  were  names? 
What  is  said  of  them  ? 
Who  were  the  Hyksos  ? 
When   did    Egypt  become  unit«d  and.. 

one  sovereign  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  priestly  caste  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  high -priests  ? 
How  was  their  influence  strengthened  ? 
Location  of  the  warrior  caste  ? 
The  most  important  division  of  an  Egj'p 

tian  army? 
Describe  their  chariots  ? 
How   were   nations   distinguished    froii 
each  other? 
17.  The    national    weapon    of    the     Egyp- 
tians ? 
13.  Their  heavy  arms  ? 

19.  How  were  their  light  troops  armed  ? 

20.  How    were     their    soldiers    levied    ans 

drilled  ? 

21.  How  were  their  captives  treated  .' 

22.  What  is  said  of  their  religion  and  govern 

ment  ? 

23.  The  authority  of  their  priests  ? 

24.  The  general    idea   that    penraded   theii 

entire  religious  system  ? 

25.  The  result  of  this  ? 

26.  What  is  said  of  astrologj'? 

27.  The  Egyptian  creeds  with  reference  tc 

the  future  ? 

28.  Origin  of  the  practice  of  embalming? 

29.  What  important  trial  was  much  dreaded 

by  every  Egyptian  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  trades  and  professions? 

31.  The  probable  cause  of  this? 

32.  Their  favourite  amusements  ? 

33.  Their  postiu-e  at  table  ? 

34.  The  respect  paid  to   women,  rank,  oi'J 

age? 
3.5.  The  principal  trees  of  Egypt? 
3(j.  Tlieir  use  of  wine  ? 
37.  Their  most  remarkable  vegetable*  ' 
3rf.  Their  domestic  animals  ? 


QUESTIONS    ON 


10    The  nse  made  of  the  skin  of  tho  hippo- 
potamus? 
40    How  were  the  eggs  of  poultry  hatched  ? 

Sue.  3. — History  of  Egypt  from  the  earliest 
Period  to  the  Accession  of  Psammetichus. 

1  Tho  most  ancient  of  the  states  of  Egypt  ? 
2.  The  most  powerful  ? 

3    What  is  said  of  Memphis  ? 

4.  When  did  the  Hyksos  invade  Egypt  ? 

5  'i'he   policy  of  Pharaoh   in  locating  the 

colonj'  of  the  Israelites  in    the   laud 
of  Goshen  ? 

6  Who  was  the  Pharaoh  that  tyrannized 

over  them  ? 

7  What  task  did  he  impose  upon  them  ? 

6.  What  is  said  of  the  labour  imposed  on 

them  of  making  bricks  ? 
9    How  did  Pliaraoh  attempt  to  check  their 

increase  ? 
10    Why  did  Moses  quit  Egypt  ? 
U.  How  was  Pharaoh  punished  by  the  God 
of.  Israel  ? 

12  How  was  his  army  destroyed  ? 

13  The  year  of  this  calamity  ? 

1.4  Who   was   the   Pharaoh   that    received 
Joseph  ? 

15  When  was  glass  first  used  ? 

16  The  results  to  the  Hyksos  of  the  destruc- 

tion of  the  Egyptian  army  in  the   Red 

Sea? 
17.  Who  was  Danaus  of  the  Greeks? 
18    In  honour  of  whom  was  the  vocal  statue 

of  Memnon  erected  ? 
19.  Who  were  the  Rameses? 
20    With  what  calamities  was  Egj^t  afflicted 

during  the  reign  of  Amenoph  IV.? 
2'i.  LAcesses  of  the  Hyksos  ? 

22.  The  most  celebrated   of   the    Egyptian 

monarchs  ? 

23.  His  exploits  ? 

24.  Extent  of  his  conquests,  and  how  proved  ? 

25.  By  what  name  is  he  best  known  ? 

26.  Extent  of  Shishak's  empire  ? 

27.  Who  subsequently  subjugated  Egypt  ? 

28.  Conduct  of  Sethos  ? 

29.  How  did  he  oppose  Sennacherib? 

30.  Who  once  more  united  all   Egypt  under 

a  single  monarchy? 

31.  His  treatment  of  the  warrior  caste,  and 

their  conduct  ? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  Egypt  from  the  Reign 

of  Psammetichus    to  its  Subjugation  by 

Cambyses. 

1.  What  change  was  made  in  the  ancient 

policy  of  Egypt  at  the   accession  of 

Psammetichus? 

2  The  great  object  of  his  policy  '' 

3  His  son  and  successor  ? 

4  What  enterprise  did  tie  undertake,  and 

who  corpoletpd  it  ? 

5  What  (urcurnstauce  alarmed  hnn  ? 


6.  Who  attempted  to  check  him,  and  witl 

what  success? 

7.  Who  expelled  his  garrison  from  Circe 

siuii'  ? 

8.  Conquest  of  Nebuchadnezzar? 

9.  Jeremiah's  prophetic  description  of  thie 

battle  ? 

10.  What  important  discovery  did  his  flees 

make  ? 

11.  How  long  absent  was  it? 

12.  What  remarkable  incident  occurred  dm- 

ing  the  reign  of  his  son? 

13.  What  act  of  perfidy  did  Apries  commk  1 

14.  The  circumstances  under  which  he  wtu 

dethroned  ? 

15.  Policy  of  Amasis,  his  successor? 

16.  His  subsequent  misfortunes? 

1 7.  Fate  of  Psammenivafe,  his  son  ? 

18.  Conduct  of  Cambyses  ? 

19.  Prophecy  of  Ezekiel? 

Sec.  5. — Egyptian  Manufactures  and 
Commerce. 

1.  What  do  we  learn  from  the  monumeiiU' 

of  the  Egyptians? 

2.  What  branches  of  manufacture  were  at- 

tended to  by  them  ? 
3    The  perfection  they  attained? 

4.  Their  implements  of  metal? 

5.  Their  pottery  ? 

6.  What  is  said  of  the  Thebaid  ? 

7.  What   productions  were    brought   froa 

Ethiopia  ? 

8.  From  Arabia,  and  India? 

9.  Their  exports  ? 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE  ETHIOPIANS. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. — Natural 
History. 

1.  What  two  races  possessed  the  distriirt? 

above  the  Nile? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  civilized  people  o? 

Ethiopia  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  monuments  of  tiy^ 

Nubian  valley  ? 

4.  Of  the  island  of  Meroe  ? 

5.  Of  its  advantages  for  trade  with  India  .' 
G.   What    singular    animal   is   found  in  ill 

neighbourhood  ? 
7.  What  large  animal  is  also  found  there  ' 

Sec.  2. —  Histori/  of  the  Ethiopians. 

1.  Whar,    is   said  of  the   early    history   of 

Meroe  ? 

2.  Of  its  monuments  ? 

3.  What   Assyrian   heroine  attempted  the 

conquest  of  Ethiopia  ? 

4.  What  evidence  have  we  of  the   Ethio 

pians'  being  a  powerful  nation  f 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


5.  The  immediate  cause  of  the  captivity 

of  the  ten  tribes  ? 

6.  Who  was  Sevechus  ? 

7.  What  colonists  emigrated  to  Ethiopia  in 

the  reign  of  Psammetichus  ? 

8.  Of   what  advantage  were  they   to   the 

Ethiopians  ? 

9.  Of  what  folly  was  Cambyses  guilty,  in 

his  invasion  of  Ethiopia  ? 

10.  SuiFerings  of  his  soldiers  ? 

11.  How  was  the  king  of  Ethiopia  elected? 

12.  Strange  custom  of  the  electors? 

•3    Who  resisted  it,  and  with  what  success? 
14    Which  of  the  queens  of  Ethiopia  made 

war  against  Augustus  Csesar  ? 
15.  What  religion  was  prevalent  at  Meroe? 

•1EC..3. — Arts,  Commerce,  and  Manufactures 
of  Meroe. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  pyramids  of  Meroe  ? 

2.  The  most  striking  proof  of  the  progress 

of  the  Ethiopians  in  the  art  of  building? 

3.  Commerce  and  manufactures  of  Meroe  7 

4.  To  what  did  it  owe  its  greatness  ? 

5.  The  causes  of  its  ruin  ? 

6.  What  accelerated  it? 


CHAPTER  III. 

BABYLONIA  AND  ASSYRIA. 

3ec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. — Natural 
History. 

1.  How  was  Babylonia  situated? 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  Tigris  ? 

3.  The  first  habitation  of  the  descendants 

of  Noah  ? 

4.  Situation  of  Assyria? 

5.  Fertility  of  Babylonia  ? 

6    In  regetable  productions? 

7.  Why  was  commerce   neglected  by  the 

Brbylouians? 
.5.  What  is  said  of  their  bricks  ? 


Thor  substitute  for  mortar  ? 
Nature  of  it  ? 


b2C.  2    -Political  and  Social  Condition  of 
the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians. 

1.  Government  of  Assyria? 

2.  Power  and  state  of  the  king? 

3.  Their  priesthood,  and  religion  ? 

4.  Name  of  their  supreme  deity  ? 

5.  What  has  rendered  the  Assyrian  mytho- 

logy obscure  ? 

6.  The    mr.-'t    i.-^arkf-d    attr'butes   cf    their 

idolatry  ? 

7.  Form  of  their  idols  ? 
8    The  condition  of  woman  in  Babylonia  1 
9.  How  were  thfy  married? 

10.  The  natural  resnlls  of  this  system? 

11.  How  aggravated  ? 

12.  Their    progress   in   the   mechanical  arts, 

and  in  luatliematical  science  ? 


13.  Character  of  their  language  ? 

14.  Materials  on  which  they  wrote  ? 

Sec  3. — History  of  the  Assyrians  and 
Babylonians. 

1.  Greek  account  of  Assyrian  history  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  Nimrod  ? 

3.  When  was  the  Assyrian  emjHre  fourdedl 

4.  Its  capital  ? 

5.  Nimrod's  principal  queen  ? 

6.  Why    is    it    sometimes    said    that    she 

founded  Babylon  ? 

7.  Her  conquests  ? 

8.  Character  and  conduct  of  her  successors? 

9.  Give  some  account  of  Pul. 

10.  Of  Tiglath-pul-assur 

11.  Of  Shalman-assur. 

12.  Of  Sanherib  or  Sennacherib. 

13.  Of  Sardanapalus. 

14.  His  dreadful  end. 

15.  Who  were  the  Kasdim  or  Chaldeans? 

16.  Testimony  of  Isaiah  respecting  them? 

17.  Why  is  the  reign  of  Nabonassar  a  re- 

markable era  in  history  ? 

18.  What  Egyptian  monarch  invaded  Assy- 

ria, and  with  what  success  ? 

19.  Who  was  Nitocris  ? 

20.  Of  what  opportunity  did  the  Jews  aval 

themselv'is    to    assert    their    indepen- 
dence ? 

21.  How  did  they  suffer  for  their  revolt  ? 

22.  Why  did  they  a  second  time  revolt  ? 

23.  How  were  they  then  punished  ? 

24.  Of  what  folly  was  Nebuchadnezzar  guiltj 

on  his  return  ? 

25.  What  befell  him  at  the  close  of  his  reigu  1 

26.  By   what   people  was   the    Babylonian 

empire  overthrown  ? 

27.  Meaning  of  the  name  Belshazzar  ? 

28.  Works  of  the  queen-mother  Nitocris  ? 

29.  Conduct  of  Belshazzar  ? 

30.  How  did  Cyrus  enter  Babylon  ? 

31.  Fate  of  Belshazzar  ? 

32.  Date  of  the  fall  of  Babylon  ? 

Sec.  4. — Description  of  Nineceh  ana 
Babylon. 

1.  Nineveh,  why  so  named  ? 

2.  Its  situation  ? 

3.  Its  form  and  dimensions  "> 

4.  Why  so  large  ? 

5.  Its  wall  and  towers  ? 

6.  What  is  it  now  ? 

7.  Form  and  dimensions  of  Babylon  ? 

8.  Wi.dt  i;i  sail  of  its  sin-d.ied  bricJwT 

9.  Dimensions  of  its  walls  ? 

10.  Describe  the  city. 

11.  In  what  two  ways  were  the  bunks  m 
the  Euphrates  connected  ? 

12.  Size  of  the  bridge? 

13.  Describe  the  temple  of  Be! us. 

14.  Describe  the  hanging  gardens 


5 


QUESTIONS   ON 


i5    Purp<*e  of  Alexander  witli   reference  to 
Babylon  ? 

1 6  AVhat  is  it  no  A'  ? 

1 7  Prophecy  of  Isaiali  ? 

?BC    5. — Commfirce    and  Manufactures  of 
the  Babylonians. 

1  Tlie  manufactures  of  Babylon  ? 

2  What  art  was  carried  to  great  perfection  ? 

3  Conimi'rce  of  the  Babylonians? 

4.  Their  imports  • 

5.  How  was  their  trade   carried   ou  iu  the 

Indian  seas  ? 

6.  How  and  why  \v£is  this  trade  destroyed 

by  the  Persians? 

7.  Whence  did  they  obtain  pearls  ? 

8.  The  cotton  plantations  on  these  islands  ? 

1.  What  ship-timber  did  they  furnish  ? 

CHAPTER    IV. 

>VESTERN  ASIA  I    INCLUDING  ASIA    MINOR,  SYRIA 
AND  PALESTINE. 

'^EC.  1. — Asia   Minor. — Geographical  Out- 
line. 

[    What  is  said  of  the  term  Asia  Minor  7 

2.  Where  was  Troy  situated  ? 

3    By  what  people  was  the  western  coasts 
of  Asia  Minor  colonized  I 

4.  What  is  said  of  Sardis  ? 

5.  Why  was  Galatia  so  called  ? 

6.  For  what  was  Caria  chiefly  remarkable? 

7.  By  whom  was  Tarsus  founded? 

Sec.  2. — Ancient  History  of  Asia  Minor. 

I.   The  three  kingdoms  of  Asia  Minor  most 

worthy  of  notice  ? 
2    What  is  said  of  the  historj'  of  Troy? 

3.  When  and  by  whom  founded  ? 

4.  The  changes  it  underwent  ? 

5  Cause  of  its  siege  and  destruction  ? 

6  What  shows  that  the  Phrygians  were 

originally  a  very  powerful  people  ? 

7  Their  chief  deity  ? 

8  Her  priests,  and  for  what  celebrated  ? 

9.  Name  of  most  of  the  Phrygian  kings  ? 

10  Story  of  the  Gord  an  knot? 

1 1  Who  were  the  Lydians  ? 

12.  The  three  dynasties  that  ruled  over  them? 
13    Who  were  the  Cimmerians? 
14.   Ert'cct  of  an  eclipse  of  the  sun  ? 
15    By  whom  had  it  been  predicted? 
IG.    Wiiat  is  said  of  Crcesiis? 

17.  Visit  of  Soioi;  to  him,  and  their  interview? 

18.  How  did  he  escaj)e  death  ? 

Sec  3. — Syria. — Geographical  Outline. 

1  To  what  country  was  the  name  of  Syria 

given  ? 

2  Its  pro;)er  dimensions  7 
.'     lis  mrt-e  divisior.*? 

4.  Us  principal  cities  '' 


5.  Situation  of  PalmjTa? 

6.  By  whom  founded  ? 

7.  The  principal  cause  of  Ihe  rum  of  Tyre 

Sec.  4. — Social  and  Political  Condition  o, 
the  Syrians  and  Phoenicians. 

1.  The  only  large  river  in  Syria? 

2.  Its  soil,  and  natural  advantages  ' 

3.  What  circumstance  led  to  many  of  thfl 

revolutions'  of  Syria  ? 

4.  Its  religion  ? 

5.  Topography  of  Phoenicia  ? 

6.  Its  religion  ? 

Sec.  5. — History  of  the  Syrians  and  Phceni 
cians. 

1.  What  Jewish  king  conquered  Syria? 

2.  Who  threw  otT'  the  yoke  and  founded  the 

kingdom  of  Damascus  ? 

3.  Fate  of  Benhadad  ? 

4.  Character  and  actions  of  Hazael? 

5.  What  led  to  the  destruction  of  Damascus  1 

6.  The   first  sovereign  of  Tyre,  and  with 

whom  contemporary  ? 

7.  His  son  and  successor  ? 

8.  Condition  of  Tyre  in  his  r^ign  ? 

9.  The  most  remarkable  of  his  successors  ? 

10.  By  whom  was  Carthage  founded? 

11.  How  was  Tyre  almost  ruined  by  Nebu 

chadnezzar? 

12.  What  change  was  afterwards  made   in 

the  government  of  Tyre  ? 

13.  Of  what  advantage  was  it  to  Persia? 

14.  By  whom  and  when  was  it  finally  cap« 

tured  ? 

Sec.  6. — Phoenician  Colonies  and  Foreign 
Possessions. 

1.  What  system  has  always  helped  on  civili- 

zation ? 

2.  The  design  of  founding  colonies  ? 

3.  Why  does  civil    liberty    advance    more 

rapidly  in   colonies  than  in  the  pareui 
state  ? 

4.  Characteristic  of  commercial  states  ? 

5.  Ezekiel's  description  of  Tyre  ? 

6.  Progress  of  the  Phcsnician  coloiiies  ? 

7.  What  country  was  the   Peru  of  the  fj- 

cient  world  ? 

8.  What  is  Spain  called  in  the  Scriptures  / 

9.  What   is  said   of   the   Tyrian    coVuiie* 

there  7 

10.  Conduct   of   the  Tyrians    toward  theit 

colonies? 

1 1.  The  pillars  of  Hercules,  what  ? 

12.  How  far  north   did  the  Tyrians  extend 

their  trad'"'' 

13.  Whai    African    cities   rivalled  Tyre    is 

wealth  and  magnificence? 

14.  W!iy  did   they   keep  the   knowledge  <t 

their  discoveries  to  themselves  ? 

15.  Who  first  formed  commercial  settlement* 

along  Asia  Minor  and  the  Black  sea' 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


J6    Wh'dit  establishments  did  they  have  ii? 

the  eastern  seas  ? 
7.  When  were  these  settlements  made' 
.8.  With  what  people  did  they  closely  ally 

themselves  ? 

Sec.  7. — Phviiician  Manufacturts  and 
Commerce. 

I .  The  Tyrian  purple,  what ;  and  how  ob- 
tained ? 

1  What  art  was  known  to  the  Phoenicians 
alone  ? 

J.  By  whom  was  glass  invented? 

4.  The  products  of  Tyrian  industry? 

5    In  what  did  their  commerce  consist? 
G.  Into    what   three    great    branches   may 
their  laud-trade  be  divided  ? 

7.  What  was  imported  from  Arabia  1 

8.  How  was  this  trade  carried  ou? 

9.  The  ports  of  the  Idumeans  ? 
10    Their  capital  ? 

11.  Ancient  caravans,  describe  ? 

12  The  cause  of  the  close  alliance  of  the 

Phoenicians  and  Israelites  ? 

13  Who  built  Baalbec  and  Palmyra  ? 

14  His  dtesign,  and  how  frustrated  ? 

15  The  great  high  road  of  Phoenician  com- 

merce ? 

16  Their  rivals  and  political  enemies  ? 

17  The  richest  country  in  the  ancient  world 

in  precious  metals  ? 
18.  Whence    did    the    Phoenicians    procure 
their  tin  ? 

19  Whence  their  amber;  and  its  value? 

20  What  circumstances  prove  the  boldness 

of  their  commercial  enterprises  ? 

CHAPTER  V. 

PALESTINE. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

1  Situation  of  Palestine  ? 

2  Its  most  remarkable  features  ? 

3  Its  two  great  plains? 

4  Its  only  great  river  ? 

5.  The  site  of  Sodom  aud  Gomorrah  ? 

6.  The  principal  cities  of  Palestine  ? 

7.  What  country  did  David  annex  to  it? 

8.  What  gave  importance  to  Idumfp.i  ? 

9.  Present  condition  of  Palestine  ? 


Sec.  2. — History  of  Palestine. 

1.  Father  of  the  Hebrews  ? 

2.  History  of  Joseph  ? 
Fate  of  Pharaoh's  host  ? 
Why  did  God  lead  his  people  througli 

the  desert  ? 
When  did  they  reach  Sinai  ? 
Their  government  ? 

The  one  groat  object  of  their  institutions? 
For  what  purpose  were  they  chosen  by 

God  to  be  his  pecidiar  people  ? 


9    Conduct  of  Moses  ivhen  he  beheld  tltefa 

golden  calf? 

10.  Wiiy  were  they  compelled  to  wander  ia 

the  wilderness  forty  years? 

11.  The  miracles  of  their  journey  ? 

12.  Why  did  they  leave  Edom  unmolested? 

13.  What  victories  did  they  gain  ? 

14.  Result  of  the  census  ? 

15.  Last  acts  of  Moses  ? 

16.  Age  of  Moses  at  his  death  ? 

17.  Who  concealed  his  body,  and  why  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Conquest  of  Canaan  hy  Joshua. 

1.  Moses' successor ;  his  age  and  character? 

2.  Some  of  the  difficulties  in  his  way  ? 

3.  Conduct   of  the  tribes   of  Reuben  and 

Gad? 

4.  How  was  the  Jordan  crossed,  and  Jerichc 

taken  ? 

5.  By  what  stratagem  was  the  city  of  Ai 

taken  1—See  the  S.  S. 

6.  Stratagem  of  the  Gibeouites  ? 

7.  What  miracle  was  performed  at  Joshua's 

command  ? 

8.  How  long  did  the  war  continue  against 

the  Canaanites? 

9.  The  folly  of  the  Israelites  in  abandoning 

it,  and  the  consequences? 

10.  Joshua's  age  at  his  death? 

11.  How  long  did  the  Israelites  continue  to 

serve  God  ? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  Israel  under  the  Judges. 

1.  How    was    Israel    governed    ujider  the 

theocracy  ? 

2.  How  were  these  judges  chosen  ? 

3.  Why  did  God  suffer  the  heathen  to  op- 

press his  people  ? 

4.  How  long  did  the  king  of  Mesopotamia 

oppress  them  ? 

5.  How  long  the  Moabites  ? 

6.  How  long  Jabin,  king  of  Syria  ? 

7.  How  long  the  Midianites  ? 

8.  How  were  they  delivered? 

9.  What  produced  a  civil  war? 

10.  How  was  Abimelech  killed? 

11.  Who  was  Jephthah  ? 

12.  How    long   did    the    Philistines   oppresi 

them? 

13.  What  strong  man  harassed  the  Philis- 

tines ? 

14.  His  end? 

15.  Conduct  of  Eli's  two  sons? 

16.  Who  was  Samuel  ? 

17.  Wliy  did  the  Israelites  demand  a  king? 

18.  What  made  this  demand  treasonable  ? 

19.  Whom  did  God  set  over  them  as  thei! 

king  ? 

Sec.  5. — History  of  the  United  Kiigdom  of 
Israel. 

1.  What  made  Saul  popular  •vith  the  peo- 
ple? 


QUESTIONS    ON 


3.  ^\^len  and  where  did  Samuel  resign  his 
office  of  judge  ? 

3.  Character  and  deeds  of  Jonathan,  Saul's 

son '! 

4.  Sinful  haste  of  Saul,   and    his   punish- 

ment ? 

5.  Saul's  disobedience  of  a  divine  command? 
6    Whom   did    Samuel    anoint    as     Saul's 

successor  ? 

7.  Story  of  David  and  Goliath  ? 

8.  Why   was   Saul  jealous   of  David,  asd 

how  did  he  show  his  feelings  ? 

9.  Conduct  of  David  thereupon  ? 

10.  Condition    of    Saul    after   the   death   of 

Samuel  ? 

11.  Storv  of  the  witch  of  Endor  ? 

12.  Death  of  Saul  >. 

13.  Policy  of  David,  after  Saul's  death? 

14.  Course  of  Abner  ? 

15.  His  end,  and  that  of  Ishbosheth  ? 

16.  Who  were  the  Jebusites  ? 

1 7  What  important  city  did  David  capture  ? 

18  W^ar  with  the  Philistines,  and  its  results? 

19  What  alliance  did  David  enter  into  ? 

20  His  conquests  and  treasures  ? 

21  His  sin  in  the  matter  of  Uriah  i 

22.  Its  punishment  ? 

23.  History  of  Absalom's  and  of  Sheba's  con- 

spiracy ? 

24.  Conduct  of  Adonijah  ? 

25.  How  long  did  David  reign  ? 

26.  His  successor,  and  his  character  ? 

27.  How  long  was  he  in  building  the  temple  ? 
i8.  What  other  magnificent  building  did  he 

erect  ? 
39.  What  greatly  increased  his  power  ? 

30.  Extent  of  his  dominions  ? 

31.  By  what  works  did  he  manifest  hid  wis- 

dom ? 
32    His  defection  in  his  old  age  ? 
33.  How  long  did  he  reiga  ? 

Sec.  6    -The  Revolt  of  the   Ten  Tribes. — 
The  history  of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel. 

L .  Folly  of  Rehoboam,  and  its  consequences  ? 

2.  Impiety  of  Jeroboam  ? 

3.  Conduct  of  the  Levites  in  Israel  ? 

4.  Conduct  of  Bdasha  ? 

5.  Story  of  Omri's  accession  ? 

6.  Who  built  Samaria  ;  and  why  was  it  so 

named  ? 

7.  Omri's  successor  ;  and  his  character  ? 

8.  Who  instigated  him  to  commit  idolatry  ? 
9    Story  of  Elijah  and  the  priests  of  Baal  ? 

10.  Who  invaded   Israel  at  this  time,   and 

with  what  success  ? 

11.  Story  of  Naboth  and  his  vineyard  ? 

12.  Story  of  Elii^h's  calling  down  fire  from 

heaven  ? 

13.  EiidofEnjah? 

r4.  Success  of  Benhadad's  attempt  to  cap- 
ture Elisha  ? 
15    Fate  of  Benhadad  and  his  army? 


Story  of  Jehu's  accession  T 

End  of  Jezebel  ? 

Who  plundered  Jerusalem? 

What  new  enemy  invaded  Israel  f 

Who  invaded  Judah  ;  and  how  did   hi 

treat  his  captives  ? 
To  what  people  did  the  Israelites  soon 

after  become  tributary  ? 
What  led  to  the  ruin  of  Israel? 
When,   and   by   whom,   was    Samarin 

taken  ;  and  the  Israelites  carried  away 

captive  ? 
To  whom  was  their  country  given  '. 
Origin  of  the  Samaritans  ? 


Sec.  7. — History  of  the  Kingdom  of  Judak. 

1.  Rehoboam's  couductj    and  how   was   it 

punished  ? 

2.  How  is  the  account  of  Shishak's  powei 

confirmed  ? 

3.  How  did  he  treat  Jerusalem  ? 

4.  Victory  of  Abijah  ? 

5.  Asa's  character,  and  deeds  ? 

6.  How  did  he  e.xhibit  his  distrust  in  the 

divine  favour  ? 

7.  Character  of  Jehoshaphat? 

8.  Of  what  folly  was  he  guilty  ? 

9.  How  did  he  sutler  for  it  ? 
10.  His  victories  ? 

14.  What  wicked  alliance  did  he  form  ;  and 
the  fruits  uf  it  ? 

12.  How  was  his  son  Jehoram  punished  for 

his  sins;? 

13.  Athaiiah's  conduct  ? 

14.  Jehoash's  escape,  and  where  educated  ? 

15.  Fate  of  Athaiiah  ? 

16.  Conduct  of  Jehoash  ;  and  how  punished! 

17.  Conduct  of  Amazi^h  ;  and  how  was  iJ 

punished  ? 

18.  Character  and  deeds  of  Uzziah  ? 

19.  Of  what    impiety   was   he   guilty,  and 

how  punished  ? 

20.  Character  and  power  of  Jotham  ' 

21.  Wicked  deeds  of  Ahaz,  and  the  calam. 

ties  of  his  reign  ? 
23.  Character  of  Hezekiah  ? 

23.  What  ancient  relic  did  he  destroy,  and 

why  / 

24.  Of  what  folly  was  he  guilty  ? 

25.  How  was  his  wavering  faith  confirmed? 

26.  What  miracle  was  wrought  to  save  ti* 

capital  ? 

27.  Embassy  of  the  king  of  Babylon  ? 

28.  His  folly  on  the  occasion? 

29.  Character  and  conduct  of  Manasseh,  hi« 

successor  ? 

30.  How  did  he  treat  Isaiah? 

31.  How  did  Jerusalem  suffer  in  consequenc« 

of  his  crimes  ? 

32.  How  was  he  treated  ? 

33.  His  latter  end  ? 

34.  Character  and  conduct  of  his  son? 

35.  Character  and  conduct  o'  Josiah'' 


ANCIENT    fllSTORlr. 


36.  By  what  rasli  act  did  he  lose  his  life  ? 

37  Who  etiected  a  revolution  in  the  affairs 

of  Asia  ? 

38  How  did  he  treat  the  king  of  Judah,  and 

his  family  ? 

39  When,  why,  and  by  whom  was  Jerusa- 

lem destroyed  ? 
■10    How  is  this  event  still   commemorated 

by  the  Jews  ? 
41.  How  were  the  captives  treated? 
4'2.  What  good  effect  did  their  long  captivity 

have  on  them  ? 


CHAPTER  VI. 

rilE  EMPIRE  OF  THE  MEDES  AND  PERSIANS. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

L  The  boundaries  of  Persia,  in  its  most 
prosperous  state? 

2.  Its  most  striking  features  ? 

3.  The  sacred  metropolis  of  Persia  proper  ? 

4.  By  whom  destroyed? 

.5.  How  did  the  Uxii  treat  the  Persian 
kings  ? 

6.  What  is  said  of  Susa  ? 

7.  What,  of  Ecbatana  ? 

8.  What,  of  Aria  ? 

9.  What,  of  Samarcand  ? 

;0.  What,  of  the  valleys  of  the  centre  of 
Persia  ? 

11.  The  condition  of  Persia,  from  the  re- 
motest ages  ? 

Sec.  2. — The  Sources  and  Extent  of  our 
Knowledge  respecting  the  Ancient 
Persians 

1.  What  is  the  Zend-a-vesta  ? 

2.  What,  the  Dabistan  ? 

3.  What,  the  Shah  Nameh  ;  and  its  author  ? 
4    The  priiicipal  Greek  authorities  for  the 

Jiistory  of  Persia  ? 

3  What  is  said  of  the  narrative  of  Hero- 
dotus ? 

<5.  What  Persian  histor  /  de  we  find  in  the 
Bible  ? 

7  The  result  of  modern  philological  re- 
searches ? 

Bec.  3  — Social  and  Political  Condition  of 
Ancient  Persia. 

1  To  whose  incursions  has  central  Asia 
always  been  exposed? 

2.  Who  were  the  Arii ;  and  the  meaning 

of  the  word  ? 

3.  To  what  was  their  early  success  owing  ? 

4.  Who  was  Jemshid  ? 

5.  Who  overthrew  the  Modes? 

6.  Religion  of  the  Magi  ? 

7.  How  were  they  treated  by  Cyrus  ? 

B.  Who  was   Zoroaster,  and  what  wat  his 

system  ? 
I.  The  author  of  the  system  of  Castes  1 


10.  What  is  said  of  the  sacerdotal  rank  in 

Persia  ? 

11.  For  what  were  "  the  laws  of  the  Medea 

and  Persians  "  proverbial  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  the  power  of  the  king, 

and  his  satraps  ? 

13.  v."'oiidition  of  the  peasantry  ;  and  to  what 

owing  ? 

14.  What  other  source  of  wretchedness  es« 

isted  ? 

15.  How  was  the  fate  of  a  Persian  armjf 

generally  decided? 

16.  Why  was  the  defeat  of  the  army  th« 

conquest  of  the  kingdom  ? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  the  Medes  and  Persian* 
under  the  Kaianian  Dynasty. 

1.  Of  what  country  were  Media  and  Persu 

once  provinces  ? 

2.  Who   rescued    Media   from    a   state   cA 

anarchy  ? 

3.  His  deeds,  and  how  interrupted  ? 

4.  Under  whom  did  the  Median  power  obtarv 

its  highest  glory  ? 

5.  How  long  did  the  ravages  of  the  Scy  thii  \, 

host  continue? 

6.  How  were  the  Scythians  destroyed  ? 

7.  What  occasioned  the  war  between  Mechi 

and  Lydia  ? 

8.  The  most  memorable  event  of  this  wai  ? 

9.  By  whom  was  Nineveh  destroyed? 

10.  Tiie  next  exploit  of  Cyaxares  ? 

11.  Who  was  Astyages? 

12.  The  parents  of  Cyrus  ? 

13.  His  early  history  ? 

14.  Story  of  Daniel  ? 

15.  How    is   ho    described   in  some   Jewish 

traditions  ? 

16.  First  act  of  Gyrus  toward  the  Jews  ? 

17.  Where  was  he  buried  ? 

18.  The  inscription  on  his  tomb  ? 

19.  His  successor,  and  his  conquests? 

20.  By  vv'hat  folly  of  his  was  his  army  de- 

stroyed ? 

21.  What  prevented  him  from  carrj'ing  hi* 

arms  into  Western  Africa  ? 

22.  His  death  ? 

Sec.  5. — History  of  the  Persians  under  the 
Hystaspid.  Dynasty. 

1.  By  whom  was  Smerdis   raised  to   the 

throne  ? 

2.  His  successor  and  his  title? 

3.  What  great  philosopher  lived  in  his  time  1 

4.  How  did  Darius  secure  his  title  ? 

5.  What    city   revolted,    and   how   was   it 

taken  ? 

6.  What  country  did  he  next  invade,  an^ 

with  what  success  ? 

7.  Expedition  under  Mardonins? 

8.  Second  expedition,  and  how  destroyed? 

9.  Purpose  of  Xerxes,  his  successor  ? 

10    Repulse  at  the  straits  of  Tbenno^yloB  1 


10 


QUESTIONS   ON 


11    Victories  of  the  Greeks? 

12.  Oriental  name  and  account  of  Xerxes  ? 

13.  His  nunie  iu  the  Bible,  and  its  siguiiica- 

tion  ? 

14.  His  fate  ? 

15.  Terms    of    the    humiliating   treaty    of 

Artaxerxes  with  the  Greeks? 

16  Who  was  Darius  Nothus  ? 

17  By   whom    was    Artaxerxes     Mnemon 

op|)08ed.  and  with  what  success  ? 
IS.  Condition  of  the  empire  during  his  reign  ? 

19.  What  Spartan  king  came  near  antici- 

pating Alexander  in  conquering  Persia? 

20.  What    domestic    calamities    broke     the 

heart  of  the  Persian  king? 

21.  Conduct  of  Ochus  on  his  accession? 

22.  His  exploits  in  war  ? 

23  Who  was  Darius  Codomannus  ? 

24  How  did  he  treat  Bagoas  ? 

25  By  whom  was  Persia  conquered  ? 
26.  What  two  battles  did  he  gain  ? 


CHAPTER  VII. 

flCEXICIAN     COLONIES     I.\     NORTHERN    AFRICA, 
ESPECIALLY    CARTHAGE. 

Sec.  1. — Geag     /jfiical  Outline  of  Northern 
Africa. 

1.  When  was  Africa  first  circumnavigated  ? 

2.  Into  what  three  regions  was  the  northern 

coast  divided  ? 

3.  Its  six  political  divisions  ? 

4.  S^t,uation  of  Carthage  ? 

5.  ifow  was  it  protected  ? 

6.  Extent  of  its  dominions? 

7.  Its  foreign  possessions? 

Sec.  2. — Social  and  Political  Condition  of 
Carthage. 

1.  Tlie  government  of  Carthage? 

2.  In  what  cases  were  questions  of  policy 

submitted  to  the  people  ? 
S.   In  what    respect'  was   its   government 
more  constitutional   than  any  of   the 
ancien    repubUcs? 

4.  Give  examples. 

5.  The  religion  of  the  Carthaginians  ? 

6.  Their  currency? 

7.  Their  public   revenues,  whence  derived? 

8.  Their  naval  skill  ? 

9.  Their  galleys,  how  built  and  manned  ? 
10.  Their  land  armies,  how  composed  ? 

?EC.  3. — History  of  Cartha'je  from  the 
Foundation  of  the  City  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Syracusan  Wars. 

I.  Tlie  founder  of  Carthage  ? 

2  Its  early  condition  ? 

3  How   regarded  by  the  cities  Utica  and 

Leptis? 
4.   What  IS  said  of  the  family  of  Mago  ? 


5.  With  whom  wa^  theii  firdt  i  aval  eugag« 

inent  fought  ? 

6.  The  story  of  the  Phocteans  ? 

7.  With  what  republic  did  it  form  a  twat?  i 

8.  With  what  Asiatic  power  ? 

9.  The  forces  which  they  raised  ? 
It).  Character  of  this  immense  army  ? 

11.  With   what   forces  did  Gelou,  king   of 

Syracuse,  attack  them  ? 

12.  Stratagem  of  Geloa  ? 

13.  Loss  of  the  Carthaginians  ? 

14.  ^\'hat    two    celebrated    victories    wen 

gained  by  the  Git^eks  on  this  same  day  : 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  Carthaginians   aflei 

this  defeat  ? 

16.  What  led  them  again  to  Sicily  ? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  Carthage    during  th: 
Sicilian  Wars. 

1.  The  success  of  their  second  invasion  of 

Sicily  ? 

2.  What  city  did  they  besiege  ? 

3.  Their  cruelty  to  the  Agrigentines  ? 

4.  Treachery  of  Dionysius  ? 

5.  Third  invasion  of  Sicily,  cause  avi  sac 

cess  of  it  ? 

6.  Fourth  invasion  and  its  results  ? 

7.  What  troubles  ensued  ? 

8.  Character  of  Dionysius? 

9.  Fifth  invasion  of  Sicily,  how  defeated : 

10.  Con.sequences  to  Mago  the  general? 

1 1.  Sixth  invasion,  with  what  forces  ? 

12.  How,  and  by  whom  defeated  ? 

13.  What    danger    did   Carthage    narrowly 

escape  at  home  ? 

14.  Conduct  of  Hanno,  and  his  fate  ? 

15.  Seventh  invasion   of  Sicily,   how  occa- 

sioned ? 

1 G.  Bold  design  of  Agathocles  ? 

1 7.  His  success  ? 

18.  VV'hat  did  he  find  in  the  enemies'  camp  "^ 

19.  The  effect  of  this  victory  ? 

20.  Treachery  of  Agathocles? 

21.  How  was  it  rewarded  ? 

22.  His  death  ? 

23.  Whose  aid  was  now  solicited  agamst  thu 

Carthaginians  ? 

24.  His  success  ? 

Sec.  5. — From  the  Commencement  of  tht 
Roman  Wars  to  the  Destruction  of  Car- 
thage. 

1.  Pyrrhus'  remark  when  leaviiig  Sicily  ? 

2.  What  led  to  the  first  Punic  war? 

3.  How  long  did  it  la.st,  and  its  results  ? 

4.  What  project  did  Hamiicar  Barca  foni 

to  restore  his  country's  power  ? 

5.  What  oath  did  he  force  his  sou  Hauniba 

to  take  ? 

6.  His  success  in  Spain  ? 

7.  Of  what  has  Hasdrubal  been  suspected 

8.  What  city  did  nc  build  ? 

9.  Hbs  prudent  policy  toward  the  nativea  J 


ASCIENT    HISTORY. 


11 


10  To  what  did  the  Romans  compel  him  7 

11  The  cause  of  the  second  Puiiic  war  .' 

12  Its  results  ? 

13.  What  powerful  rival    was  raised  up  iii 

Africa  itself  T 

14.  His  country's  ingratitude  to  Hannibal  ? 

15.  His  death? 

16.  What  aggressions  were  made  against  the 

Carthaginian  territory  ? 

17.  What  internal  dissensions  arose? 

18.  How  was  a  war  with   Massinissa  pro- 

voked ? 

19.  Pretext  for  the  third  Punic  war  ? 

20.  Fate  of  Carthage  ? 

Sec  6. — Navigation,  Trade,  and  Commerce 
of  Carthage. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  colonial  and  com- 

mercial policy  of  the  Carthaginians  ? 

2.  W^hat  peculiar  circumstances  forced  this 

system  on  them  ? 

3.  Their  articles  of  export  and  import  ? 

4.  Into  whose  hands  did  the  British  trade 

fall,  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage  ? 

5.  The  great  mart  ol  Carthage  on  the  west 

coast  of  Africa  ? 

6.  What  lucrative  fishery  did  they  engage  in? 

7.  How  far  south  did  their  navigators  ven- 

ture ? 

8.  Their   imports    from    the    neighbouring 

countries  V 

9.  From  the  interior  of  Africa  ? 

0    How  was  this  lucrative  commerce  con- 
cealed ? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  FOUNDATIO.V  OF  THE  GRECIAN  STATES. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline  of  Hellas. 

1.  Boundaries  of  Greece  ? 

2.  Its  extent  anc   area  ? 

3.  Advantages  of  its  situation  ? 

4.  Its  three  great  divisions  ? 
5  Describe  Thessaly. 

6.  Ho^'■  was  it  ruined  ? 

7.  Describe  Ep'-us. 

8.  For  what  was  it  celebrated  ? 

9.  The  nine  countries  of  central  Greece  ? 

10.  Dimensions  and  productions  of  Attica? 

11.  For  what  was  Cithceron  celebrated  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  Bueotia  ? 

13.  In  what  district  were  Helicon  and  Par- 

nassus ? 

14.  Where  was  the  temple  of  Delphi  ? 

15.  What  is  said  of  Delj»hi  ? 

16.  Where  was  the  pass  of  Thermopyla;  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  the  Acarnanians  '. 

Bkc  2. — Geographical  Outline  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. 

L  After    whom     was     the     Peloponnesus 
aained,  and  w  by  called  the  Mor6a  ? 


2.  Its  eight  countries  7 

3.  What  is  said  of  Arcadia  and  its  nihabit- 

ants  ? 

4.  Of  Laconin  ? 

5.  Of  Messenia,  and  its  inhabitants  ? 

6.  Of  Argolis  ! 

7.  OfElis? 

8.  What  celebrated  games  were  celebraled 

near  Pisa,  every  five  years  ? 

9.  Where  was  Achaia,  and  its  inhabttant.sl 

10.  The  most  ancient  city  in  Greece  T 

11.  How  was   the   Peloponnesus   connected 

with  Hellas? 

12.  What  proverbial  expression  obtained  in 

Greece  ? 

13.  What   games   were    celebrated   on   thla 

isthmus? 

14.  Situation  of  Corinth  ? 

15.  To  what  did  it  owe  its  power? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Grecian  Islands  in  the  Aegean 
and  Mediterranean  Seas. 

1.  For  what  was  Tenedos  remarkable  ? 

2.  Why  was  Lemnos  dedicated  to  Vulcan  ? 

3.  Where  was  Lesbos  situated  ? 

4.  For  what  was  Chios  celebrated  ? 

5.  For  what  Delos  ? 

6.  For  what  Pares  ? 

7.  What  great  poet  was  buried  in  los? 

8.  What  philosopher  was  born  in  Samos  7 

9.  What  book  in  the  New  Testament  waa 

written  in  Patmos  ? 

10.  What  distinguished  physician  was  bom 

in  Cos  ? 

11.  For  what  was  Crete  celebrated  ? 

12.  The  favourite  island  of  Venus  ? 

Sec.  4. —  The  Ionian  Isles. 

1.  For  what  is  Corcyra  celebrated  ? 

2.  For  what  Ithaca? 

3.  For  wiiat  Zathynthus  ? 

4.  For  what  Cytherea? 

Sec.  5. — Social  and  Political  Condition  oj 
Greece. 

1.  Between   what  two  races  was  Greeica 

divided  ? 

2.  For  what  were  the  lonians  remarkable  7 
3    Their  characteristics? 

4.  For  what  were  the  Dorians  remarkable  1 

5.  Their  characteristics  ? 

6.  The     chief    characteristic    of    Grecian 

policy  ? 

7.  The  most  marked  feature  in  the  political 

aspect  of  Greece  ? 

8.  What  did  the  supremacy  of  the  principa' 

state  include  ? 

9.  Why  was  political  science  so  rapidly  d© 

veloped  in  Greece  ? 

10.  The  common  bond  of  uinon  of  the  Hel- 

lenic race  ? 

11.  Characteristic  of  Asiatic  and  cA  Greciai 

deities  1 


12 


tjUESTIONB   05 


1:^.  Effects  of  the  fwo  Rystems  ? 

13.  What  oracles  and  temples  were  national  ? 

14.  Which  was  the  more  superstitious,  the 

Dorian  or  the  Ionian  race  ? 

15.  Seat  and  preroirativos  of  the   Ampliic- 

tyonic  council  ! 
6.  The  great  public  games  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  these  games  ? 

18.  What  remark   is  made  of  the  constitu- 

tions of  the  Grecian  states  1 

19.  How  was  labour  esteemed  '.' 

20.  Their  attention  to  iinance  ? 

21.  What,  after  a  while,  made  heavy  taxa- 

tion necessary  ? 
'22.  AVhat  other  source  of  expense  existed? 

23.  What  is  said  of  the  dicasts  or  jurymen  ? 

24.  The  influence  of  poets  and  orators  ? 

25.  What  circumstances  rendered  the  dura- 

tion of  the  constitution  brief,  thoi'gh 
glorious  ? 

Skc.  6. — The  traditional  History  of  Greece, 
from  the  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Commence- 
ment of  the  Trojan  War. 

i.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Greece  ? 

2.  Their  earliest  approaches  to  civilization  ? 

3.  The  first  tribe  that  acquired  supremacy 

in  Greece  ? 

4.  Their  first  city,  and  when  built  ? 

5.  Their  founder,  and  with  what  patriarch 

contemporary  ? 

6.  Pelasgic  remains,  describe. 

7    How  long    did    the    Pelasgi  flourish  in 
Greece  ? 

8.  The  founder  of  the  Hellenes? 

9.  Their  progress  ? 

10.  Their  four  great  branches  ? 

11.  Whence  these  names? 

12  The  common  attribute  of  ancient  tradi- 

tions ? 

13  History  of    Deucalion's   immediate  de- 

scendants ? 

14  Under  whom  did  an   Egyptian   colony 

settle  in  Attica  ? 

15  Who  founded  Thebes  ? 

16.  What  did  he  introduce  into  Greece? 

17.  What  circumstances   impeded  the  pro- 

gress of  civilization  ? 

18  What  league  was  founded,  in  order  to 

resist  these  incursions? 

19  With  what  was  Greece  infested  at  this 

time? 

20  Mention  some  of  their  most  celebrated 

opponents. 

21  The    most    celebrated    events    of    this 

period  ? 

22  Df^scribe  the  Argonautic  expedition ;  its 

objects  and  results? 
83    The  story  of  ffidipus  and  his  sons? 
24    The  consequence  of  these  wars? 
2.5.  Story  of  Podarkes  or  Priam  ? 

26.  Story  of  Helen  ? 

27    The  expedition  against  Troy  ? 


28.  How  long  did  the  siege  last  ? 

2i).  The  efiect  of  this  expedition  on  Grecci 

and  civilization  ? 
30.  What   is  said   of  the   military  w  caponi 

used  ill  the  siege  of  Tioy  ? 

Sec.  7. — Grec.an  History,  from  the  Trojan 
War  to  the  Establishment  of  the  Greek 
Colonies  in  Asia. 

1.  Whose   descendants  peopled   the    Pelo- 

ponnesus ? 

2.  Their  rivals,  who  ? 

3.  The  Heraclidae,  who? 

4.  By  whom  banished  ? 

5.  What  etlorts  did  they  make  to  regain 

their  country  ? 

6.  Their  final  success,  how  secured  ? 

7.  How  did  it  happen  that  Sparta  alwayg 

had  two  kings  ? 

8  What  became  of  the  Pelopidtc  ? 

9  How  was  the  war  of  the  Dorians  with 

the  Athenians  terminated  ? 

10.  Why  was  royalty  abolished  in  Athens  ' 

11.  By  whom  was  iEolia  settled  ? 

12.  Conduct  of  the  younger  sons  of  Codrus  ? 
13    What  third  series  of  Greek  colonies  was 

established  in  Asia? 

14.  By  whom  was  Sicily  settled? 

15.  Why  did  the  Greeks  seldom  settle  in  th« 

interior  of  a  country  ? 

1 6.  What  remark  is  made  of  tlio  Greek  colo 

nies  ? 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE  HISTORY  THE  ORECIAN  STATES  AND    OCLO- 
NIES,  BEFORE  THE  PERSIAN  WAR. 

Seo.  1. —  Topography  of  Sparta. 

1.  By  what  other  name  was  Sparta  known  ' 

2.  How  was  it  built  ? 

3.  How  was  it  protected  ? 

4.  What  buildings  were  contained  in  thfl 

great  square  ? 

5.  Describe  the  portice. 

6.  Where  was  the  temple  of  Minerva  ? 

7.  How  did  the  public  edifices  of    Sparta 

compare  with  those  of  Athens  ? 

8.  What,  and  where,  was  the  Hippodro 

mos  ? 

9.  What  the  Platanista;  ? 

Sec.  2. — Legislation  of  Lycurgus,  and  the 
Mcssenian  Wars. 

1.  How  did  the  Dorian  conquerors  treat  th« 

original  inhabitants  ? 

2.  How  long  were  the    Spartans  iightin| 

with  the  Argives? 

3.  The  lawgiver  of  Sparta  7 

4.  His  great  object  ? 

5.  What  institution  did  he  originate  ? 
6    What  is  said  of  the  ephori  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


IS 


7  The  power  df  the  popular  assemblies  ? 

8  The  chief  regulations  of  private  life  ? 

9  Why    did    these   regulations    banish    all 

hopes  of  tranquilhty  from  Greece  ? 
0    111  what  did  the  strength  of  a  Spartan 

army  lie  ? 
I.  What  is  said  of  their  method  of  fighting? 
12.  The  first  great  war  in  which  the  Spar- 
tans were  engaged  ? 
!3.  The  results  of  it  ? 

14.  What  oath  did  the  army  take? 

1 5.  Who  were  the  PartheiiisB  ? 

16.  How  were  they  treated? 

17    Wh.at  city  in  Italy  did  they  found  ? 
18.  Wlio  was  Aristomenes  ? 
19    The  response  of  the  oracl*}  to  the   Spar- 
tans ? 

20.  Whom  did  the  Athenians  send  them  ? 

21.  How  did  he  inspire  his  troops? 

22.  How  was  Messene  taken  ? 

23.  What  enterprise  did  Aristomenes  then 

undertake  ? 

24.  How  was  it  defeated  ? 

25.  The  effect  of  the  war  on  Sparta  ? 

26.  What  important  island  did  the  Spartans 

wrest  from  the  Argives  ? 

Sec.  3. —  Topography  of  Athens. 

1.  Situation  of  Athens  ? 

2.  What  was  the  Acropolis? 

3.  Its  dimensions  ? 

4.  What  was  the  Propylasa  ? 

5.  By  whom  erected  ? 

6.  VVhat  temples  were  erected  on  the  sum- 

mit of  the  hill  ? 

7.  The  relative  situation  of  these  tempks  ? 

8.  What  is  said  of  the  Parthenon  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  Cosle  ? 

10.  Describe  the  spot  from  which  the  orators 

addressed  the  people  ? 

11.  Wha".  was  the  Pnyx  ? 

12.  The  Ceramicus  ? 

13  What  were  the  Hermse  ? 

14  Origin  of  the  term  Stoics  ? 

15.  The  three  gymnasia  at  Athens  ? 
16  Origin  of  the  term  'Academy  ] ' 
\7.  Of  the  term  '  Peripatetics  ?  ' 

18.  The  foiMider  of  the  Academics' 

19.  Of  \ne  Peripatetics? 

20.  Of  the  Cynics? 

21.  What  is  said  of  the  long  road  to  the  Pei- 

raeus  ? 

22.  Dimensions  of  the  wall  that  enclosed  it? 

23.  What  is  said  of  the  PeirsEus  ? 

24.  What  of  the  Munychian  port? 

8eo.  4. —  The  History  of  Athens  to  the  Be- 
ginning of  the  Persian  War. 

1.  When  does  the  political  history  of  Athens 

properly  begin  ? 
<t  Which   of  their  institutions   came  from 

the  Egyptians ' 

22 


3  Why  should  Theseus  be  regarded  as  tho 

founder  of  the  state  7 

4  The  most  remarkable  of  his  successors  < 

5.  In  what  respects  did  the  archons  difler 

from  kings  ? 

6.  The  first  and  the  last  ar(!hon  ? 

7.  Which  order  enjoyed  all  the  authority  in 

the  state  ? 

8.  The  condition  of  the  Athenian  populace! 

9.  The  character  of  Draco's  laws  ? 

10.  His  end  ? 

11.  Who  was  afterwards  appointed  to  legis- 

late for  the  people  ? 

12.  Character  of   Solon  ? 

13    The  chief  object  of  his  legislation? 

14.  His  laws  with  relation  to  debtors  ? 

15.  How  did  he  conciliate  capitalists? 

16.  Into    what   classes    did  he  arrange  tha 

citizens  ? 

17.  The  place  of  meeting  of  the  popular  aa- 

semblies  ? 

18.  Constitution  and  privileges  of  the  court 

of  Areopa^  us  ? 

19.  Give  an  account  of  the  first  sacred  waj 

against  the  Crisseaus  ? 

20.  How  was  its  termination  celebrated  ? 

21.  Wlio  was  Peisistratiis  ? 

22.  His  conduct  ? 

23.  Through   whose  exertions  was  he  bau» 

ished  ? 

24.  His  subsequent  course  ? 

25.  How  did  he  govern  ? 

26.  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ? 

27.  Their  conduct  and  fate  ? 

28.  Conduct  of  the  Spartans  ? 

29.  Conduct  of  Hippias  at  the  court  of  Per« 

sia  ? 

Sec.  5. — Historical  Notice  of  the  Minor 
Grecian  States  previous  to  the  Pcrsiar. 
War. 

1.  When  was  royalty  in  Thebes  abolished  ? 
2    What  prevented  the  Boeotians  from  tak« 

ing  a  leading  share   in  the  affairs  o 

Greece  ? 

3.  The  most  remarkable  state  in  the  Pelo 

ponnesus,  next  to  Sparta  ' 

4.  How  njany  kings  reigned  over  Corintk  "' 

5.  VVhat  was  then  substituted  in  the  plac* 

of  royalty  ? 

6.  Who   was  Cypselus  ?    and  who  Periau- 

der? 

7.  What  government  succeeded  to  the  er- 

pulsion  of  Psammetichus  '> 

8.  In  what  consisted  the  Corinthian  trad©  'i 
9    WHth   whose  government  did  the   proa 

perity  of  Corinth  cease  I 

10.  From  what  blow  to   her  power  did  she 

never  recover  ? 

11.  The  history  of  Sicyon? 

12.  Of  Arcadia  ? 

13.  Of  Argos  ? 
ill.  Of  Elis  ■} 


li 


QOB8TION8   OK 


'ritc.  C. — Histmy  of  the  principal  Grecian 
Islands. 

1.  \Vliat   is   said    of  the    insular  states  of 

Greece  ? 

2.  The  history  of  Corcyra  1 

3.  Of  .Egina? 

4.  Of  Eiibcea? 

5.  Of  the  Cyclades  ? 

6.  Of  Crete? 

7.  Of  Cyprus? 

Sec.  7 — History  of  the   Greek  Colonies  in 
Asia  Minor, 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  Greek  colonies? 

2.  Who  settled  the  western  coEist  of  Asia 

Minor  ? 

3.  What   illustrious  poets  and  philosophers 

were  born  there  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  ^olian  colonies  in 

Thrace  ? 

5.  What  of  the  Ionian  emigration? 

6.  Relate  the  origin  and  circumstances  of  it? 
7    The  chief  of  their  twelve  cities  ? 

8.  How  were  they  united  ? 

9.  In    what     empire    were     they    finally 

merged  ? 

10.  What  is  said  of  the  Dorian  colonies  ? 

11.  What  were  the  Hexapolis  ? 

Bec.  8. — The  Greek  Colonies  on  the  Euxine 
Sea,  the  Coasts  of  Thrace,  Macedon,  ^c. 

1.  When  were  the  colonies  on  the  shores  of 

the  Propontis  founded? 

2.  What  is  said  of  Miletus  ? 

3.  What  of  Lampsacus  ? 

4.  What  of  Cyzicus  ? 

5.  Who  settled  Byzantium  and  Chalcedon  ; 

and  the  modern  names  of  these  cities  ? 
f).  The  first  Greek  city  on  the  Black  sea  ? 

7.  The  most  powerful  of  the  Greek  states 

on  the  Euxine  sea  ? 

8.  What  is  said  of  the  slave-trade  ? 

9    Where  is  Cyrene,  and  what  is  said  of  it? 

CHAPTER    X. 

HISTORY  OF  GREECE,  FROM  THE  COMMENCE- 
MENT OF  THE  PERSIAN  WARS  TO  THE  ACCES- 
SION OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT. 

Sec.  1. — The  First  Persian  War. 

1.  What  bridge  did   Darius  Hytaspes  con- 

struct in  his  invasion  of  Syria  ? 

2.  To  whom  did  he  entrust  it  ? 

3.  What  opposing  counsels  were  given  on 

the  subject  of  it  ? 

4.  What  became  of  Histiaeus  ? 

5.  The    object    of  Aristagoras'   mission  to 

Lacediemou,    and    how    was    he    re- 
ceived ? 
C  How  was  he  received  at  Athens? 
7.  What  wealthy  citv  did  he  capture  ' 
i.  How  was  it  ave.i2ed  ?  I 


9.  Tlie  end  of  Aristagoras  and  of  IIistitEUi 

10.  What  demand  did  Darius  make  oi  th 

Athenians  ? 

11.  Their  answer  ? 

12.  How  did  Darius  show  his  resentment? 

13.  What  calamity  did    Mardonius  experi- 

ence ? 

14.  How  did  he  attempt  to  excuse  his  dis< 

grace  ? 

15.  Darius' next  attempt  ? 

16.  The  course  of  his  armament? 

17    What  traitor  was  directing  tho  mov*" 
ments  of  the  Persian  army  ? 

18.  Relative  size  of  the  two  armies? 

19.  Who  was  the  Athenian  leader? 

20.  Why  did  the  Spartans  refuse  their  as 

sistance  ? 

21.  Bold  resolution  of  the  Athenians  ? 

22.  Disposition  of  the  Greek  army  ? 

23.  Describe  the  battle. 

24.  What  attempt  did  tho  Persian  fleet  then 

make  ? 

25.  How  was  it  bafSed  ? 

26.  How  was  Miltiades  treated  ? 

27.  What  two    illustrious  men    shared    ttie 

power  that  Miltiades  had  possessed  ? 

28.  How  was  Aristides  treated  ? 

29.  The  great  object  of  Themistocles  ? 

30.  What  transactions  were  taking  place  a* 

Sparta  at  this  time  ? 

Sec.  2. — The  Second  Persian  War. 

1.  Who    undertook    a   second    expedition 

against  Greece  ? 

2.  How  long  after  the  first? 

3.  Where  was  the  Persian   anny  first  op 

posed,  and  by  whom  ? 

4.  The  reply  of  Leonidas  to  the  dem?nd  o: 

Xerxes? 

5.  Who  betrayed  him,  and  how 

6.  Conduct  of  Leonidas  ? 

7.  What  victory  did  the  Greeks  obtam  at 

the  same  time  ? 

8.  What  rendered  it  fruitless  . 

9.  The  subsequent  course  of  their  fleet  ? 

10.  Course    of    Xerxes   after   the   battle   ol 

Thermopylae  ? 

11.  Course  of  the  Athenians  at  his  approach'' 

12.  Stratagem  of  Themistocles  to  bring  ou 

a  naval  ensragement  ? 

13.  What  put  an  ena  to  the  rivalry  between 

Themistocles  and  Aristides? 

14.  The  sea-fight  at  Salamis? 

15.  The  determination  of  Xerxes  ? 

16.  How  was  he  forced  to  cross  the   Helles- 

pont, and  why  ? 

17.  What   offers  did  Mardonius   make    th« 

Athenians? 

18.  Where    was    the   second    great    battle 

fought  ? 

19.  The  loss  ol   the  Persians  ? 

20.  What  naval  battle  was  fought  thP  skiim 

day? 


aNCIBNT  histort. 


1ft 


9!  IIow  had  tlie  Persians  arranged  their 
ships  ? 

22.  What  were  the  most  splendid  results  of 

these  victories  ? 

23.  Wnat  is  said  of  the  Athenian  republic 

after  this  ? 

24.  Plans  of  Themistocles  ? 

2.5.  What  city  did  Pausanias  take  ? 

26.  What  distinguished  persons  were  among 
the  captives  ? 

27  The  effect  of  so  much  wealth  on  Pausa- 
nias ? 

28.  How  did  the  Spartans  treat  him  ? 

29.  The  effect  of  the  tyranny  of  Pausanias  ? 

30.  The  treasure  of  the  allies  ? 

31.  What  did  h^  do  in  order  to  guard  against 

complaints  ? 

32.  Fate  of  Themistocles  ? 

33.  Proof  of  Aristides'  integrity  ? 

34.  Who   succeeded   him  as  leader   of  the 

Athenian  republic  ? 
3.5.  What  two  great  victories  did  he  gain  on 
one  day  ? 

36.  How  long  did  the  war  continue  ' 

37.  The  terms  of  the  treaty  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  First  Peloponnesian  War 

I.  What  were  the  Spartans  preparing  to  do 

at  this  time,  and  why  '^ 
2    What   calamity   prevented   them   from 

acting  ? 

3.  The  effects  of  the  earthquake  ? 

4.  Who   took  advantage    of  it   to  recover 

their  freedom  ? 

5.  The  result  of  the  war? 
G.  Who  received  the  exiles  ? 

7.  What  Greek  state  had  declined  to  take 

part  in  the  war  against  Persia  ? 

8.  How  did  they  suffer  in  consequence  ? 
9    Wtio  suffered  for  similar  reasons  ? 

'  '^  What  two  powers  arrayed  themselves  on 
different  sides  in  this  contest  ? 

11  Who  now  administered  the  affairs  of 
Athens  ? 

i2.  What  course  did  Pericles  adopt  to  secure 
his  intluence  ? 

..'S.  How  did  he  beautify  Athens  ? 

14.  How  did  he  defray  the  expense  of  these 

splendid  works  ? 

15.  How  did  he  make  Sparta  tremble? 

16.  What  led  to  a  truce? 

17.  The  favourite  policy  of  Pericles? 

18.  What  gave  him  the  fame  of  a  military 

leader  I 

19.  How  did   he  overthrow  the  aristocratic 

party  ? 

20.  The  extent  of  the  kingdom  of  Athens  ? 

21.  Her  power? 

22.  What  led    to    tne    first    Peloponnesian 

war? 
23    Give  an  account  of  Corcyra. 
24.    Explain   the   origin  of  the  war  between 

the  Corcyreans  and  the  Corinthians? 


25.  How  did  the  Corcyreans  provoke  genera 

indignation  ? 

26.  To  whom  did  both  states  apply  to  decide 

their  quarrel  ? 

27.  Which  side  did  the  Athenians  espouse  ? 

28.  What  capture  did  the  Corinthians  make 

on  their  return  home  ? 

29.  What  complaints  and  demands  of  assist- 

ance were  made  at   Sparta  about  thii 
time  ? 

30.  What  demands  did  the  Spartans  makt 

of  the  Athenians  ? 

31.  How  were  they  received? 

32.  What    caused  war  to   be  instantly  pro- 

claimed ? 

33.  The  relative  power  of  Athens  and  Sparta? 

34.  How  did  the  war  begin  ? 

35.  What   dreadful   calamity   now    assailed 

Athens  ? 

36.  What  distinguished  statesman  fell  a  vic- 

tim to  it  ? 

37.  His  death,  describe. 

38.  How  was  PotidiBa  treated  ? 

39.  How  Platffise  ? 

04.  How  was  Lesbos  saved  from  destruction ! 

41.  How  had  the   Corinthians  treated  theii 

Corcyrean  prisoners  ? 

42.  The  consequences  of  their  lenity  ? 

43.  Which  party  in  Corcyra  prevailed  ? 

44.  The  bold  design  of  Demosthenes  ? 

45.  Its  accomplishment  ? 

46.  The  boast  of  Cleon  ? 

47.  How  was  he  served  ? 

48.  Cause  of  his  success  ? 

49.  By  what  were  these  triumphs   counter- 

balanced ? 

50.  What  distinguished   Spartan  leader  was 

sent  to  aid  the  revolters  ? 

51.  Who  were  slain  in  the  battle  between  tb» 

contending  armies  ? 

52.  What  led  to  the  conclusion  of  a  peace  ? 

53.  How  did  the  Spartans  act  ? 

Sec.  4. — The  Second  Pehponnesian  War 

1.  How     did    the    Corinthians    resent   the 

abandonment  of  their  interests  by  the 
Spartans  ? 

2.  Whose  influence  led  to  the  second  Pelo- 

ponnesian war? 

3.  Character  of  Alcibiades  ? 

4.  What  led  to  a  sudden  truce  between  the 

Spartans  and  Argives  ? 

5.  Conduct  of  Alcibiades  on  the  occasion? 

6.  Of   what    cruelty    were    the   Atheuiaw 

guilty? 

7.  What  great  enterprise  did  the  .\thenian 

now  undertake  ' 

8.  Who  remonstrated  against  it? 

9.  The  amount  of  the  forces,  land  and  sea' 

10  Whither  diJ  the  tleet  first  sail  ? 

11  How  were  the  Catanians  induced  to  takt 

part  in  the  enterprise  ? 
12.  Whv  was  Alcibiades  summoned  home  * 


16 


QUESTIONS   ON 


13.  Hi»  course? 

14.  Conduct  of  Nicias  ? 

1.1.  Ilow  were  the  geuerals  and  array  treated 

by  the  Syracusaus  ? 
IG.  The  ert'ect  of  this  calamity  on  Athens? 

1 7.  Wiiat  otlier  misfortune  befell  them  ? 

18.  What   traitor  did  them  the  greatest  in- 

jury? 

19.  Their  most  pres.sing  danger? 

20.  How  was  their  luin  suspended  ? 

21  Wiiat  change  was  made  in  their  govern- 
ment ? 

23.  What  led  to  the  disposition  of  the  four 
hundred  ? 

23.  What    brilliant    exploits    did   Alcibiades 

perform  before  he  returned  to  Athens  ? 

24.  How  was  he  received  ? 

25    What  appointment  did  he  receive  ? 

26.  Relate  how  he  became  a  second  time 

disgraced. 

27.  Who  succeeded  Lysander,  and  his  cha- 

racter ? 

28.  Why  were  the  Athenian   admirals  con- 

demned and  executed  ? 

29.  What    circumstance    proved     fatal     to 

Athens  ? 

30.  What    buttle    virtually    terminated   the 

war? 
?1.  Lysander's  cruelty  ? 

32.  On  what  humiliating  condition  were  the 

Athenians  forced  to  surrender? 

33.  The  event  of  the  16th  of  May  ? 
)4.  What  did  the  Spartans  still  fear? 
}5.  Why  had  they  cause  to  fear? 

16.  How  did  Pharnabazus  act  toward  Alci- 
biades? 

i~.  Describe  the  manner  of  his  death  ? 

is.  What  involuntary  homage  did  the 
Athenians  pay  to  his  talent  ? 

Sec     '■ — Tijruiinical    Rule     of    Sparta. — 
Third  Feloponnesiut.  War. 

1.  How   did  Lysander  treat   the    confede- 

rates ? 

2.  How  did  the  Spartans  rule  in  Athens  ? 

3.  What  did  they  do  to  cripple  the  com- 

merce of  the  Athenians  ? 

4.  What  to  break  their  spirit  ? 

5  How  did  the  Thebans  treat  the  exile 
Athenians  ? 

6.  The  leader  of  these  exiles  ? 

7.  His  movements  and  success  ? 

8.  How    was   the    ancient   constitution   of 

Athens  restored? 

9.  How  did  the  Athenians  show  their  de- 

generacy ? 
10.  Character  of  Socrates  ? 
11    His  two  mo.-*  faiT'ius  Hiso-inles  ? 

12.  Give  an  account  of  me    expedition   of 

Cyrus    and   the    retreat    of    the    ten 
thousand  .' 

13.  What     became     of    *h'?m    after    their 

return? 


14.  Who  was  Agesilaus,  and  towhon'  did  h« 

owe  his  elevation  ? 

15.  His  treatment  of  Lysander? 

16.  His  success  against  Persia  ? 

17.  AVhat    led   to   the    third    Peloponnrsiai 

war  ? 

18.  The  conduct  of  the  Spartans  to  Thebesi 

19.  Tiie  fate  of  Lysander  and  Pausauias? 

20.  Why  was  Agesilaus  recalled  ? 

21.  How  was  the  Spartan  navy  annihilated  ' 

22.  Conon's  use  ol  Ihis  success  ? 

23.  What  two  battles   were    fought    during 

this  war  ? 

24.  The  fate  of  Corinth? 

25.  How  was  Conon  treated  by  ArtaxerxesI 

26.  The  base  conduct  of  Sparta? 

27.  Its  treatment  of  Oiynthus  ? 

28.  Its  treachery  to  Thebes  ? 

29.  Who  received  the  Theban  patriots  ? 

30.  How,  and  by  whom  was  Thebes  rescued! 

31.  What  couduct  of  a  Spartan  general  filled 

Athens  with  indignation  ? 

32.  The  course  of  the  war? 

33.  What  saved  Sparta  from  destruction  ? 

34.  Who  now  summoned    all    the    Grecian 

states  to  Sparta,   and   for  what  pur- 
pose? 

35.  Who  was  Epaminondas  ? 

36.  Howi'd  lie  destroy  Spartan  influence  at 

this  conference  ? 

37.  Describe  the  battle  of  Leuctra. 

38.  The  consequences  of  this  battle  ? 

39.  W^hat  powerful  ally  now  joined  the  The- 
bans? 

40.  What  grand  scheme  had  he  formed  I 

41.  His  death  ? 

42.  How  were  his  murderers  received  in  the 

Grecian  republics  ?• 

43.  What  imminent  danger  now  threatened 

Sparta  ? 

44.  The  progress  of  the  Theban  army  ? 

45.  How  long  had  it  been  since  an  enemy 
had  appeared  in  Laconia  ? 

46.  How  were  the  Spartans  still  more  deeply 
mortified  ? 

47.  Conduct  of  the  Athenians? 

48.  How  were  the  Thebau  generals  received 

on  their  return  home  ? 

49.  The  different  couduct  of  Pelopidas  and 

Epaminondas  ? 

50.  The  course  of  events  dimng  the  six  fol- 

lowing years  ? 

51.  What  distinguished  hostage  did  Pelopidas 

bring  with  him  from  Macedon  ? 

52.  How  was  Pelopidas  treated  by  Alexande; 

of  Pherte  ? 

53.  The   effect   of  his   eloquence    with    th» 

Persian  monarch  ? 

54.  ^\  hy   did   the   Gr<^cian  states   refuse   '* 

accede  to  this  union  ? 
.55.  Death  of  Pelopida.s? 

56.  Bold  attempt  of  Epaminondas? 

57.  What  prevented  its  succ«*»( 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


IV 


s8    Wiat   prevented    him    from    capturing 

MantiniEa  ? 
59    VVb'it  great  victory  did  he  now  gain? 
fiO    The  etiect  of  it  >. 

61.  The  eftcet  ou  Tiiebes  of  the  deaths  of 

Eparninondas  and  Pelopidas? 

62.  Terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  ? 

63    Influence  ou  Sparta  of  Agesilaus  ? 

Sec.  6. — The  Second  Sacred  War. — De- 
struction of  Grecian  Freedom. 

1.  How  did  the  Athenians  lose  their  domi- 

iiion  over  the  niaritnne  states? 

2.  Who  excited  them  to  such  conduct? 

3.  What  states  revolted  ? 

4.  What  defeat  did  the  Athenians  sustain  ? 

5.  Base  conduct  of  Chares? 

6.  How  did  he  complete   the   ruin  of  the 

Athenians  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  Amphictyonic  coun- 

cil? 

8.  How  did    it    punish    the    Phocians    and 

Spartans,  and  why? 

9.  How  did  the  Phocians  act? 

'0.  How  was  the   war  conducted   on  both 
sides  ? 

11.  The  fate  of  Philomelus? 

1 2.  His  successor,  and  his  conduct  ? 

13.  To  whom  did  the  Thebaus  apply  for  aid? 

14.  His  conduct  ? 

15.  Why  was  he  unwilling  to  pass  the  straits 

of  Thermopylae  ? 
18.  Who  renewed  the  war? 

17.  How  was  Philip  mortified? 

18.  Why  did  the  Phocians  now  desire  peace? 

19.  Why  was  it  refused? 

20.  How  did  Philip  act  ? 

21.  By  what  orator  was  he  opposed  ? 

22.  Who  excited  a  new  sacred  war  ? 

23.  In  what  manner  ? 

24.  Conduct  of  Philip  ? 

25.  Who  opposed  him  ? 

26.  Where  were  they  defeated? 

27.  To  what  office  was  Philip  now  chosen  ? 


CHAPTER    XI 

THE  HISTORY  OF  MACE  DON. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

1    What  separates  Thrace  from  Macedon  ? 
S    The  ancient  name  of  Macedon? 

3  The  boundaries  of  Macedon  in  its  most 

flourishing  state? 

4  How  many  nations  d'd  it  contain  ? 

5  Wliere  was  Epidamnus? 

6  The  capital  of  Macedon  ? 

7  The  most  imporiant  cities  of  the  Chalci- 

dian  peninsula  ? 

8  The    most    remarkable    mountains    of 

Macedon  ? 


9.  Its  principal  rivers? 

10.  Its  soil  and  productions? 

11.  For  what  was  it  celebrated? 

Sec.  2. —  History  of  the  MacedoTiian  Mn- 
narchy. 

1.  How  was  Macedon  settled? 

2.  How  was  Edessa  taken  ? 

3.  When  did  the  kingdom  become  tributarj 

to  the  Persians  ? 

4.  When  did  it  recover  its  independence? 

5.  Why  did   Perdiccas   II.   unite  with  the 

Spartans  against  the  Athenians? 

6.  Policy  of  Archelaus,  his  successor? 

7.  What  philosopher  and  what  poet  did  he 

patronize  ? 

8.  His  successor? 

9.  The  condition  of  his  kingdom  at  his  ac- 

cession ? 

10.  His  first  movements? 

11.  What  military  improvement  did  he  maket 

12.  What  victories  did  he  soon  gain  ? 

13.  His  conduct  toward  Athens? 

14.  How  was  he  rews^rded  by  the  Thessa 

lians? 

15.  Whom  did  he  marry? 

16.  His  policy? 

1 7.  By  whom  was  he  opposed  ? 

18.  What  personal  injury  did  he  sustain  at 

the  sieg*  of  Methone? 

19.  What  two  disappointments  did  he  soon 

afterwards  experience  ? 

20.  Who  spent  his  life  in  opposing  him  ? 

21.  What  city  did  he  take  and  destroy? 

22.  How  did  he  disarm  the  Athenians  ? 

23.  Of  what  further  folly  were  they  guilty'; 

24.  Hov/  did  Philip  treat  Amphissa  ? 

25.  How  did  ho  amiounce  his  design  against 

the  liberties  of  Greece  ? 

26.  What  signal  victory  did  he  gain  ovei-  the 

Greeks  ? 

27.  His    conduct  toward  the  Thebans    and 

Athenians  ? 

28.  To  what  otfice  was  he  now  elected  ? 

29.  What  put  an  end  to  all  his  schemes  ? 

30.  His  successor  ? 

31.  What  enemies  did  he  have  to  contend 

against  ? 

32.  His  successes? 

33.  What  report  was  now  spread  throughout 

Greece  ? 

34.  Its  effect  ? 

35.  How  were  the  Thebans  treated  by  Alex- 

ander ? 

36.  What  family  did  he  spare  ? 

37  Who  were  most  active  in  this  destruc- 
tion, and  why? 

j3.  Whi.t  r'grtt  d,-i  A'exii-ider  afterwardi 
express  ? 

39.  The  eiicct  of  this  calamity  throughout 

Greece  ? 

40.  To   whom    did   Alexander    enirust    th« 

governiiient  of  Greece  and  Macedon  I 


18 


QUESTIONS   ON 


41    What  empire  did  he  now  prepare  to  in- 
vade ? 

42.  The  amount  of  his  forces  ? 

43.  Whence  did  he  embark  ? 

44.  Tiie  prudent  advice  of  Memnon  ? 
4.5.  His  first  battle  ? 

4(3.  His  conquests  at  the  end  of  the  first  cam- 
paign I 

47.  Folly  of  Darius? 

48.  His  second  battle  ? 

49.  What  captives  and  what  spoil  did  Alex- 

ander take  1 

50.  The  noble   conduct   of  Alexander  after 

this  battle  1 
il    What  city  set  him  at  defiance  ? 
y2.  I^;  punishment  ? 

53.  Wliat  second  city  resisted,   and  shared 

the  same  fate  ? 

54.  How    did    he    open    his    fourth    cam- 

paign ? 

55.  The  third  battle  of  Darius? 

56.  Describe  this  battle? 

57.  Respective  losses  of  the  two  armies  ? 

58.  How  was  this  triumph  sullied  ? 

59.  Fate  of  Darius? 

60.  Fate  of  his  murderer  ? 

61.  What  other  country  did  Alexander  now 

invade  ? 

62.  Conduct  of  the  Lacedaemonians  at  this 

time  ? 

63.  What  proofs  of  Alexander's  respect  for 

the  ancient  states  of  Greece  are  men- 
tioned ? 

64.  Wliy  was  ^Eschines  banished  ? 

65.  By  what   route  did  Alexander  advance 

toward  India? 

66.  What  reinforcement  did  he  receive? 

67.  Whal  enemy  did    he   meet  with   on  the 

banks  of  the  Hydaspes? 

68.  How  did  he  effect  a  passage  ? 

69    How  far  eastward  did  he  proceed  ? 

70.  Why  did  ho  go  wo  further  ? 

71.  By  what  route  did  he  return? 

72.  Course  of  Nearchus  ? 

73.  What  proof  of  Alexander's  consummate 

wisdom  is  given? 

74.  What  cut  short  his  plan  ? 

75.  T\\e  place  and  date  of  his  death  ? 
76    To  whom  did  he  give  his  ring? 

Sec.   3. — Dissolution     of    the    Macedonian 
Empire. 

I.  \Vhat  remark  is  made  of  Perdiccas  ? 
2    Conduct  of  the  Macedonian  nobles? 

3.  What  had  well   nigh  led  to  a  civil  war, 

and  how  was  it  averted? 

4.  What  arrangement  was  made  ? 

5.  How  •■/ere  Alexander's  remains  treated? 

6.  What    projected     marriage     was     pre- 

vented? 
7    What    storm  now    burst   upon    Perdic- 
cas "> 


50. 


What  battle  was  fought,  and  with  what 

results  ? 
The  fate  of  Perdiccas  ? 
What  brief  struggle  now   took  place  it 

Greece  ? 
Its  progress  and  results? 
Conduct  of  Ptolemy  ? 

How  was  Euinenes  treated  by  the  army  ? 

Who  was  made  regent  ? 

Whom   did  Autipater  send  against  Eu- 

menes  ? 
Who  discovered  the  secret  plans  of  Anti' 

gpnus  ? 
What  produced  a  new  revolution  in  the 

empire  ? 
Antipater's  successor? 
Instances  of  his   unstatesman-like  con- 
duct? 
How   was   this  last    edict  received    at 

Athens  ? 
Who  fell  vict  ms  there  to  mob  violence  f 
Conduct  of  Cassander? 
Who  governed  Athens  at  this  time? 
Movements  of  Polysperchon  ? 
Conduct  of  Olympias  ? 
How  was  she  punished? 
Whom  did  Cassander  marry  ? 
How  did  this  marriage  benefit  him  ? 
What  was   Polysperchon  doing  at  thifl 

time? 
How  was  Eumenes  treated  by  his  troops, 

and  his  death  ? 
How  were  these  troops  punished  ? 
Grand  design  of  Antigonus? 
How  did    he    prepare   to  carry    it   into 

eflfect? 
What   victory  did   Ptolemy  gain,  and  it* 

consequences? 
What    defeat    did    he    afterwards    sus- 
tain ? 
How  did  Demetrius  become  involved  in 

a  conquest  with  the  Arabs ' 
Bold  conduct  of  Seleucus  ? 
What  new  dynasty  now  arose  ? 
Insincerity  of  Cassander. 
What  was  Ptoiemy  preparing  to  do  ? 
What  did  Lysimachus  resolve  upon  ? 
Whom   did   all   acknowledge    as    their 

sovereign  ? 
What  murders  did  Cassander  commit? 
Movements  of  Demetrius? 
To    what   office    did  his  father  appoint 

him? 
What    new     confederacy   was    fonned 

against  Autigonus? 
What  great   battle  was  fought   at  Ipsus 

that  decided  the  fate  of  an  empire  ;  tha 

parties  engaged,  and  the  result? 
The  consequences  of  this  battle  ? 
How  long  had   the    mighty  empire   of 

Alexander  lasted? 
The    most    enduring    memorial    of    hn 

nolicy  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTORY 


19 


CHAPTER   XII. 

■il.STORY  OF  THE  STATES  THAT  AROSE  FROM 
THE  DISMEMBERMENT  OF  THE  MACEDONIAN 
EMPIRE. 

mec.  1. — The  History  of  Macedon  and 
Greece  from  the  Battle  of  IpsiLS  to  the 
Roman  Conquest. 

i.  Whither  did    Demetrius    floe    after   the 

fatal  battle  of  Ipsus  ? 
0.  How  .vas  he  received  ? 

3.  Where  did  he  establish  himself? 

4.  Whom  did  he  now  obtain  for  a  son-in-law  ? 

5.  To  whom  did  Cassandor  leave  his  king- 

dom at  his  decease  ? 
6    Of  what  dreadful  crime  was  his  son  An- 

tipater  guilty  ? 
7.  The  consequences  of  it  ? 
S.  Whose   aid  did  Alexaiider,  the  survivmg 

son,  seek  ? 
y.  The  consequences  of  inviHug  Demetrius 

into  Macedoa? 
10.  What  mighty  plans  did  Demetrius  uow 

form  ? 
I'    Who    was   excited   to    invade    his    do- 
minions ? 
12.  The  movements  and  fate  of  Demetrius? 
13    Crime  of  Lysimachus? 
1-4-    The  consequences  of  it  to  himself? 

15  By  whom  was  Seleucus  murdered  ? 

16  What  events  took  place  the  same  year  in 

which  Seleucus  fell? 

17  The  cause  of  these  revolts  in  Asia? 

18  How  did  Alexander  the  Great  attempt  to 

Hellenize  the  East  ? 

19  The  result  of  this  attempt? 

20  By  whom  vvas  Ptolemy  Coraunus,  king 

of  Ma';edon,  slain  ? 
21.  The  progress  of  the  Gauls  ? 

22  Where  did  they  tiually  settle  ? 

23  Who  now  obtained  the  vacant  throne  of 

Macedon  ? 

24  The   confederate  cities  of  the   Achaean 

league? 
2;')    What  led  to  a  new  revolution  in  Mace- 
don? 

26  What  led  to  the  death  of  Pyrrhus  ? 

27  Who  regained  the  throne  of  Macedon  ? 

28  What    cities   now    joined    the    Achsean 

league  ? 

25  What  revolution  took  place  in  Sparta  ? 
3C    What  brought  about  a  counter  revolu- 
tion ? 

31  Conduct  of  Cleomenes? 

32  By  whom  was  he  defeated'' 

33.  What  rekindled  the  flames  of  war  ? 

34.  Of  what  imprudence  was  Aratus  guilty  ; 

and  its  consequences  ? 
3 ;')    Against  whom  was  war  now  declared  by 

t.he  Achaean  league  .' 
iO    What  commercial  war  was  going  on  r-' 

the  same  time  ? 

52 


I  37.  The  project  of  the  exilo  Cleo.  lenes? 
I  38.  How  was  he  treated  by  the  young  biufj 
of  Egypt  f 

39.  Relate  the  circumstances  ol  his  death? 

40.  What  is  said  of  him? 

41.  What   now   inclined   all   the   Greeks  t*; 

peace  ? 

42.  Where  was  a  treaty  concluded  ? 

43.  What  is  said  of  the  Macedonian  monarJii 

44.  With  whom  did  he  form  an  alliance? 

45.  What  groat  crime  did  he  commit  ? 

46.  How  did  the  Romans  find  employment 

for  Philip  at  home  ? 

47.  The  parties  in  the  war  that  ensued? 

48.  The  successor  of  Aratus  ? 

49.  Against  whom  did  Philip  now  declare 

war  ? 

50.  Whose  aid  did  tho  Athenians  solicit  V 

51.  Whither  did  the  Romans  next  pro«;eed  V 

52.  Where  did  they  fi^At  with  Phil'ip  ? 

53.  Describe  the  battle. 

54.  On  what  terms  did  Philip  obtain  peac:*  i 

55.  What    proclamation    did    the    Romans 

make  at  the  Isthmian  games? 

56.  Describe  the  scene. 

57.  How  did  Flaminius  show  his  insincerity  ? 

58.  Who    now    declared    war    against    the 

Romans  ? 

59.  By  whom  was  he  instigated  ? 

60.  What  is  said  of  his  campaigns? 
51.  The  result  of  the  war? 

62.  How  were  the  jEtolians  treated  by  tlit 

Romans  ? 

63.  By  whom  was  Sparta  captured  ? 

64.  What  loss  did  the  league  sustain  ? 

65.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  his  death. 

66.  How  was  his  fate  avenged  ? 

67.  Philip's  cruelty  to  his  son  Demetrius  I 

68.  His  death,  how  occasioned? 

69.  The  first  act  of  Perseus,  his  successor  ? 

70.  Where  was  he  defeated  by  the  Romans  i 

71.  How  was  he  treated? 

72.  The  effect  of  the  eclipse  of  the  moon  or 

the  two  armies  ? 

73.  How  did  the  Romans  treat  the  Achaeansl 

74.  What  led  to  the  destruction  of  Corinth'' 

75.  What  is  said  of  Athens  ? 

Sec.  2. — History  of  the  Kini^dom  of  Sym 
under  the  Seleueida;. 

1.  What  advantage  did  Seleucus  gain   by 

his  victory  over  the  satraps  of  Media 
and  Persia  ? 

2.  What  further  additions  did  he   make   U 

his  territories  in  four  years  1 

3.  How  far  did  he  penetrate  India  ? 

4.  What   advantages   did    he    gain    by    hi« 

treaty  with  Sandracottus  ? 

5.  The  seat  of  his  government  ? 

6.  Why  was  this  an  unfortunate  cl)oice  i 

7.  What  cities  did  he  found  '' 

8.  Why  did  he  invade  Europe  ' 

9.  His  end '' 


20 


QUKSTI0N3   ON 


10.  His  snccesstr? 

11.  Mention  tlie  several  wars  in  which  he 

WHS  engaged,  and  their  results. 
12    Why  was  his  sou  and  successor  called 
Theos? 

13.  Why  did  !ie   begin  to  lose  the  orovinces 

of  Upper  A.sia  ? 

14.  The  conditions  of  his  treaty  with  Pto- 

lemy? 
1.5.  How  did  he  suffer  for  fulfilling  them  ? 

16.  Who  succeeded  him? 

17.  What  war  did  his  mother's  crime  bring 

on  him  ? 

18.  Progress  of  Ptolemy  ? 

10.  What  did  he  gain  by  this  expedition  ? 
20    What  enemies  now  rose  against  Seleucus? 

21.  The  result  of  these  wars  I 

22.  The  fate  of  Seleucus? 

23  To  whom  was  Antiochus  the  Great  in- 
debted for  his  crown  ? 

24.  How   was   he    deceived    by  his   prime 

minister? 

25.  How  did  the  rebel  forces  act  when  An- 

tiochus marched  against  them  ? 

26.  The  fate  of  the  prime  minister  and  his 

brothers  ? 

27.  In  what  wars  was  Antiochus  now  en- 

gaged? 

US.  In  what  important  expedition  did  he  en- 
gage, in  conjuncliou  with  the  Bactrian 
monarch  ? 

29.  Who  prevented  him  from  conquering 
Egypt? 

30  On  what  occasion  did  the  Romans  a 
second  time  interfere  ? 

31.  By  whom    was   he   instigated   to    treat 

them  with  di&dain  ? 

32.  What  battle  laid  him  prostrate  at  their 

feet? 

33.  Of  what  countries  did  they  deprive  him  ? 

34.  His  end  ;  and  his  successor  ? 

35.  The  fate  of  Seleucus  IV.  ? 

36.  What  did  the  Jews  saj^  of  this  event  ? 

37.  His  succe.ssor,  and  his  surnames  ? 

38.  How  did  he  provoke  universal  hatred  ? 

39.  The  cause  of  his  v?ar  with  Egypt? 

40.  Its  progress  and  results  ? 

41  What  treachery  was  practised  toward 
him  ? 

42.  Who  prevented  him  from  taking  his  re- 

venge ? 

43.  What  resolution  did  he  now  attempt  to 

carrj'  out? 

44.  The  results  of  his  wild  project  ? 

45.  Who  succeeded  him  ? 

•"^6.  Under  what  circumstances  did  he  lose 
his  life  ? 

47.  Tlie  fate  of  the  usurper  Balas  ? 

48.  VVMiat  withheld  Demetrius  from  march- 

ing against  the  usurper,  Tryphon? 

49  What  was  his  success? 

50  The    vicissitudes    of    fortune    he    e.xpe- 

riouced  .' 


51.  Tho  fate  of  Seleucus,  nis  hou  ? 

52.  How  was  he  avenged  ? 

53.  How   did   the   .Syrians   treat  the  outu* 

family,  and  why? 

54.  To  whom  did  they  offer  their  crown  '* 

55.  The  fate  of  Tigranes  ! 

56.  The  last  of  the  Seleucidaj,  and  his  fat(  / 

Sec.  3. — History  of  Egypt  undtr  th-: 
I'tulemies. 

1.  Who  was  the  wisest  statesman  amoac 

the  successors  of  Alexander  ? 

2.  How  did  he  conduct  himself  in  Eg)-pt  ? 

3.  His  patronage  of  literature  ? 

4.  What  people  flocked  to  Alexandria  ;  and 

why  ? 

5.  WLat   is   the   Septuagint,   and  why   bu 

called? 

6.  What  works  did  he  erect  ? 

7.  Describe  the  college  of  philosophy  ? 

8.  Its  reputation  and  permanence  ? 

9.  The  material  for  writing  previous  to  pa- 

pyrus ? 

10.  What  is  papyrus? 

11.  Its  influence  ou  literature  ? 

12.  Why  was  not  parchment  substituted  CiJ 

it? 

13.  How  was  Egj-pt  strengthened? 

14.  Popularity  of  the  son  of  Ptolemy  Lagu.'^  1 

15.  His  successor,  and  his  administration  ? 

16.  What  channels  of  trade  were  opened? 

17.  What  pernicious  habits  did  Philadelphu- 

adopt  ? 

18.  ^^'hat  mi-ssion  did  he  send  to  Rome? 

19.  Of  what  benefit   was   this    mission  tc 

Rome? 

20.  Character  and  deeds  of  Ptolemy  Evcr- 

getes  ? 
91.  Character  of  Ptolemy  Philopater? 

22.  What    illustrious   persons  did  he  put  tc 

death? 

23.  His  folly  at  Jerusalem  ? 

24.  Of  what  crimes  was  he  guilty  ? 

25.  What  circumstance  saved  Egypt  from 

being  involved  in  the  Syrian  war? 

26.  Character  of  Ptolemy  Epiphanes  ? 

27.  Character  and  deeds  of  Ptolemy  Philo- 

meter? 
23.  His  successor,  and  whom  did  he  marry  t 

29.  His  character   and  deeds  ? 

30.  The  history  of  his  sons? 

31.  What    illustrious    daughter   of  Ptolemy 
Auletes  became  queen  of  Egypt  ? 

32.  Her  fate,  and  that  of  her  kingdom? 

33.  What  is  said  of  Alexandria? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  the  Minor  Kingdoms  in 
Western  Asia. 

1.  The  principal  kingdoms  formed  from  tlif 
the  fragments  of  the  Macedonian  mo- 
narchy in  Western  Asia? 
2    The  history  of  Pergamus,  and  its  knit's  ', 
3.  What  invention  do  we  owe  to  tl>eui  ' 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


21 


i    Wuat  became  of  their  librarj-  ? 

b    'riio  history  of  Bithynia? 

6    The  most  ilhistrious  monarch  of  Pontus  ? 

'.  His  character? 

S.  With  whom  did  he  provoke  a  contest? 

9.  Of  what  act  of  cruelty  was  he  guiUy  ? 

10.  Of  what  Grecian  city  did  he  make  him- 

self master  ? 

11.  What  Roman  consul  frequently  defeated 

liim  ? 

12.  Why  did  Sylla  make  peace  with  him? 

13.  How  was  he  treated  by  Muraena? 

14.  His  conduct  during  the  civil  wars  of  the 

Romans  ? 

15.  What   young  Roman    student  defeated 

his  lieutenants  ? 

16.  Who  was  sent  against  him,  and  what 

success? 
'  7.  Wliat  re-animated  the  country  of  Mithri- 
dates  ? 

18.  What  forced  Lucullus  to  return  home? 

19.  Wlio  was  now  sent  against  him? 

20.  Ilis  reverses,  and  return  to  his  country  ■? 
21    His  misfortunes  and  death  ? 

82    What   is  said  of  Cappadocia,  and  of  its 

inhabitants  ? 
23    What  is  said  of  the  two  Armenias  ? 

24.  What  first  gave  celebrity  to  Rhodes? 

25.  Describe  the  siege. 

26.  What  was  erected  in  commemoration  of 

this  siege  ? 

27.  The  conduct  of  the  Rhodians  in  the  war 

between  Antiochus  and  the  Romans? 

28.  How  were   they  afterwards  treated  by 

the  Romans  ? 

29.  What  king  attacked  them? 

30.  Their  conduct  in   the  civil  war  between 

Pompry  and  Caesar? 

31.  How  were  they  treated  by  Cassius? 

32.  How,  by  Claudius  Caesar,  and  for  what 

cause  I 

33.  How,  by  Vespasian  ? 

Sec.  5. — History  of  Bnctria  and  Parthia. 

In  what  respect  did  the  Bactrian  king- 
dom diF"''  -from  those  described  in  the 
preceding  sections? 

2.  Its  founder  ? 

3  The  extent  of  the  kingdom  in  the  height 
of  its  prosperity  ? 

i.  By  whom  were  the  Greeks  driven  from 
the  kingdom,  and  what  became  of 
them? 

5.  Are  they  still  existing  ? 

6.  The  general  limits  of  the  Parthian  king- 

dom ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  their  monarchs  ? 

8.  What    circumstance    proves    that    they 

were  foreigners  ? 

D  Their  exclusive  policy,  and  its  conse- 
quences ? 

0-  Wliat  citios  were  benefited  by  lie 
chitn;'e ' 


11.  W^ho  commenced  the  war  of  indopeu 

dence  ? 

12.  The  original  government  formed  by  Ihe 

heads  of  the  Parthian  tribes  ? 

13.  What  was  a  remarkable  peculiarity  oi 

Parthian  tactics  ? 

14.  How  did  the  war  between  the  PaiJuauB 

and  Syrians  terminate  ? 

15.  The  first  danger  to  which  the  Partliiauf 

were  exposed? 

16.  Against  what  formidable  power  did  they 

next  ex  atend  ? 

17.  The  result  of  the  expedition  ol   Crassus  ? 

18.  Which  side  did  they  favour  in   the  civil 

wars  of  Rome  ? 

19.  How  did  they  obtain  peace  from  Augus- 

tus Caesar  ? 

20.  Their  treatment  of  the  Christians  ? 

21    What  native    Persian    at   length   drove 
them  from  the  country  ? 

22.  The  effect  of  this  revolution   on  Chris- 

tianity in  the  East  ? 

23.  The  line  between  ancient  and  modern 

history,  in  Asiatic  amials? 

Sec.  6. — History  of  Idumea,  and  its  Capital 
Petra. 

1.  From   whom  were    the    Edomites   de 

scended  ? 

2.  The  advantages  of  their  situation  ? 

3.  Its  capital  city,  and  its  situation  ? 

4.  Describe  it. 

5.  The  prediction  of  Jeremiah  ? 

6.  Their  ports  and  commerce  ? 

7.  By  whom  were  they  subdued  ? 

8.  Tlie  Scripture  account  of  Hadad  ? 

9.  With    whom    were    the    Edomites    fre- 

quently at  war  ? 

10.  Who  were  the  Idumeans,  and  the  Ns- 

batheans  ? 

11.  The    expedition    of    Athenaeus    agaiupl 

them,  and  its  results  ? 

12.  How  was  Demetrius  deterred  from  aveng- 

ing the  fate  of  his  general  ? 

13.  How  came  the  name  of  Idumean  to  be- 

come extinct  ? 

14.  How  was  Petra  ruined? 

15.  Recite  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah  ? 

Sec.  7.^— History  of  the  Jews,  fiuni  their 
Return  out  of  the  Babylonish  Captivitij 
to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus. 

1.  How  many  Jews  returned  to  their  nathT 

land,  after  the  decree  of  Cyrus  ? 

2.  Their  governor? 

3.  The  Jewish  tradition  relative  to  this  re- 

turn ? 

4.  Application  of  the  Samaritans  ? 

5.  How  did  they  afterwards  treat  the  Jews 

6.  What  was  the  conduct  of  the  Jews  i.: 

Xerxes'  army  ? 
Who  was  the  Ahasuerus  of  Sc^ripture  "> 


'22 


aUESTIONS   ON 


8.  Conduct  of  Haman,  and  his  end  /  53. 

i).  Who  was  Ezra  ? 

10.  What  great  work  did  he  perform?  54. 

1 1    How  do  the  Jews  rej^aid  that  I  55. 

12.  His  successor  ?  56. 

13.  How  did  the  Jews  act  toward  Alexan- 

der ?  57. 

14.  How  did  Judea  suffer  after  his  death?  58. 

15.  How  did  Jerusalem  suffer  under  Ptolemy 

Soter  ?                                                          1  59. 

iG.  The  high -priest  at  this  time,  and  his  cha-  60. 

racter?                                                         !  til. 

17.  What   work  was    completed    under   his  62. 

directions  ?  63. 

18.  What  sect  arose  about  this  time? 

19.  Their  doctrines  ? 

^0    What  version  of  the  Scriptures  was  made  64. 
at  this  time  in  Egj^pt  ? 

21.  Who  attempted  to  Hellenizc  the  Jews?  65. 

22.  Conduct  of  Simon,  and  of  Onias  ?  66, 

23.  How  did  Onias  lose  the  priesthood?  67. 

24.  State  of  the   nation   under  Jason's   ad-  68. 

ministration  ?  69. 

25.  Conduct  of  Jason? 

26.  Of  his  brother  Menelaus  ?  70. 

27.  Cause  of  Onias'  death? 

28.  Cause  of  the  riot  in  Jerusalem  ?  71. 

29.  How   were    the   deputies    to    Autiochus 

treated  1  72. 
;iO.  How  did  the  Syrians  show  their  sense  of 

this  atrocity  ?  73. 

31.  Conduct  of  Jason  daring  the  Syrian  inva- 

sion of  Egypt  ?  74. 

32.  Autiochus'  dreadful   cruelty  towards  the  75. 

Jews  I  76. 

3.^.  His  awful  profanity  ?  77. 

34.  His  edict,  and  its  execution  ? 

35.  His  cruelty  towards  the  fugitive  Jews  ?  78. 

36.  The  effect  of  their  noble  constancy 

37.  Brave  conduct  of  Mattathias  ?  79. 
38    How  did   the   wars  of  the    Maccabee? 

commence  ? 

39.  Whom   did  Mattathias  appoint  his  sue-  80. 

cessor? 

40.  The  oriiriu  of  the  name,  "  Maccabees."  81. 

41.  Exploits  of  Judas  Maccabeus?  82. 
i2.  How  long  had   the   temple   been  In  the  83. 

hands  of  the  heathen  ?  84. 

43    Conduct  of   the  Jewish  army  as  it  came  85. 

in  sight  of  Jerusalem  ?  86. 

4-4.  The    circumstances    of    the    deatl     of  87. 

Judas?  88 

15.  His  funeral  ?  89. 

-16.   His  successor  ?  90. 

47.  What  privilege   die",  he   obtain  from  th^  91. 

Syrian  king  ?  -92. 

l8.  The  inscription  on  one  of  his  coins,  which 

has  been  preserved?  93. 

1;).  His  death,  and  successor  ?  94. 
ijO    Acts  of  his  administration  ? 

'.A    His  treatment  of  the  Pharisees  ?  95. 

fiv    His   successor,    and   the    cause    of    his  96. 

Jt^atli  ?  \ 


Histor}'  of  his  auccessor,  A.]exui;der  JuD 

naeus  ? 
History  of  his  two  sons? 
Conduct  of  Antipater  ? 
To  whom  wat  the  decision  of  the  crowi 

left? 
Conduct  of  Aristobulus  ' 
Conduct  of  the  Jews,  after  he  left  Jti u- 

saleni  ? 
How  did  Pompey  treat  Jerusalem  ? 
Who  was  now  supreme  in  Jerusalem  ? 
Conduct  of  Antipater  ? 
How  was  he  rewarded  by  Coesar  ? 
The  condition  of  Judea  during  the  civi 

wars  of  the  Romans  after  the  death  uf 

Pompey  ? 
Whom     did     Antony    make    king    o' 

Judea  ? 
Why  were  the  Jews  opposed  to  him  ? 
Instances  of  his  cruelty  l 
Age  of  Herod  at  his  death  " 
His  successor,  his  historj'  ? 
Feelings  of  the  Jews  on  the  occasion  of 

Pilate's  entering  Jerusalem  ? 
How  did  Pilate  provoke  a  fresh  insurrec 

tion  ? 
The  state  of  society  in  Judea  during  his 

administration  ? 
Wliat  forerunner  of  Christ  now  appeareo 

in  Judea,  and  how  was  he  received  ] 
How  old  was  our   Lord  when  he  begai 

to  preach? 
What  occurred  at  hi.?  baptism  ? 
Wicked  conduct  of  Herod  Antipas  ? 
His  conduct  toward  John  the  Baptist? 
For   what  pretended   crime   was   Jesit' 

crucified  ? 
How  long   after  his  resurrection  did  ht 

continue  with  his  disciples  ? 
How  many  persons  were  converted  b) 

St.  Peter's  preaching,  on   the  day  of 

Pentecost? 
The  disinterested  conduct   of  the  Ciiri»  ■ 

tian  community  ? 
Who  was  the  first  Christian  ma-'-fyr? 
History  of  Paul's  conversion  '' 
End  of  Pontius  Pilate  ? 
History  of  Herod  Agrippa  ? 
Which  of  the  Apostles  did  he  ptittodeat!' ' 
His  end  ? 

Condition  of  Judea  after  his  death  ? 
Who  were  the  Sicariil 
Conduct  of  Felix  ? 
His  treatment  of  St.  Paul? 
Festus'  treatment  of  St.  Paul  ? 
Conduct  of  Florus,  the  last  governor  of 

Judea  ? 
Conduct  of  the  Jews? 
Why  did  the  Chri.stiaus  retire  to   Pella 

at  this  time  ? 
\Vho  was  sent  against  the  Jews? 
The  three  parties  in  Jerusalem,  and  '.heli 

dissensions  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTOBY. 


23 


37  To  what  danger  was  Titus  exposed? 

38  The  sufferings  of  the  Jews  during  the 

siege  of  Jerusalem  1 

39  The  fate  of  Jerusalem  ? 

00.  The   number  of  captives,  and  of  the 

slain  ? 

01.  How  was  the  victory  of  Titus  celebrated 

in  Rome  ? 
102.  Describe  the  medal  struck,  commemo- 
rative of  the  event  ? 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

IIISTORV    OF    ANCIENT    ITALY. 

cjec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

The  boundaries  of  Italy  ? 

Its  divisions  ? 

Cisalpine  Gaul,  why  so  called  ? 

Why  also  called  Gallia  Togata  ? 

The  principal  subalpiue  tribes  ? 

The  Cottian  Alps,  why  so  called  ? 

The  chief  cities  of  Liguria  ? 

The  Ligurian  name  of  the  river  Pu,  and 
why  so  called  ? 

The  principal  towns  of  the  Boii? 

The  limits  of  Gallia  Transpadaua  ? 

Of  Central  Italy  ? 

What  countries  did  it  comprise? 

The  boundaries  of  Etruria  ? 

How  was  it  divided  ? 

The  limits  of  Latium  ? 

In  what  part  of  Italy  did  the  Greek  colo- 
nies locate  themselves  ? 

For  what  has  Italy  ever  been  celebrated? 

What  has  Italy  been,  and  what  is  it 
now  ? 


:.  2. — Historical  Notices  of  the  early  In- 
habitants of  Italy. 

From  whom  were  the  earliest  inhabitants 

of  Italy  descended? 
Of  what  two  languages  is  the  Latin  a 

compound  ? 
The  origin  of  the  name  Sicily  ? 
The  original  name  of  the  Latins  ? 
What  proof  is  given  that  the  serfs  were 

of  Palasgic  origin,  and  the  warriors  of 

Oscan  descent? 
The  gods  of  the  ancient  Latins  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Sabines  ? 
Explain  the  "  Ver  Sacrum?" 
The  history  of  the  Lucaniaus? 
For  what  were  the  Sabellian  tribes  dis- 
tinguished ? 
W^hat   prevented  them  from  becoming 

predominant  in  Italy  ? 
To    what  did  the    Samnites   owe  their 

downfall  ? 
The  origin  of  the  term  "  Imperator  ?  " 
What  gave  the  Romans  great  advantage 

over  thy  Etruscans  ? 


15.  For  what  were  they  reiuarknljle  ? 

16.  Who  annihilated  their  navy? 

17.  Who  finally  subdued  them  ? 

18.  What  is  said  of  their  ancient  wurku  ? 

19.  What  of  their  superstition? 

20.  What  is  said  of  the  Umbrians  ? 

21.  What  of  the  Messapians  ? 

22.  What  of  the  Ligurians  ? 

23.  Their  reputation  among  the  Romans  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Greek  Colonies  in  Italy 

1.  The  earliest  Greek  settlement  in  Italy 

2.  What  is  said  of  the  city  of  Cumse  ? 

3.  Its  history,  and  what  gave  it  importauco 

4.  By  whom  was  Tarentum  founded  ? 

5.  Its  history  ? 

6.  By  whom  was  Croton  founded  ? 

7.  What  proof  of  its  r^wer  is  given  ? 

8.  The  design  of  the  Pj'thagorean  society  'i 

9.  How  was  Croton  ruined  ? 

10.  The  cause  of  the  power  of  Sybaris  ? 

11.  For  what  did  it  become  proverbial  ? 

12.  What  led  to  a  war  between  it  and  Cro- 

ton, and  the  result  of  it  ? 

13.  To  whom  did  the  Sybarites  then  applj 

for  aid  ? 
•14.  What  city  did  they  then  found  ? 
15.  What  led  to  a  civil  war,   and  the  rc*nill 

of  it? 
16    The  subsequent  history  of  Thuriuiii  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  Zaleucus  ? 

18.  Who  brought  the  Locrians  to  the  verge  o! 

ruin  ? 

19.  Its  subsequent  history  ? 

20.  By  whom  was  Rhegium  colonized  ? 

21.  By  whom  destroyed  ? 

22.  By  whom  restored? 

23.  By  what  treachery  was  it  again  destroy 

ed? 

24.  How  were  the  traitors  punished  ? 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

HISTORY    OF    SICILY. 

Sec.  1. — Geographical  Outline. 

1.  Ancient  names  of  Sicily  ? 

2.  Origin  of  the   name  of  the  city   "  Rhe- 

gium ?  " 

3.  For  what  are  the  straits  of  Messina  re- 

markable ? 

4.  The  extent  of  the  city  of  Syracuse  T 

5.  Describe  the  prison  Latomiaj  ? 

6.  What   is  said  of  the  fountain  of  Aztj- 

thusa  ? 

7.  The  origin  of  the  proverb  "  Remove  noi 

Camarina?" 

8.  Polybius'  account  of  Agrigentum  ? 

y.  The  most  remarkable  natural  objoet  ic 
Sicily  ? 
10    The  fiction  of  the  poets  respecting  it? 


24 


QUESTIONS   OS 


.-■HC.  2. — Historical  Notices  of  the  ancient 
Inhabitants  of  Sicily. 

1  Tlie  first  inhabitanls  of  Sicily  ? 

2  The  character  they  bore? 

3.  The  next  in  antiquity? 

4  ^Vho  came  next  ? 

5  Who  was  jEolus  ? 

6  The  fate  of  Deucetius,  the  most  renown- 

ed king  of  the  Siculi  ? 
/    How  were  the  Siculi  treated  by  the  Sy- 
racusans  ? 

8  How  were  they  treated   by  the  tyrant 

Dionysius  ? 

9  By  whom  was  their  independence   re- 

stored ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  History  of  Syracuse. 

1.  When    and    by   whom    was    Syracuse 

founded  ? 

2.  Its  original  form  of  government  ? 

i    Underwhat  circumstances  was  it  chang- 
ed? 

4.  The  consequences  of   Gelon's  wise  ad- 

ministration ? 

5  Who  applied  to  him  for  aid  ? 

6  What  demand  did  he  malio  ? 

7  With  what  forces  did  the  Carthaginians 

invade  Sicily  ? 

8  By  what  stratagem  did  Gelon  entirely 

overthrow  them  ? 

9  How  was  he  regarded  by  his  subjects 

after  his  death  ? 
10    His  successor,  and  what  is  said  of  his 

administration  ? 
LI    What  signal  and  important  naval  victory 

did  he  gain  ? 

12  What  led  to  a  revolution  in  the  govern- 

ment ? 

13  What  was  petalism,  and  what  were  its 

consequences  ? 

14  W'ho  invaded  Sicily  at  this  time  ? 

15  What  circumstance  led  to   a  series  of 

sanguinary  wars? 
IG    What  is  said  of  Dionysius  I.  ? 

17  His  death,  and  his  successor  ? 

18  The  character  and  conduct  of  Dionvsius 

II.  ? 

19  What  compelled  the   Syracusans  to  ap- 

plv  for  aid  to  their  parent  city,  Co- 
rinth ? 

20  Who  was  sent  to  them  ? 

21  The  consequences  of  his  death  ? 

ii2.  What  led  the  Syracusans  afterwards  to 
invoke  the  aid  of  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epi- 
rus  ? 

2.3.  His  conduct  in  Sicily  ? 

24  To   whom  was   the   Syracusan   throne 

finally  offered  ? 

25  What  is  said  of  his  administration  ? 

26  What  led  to  the  destruction  of  Syracuse  ? 

27  Who  was  Archimedes  ? 

<?8    How  di.l  the  Romans  govern  Syracuse  ? 
29.  To  what  was  this  owing  ? 


CHAPTER    X\ 

HISTORY    OF   THE    ROMAN    REPLllLIC 

Sec.  1. — Traditions  respecting  the    Ciigi/ 
of  the  Romans. 

1.  The  origin  of  the  Romans  according  I' 

the  ancient  legends  ? 

2.  ^^'hat   proves  that  they  were  partly  of 

Pelasgic  origin  ? 

3.  The  probable  foundation  of  these  aucijei  r 

legends  ? 

4.  Repeat  the  substance  of  them. 

5.  The  story  of  Numitor  and  Amulius  V 

6.  The  story  of  Romulus  and  Remus  ? 

7.  Cause  of  the  quarrel  betw'een  them,  aui! 

its  results  ? 

8.  Date  of  the  building  of  Romti. 

9.  Its  original  size,  &.c.  ? 

Sec.  2. — From  the  Foundat'on  of  the  Citi 
to  the  Abolition  of  Royally. 

1.  How  did  Romulus  procure   inhabitant; 

for  his  new  city  ? 

2.  Form  of  its  government  ? 

3.  What   is  said  of  the  tie  of  patron  and 

client  ? 

4.  How  did  Romulus  obtain  wives  for  hif 

subjects  ? 

5.  Story  of  Tarpeia. 

6.  What   led  to  a  peace  between  Romulufc 

and  Tatius,  and  the  terms? 

7.  What  is  said  of  these  and  other  legends'" 

8.  The  story  of  Romulus'  death  ? 

9.  His  successor  and  his  character? 

10.  His  principal  acts  ? 

11.  Successor  of  Numa,  and  his  character? 

12.  How  was  the  war  betv/een  the  Romane 

and  Albans  terminated  ? 

13.  Conduct  of  the  surviving  Horatius? 

14.  The  fate  of  Alba  and  the  cause  of  it^ 

15.  The  successor  of  Tullus  ? 

16.  Tlis  principal  acts  ? 

17.  The  successor  of  Ancus  Martins.' 

18.  Who  was  Tarquinius  Priscus  ? 

19.  How  did  he  secure  the  throne? 

20.  How    was    his    difficulty    with    Attui 

NsBvius  compromised  ? 

21.  What  public  works  rendered  his   namt 

illustrious  ? 

22.  How   did  he  console    the   people  undti 

their  toils  ? 

23.  The  cause  and  manner  of  his  death  ? 

24.  Who  was  Servius  TuUius,  his  successor  ' 

25.  What  is  said  of  him  as  a  statesman? 

26.  Mention  some  of  his  acts? 

27.  How  was  he  regarded  by  the  patricians 

28.  The  circumstances  of  his  death,  and  th«. 

conduct  of  his  son-in-law  and  daughter  • 

29.  Character    and    acts    of    Tarquiu    tin 

Proud? 

30.  Cause  of  hi?,  banishment? 

31.  Conduct  of  Brutus  ? 


ANCIENT    HISTORY. 


25 


Sttc     3. — From   the    Ustahlishment   of  the 
Roman  Republic  to    the  Burning  of  the 
City  by  the  Gauls. 
I.  Nature  of  the  government  that  succeeded 

tJie  monarchy  ? 
'2.  What  conspiracy   was  soon   afterwards 
detected,  and  by  what  means  ? 

3.  The  conduct  of  the  consul  Brutus  ? 

4.  Who  were  banished,  and  why  ? 
.i.  Popular  conduct  of  Valerius  ? 

6.  With  whom  did  the  Romans  now  make 

a  treaty  ? 

7.  The  possessions  of  Rome  at  this  time  ? 

8.  The  legend  of  Horatius  Codes  ? 

9.  The  legend  of  Mucius  Scsevola? 

10.  The  legend  of  Cloelia  ? 

11.  What  is  said  of  these  legends? 

12.  The  cause  of  the  Sabine  war  that  fol- 

lowed, and  its  results  ? 

13.  Oppressive  conduct  of  the  patricians,  and 

its  effects  ? 

14.  Wlio  was   appointed    dictator,    and   his 

acts? 

15.  The  second  dictator? 

16.  What  occasioned  still  greater  discontent  ? 

17.  (/onduct  of  the  plebeians? 

18.  How  were  the  difficulties  settled  ? 

19.  What  facts  are  manifest  from  the  treaties 

rrlade  about  this  time  with  the  Latins 
and  Hernicans? 

20.  Legend  of  Coriolanus  ? 

21.  What  was  the  agrarian  law  proposed  by 

Spurius  Cassius  ? 

22.  The  fate  of  Spurius  ? 

23.  What  remarkable  circumstance  is  men- 

tioned ? 

24.  What  led  to  a  change  of  policy  on  the 

part  of  the  Fabii  ? 

25.  The  fate  of  the  family  ? 

26.  Progress  of  the  Etruscans  ? 

27.  Conjecture  of  Nicbuhr? 

28.  Conduct  of  Genuciiis,  th«  *ribuue  ? 

29.  Conduct  of  the  patrician'. 

30.  W^hat  frustrated  thtijr  plans  ? 

31  How  did  Volero  Publius  destroy  the 
supremacy  of  the  patrician  faction  ? 

32.  '  onduct  of  Appius  Claudius  ? 

33  •  H  what  act  of  cruel  veugoauce  was  he 
guilty  ? 

34.  Ilow  did  he  escape  the  penalty  of  his 
tyranny  ? 

35  Boldness  of  Appius  Herdonius? 

36  Bad  faith  of  the  senate  ? 

37  On  what  occasion  was  Cincinnatus  made 

dictator  ? 
How  did  he  use  his  office  ? 
What     conjecture     has     been    hazarded 

respecting  his  dictatorship? 
What    privilege    was   obtained    for   the 
people  through  the  exertions  of  Siccius 
Dentatus  ? 
41    The  history  of  the  twelve  tables  >. 
v2    Who  were  "the  decemvirs? 


3S 

39 


iL 


43.  W^hat  led  to  their  overthrow  ? 

44.  How    was   the    tribunicial)     powtr    in 

creased? 

45.  Cause  and  manner  of  the  death  of  Spuria*; 

Mffilius  ? 

46.  Cause  of  the  Veientine  war  ? 

47    By  whom  and  in  what  manner  was  Veii 
taken  ? 

48.  What  return  was   made  to  Camillus  fci 

his  great  services  ? 

49.  Cause  of  the  Gallic  war? 

50.  The  result  of  the  first  battle  ? 

51.  What  did  the  Romans  do  after  this  ? 

52.  How  were    the   Gauls   prevented   froir, 

taking  the  citadel  ? 
.53    What  ransom  was  paid  for  the  city  ? 
54     Sow   do  the  ordinary  legend  and  Poly 

bins  agree? 

Sec.  4. — From  the  Rebuilding  of  the  Citi 
to  the  first  Punic  War. 

1.  The  state   of  Rome  after  the  departure 

of  the  Gauls  ? 

2.  The  wishes  of  the  citizens,  and  how  weic 

they    prevented   from    carrying   them 
into  effect  ? 

3.  The  fate  of  Manlius  ? 

4.  The   strength   of  the  patricians  at  thin 

time,  and  the  probable  consequences? 

5.  The  renovators  of  the    Roman  coustitu* 

tion  ? 

6.  W^hat  three  bills  were  brought  forward 

by  Licinius  ? 

7.  How   did    the    patricians   endeavour   tci 

frustrate  his  designs  ? 

8.  How  did  they  modify  his  demands  ? 

9.  In  what  important  contest  did  the  Ro- 

mans now  engage  ? 

10.  The  cause  of  the  war  ? 

11.  What  led  to  a  war  with  the  Latins? 

12.  The  decree  of  Manlius,  and  the  reason 

for  it  ? 

13.  The    first    ofTender,    and   how    was    h*' 

treated  ? 

14.  The  result  of  this  war  ? 

15.  What    coufederacy    was    now    for-nef' 

against  the  Romans? 

16.  The  disaster  of  the  Roman  army  ? 

17.  The  advice  of  Pontius'  father? 

18.  How  were  the  Romans  treated  ? 

19.  The  result  of  the  war  ? 

20.  Who  finally  subdued  the  Samnites  ? 
I  21.  The  conduct  of  the  two  Dccii  ? 

22.  Why  was  war  proclaimed  against  Tu- 

rentum  ? 
23    What  Grecian  king  was  summoned  ti- 

Tarentum  to  defend  it? 

24.  His  motives  for  coming  to  Italy  ? 

25.  To  what  circumstance  did  Pyrrhus  owt 

his  first  victory  ? 

26  The  results  of  the  first  campaign  ? 

27  Pyrrhus'  remark  after  his  second  vicUny  u 

28  Whither  did  he  then  go  ? 


2C 


QTTESTIONS   ON 


&9.  What  brongiit  him  back  to  Ttaly  ? 
3D.  The  result  of  his  third  battie  ? 
Jl.  The  tenniiiutiou  of  the  war? 

Kec.  5. — From  the  Commencement  of  the 
Panic  Wars  to  the  Brginning  of  the  Civil 
Dissensions  under  the  Gracchi. 

1  The  cause  of  .he  first  Punic  war  ? 

2  Policy  of  Hiero,  king  of  Syracuse? 

3  Efforts  of  the  Carthaginians  ? 

4  What  strong  city  did  the  Romans  cap- 

ture in  Sicily? 

5  How    did    they    learn   the    art   of    ship 

building? 
C.  How  did  Duilius  obtain  a  naval  victory 
over  the  Carthaginians? 

7.  What  grand  enterprise  did  the  Romans 

now  undertake? 

8.  How  did  they  prepare  for  it? 

iy.  What  turned  the  fortune  of  war? 
li).  What  successive  losses  did  the  Romans 
sustain? 

11.  Conduct  of  Regulus  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  his  death? 

13.  What  great  naval  victory  did  Catulus 

gain  ? 

14.  What   led   to   a   peace,   and    the    terras 

of  it  ? 

15.  In  what  important  war  did  ine  Romans 

soon  afterwards  engage? 

16.  What  reputation  did  they  gain  by  their 

success  ? 

17.  What  led  to  a  second  Punic  war  ? 

18.  What  oath  did   Hannibal  take  when   a 

boy  ? 

19.  His  first  victory  over  the  Romans  ? 

20.  His  second  victory,  and  its  results  ? 

21.  His  third  great  victory  ? 

22.  Policy  of  Fabins  ? 

2.3.  Hannibal's  fourth  and  greatest  victory  ? 

24.  The  etfect  of  his  sojourn  in  Capua? 

25.  When  did  success  first  dawn  on  the  Ro- 

mans ? 

26.  What  two  cities  in  Sicily  did  they  cap- 

ture? 

27.  The  fate  of  Asdrubal  ? 

28.  Policy  of  Scipio  ? 

29.  How  did  he  outwit  Syphax  ? 
yO.  His  sucowssivo  victories  ? 

31.  What  prevented  a  peace,  on  Hannibal's 

return  ? 

32.  Where  was  the  last  battle  fought? 

33.  The  result  of  it  ? 

34.  The  terms  of  peace  ? 

35.  How  was  Scipio  honoured  ? 

'^6.  The   next   war   in   which  the   Romans 

were  engaged? 
37    Success  of  the  consul  Flaminius? 
.38    Who  caused  a  renewal  of  the  wars  in 

Greece  ? 
^^.  By  whom  was  he  instigated  ? 
W.  Where   did   the   Romans   gain   a  mgiial 

victory  over  the  Syrians? 


41.  Where  was  lie  entirely  overthrown  / 

42.  On  what  terms  did  ho  obtain  peace? 

43.  The  fate  of  Hannibal  ? 

44.  How  were  the  Scipios  treated  on  tlicii 

return  home? 

45.  What  is  said  of  the  Bacchanalians  ? 

46.  What  new  war  now  broke  out,  and  itrf 

result  ? 

47.  What  is  said  of  the  triumph  of  iEmilit> 

Paul  us? 

48.  Cato's    motives    n    wishing    to   destroy 

Carthage  ? 

49.  The  pretext  L  r  the  war  ? 

50.  How  did  the  Carthaginians  attempt  tc 

avert  their  fate  ? 

51.  How  dii'  they  afterwards  obtain  arms? 

52.  Describe  .he  siege  ? 

53.  Scipio's  feelings  on  viewing  Carthajre  i;i 

flames  ■? 

54.  Story  of  Asdrut  al's  wife  ? 

55.  The  origin  of  the  war  which  proved  fatal 

to  the  independence  of  Greece  ? 

56.  The  fate  of  Corinth  ? 

57.  What  other  cities  soon  afterwards  shar'^'i 

the  same  fate  ? 

58.  What  story  is  told  of  Mummius? 

59.  What  protracted  the  war  in  Spain  ? 

60.  What  is  said  of  the  valour  of  the  Celtilye 

rians  and  Lusitanians  ? 

61.  What  is  said  of  their  leader,  Viriatus? 

62.  Conduct  of  Pompey  in  Spain  ? 

63.  Policy  of  Scipio  yErailianus? 

64.  His  success  ? 

65.  What  province  in  Asia  did  the  Romans 

now  obtain,  and  in  what  manner? 

66.  The  fruits  of  this  acquisition  ? 

Sec.  6. — From  the  Beginning  of  the  Civil 
Dissensions  under  the  Gracchi  to  the 
Downfall  of  the  Republic  and  Death  of 
Pompey. 

1.  What  gradual   change  did  the  govern 

ment  undergo,  during  the  Punic,   Ma 
cedonian,  and  Spanish  wars? 

2.  In  what  way  did  the  aristocracy  acquirf 

60  much  wealth? 

3.  How  did  Tiberius  Gracchus  attempt  tc 

check  the  progress  of  corruption  ? 

4.  What  was  his  first  step  ? 

5.  How  did  the  nobles  attempt  to  thwari 

his  purposes  ? 

6.  Tiberius  Gracchus'  next  step  ? 

7.  By  what  proposal  was  this  followed  ? 

8.  What  led  to  his  death  ? 

9.  Wfio  was  his  murderer? 

10.  His  subsequent  career? 

11.  In  what  two  wars  did  t'^e  Romans  no'^ 

encage,  and  by  what  means  were  the> 
terminated  ? 

12.  Who  now  determined  tc  «ollow  the  e-? 

ample  of  Tiberius  Gracchus? 

13.  By  whom  was  he  urged  on  ? 

14.  How  did  he  ccmmence  his  career/ 


ANCIENT    HISTORV 


27 


!u.  What  change  did  he  make  in  the  govern- 
ment ? 

16.  How  did  the  senate  endeavour  to  thwart 

him  ? 

17.  What  accident  precipitated  the  struggle? 

18.  Tlie  death  of  Caius  Gracchus,  and  tlae 

conduct  of  Opiniius  ? 

19.  What  followed'the  death  of  the  Gracchi  ? 

20.  How  did  the  senate  bhow  their  venality 

Ji  the  Jugurthine  war? 

21.  How  did  Jugurtha  act  in  Rome,  and  the 

consequence  ? 

22.  His  success,  and  its  effect  in  Rome  ? 

23.  Who  was  sent  against  him  ? 

24.  By  whom  was  he  supplanted  ? 

25.  The  success  of  Marius  ? 

26.  The  subsequent  fate  of  Jugurtha  ? 

27.  What     hordes    were    now    devastating 

Transalpine  Gaul  ? 

28.  By  whom  v/ere  they  subdued? 

29.  What  war  had  been  waged  in  Sicily  ? 

30.  How  were  the  insurgents  punished  ? 

3\.  What    still    more    dangerous   war    now 
broke  out  ? 

32  How  many  men   perished  in  this  war, 

and  how  was  tranquillity  restored  ? 

33  What  new  enemy  now  arose  in  Asia  ? 

34  Who  was  appointed  to  comma  id  in  this 

war  ? 
35.  Between  what  parties  did  the  first  civil 
war  now  break  out  ? 

36  Conduct  of  Marius  in  Rome  ? 

37  SvUa's  success  in  Asia? 

38.  What  led  to  a  peace  ? 

39.  Conduct  of  Sylla  in  Rome  ? 

40.  What  office  did  he  usurp  ? 
41    Cause  of  his  death  ? 

42.  The  conduct  and  end  of  the  consul  Lie- 
pidus  ? 

43  What  \t  ■>.r  now  broke  out  in  Spain  ? 

44  Who  was  sent  against  Sertorius  ? 

45  What  l»d  to  its  termination? 

46  Who  was  Spartacus,  and  his  deeds? 

47  By  whom  was  he  crushed  ? 

48.  Conduct  of  Crassus  and  Pompey  ? 

49  Whiit  was  the  Manilian  law  ? 

50  What  was  Pompey's  success  in  Asia  ? 

51  Who  was  Catiline,   and  what  was  the 

object  of  his  conspiracy  ? 

52  By  whom,  and  in  what  manner,  was  his 

conspiracy  detected  ? 
53-  The  fate  of  the  conspirators  ? 

54  Who  protested  against  their  execution  ? 

55  What  honourable  title  was  conferred  on 

Cicero  ? 
i6.  The  first  triumvirate? 
57    By  whom  were  thej  supported,  and  from 

what  motives  ? 
58.  How  did  he  succeed  ? 
59    What  first  disturbed  the   union  of   tbe 

triumvirs  ? 
SO    By  what  was  it  broken  ? 
61.  Ceesar's  military  exploits  ? 


62.  Pompe)'  s  conduct  toward  him  ? 

63.  How  did  the  contest  between  thobe  twc 

commanders  commence  1 
G-i.  What   bribes   had   Cassar    paid   over   to 
Caius  Curio  ? 

65.  How  did  he  embarrass  the  senate  ? 

66.  The  decree  of  the  senate  ? 

67.  Caesar's  conduct  on  receiving  this  intelli- 

gence ? 

68.  Conduct  of  Pompey's  party  ? 

69.  How  long  did  it  take  Cajsar  to  subdue 

Italy? 

70.  His  subsequent  victories? 

71.  What  ofiice  was  conferred  on  him  ou  hit 

return  to  Rome  ? 

72.  When,  and  where  was  fought  the  grca*. 

battle    that    decided    the    fate    of    tht* 
world  ? 

73.  The  fate  of  Pompey  V 

74.  The  fate  of  his  remains  ? 

Sec.  7. — The  Establishment  of  the  Roman 
Empire. 

1.  The    effect   of  tlie    news   of    Pompey'c 

death  ? 

2.  Who  renewed  the  war  ? 

3.  How  did  Ccesar  show  his  disapprobation 

of  Egyptian  treachery  ? 

4.  What    fresh    danger   did   he   incur    in 

Egypt  ? 

5.  What   lamentable   catastrophe  occurred 

in  Alexandria  ? 

6.  Ceesar's  letter  to  Rome  1 

7.  The  state  of  affairs   in  Rome,  and  by 

what  occasioned  ? 

8.  The  fate  of  Cato  ? 

9.  How   long  was  Csesar   occupied   aboul 

the  African  war? 

10.  Adulation  of  the  senate  ? 

11.  To  what  dangers  was  CiEsar  exposed  iu 

Spain  ? 

12.  What  vast  designs  did  he  now  conteni 

plate  ? 

13.  How  did  he  offend  his  countrj-men  ? 

14.  Cffisar's  death  ? 

15.  The  conduct  of  Brutus,   and  of  the  ^n\- 

ate,  at  his  address  ? 

1 6.  Effect  of  Antony's  speech  ? 

17.  Conduct   of  Antony    toward    the    con- 

spirators ? 

18.  The  second  triumvirate  ? 

19.  The  fate  of  Cicero  ? 

20.  The  theatre  of  the  new  civil  wjr,  and 

its  results  ? 

21.  Conduct  of  Antony  and  Octavius  ? 

22.  By  whom   was  Antony  completely  on- 

slaved? 

23.  Policy  of  Octavius  ? 

24.  Conduct  of  Antony  toward  his  wife  Fid- 

via  ? 

25.  How    was  a  reconciliation  effected   be- 

tween Octavius  and  Antony  ? 

26.  Further  course  of  Octavius  and  Aiitony 


28 


tiUESTIONS    ON 


97.  Wiat  led  to  a  war? 
•28.  Where  was  the  decisive  'juttle  fought  ? 
and  describe  it. 

29.  Cciidtict  of  Aiiioiiy? 

30.  Intentions  of  Cleopatra,  and  how  frus- 

trated ? 

3).  How  did   Cleopatra    show    her   energy, 
and  Antony  his  weakness  ? 

32.  Progress  of  Octavins  ? 

33.  What  led  to  Antony's  death  ? 

34.  W'lat  to  Cleopatra's  ? 

35.  Wnat   use    did    Octavius   make   of  tha 

treasures  of  Egypt  ? 

36.  What  name  was  now  conferred  on  Oc- 

tavius by  the  Roman  senate  ? 

37.  Tiie  era  of  the  Roman  Empire  ? 
33.  What  is  said  of  the  title  Augustus? 

39.  What  was  the  title  after  the  time  of  Dio- 

ciesian  ? 

40.  When  was    Roman  liberty   really   des- 

troyed ? 

CHAPTER   XVI. 

■JEOGRaPHICAL.    and     rOLITICAL    CONDITION    OF 
THE  ROMAN   EMPIRE. 

Sec.  1. — European  Countries. — Spain. 

1.  The  boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  ? 

2.  The    Greek    name   of    Spain,    and    its 

origin  ? 

3.  Its  divisions  ? 

4.  For   what   were   the  inhabitants  of  the 

Baleares  islands  celebrated? 

Sec.  2. —  Transalpine  Gaul. 

1.  The  boundaries  of  Gaul  ? 

2.  The  religion  of  its  inhabitants  ? 

3.  Describe  its  rites  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  valour  of  the  Gauls? 

5.  Their  conduct  after  their  subjugation  by 

C<Esar  ? 
f>.  What  remains  of  Roman  works  are  found 
in  Gaul  1 

Sec.  3. — Britain. 

1.  By  what  tribes  was  Britain  colonized? 

2.  For  what  was  the  island  of  Mona  cele- 

brated ? 

3.  How  was  it  attempted  to  check  the  in- 

cursions of  the  Picts  and  Scots  ? 

4.  The  dimensions  of  the  last  wall  built  by 

the  Emperor  Severus  ? 
5    What  progress   had  the   inhabitants   of 

Britain  made  in  civilization,  when  first 

visited  by  the  Romans  ? 
G.  Describe  their  chariots  ? 

7.  Their  religion,  and  government? 

8.  When  was   Britain    abandoned   by    the 

Romans  ? 

c>B(J  4. —  The  Northern  Provinces  of  the 

Empire. 
I    Boundaries  of  Vindelicia  ? 


2.  Its  principal  towns  ? 

3.  Boundaries  of  Rhmtia? 

4.  Character  of  its  inhabitants  ? 

5.  Boundaries  of  Noricum  ? 

6.  Boundaries  of  Moesia  ? 

7.  Inhabitants  of  Dacia,  how  called  '^y  l].c 

Greeks,  and  by  the  Romans  ' 

8.  What  is  said  of  Thrace  ? 

9.  \Vhat  of  Illyricum,  and  its  inhabitants  ■? 

Sec.  5. — Asiatic  and  African  Provinces. 

1    The  Roman  provinces  in  Anatolia  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  them  ? 

3.  What  proof  is  given  of  private  wealth  ? 

4.  The  African  provinces  ? 

5.  What  is  said  of  the  Gaetnlians? 

6.  What  is  said  of  the  attention  paid  by  the 

Romans  to  commerce  in  the  East  ? 

7.  The  cause  of  this  neglect  ? 

8.  What  proof  is  given  of  such  being  the 

cause  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  the  division  of  the  Roman 

empire  ? 

Sec.  6. —  The  Principal  Nations  on  the 
Frontiers  of  the  Empire. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  names  Germany,  and 

Sarmatia  ? 

2.  What  of  the  name  Scythia  ? 

3.  The  meaning  of  the  word  Germans  ? 

4.  Origin  of  the  name  Dutch  ? 

5.  Mention  the  names  of  some  of  the  Ger- 

man tribes. 

6.  Origin  of  the  name  Longobardi  ? 

7.  What  is  said  of  the  Franks  ? 

8.  What,  of  the  religion  of  the  Germans  ? 

9.  Their  notion  of  future  happiness  ? 

10.  Repeat  the  death-song  of  Lodbrog. 

11.  How  was  the  most  solemn  oath  of  the 

Germans  taken  ? 

12.  How  was  India  divided  ? 

13.  The  ancient   name  of  Malacca,  and  of 

the  island  of  Ceylon  ? 

Sec.  7. —  Topography  df  the  City  of  Rome. 

1.  The  original  form  of  the  city  of  Rome  ? 

2.  What  was  the  Pomosrium? 

3.  Origin  of  this  custom  ? 

4.  The  form  of  marking  the  Pomoerium  ? 

5.  Origin  of  the  term  porta,  a  gate  ? 

6.  How  was  the  comitium  consecrated? 

7.  The  names  of  the  seven  hills  on  whicli 

Rome  was  built  ? 

8.  Who  first  fortified    the   city  with    out- 

works ? 

9.  The  works  of  Tarquinius  Priscus  ? 

10.  The  boast  of  Augustus  Cajsar  ? 

11.  Roman  taste  for  the  fine  arts  at  the  tiiut 

of  the  destruction  of  Corinth  ? 

12.  Circumference  of  Rome,  and  number  jj 

its  gates  ? 

13.  Its  most  remarkable  buildings? 

14.  Its  first  amphitheatre,  how  'argc  ? 


ANCIENT    HlSTOkY. 


2y 


15.  llie  Capitol,  why  so  called  ? 

16  How  often  destroyed  ;  and  by  whom  re- 

built ? 

17  What  celebrated  books  were  preserved 

in  the  sanctuary  ? 

18.  What  curious  custom  was  observed  in 
regard  to  the  capitol  ? 

J  9.   What  were  the  spolia  opima  ? 

'20.  Niebuhr's  theory? 

'Jl.  Where  was  the  forum  situated  ? 

2'2.  What  were  the  basilicce  ? 

'23.  Origin  of  the  phrase,  "  to  mount  the  ros- 
trum ?  " 

24.  The  legend  of  the  Curtian  lake  ? 

25.  What  is  said  of  the  temple  of  Janus? 

26.  What  was  the  Palladium? 

27.  What  was  the  Campus  Martius  ? 

28.  How  was  it  ornamented  ? 

29.  What  was  the  Pantheon  ;  and  by  whom 

built  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  the  Roman  aqueducts  7 

31.  How  many  were  erected  ? 

32.  Mention  the  number  of  public  buildings 

in  Rome  ;  and  what  thoy  were. 
33    Mention   some    of  the    public    roads  in 
Italy. 

34.  The  extent  of  the  Appian  road. 

35.  How  did  Rome  compare  with  Athens  ^ 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

HISTORY    OF    THE    ROMAN    EMPIRE. 

Sec.  1. —  The  Reigns  of  the  Family  of  the 
Casars. 

1.  Difference  between   the  early  and  latter 

character  of  Augustus  ? 

2.  What  is  said  of  his  administration  ? 

3.  Origin  of  the  sacra  decennalial 

4.  Augustus  Caesar's  treatment  of  his  sol- 

diers ? 

5.  The  standing  army  of  the  empire  I 

6.  What  were  tho  prEstorian  bands  ? 

7.  The  revenues  of  the  empire  ? 

8.  What  new  cities  did  Augustus  found  ? 

9.  What  ambassadors  came  to  Augustus? 
jO.  How  was  his  person  rendered  sacred? 

11.  The  effect  of  this  dignity  ? 

12.  What  honour  paid  him  was  the  most  gra- 

tifying of  all  ? 

13.  What  conquests  did  he  make  ? 

14.  What  prevented  him   from   resigning  at 

the  end  of  the  second  deccnnaiia? 

15.  What  domestic  calamity  did  he  have  to 

endure  ? 

16.  What  event  occurred  at  the   closing  of 

the  temple  of  Janus  ? 

L7.  What  provoked  a  rebellion  of  the  Ger- 
mans ? 

18.  What  great  overthrow  did  the  Romans 
receive  in  Germany? 

I'J.  How  was  Augustus  affected  at  this  loss? 

23 


20.  The   time,   pluco,    and   manner   of   \m 

death  ? 

21.  His  successor ;  and  how  did  ho  begin  hit> 

his  reign  ? 

22.  How  did  he  treat  Germanicus  ? 

23.  The  cause  of  Germanicus'  death  "* 

24.  How  were  the   Romans   affected  whoij 

his  ashes  were  brought  to  the  city  ? 

25.  Who  was  Sejanus,  and  what  wao  ht 

co.iduct  ? 

26.  How  was  ho  outwitted  by  the  emperor  ? 

27.  How  was  he  treated  ? 

28    Repeat  the  passage  from  Juvenal,  ou  \,\?. 
death. 

29.  Tiberius'  subsequent  conduct 

30.  His  successor,  and  his  charactf? 

31.  What  distinguished  person  suffered  death 

in  Judea,  in  his  reign  ? 

32.  Cause  of  Caligula's  early  popularity? 

33.  How  did  he  begin  his  reign  ? 

34.  His  conduct  after  his  sickness  I 

35.  Mention  some  of  his  follies  ? 

36.  His  death  ? 

37.  His  successor,  and  his  character  ? 

38.  His  favourites,  and  their  conduct  ? 

39.  What  expedition  did  he  undertake  ? 

40.  The  conduct  of  Messalina,  and  her  piiu- 

ishment  ? 

41.  The  conduct  of  Agrippina  ? 

42.  How  did  she  secure  the  succession  for 

her  sou  Nero? 

43.  How  old  was  Nero  when  he  began  hif 

reign  ? 

44.  Who  was  Poppeea  Sabina  ? 

45.  What  great  crime  did  she  instigate  Nero 

to  commit  ? 

46.  How  did  Seneca  disgrace  himself? 

47.  Of  what  succession  of  crimes  was  Nero 

now  guilty  ? 

48.  His  treatment  of  the  Christians,  and  the 

pretext  for  it  ? 

49.  How  did  he  exhaust  the  exchequer  ? 

50.  To  what  extortion  did  this  lead  ? 

51.  What  pretext  did  he  avail   himself  of  tu 

give  loose  to  his  sanguniary  disposition  1 

52.  Why  did  not  the  Roman  people  revolt  < 

53.  His  conduct  in  Greece  ? 

54.  What  dreadful  rebellion  broke  out  at  thit 

time  ? 

55.  What    insurrrection   burst    forth    ii;   the 

West  ? 

56.  Relate  the  circumstances  of  his  death- 

57.  Who  rebelled  in  Britain  ? 

58.  With  whom  did  the  family  of  the  Csesar*- 

cud  ? 

59.  The  consequences  of  its  extinction  ; 

Sec  2. — From  the  Extinction  of  the  Julian 
to  that  of  the  first  Flavian  Family. 

1.  Nero's  successor,  and  his  character 

2.  Conduct  and  fate  of  Nymphidiu?.  » 

3.  Whom  did  Galba  adopt  ? 

4.  His  fate,  and  that  of  Gaibu? 


30 


QUESTIONS   ON 


5.   \Vl,o  opposed  Otho  < 

G    Otho's  conduct  ? 

7.  The  result  of  thei  battle,  and  where  was 

11  tousjht  ? 
8    Otho's  purpose  and  conduct  ? 
y.  Conduct  of  ViteHius  ? 

10.  How  much  money  did  he  spend  in  the 

pleasures  of  the  table  in  four  months  ? 

11.  By  what  act  iid  he  give  scandal  to  the 

higher  ranks  ? 

12.  Who  revolted  against  him  in  the  East  ? 
13    What  generals   headed  Vespasian's    ar- 
mies .' 

14.  Conduct  of  CsBcina? 

15.  What  city  was  takeu  and  destroyed  by 

Primus  ? 

16.  What  caused  Vitellius  to  bo  abandoned 

by  his  troops  ? 

17.  What  calamity  happened  to  the  city  at 

this  time  ? 
18    The  manner  of  Vitellius'  death. 
19.  Conduct  of  Primus  and  Domitian? 
iO    Vespasian's  first  care  ? 

21.  His  second  step? 

22.  His  next  reform? 
23    His  only  fault? 

i4.  What  ancient  city  was  destroyed  by  his 

sou  Titus  ? 
%.  The   condition  of  the  Jews  since  that 

period  ? 

26,  What  monument  of  their  destruction  still 

remains  ? 

27.  What  great  general  was,  at  this  time, 

distinguishiag  himself  in  Britain? 
88.  His  policy? 

29.  What  discovery  did  he  make  1 

30.  What  brought  on  Vespasian's  last  sick- 

ness ? 

31.  What  is  said  of  him  ? 

32.  By  what  ludicrous  circumstance  was  the 

solemnity  of  his  obsequies  disturbed  ? 

33.  Titus'  first  act  aico.  his  accession  ? 

34.  What  other   instances  of    his   complai- 

sance are  mentioned  ? 

35.  What  dreadful  calamity  happened  in  his 

reign  ? 

36.  W^hat  cities  were  overwhelmed  ? 

37    How  did  he  gain  the  title  of  "  Benefactor 
of  the  human  race  ?  " 

38.  What  occasioned  his  death  ? 

39.  How  was  the  news  of  it  received  ? 

40.  What  is  said  of  Domitian,  his  successor? 

41.  His  first  acts? 

42.  His  expedition  against  the  Catti  ? 

43.  His  treatment  of  Agricola  ? 
4-1.   His  subsequent  conduct  ? 

45.  His  disgraceful  treaty  with  Decebalus  ? 

46.  How  was  his  cruelty  stimulated  ? 

47.  What  edict  did  he   issue  against  learn- 

ing ? 
IS.  Why  had  he  no  fear  of  rebellion? 
19.  His  treatment  of  the  Christians? 
,'().   What  led  to  his  assassination  "? 


51.  Wh:i  was  Ajxillonius  Tyuneua'' 

52.  The  fate  of  his  system  ? 

Sec.  3. — From  the  Extinction  of  the  fiisl 
Flavian  Family,  to  the  last  of  the  Antoninea 

1.  By  whom  was  Domitian  succeeded? 

2.  His  native  country,  and  his  characte'"^ 

3.  Wi.at  iudignity  was  put  on  him  by  hi»^ 

soldiers  ? 

4.  What  good  effect  did  this  produce  ? 

5  What  occasioned  his  death  ? 

6  Trajan's  country  and  family  ? 

7.   What  services  did  he  render  the  people  ? 

5.  What  war  did  he  soon  engage  in,  and  iiifc 

conduct  ? 

9.  What  groat  work  did  he  construct  I 

10.  His  success  in  the  Dacian  war? 

1 1.  What  made  him  ambitious  of  conquobt ' 

12.  What  countries  did  he  subdue? 

13.  How  were  the  Jews  treated  ? 

14.  How  long  did  Trajan  reign,  and  wh'?T! 

and  where  did  he  die  ? 

15.  With  what  blot  is  his  cheiractor  staiued  • 

16.  His  successor,  and  how  was  he  chuseu  7 

17.  His  first  steps? 

18.  Wliat  tour  did  he  enter  upon  ? 

19.  His  work  in  Britain? 

20.  His  terrible  treatment  of  the  Jews  ? 

21.  What  was  the  edictum  perpetuumi 

22.  His  munificence  towards  Athens? 

23.  The  iioscription  on  the  medal  struck  to 

his  honour  ? 

24.  His  conduct  in  his  latter  days  ? 

25.  Whom  did  he  adopt  as  his  successor,  ana 

on  what  condition? 

26.  The    conduct  of    the    senate    after   hL^ 

death? 

27.  What  is   said   of  the  administration   of 

Antoninus  ? 

28.  The  etTect  of  his  reign  on  the  provinces  ? 

29.  What    proves    the     prosperity     of    hia 

reign  ? 

30.  What  circumstance  shows  the  venera- 
tion attached  to  his  memory  ? 

His  successor  ? 

The  conduct  of  Verus  ? 

What    interrupted    the    tranquillity    o' 

Rome  ? 
How  was   the    plague    introduced   iiitc 

Europe  ? 
What  defeat  did   the  Roman  army  siw- 

tain  ? 
How  were  the  losses  repaired  ? 

37.  Aurelius'  plan  for  carrying  on  the  war? 

38.  How  did  a  departure  from   it  on  one  ufj 

casion  nearly  prove  his  ruin  ? 

39.  How  was  he  delivered  ? 

40.  Who  rebelled  against  him  in  the  East  ' 

41.  Who  suffered  martyrdom  in  this  'eign  ? 

42.  What  is  said  of  his   apologies  fo»  Chrb 

tianity  ? 

43.  What  made  Aurelius  more  tolerant  to 

ward  the  close  of  his  reign  ? 


36 


ANCIENT   HISTORY. 


81 


•i4.   What  led  to  a  renewal  of  war  along  the 

Rhine  and  Danube? 
i5.  When  and  where  did  he  die  ? 

What  expired  with  him? 

\Vhat  is  said  of  his  meditations  ? 

What  remark  is  made  of  Conmiodus? 

Who  had  spoiled  him  ? 

His  character  and  conduct  ? 

What  made  him  suspicious  of  the  seiitito  ? 

What  new  danger  arose  ? 

The  design  of  the  conspirators  ? 

What  produced  an  alarming  insurrection 
of  the  Roman  populace  ? 

What  led  to  his  death? 

The  decrees  of  the  senate  at  his  death  ? 


46. 
■47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 

55. 
56 

Sec.  4. — Foreign  Commerce  of  the  Romans 
in  the  Age  of  the  Antouines. 

1  For  what  is  the  age  of  the  Antonines 

celebrated  ? 

2  What  is  said  of  Palmyra  ? 

3.  W'hat  led  great  numbers  of  Syrian  mer- 

chants to  settle  in  Rome  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  Byzantium  ? 

5.  The  great  caravan  route  across  Asia? 

6.  The  two  caravan  routes  from  Bactra  ? 

7.  What  new  route  did  the  Emperor  Anto- 

ninus attempt  to  open? 

8.  What    improvement   in  navigation    did 

Harpalus  make  ? 

9.  How  was  he  honoured? 

10.  The  route  of  the  Egyptian  trade  mider 

the  Romans? 

11.  The  imports  from  India? 
12    The  principal  exports  ? 

13.  The    attention   of  Commodus   to   com- 

merce ? 

14.  What  is  said  of  the  trade  of  the  Black 

Sea? 
15    What  facts  show  that  the  Romans  were 
not  a  commercial  people  ? 

Sec.  5. — From  the  Extinction  of  the  Fla- 
vian Family  to  the  Establishment  of 
Military  Despotism,  after  the  Murder  of 
Alexander  Severus. 


What  is  said  of  the  accession  o"  ^ertinax 
to  the  crown  ? 

What  reforms  did  he  effect  ? 

The  cause  and  circumftances  of  his 
death  ? 

How  did  Didius  obtain  the  crown  ? 

How  was  he  treated  by  the  Roman  popu- 
lace? 

W^hat  competitors  for  (he  crown  ap- 
peared ? 

Relate  the  circumstances'  of  the  death  of 
Didius  ? 

F  "St  step  of  Severus  ? 

by  whom  was  he  opposi^d  ? 

The  fate  of  Byzantium? 

What  second  contest  far  empire  did  So- 
vwiia  engage  in  ? 


12.  His  conduct  at  Rome? 

13.  What  recalled  him  to  Asia  ? 

14.  Who  was  hie  premier,  and  what  was  hie 

character  ? 

15.  The  circumstances  of  his  death? 

16.  Severus'  exploits  in  Britain? 

17.  What  is  said  of  him  and  his  administra- 
I  tion  ? 

18.  Wicked  conduct  of  Caracalla? 

19.  By    what    means    did    he    support   hia 

authority  ? 

20.  How  did  he  lower  the  pride  of  the  Ro- 

mans ? 

21.  His  treatment   of  Alexandi-ia,  and  tho 

reason  for  it  ? 

22.  His  death? 

23.  By  whom  was  he  succeeued  ? 

24.  How  was  Caracalla  regarded  by  tno  sol- 

diers? 

25.  What  led  to  the  death  of  Macrinus  ? 

26.  Why  was  Heliogabalus  made  emperor? 

27.  His  age  at  his  accession? 

28.  His  character  ? 

29.  His  conduct  at  Rome  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  the  Roman  ladies  ? 

31.  What  led  to  the  death  of  Heliogabalus? 

32.  How  was  his  body  treated  ? 

33.  What  is  said  of  Alexander  Severus,  hij' 

successor  ? 

34.  What  important  revolution  took  place  iu 

the  east  during  his  reign  ? 

35.  The  standard  of  Artaxerxes? 

'M.  What  was  one  great  effect  of  this  revo- 
lution ? 

37.  The  great  aim  of  the  Sassanid  dynasty? 

38.  What    is    said    of   the    public    buildiuga 

erected  by  this  dynasty  ? 

39.  What  did  Ardeshir  attempt  to  do  ? 

40.  The  success  of  Alexander  Severus  agaiast 

him? 
41    The  cause  and  circumstances  of  his  death') 
42.  What  is  said  of  him  ? 

Sec.  6. — From  the  Murder  of  Alexander  t; 
the  Captivity  of  Valerian  and  the  Usur- 
pation  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants. 

1.  W^ho  succeeded  Alexander  Severus  7 

2.  Instances  of  his  great  strength  ? 

3.  His  success  against  the  Germans  'I 

4.  How  d.d  he  provoke  a  civil  war  ? 

5.  Who  was  proclaimed  emperor  ? 

6.  Conduct  of  the  senate  thereupon  ? 

7.  What  led  to  the  death  of  Maximiu  1 

8.  His  successor,  and  his  age  \ 

9.  What  led  him  to  Syria  ' 

10.  Conduct  and  character  of  Misitheus^ 

11.  ('ircuin.stances  of  Gnrdian's  death'' 

12.  HiS  successor,  and  his  administration 

13.  What  rendered  his  reign  remarkable  ^ 

14.  Circumstances  of  his  death  ? 

15  How  did  Deciut  commence  his  reign  ? 

16  What  Chi.stian  bishop  sullered  m.-irtyi 

f'om  ? 


32 


QUESTIONfi   ON 


1 7.  W1)0  was  Paul  tlie  hermit  ? 

18.  Uoatli  of  the  emperor  ? 
ly.  His  successor  ? 

■iO.  How  did   he    provoke  universal  resent- 
ment l 
i2l.  His  death,  and  successor  ? 

22.  What  is  said  of  Valerian? 

23.  What  enemies  were   now  attacking  the 

empire  ? 
^4.  Wiiat  is  said  of  the  scale  armour  of  the 

Sarmatians? 
U5.  The  fate  of  Valerian  ? 
26.  How  was   he   treated  bj  Sapor,  and  by 

his  own  son  ? 

Sec.  " — From  the  Captivity  of  Valerian  to 
the  Resignation  of  Diocletian. 

1.  What  is  said  of  Galhenus  ? 

2.  How  many  competitors  for  the  throne 

appeared  ? 

3.  ^\'ho  was  Odenatus  ? 

4.  Who  was  Zeuobia,  and  wliiit  is  said  of 

her? 
ii.  Who  succeeded  Gallienus? 
G.  What  is  said  of  Aurelian? 

7.  How  did   he  secure   the  tranquillity  of 

Europe  ? 

8.  How  did  Zenobia  precipitate  her  ruin  ? 

9.  The  fate  of  Palmyra  ? 

10.  What  other  provinces  did  Aurelian  re- 

cover to  the  empire  1 

11.  How  did  he  treat  Zenobia? 

12.  By  what  circumstance  was  an  insurrec- 

tion caused  at  Rome  ? 

13.  The  loss  of  the  imperial  troops  iu  atten  pt- 

ing  to  quell  the  riot  ? 
14    What  led  Aurelian  to  quit  Rome? 

15.  How  were  his  virtues  sullied? 

16.  What  led  to  his  death? 

17.  How  did  the  soldiers  avenge  his  death  ? 

18.  Who  was  elected  emperor  by  the  Syrian 

army  ? 

19.  His  victories  ? 

20.  The  cause  of  his  death  ? 

21.  His  successor,  and  his  deeds  ? 

22.  W'ho  was  Dioclesiau  ? 

23.  Why  does  the  date  of  his   accessica  de- 

serve to  be  remembered  ? 

24.  By  whom    is   the   "  era  of   Dioclosian" 

still  observed  ? 
25    Whom  did  Dioclesiau  choose  as  hie  col- 
league I 

26.  What  is  said  of  Maximian  ? 

27.  What  further  division  of  authority  was 

made  ? 

28  How  was  the  empire  divided  ? 

29  The  effect  of  this  division  ? 

30  Success  of  Constantius  in  Britain  ? 

31  Disaster  of  Galerius  ? 

32  His  subsequent  success  .' 

33  W'hat  prize  did  he  take? 
94.  Folly  of  a  soldier  ? 

^h.  Goacrosity  of  Galf^riuH  7 


What  great  province  was  gp.Uu'd  Vi  Xlv 

Romans  by  this  battle  ? 
How  were  these  triumphs  sullicil? 
What  is  said  of  the  numbers  of  martjiBi 
Of  the  triumphs  of  Christianity  ? 
What  strange  revolt  happened  in  Syria  • 
Dioclesian's  base  conduct  to  the  people 

of  Antioch,  and  its  eifect  on  them  ? 
What  is  said  of  his  triumph  at  Rome  7 
Why  did  he  quit  the  city  ? 
His  resignation,  how  occasioned? 
How  K  jg  did  he  survive  it  ? 
His  letter  to  Maximian  ? 
What  embittered  his  last  days? 


36. 

37. 

38. 
39. 
40. 
41. 

42. 
43. 

44. 
45. 
46. 

47. 

Sec.  8. — From  the  Abdication  of  Dioclesian 
to  the  Death  of  Constanline  the  Great. 

1.  How  was  the  empire  again  divided? 

2.  To  what  dangers  was  Constantine  ex- 

posed ? 

3.  Under  what   circumstances  was  he  pro 

claimed  emperor  ? 

4.  Conduct  of  Maxentius  ? 

5.  How  did  Constantiue  show  his  prudence? 

6.  Between   what   six   sovereigns  was  thf 

empire  now  shared  ? 

7.  Treachery  of   Maximian,  and  how  wat 

it  punished? 

8.  What  occasioned  the  death  of  Galerius? 

9.  How  did  Maxentius  provoke  a  war,  ai»d 

with  whom? 

10.  Where  and  how  was  he  destroyed? 

11.  What  vision  did  Constantina  see? 

12.  The  testimony  for  and  against  this  ac- 

count? 

13.  What   great    reforms    did    Constantiue 

effect  in  Rome? 

14.  Conduct  of  Maximin,  and  his  death? 

15.  Cruelty  of  Licinius? 

16.  What  civil  war  now  ensue<l? 

17.  The  result  of  it? 

18.  What  renewed  the  war  ? 

19.  What   is  said  of  f-    battle  of  the  He- 

brus? 

20.  The  result  of  the  war  ? 

21.  What  celebrated  council  was   now  con- 

voked ? 

22.  What  doctrines  were  established  by  it  ? 

23.  How  v/a;5  Constantiue  received  at  Romei 

24.  What  etTect  did  this  have  on  him? 
25    What  horrid  crime  did  he  commit? 

26.  How  did  he  avenge  himself  on  the  cm- 

press  ? 

27.  What  led  him  to  make   Byzantium  l'u 

capital  of  the  empire  ? 

28.  Describe  the  position  of  this  city  ? 

29.  Its  advantages  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  Coiistantiiie's  adminis- 

tration ? 

31.  The  effect  of  the  removal  of  the  scat  o 

government  ? 
32    Into  what  three  clj-sses  r-ei-e  the  miigip 
trates  divided  ? 


ANCIENT    HI8T0RV. 


33 


.53    Who  were  the  mugi^trates  of  the  first 

class  ? 
S'l.   How  were  the  Roman  divisions  divided  ? 
35    The  power  and  duties  of  the  praetorian 

prefects  ? 
36.   The  great  officers  of  the  state  and  court  ? 
m.  Their  several  duties  ? 

38.  Tlie  salaries  of  the  duces  and  comites  ? 

39.  What  proofs  of  the  decay  of  military 

spirit  among  the  Romans  are  men- 
tioned ? 

10.  The  eflect  of  the  changes  in  the  consti- 
tution of  the  civil  and  military  admin- 
istration of  the  goverument  ? 

41  What  advantage  of  arbitrary  government 
is  mentioned  ? 

42.  The  meaning  of  the  term  indiction  ? 

43.  What  was  the  aurum  lustrale  1 

44.  What  the  aurum  coronale  ? 

45.  What  is  said  of  Constantine's  innova- 

tions ? 

4G.  The  established  religion  under  Constan- 
tino ? 

47.  How  did  he  support  the  church  ? 

Sec.  9. — From  the  Death  of  Constantine  to 
the  Reuniun  of  the  Empire  under  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great. 

Constantine's  successors  ? 

What  is  said  of  them,  and  of  their  edu- 
cation ? 

Of  what  horrid  conduct  was  Constantius 
guilty  ; 

What  new  division  of  the  empire  was 
made? 

The  early  history  of  Shah-pur,  the  Per- 
sian monarch  ? 

How  many  indecisive  but  sanguinary 
engagements  did  he  fight  with  the  Ro- 
mans? 

Where  did  he  overthrow  them  ? 

What  led  to  a  peace  ? 

What  led  to  a  civil  war,  and  its  result  ? 

Administration  of  Constans  ? 

The  circumstances  of  his  death  ? 

How  was  Vetranio  forced  to  assume  the 
purple  ? 

The  conduct  of  Constantina  ? 

Movements  of  Constantius  ? 

The  fate  of  Vetranio  ? 

Describe  the  battle  of  Mursa  ? 

What  has  been  said  of  this  battle  ? 

The  fate  of  Magnentius  ? 

1'lie  causes  and  manner  of  the  death  of 
Gallus  ? 

What  saved  Julian,  his  brother  ? 

What  city  did  Constantius  now  visit,  and 
what  was  his  receptiou? 

What  dangerous  eu'^my  again  attacked 
the  empire? 

The  conduct  of  .Tu'ian  in  Gaul  ? 

How  was  a  civil  war  betv/een  hiin  and 
Con.,tantiuB  averted  ? 


25.  What  heresy  distracted  the  church   i.T 

this  reign  ? 

26.  Which  party  did  Constantius  favour  / 

27.  What  celebrated  bishop  opposed  it  ? 

28.  How  was  Julian  received  in  Coustaiit!- 

nople  ? 

29.  His  first  measure  ? 

30.  What  is  said  of  his  reforms  of  the  court  i 

31.  The  great  object  of  his  ambition  ? 

32.  How  did  he  attempt  to  accomplish  it  ? 

33.  What  attempt  did  he  niake   to  disprove 

the  inspiration  of  the  scriptures  ? 

34.  How  was  ho  forced  to  abandon  it  ? 

35.  In  what  war  did  he  engage  ? 

36.  The  circumstances  of  his  death  ? 

37.  What   dishonourable    peace  did  Joviau 

conclude  ? 

38.  His  treatment  of  Christians  and  Pagans 

39.  The  manner  of  his  death? 

40.  Who  was  choseii  to  succeed  him  ? 

41.  What    division    of    the   empire    did   he 

make  ? 

42.  The  capital  ot  ilie  western  empire  ? 

43.  What  war  did  Valentinian  engage  in  ? 

44.  What    circumstance    filled    him     with 

alarm  ? 

45.  His   first   care    after   his  recovery  from 

sickness  ? 

46.  Whose  piracies  began  now  to  attract  at- 

tention ? 

47.  Who  preserved  Britain  to  the  empire  7 

48.  How  was  he  rewarded  ? 

49.  Conduct  of  Count  Romanus  ? 

50.  How  did  he  escape  punishment  ? 

51.  To  what  did  his  conduct  lead  ? 

52.  By  whom  was  the  rebellion  suppressed? 

53.  Cause  of  Valentiniun's  death  ? 

54.  His  character  and  administration  ? 

55.  What  was  Valens  doing  in  the  east  ? 

56.  What  war  did   he  engage  in,   and  wi'Ji 

what  success  ? 

57.  His  conduct  to  the  opposers  of  Arianisni  ? 

58.  By  whom  was  Valentinian  succeeded? 

59.  Of  what  great  crime  wasGratian  guilty  i 
(iU.   What   laws   did   he  make  favourable  tu 

the  interests  of  the  church  ? 

61.  Who  were  the  Huns? 

62.  What  is  saidof  Iheirpersonal  appearance 'i 

63.  Their  food,  and  how  was  it  dressed? 

64.  Their  manners  and  peculiarities? 

65.  To  what  did  they  force  the  Goths  7 

66.  How  did  they  treat  their  prisoners  ? 

67    How  did  the  Gothic  monarch  fortify  him- 
self? 

68.  What  did  the  Gothic  nation  do  in  thwi 

extremity  ? 

69.  The  deeds  of  Ulphilas  their  bishop  ? 

70.  Base  conduct  of  the  officers  of  Valens  ■? 

71.  Treachery  of  Liipicinus? 

72.  How  did  the  Goths  take  revenge? 

73.  What  is  said  of  the  battle  fougiit  between 

the     Goths    and     the     Roiiiai)s     nt-u 
Adrianople  ? 


84 


QUESTIONS   ON 


74.  \\Tiom  did  Gratian  now  choose  as  his 

associate  ? 

75.  Conduct  of 'I'heodosiiis  and  its  effects? 

76.  The  fate  of  Giatian  '. 

77.  Boldness    of    !?t.    Ambrose,    bishop    of 

Milan  .' 

78.  By  whom  was  the  usurper  defeated  ? 

79.  What  hastened  his  death  ? 
HO.  The  fate  of  Valentiniau  II.  ? 

dl.  Under  whom  was    the    Roman   empire 
once  more  united  ? 

SKa  10. —  The   Overthrow   of  the    Western 
Empire. 

1.  To   whom    did    Theodosiiis    assign    the 

eastern,    and    to    whom    Jie    western 
empire  ? 

2.  Who  was  Rufinus,  and  his  character  ? 
S.  How  did  he  aim  to  secure  his  power  ? 

4.  Whom  did  Arcadius  marry  ? 

5.  Of  what   pretext  die  Stilicho  avail  him- 

self to  put  down  Rufinus  ? 

6.  What  led  him  to  return  to  Italy? 

7.  The  fate  of  Rufinus  V 

8.  How  was  Stilicho   treated  by  the  court 

of  Constantinople  1 

9.  How  was  the  African  revolt  suppressed  ? 
10.  The  fate  of  Gildo  and  Mascezel  I 

11    Who  now  invaded  the  empire? 

12.  Of  what  consummate  folly  was  Arcadius 

guilty  ? 

13.  Whitiier  did  Alaric  then  go? 

14.  How  was  he  induced  to  quit  Italy  ? 

15.  What     city    did     Honorius     make     his 

capital  ? 

16.  Who  next  invaded  Italy? 

17.  Who     was     proclaimed    emperor,    and 

why? 
13.  Of  what  crime  and  folly  was  Honorius 

guilty? 
19    What  impolitic  and  monstrous  edict  did 

Olympus,  his  ministery  issue  ? 

20.  The  consequences  of  it  ? 

21.  How  was  Alaric  induced  to  quit  Rome? 

22.  How  did  Honorius  again  show  his  folly? 

23.  When  was  Rome  captured? 

24.  How  many  days  was  it  pillaged  '' 

25.  Death  and  burial  of  Alaric? 

26.  What  tribes   now  established  themselves 

in  Spain  and  Gaul  ? 

27.  What  became  of  the  Britons  ? 
2d.  Origin  of  the  term  "  England  ?  " 

29.  How  was  the  reign  of  Arcadius,   in  th« 

east,  dishonoured  ? 
3C    What  illustrious  bishop  of  Constantinople 

fell    a    victim   to    the    cruelty    of    the 

empress  ? 
3L    By  whom  was  Arcadius  succeeded  ? 

32.  Who  usurped  the  administration  ? 

33.  How  did  she  govern  ? 

34    What  other  woman  became  ruler  of  the 

weatern  empire  ? 
i5    H'^w  did  she  treat  Count  Boni*"ace  ? 


36.  By  what  means  waa  Gonseiic  ir.ddoiy 

to  invade  Africa  ? 

37.  The  fate  of  Count  Boniface  " 

38.  How  was  the  double  treachery  ol  /Etiui!' 

punished  ? 

39.  Who  was  Attila  ? 

40.  How  was  he  induced  to  refrain  from  at 

tacking  the  Byzantine  empire  ? 

41.  What  led  him  to  turn  his  arms  agains' 

the  Western  empire  ? 

42.  Baseness  of  Houoria? 

43.  By  whom  was  Attila  at  first  defeated  ? 

44.  What  delayed  the  ruin  of  the  empire  ? 

45.  The  fate  of  ^tius  ? 

46.  The  fate  of  Valentiniau,  and  who  su'i- 

ceeded  him  ? 

47.  How,   and   why  was   Maximus  put  t 

death  ? 

48.  By  whom  was  Rome  again  pillaged  ? 

49.  How  were  the  inhabitants  treated  ? 

50.  Who  redeemed  many  of  them,  and  b_v 

what  means  ? 

51.  What  succession  of  emperors  now  sat  oc 

the  throne  of  the  Western  empire  ? 

52.  Who  was  Count  Ricimer  ? 

53.  Who  was  the  last  Roman  C7Tii)eror  ? 

54.  When  was  Italy  conquered  by  the  Ostro- 

goths ? 

55.  What  is  said  of  the  Gnostics 


CHAPTER  XVIIl 


1.  What  is  said  of  the  inhabitants  of  India, 

when  Alexander  first  invaded  it  ? 

2.  What  inference  is  drawn  from  this  fact  1 

3.  How   far  back   does   the  civilization  of 

India  probably  reach  ? 

4.  What  is  said  of  the  castes  of  India? 

5.  Remark  of  Major  Bevan? 

(').  The  cradle  of  the  Hindoo  race? 

7.  Testimony  of  the  ancient  records  ? 

8.  What  is  said  of  the  Brahmins  I 

9.  The   story  of  the   di-ama  of  the  "  Toy 

Cart." 

10.  The  two  great  dynasties  m  India  proper  1 

11.  What   is  said   of  the   war  between  the 

Pandoos  and  Kooroos  ? 

12.  The  result  of  it  ? 

13.  Who  occupied  the  throne  of  India  affei 

Alexander's  retreat  ? 

14.  What  is  said  of  Mahapadma-Nanca  ? 

15.  How  di'^,  be  provoke  the  hostility  ;f  the 

Brahmins  ? 

16.  Who  was  Chandra-Gupta  f 

17    To  whom   did  he  owe  his  elevctiion  tc 
the  throne  ? 

18.  By  whom  was  he  attacked  ? 

19.  What  treaty  did  he  make  with  S«'leuoi£ 

Nicator? 

20.  Who  is  the  next  sovereign  of  India  oi 


ANCIE^  r    HIBTCBV. 


35 


whom  we  know  any  thing,  and  what 
is  said  of  him  ? 
^1.  By  whom  was  he  conquered  ? 

22.  What  do  liie  Hindoo  accounts  say  of 

him  ? 

23.  What    is   said   of   India    from   this   pe- 

riod ? 

•24.  How  did  ihe  priesthood  obtain  a  mono- 
poly of  knowledge? 

Jj.  What  were  some  of  the  prerogatives  of 
the  Brahmins? 

'26.  What  is  said  of  the  warrior  caste  ? 

27.  The  consequence  of  this  ? 

28.  The  Vaisya  caste,  what  ? 

29.  The  Sudras,  what  ? 
30    Who  was  Buddha? 

tI    Repeat  the  BuJdhis>l  hymn. 


32.  When  were  the  Buddhistb  expelled  from 

India? 

33.  The  effect  of  this  persecution  ? 

34.  Where  did  they  find  refuge  ? 

35.  How  many  persons  profess  Buddhism  ? 

36.  To  what  is  its  success  fwing  ? 

37.  Who  were  the  Jains  ? 

38.  What  is  said  of  the  Inu5a  trade  ? 

39.  How   did    the    Persians    procure    thtii 

goods  from  India  ? 

40.  What  discovery  brought  India  nearer  tx: 

the  rest  of  the  world  7 

41.  The  effect  of  this  discovery  ? 

42.  What  is  said  of  Ceylon  ? 

43.  What  circumstance  shows  tliat  the  civi- 

liiatiou  of  India  bolou>n^  to  an  age  of 
VHrv  icnifite  antlguitv  ? 


53 


QUESTIONS 


ON 


ODERN    HISTORY. 


10   ACCOMPANY 


A  MANUAL  OF  MODERN  HISTORY, 


BY    W.    C.    TAYLOR. 


COMPILED     BY     R  E  V.    L.  L.   S  M  IT  H. 


XEW  YOKK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY^ 

549    &    551    BROADWAY. 

1878. 


Entered,  'according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  jear  1844,  by 

D.  APPLETON  &  CO., 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern 

District  of  New  York. 


QUESTIONS 


ON 


MODERN    HISTORY 


CHAPTER  I. 

CtNbEQUENCES   OF   THE    FALL   OF   THE 
WESTERN     EMPIRE. 

Sen.  1. —  The  Gothic  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

I.  Wiiat  is  said  of  the  Visigoths  hi  Spain  ? 
9..  What,  of  the  Ostrogoths  ? 

3.  What   tribes   came   from   the    German 

Forests  ? 

4.  Wliat  is  said  of  them  ? 

5.  WTiat  tribes  were  still  more  barbarous? 

6.  For  what  were  tlio  Germanic  tribes  re- 

markable ? 

7.  From  what  part  of  Europe  did  the  Scla- 

vonic tribes  come  ? 

8  How  did  they  resemble  the  Tartars  ? 

9  Their  form  of  government  ? 

10.  How  long  did  the  court  of  Constantino- 

ple remain  in  obscurity  ? 

11.  Who  restored  its  supremacy? 

1 2.  How  was  Zeno  made  emperor  ? 

13.  Who  excited  a  revolt  against  him? 

14.  Who  restored  him  to  the  throne  ? 

15.  Wliat  excited  hostilities  between  him  and 

Theodoric? 

16.  How  was  peace  obtained  by  Zeno  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  the  march  of  Theodoric? 

18.  W^ho  opposed  him  ? 

19.  What  city  sustained  a  long  siege  ? 

20.  Wliat  became  of  Odoacer? 

21.  How  did  Theodoric  secure  his  conqiiest? 

22.  What  were  the  limits  of  liL  "empire  1 

23.  W^hat  heresy  did  he  embrace  7 

24.  The  consequence  of  this? 

25  W'hat  crimes  did  he  commit  ? 

26  How  did  he  die  ?  and  at  what  age  ? 

Sec.  2. — Reign  of  Justinian. 

1 .  Who  was  Justin  ? 

2    What  office  did  he  hold  ? 

3.  How  did  he  secure  the  throne? 

4.  Whom  did  he  make  his  associate  ? 

5  Whom  did  Justinian  marry  ? 

6  Her  character  ? 

I    Mention  a  singular  'bilv  of  the    «'jastcrn 
EranJre. 


8.  What  result  followed  Justinian's  ptu  tuv 

ity  to  one  of  the  factions  ? 

9.  How  did  this  happen  ? 

10.  How  did  Justinian  restore  order? 

11.  How  many  of  the  rioters  were  killed? 

12.  What  war  did  Justinian  now  engage  iui 

13.  His  commander  ? 

14.  What  was  done  before  the  armament  sel 

sail? 

15.  What  happened  to  Gelimer? 

16.  How  did  he  console  himself? 

17.  What  afforded  Belisarius  a  pretext  for  at 

tacking  Italy? 

18.  How  did  Theodotus  act? 

19.  How  did  his  subjects  treat  him  ? 

20.  How  did  Vitiges  commence  his  reign  ? 

21.  His  course  afterwards  ? 

22.  How  did  the  bishop  of  Rome  act  ? 

23.  How  was  he  punished? 

24.  Who  succeeded  him,  and  by  what  meatjb , 

25.  The  success  of  Belisarius  ? 

26.  What  prevented  him  from  taking  Ra 

venna  ? 

27.  W^ho  was  Theodobert  ?  and  his  expk'iti  I 

28.  The  fate  of  Belisarius? 

29.  The  Lombards,  why  so  called  ? 

30.  What    protected   the    empire    for   '"orty 

years  ? 

31.  Who  were  the  Avars? 

32.  Their  actions,  &c.  ? 

33.  By  whom  conquered  ? 

34.  Their  origin  and  original  condition  ? 

35.  For  what  celebrated  ? 

36.  I'hc  rival  of  Justinian,  who  ? 

37.  How   did  he   secure   the  tranquillity  'H 

Persia  ? 

38.  His  favourite  project  ? 

39.  Who  first  checked  his  career  ? 

40.  What  happened  to  the  provinces  of  lUiiy 

and  Africa? 

41.  Why  was  Belisarius  less  successful  thu: 

formerly  ? 

42.  How  did  he  disgrace  himself? 

43.  Who  succeeded  him  in  the  comraar.fl " 

44.  His  success  ? 

45.  How  was  Italy  govt  rued  after  l^jiii ' 


QUESTIONS    ON 


16    How  long  did  Narsos  jrovera  it  ? 
47    How   was   Belisariiis    employed    sa    the 
mean  time? 

48.  How  was  he  treated  by  Justinian  ? 

49.  What  hastened  his  death  ? 

50.  The  character  of  Justiuiau  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Establishment  of  the  Civil 
Law. 

1.  What  project  did  Justinian  form? 

2.  What  Led  him  to  do  this  ? 

3.  Wliat  lawyer  was  appointed  to  prepare 
«      the  code  1 

4.  His  qualifications  for  this  duty  ? 

5.  The   instructions  given  to  the  commis- 

sion ? 

6.  How   long  were  tliey  employed  iu  this 

Herculean  undertaking? 

7.  What  more  difficult  work  yet  remained 

to  be  performed  ? 

8.  To  whom   was  it  entrusted,  and  what 

powers  wore  given  him  ? 
i>.  The  recommendation  of  the  emperor  ? 
10.  How  many  books  did  the  code  contain  7 
1 1    How  many,  the  Digest,  or  Pandects  ?     ■ 
la.  Why  so  called  ? 

13.  How  many  years  did  it  occupy  ? 

14.  How  many  laws  did  it  contain  ? 

15.  How  many  volumes  was  it  necessary  to 

examine,  in  order  to  prepare  it? 

I G.  State  the  substance  of  the  emperor's  de- 
cree. 

17.  With  what  other  works  was  Tribonian 
charged  ? 

1 3    What  is  said  of  it  ? 

1 9.  Were  these  works  perfect  ? 

20.  What  were  the  Novels? 

^1.   How  many  of  them  were  there  ? 
z"?,.  How  long  were  these  law  volumes  lost  ? 
•23.  When,  how,  and  by  whom,  discovered  ? 
<4.  The  use  that  has  been  made  of  them  ? 

Sec.  4. — History  of  the  Silk  Trade. 

1.  How  was  silk  first  obtained  in  Europe? 

2.  What  nations   had  the  first  monopoly  of 

it? 

3.  What  were  silk  robes  first  called  ? 

4.  Whence  did  the  silk  first  como  1 

5.  How  is  this  known  ? 

ti.  Show  the  difficulties  of  its  importation 
from  China  ? 

7  What  is  nl'^ntioned  as  a  proof  of  Julius 
CtE«ar's  magnificent  spectacles  ? 

8.  The  price  of  silk  at  Rome  ? 

9  What  law  was  made  in  the  reign  of  Ti- 
berius? 

if)  What  puricus  circumstance  is  mentioned, 
■n  the  history  of  silk  ? 

1 1  The  decision  of  the  Sonnite  Doctors  ? 

12  'VN'ho  was  the  first  Roman  emperor,  that 

wore  a  silk  garment  ? 
3    \Vhat  had  diminished  the  price  of  silk  by 
tliis  time  ? 


14.  Whose  successors  did  the  Persiuu  bovc 

reigns  consider  themselves? 

15.  And  whoso,  did  the  Byzantine  emperoiB 

consider  themselves  ? 

16.  What  is  said  of  the  Red  Sea? 

17.  Of  the  straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  ? 

18.  The  common  proverb  with  Eastern  sal- 

lors,  respecting  the  Yam  Suph  ? 

19.  What  advantage  did  the   Persians  take 

of  their  local  position,  with  respect  to 
the  silk  trade  ? 

20.  How  did  Justinian   attempt  to  obviatt 

this  inconvenience  ? 

21.  What   unforeseen   event  secured  to  him 

his  great  object? 

22.  What  unnoticed  fact  in  natural  theok<- 

gy  is  mentioned  ? 

23.  How  dia    these    monks  carry  the  silk- 

worms' eggs  to  Constantinople  ? 

24.  What  singular  circumstai^.  e  shows  the 

success  of  the  Greeks  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  silk? 

25.  How  was  the  Sogdian  trade  annihilated? 

26.  How  long  did  the  Greeks  monopolize  the 

silk  trade  ? 

27.  How  was  the  manufacture  of  it  extend 

ed  in  Europe  ? 

28.  To  whom  is  France  indebted  for  her  pre- 

sent superiority  in  this  trade  ? 

29.  Who   endeavoured  to  introduce   it  iutc 

England  ? 

Sec    5. —  The     Monarchy    of    the    Franks 
under  the  Merovingian  Dynasty. 

1  Who  was  the  first  king  of  the  Franks? 

2.  What  were  his  descendants  called  ? 

3.  Who  was  his  successor  ? 

4.  What  cost  him  his  throne  ? 

5.  Who  succeeded  Hilderik  ? 

fi.  The  modern  name  of  Clovis  ? 

7.  Whom  did  he  marry  ? 

8.  What  benefit  did  she  confer  on  him  ? 

9.  What  fee  did   he  give  the   bishop  thai 

bantized  him? 

10.  What  anecdote  is  related,  illustrative  ol 

the  little  real  authority  enjoyed  by  tiio 
Frank  kings  ? 

11.  The  extent  of  the  kingdom  of  Clovis  '^ 

12.  By  whom  was  he  succeeded  ? 

13.  Relate  the  story  of  the  death  of  Clilodo- 

mer's  infant  children  ? 

14.  Who  succeeded  Theodoric  ? 

15.  His  character  and  exploits  ? 

IG.  Under   whom    was    all    franco    again 

united  ? 
1 7.  Who  succeeded  him  ? 
IS.  The  state  of  the   kingdom,  auring  then 

rpign  ? 
19    Under  whom    was    France    once   mort 

united  1 

20.  How  did  he  pimish  Brunilda  ? 

21.  Who  succeeded  him  ? 

22.  His  character,  &c.,  and  whv  canuni^eiJ 


MODERN    HISTOEY. 


3n.  Who  wore  the  real  sovereigns  of  France, 
during  the  reign  of  his  successors  ? 

■i-t.  Who  was  the  greatest  of  these  nominal 
ministers  ? 

•J5.  Who  was  Charles  Martel  ? 

26.  What  rendered  his  name  illustrious? 

27.  For  what  victory  is  he  still  more  justly 

celebrated  ? 

28.  His  successor  ?    . 

i'J.  The  name  of  the  dynasty,  that  suc- 
ceeded ihe  Merovingian? 

Sec.  6. — The  Lombard  Monarchy. 

1.  By  whom,  and  why,  were  the  LombaroB 

encouraged  to  settle  on  the  frontiers  of 
the  empire? 

2.  Who  became  head  of  the  Lombards? 
.3.  In  what  war  did  he  engage  ? 

4.  How  did  he  treat  Cunimund? 

5.  The  real  object  of  Alboin's  ambition  ? 

6.  What  led  to  this  enterprise  ? 

7.  On  what  condition  did  the  Lombards  re- 

sign their  lands  to  tha  Avars  ? 

3.  What   imprudent   act  did  the   Empress 

Sophia  commit  ? 

9.  The  consequence  of  k  ? 

10.  What  city  alone  resisted  Albciii? 

1 1.  Why  was  it  spared  ? 

12.  The  end  of  Alboin  ? 

13.  Who  succeeded  him? 

14.  His  character  and  end? 

L5.  The  nature  of  the  government  estab- 
lished by  his  successor  ? 

iG.  What  tended  to  reconcile  the  Italians  to 
the  supremacy  of  the  Lombards  ? 

17.  What   ambitious   design    did    Luitprand 

conceive  ? 

18.  Of  what  did  he  take  advantage? 

19.  Who  instigated  the   Venetians    against 

him? 

20.  How  was  the  pope  treated  by  the  Em- 
peror Leo? 

2L  W'ho  savod  him  from  this  fate? 

22  Why  did  the  Italians  revolt  against  Leo? 

23  1     whom  did  the  pope  have  recourse  in 

his  extremities  ? 
2-1.  Under    what    king    did    t.)    Lombards 
reach  the  summit  of  their  greatness? 

25.  By  whom  was  Astulphus  subdued  ? 

26.  Who  finally  destroyed  the  power  of  the 

Lombards  ? 
27    How  was  their  king  treated  ? 
28.  Who  received  the  iron  crown  of  Lom- 

bardy  ? 

Sec.  7. —  7'Ae  Anglo-Saxons. 

1  What  befell  the  Britons  when  they  were 

finally  deserted  by  the  Romans? 

2  What  imprudent  advice  did  they  adopt? 

3  Whom  did  they  invite  over? 

i    Who  were  the  Saxons  and  Angles? 
5    Their  two  chiefs  ? 
5    Where  did  they  land? 


7.  How  many  followers  did  thej  hring  wiLb 

them? 

8.  What  induced  them  to  send  for  mors  ' 

9.  How  did  they  treat  the  Britons  ? 

10.  Where  are  their  descendants  now? 

11.  How  long  did  the  struggle  last? 

12.  What  was  the  Saxon  heptarchy? 

13.  In   which   of  these   kingdoms  was  the 

Christian  religion  first  established? 

14.  Mention  the  circumstance  that  induced 

Gregory  to  send  missionaries  into  Eng- 
land. 

15.  Who  was  the  head  of  the  mission? 

16.  Who  founded  the  monastery  of  St.  AI- 

ban's  ? 

17.  Whom  did  he  send  to  irj?iruct  Charle- 

magne ? 

18.  For  what  is  France  indebted  to  Alcuiu  ? 

19.  What  universities  t'd  he  found? 

20.  Who  was  the  first  king  of  all  England  1 

21.  In  what  year  did  this  great  event  occur? 

22.  How  long  after  the  first  arrival   of  the 

Ajiglo-Sa.\ons  m  Britain  ? 

CHAPTER IL 

THE   RISE    AND    ESTABLISHMENT  OF   THE 
SARACENIC    POWER. 

Sec.  1. — Political  and  Social  Condition  oj 
the  East  at  the  coming  of  Mohammed. 

1.  Who  succeeded  Justinian? 

2.  For  what  was  his  reign  remarkable  ' 

3.  Who  succeeded  Justin  II.  ? 

4.  His  character  ? 

5.  Tiberius'  successor  ? 

6.  His  character  ? 

7.  The  condition  of  Persia  at  this  time  ? 

8.  How  did  the   Emperor  Maurice  act  to- 

ward the  royal  fugitive  ? 

9.  How  did  Khosrii  evince  his  gratitude  ? 
10.  Against   whom    did    the    emperor  then 

turn  his  arms  ? 

IL  What  led  to  a  mutiny  of  his  soldiers? 

12.  Who  was  Phocas  I 

13.  How  did  he  commence  his  reign? 

14.  What  noble  act  did  Maiu-ice  perform? 

1 5.  Who  sanctioned  the  usurpation  of  Phocas  ? 

16.  What  title  did  he  receive  from  him  in 

consequence  : 

17.  What  was  the  end  of  Phocas? 

18.  Who  succeeded  him  ? 

19.  How   did   Khosn'i,   king  of  Persia,   ad 

when  he  heard  of  the  death  of  Mau- 
rice, his  benefactor  ? 

20.  What  supplied  him  with   allies  in  everj; 

province  ? 

21.  What  enterprise  did  his  successts  now 

encourage  him  to  undertake  ? 

22.  How  did  the  Jews  act  in  Jerusalem? 

23.  The  fate  of  Egypt  i 

24.  How   long  was  Khosru's   namp  iu  fi^ht 

of  Coiistantiuople? 


QUESTIONS   ON 


25.  ^^'Tl4lt  letter  did  he  now  receive'' 
56.  Who  was  the  writer  ? 

27.  How  was  th'=^  letter  treated  ? 

28.  Mohammed's  remark  when  he  heard  of 

this  treatment  ? 
19    How  were  the  Avars  employed  at  this 
time? 

30.  What  purpose  did  the  emperor  form  ? 

31.  Who  dissuaded  him  from  executing  it? 

32.  On  what  condition  did  Khosru  promise 

peace  to  the  empire  ? 

33.  How  was  the  emperor  affected  hy  this 

insult  ? 

34.  His  first  step  ? 

35.  What  bold  enterprise  did  he  form? 

36.  Show  what  was  his  success. 

37.  How  did  Khosru  act  during  this  desola- 

tion of  his  kingdom  ? 

38.  The   consequences  to    himself  of  such 

conduct  ? 
b'J.  What  excuse  did  his  son  offer  for  his  un- 
natural conduct  ? 

40.  What  trophy  did  Heraclius  bring  with 

him  from  Jerusalem  ? 

41.  The  fate  of  Persia? 

42.  Wliat    flame    was    now    beginning    to 

spread? 

43.  How  was  victory  fatal  to  Heraclius? 

44.  His  conduct  ? 

15-  What   new   enemies   appeared   pn    the 

confines  of  Persia  ? 
i6.  The  fate  of  the  empire  during  the  last 

eight  years  of  the  reign  of  Heraclius  ? 

Sec.  2. — State  of  Arabia  at  the  coming  of 
Mohammed. 

1 .  The  geographical  position  of  Arabia  ? 

2.  Its  dimensions  ? 

3.  The  soil  and  climate,  &c.  ? 

4.  Character  and  position  of  Arabia  Felix? 

5.  Character  and  position  of  Arabia   Pe- 

trasa  ? 
6    What    once    gave    it    importance    and 
wealth  ? 

7.  From  whom  are  the  Arabs  descended  ? 

8.  What  is  their  boast  ? 

9.  Why  has  their  country  never  been  con- 

quered ? 
iO.  What  parts  have  been  conquered  ? 

11.  Tlie  j)bysical  and  intellectual  constitu- 

tion of  the  Arab  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  the  camel? 

13.  Of  the  Arab  horse  ? 

14   The  ancient  religion  of  the  Arabs? 

15.  Their  religious  condition  before  the  com- 

ing of  Mohammed? 

16.  What  did  an  ancient  father  say  of  Ara- 

bia ? 
!.7.   Jn    what    provinT    were    the    principal 

cities,  in  remote  ages  ? 
'  8.  Tne  chief  cities  now  I 
9    What  has  always?  given    Mecca  import- 

'mr.el 


20.  How  has  their  temple  jf  Meoca  tx«r 

always  regarded  ? 

21.  What  tribe  had  the  custody  of  ;tT 

22.  What  consequence  did  this  giv«  them  ? 

23.  W^hat  gave  a  check  to  Christianity  !u 

Arabia  ? 

24.  In  what  year  did  this  happen  ? 

25.  How  is  Mecca  situated? 

26.  Its  soil  and  water,  Ac.  ? 

27.  How  far  have  its  inhabitants  to  send  foi 

good  fruit? 

28.  By  whom  was  Mecca  founded? 

29.  By  whom  was  its  temple  erected? 

30.  To  whom  is  its  early  prosperity  ascribed  1 

31.  Why  did  'Ishmael  make  it  his  residence! 

32.  What  proves  it  to  be  an  ancient  city? 

33.  The  ancient  name  of  Medina  ? 

34.  How  does  it  compare  with  Mecca' 

35.  Why  did  its  citizens  espouse  the  causc 

of  Mohammed? 

36.  The  literature  of  the  Arabs  ? 

37..  How  was  a  literary  spirit  kept  up  ? 

38.  What  was  done  with  their  best  poemnf 

39.  The  title  of  their  seven  best  poems  ? 

40.  How  were  they  written  ? 

41.  Where  kept?  • 

42.  Their  history,  what? 

43.  Their  astronomy  ? 

44.  Their  mechanical  arts? 

45.  What  four  peculiarities  has  God  give 

them  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Preaching  of   Mohammed 

1.  Where  was  Mohammed  bom? 

2.  Who  was  his  father  ? 

3.  His  mother  ? 

4.  The  religion  of  both  ? 

5.  His  uncles,  who  ? 

6.  Where  did  he  become  an  orphan? 

7.  Whither  did  he  go  at  the  age  of  thir 

teen  ? 

8.  His  course  from  this  time  ? 

9.  The  consequence  of  his  mer.cantile  tal- 

ent? 

10.  Whom  did  he  marry? 

11.  What  consideration  did  this  give  him  ? 

12.  What   use  did  he  immediately  make  oi 

his  good  fortune  ? 

13.  What  did  he  do  for  his  family? 

14.  What  was  he  doing  for  the  next  fifte*'^ 

years  ? 

15.  His  j'early  practice  ? 

16.  What   made  him   acquainted  with    tht 

principal   forms  of  religion   then   prv- 
vailing  ? 

17.  The  names  of  some  of  these  sects? 

1 8.  What  led  him  to  think  himself  a  prophet  1 

19.  To  whom  did  he  first  announce  his  mir- 

sion  ? 

20.  Did  she  recognize  his  claims  ? 

21.  Who  followed  her  example  ? 

22.  What    led   them   to   believe   ii\  him   s: 

readily  ? 


MODERN    HISTORT. 


Zi    What  were  tliese  converts  called  ? 
M.  The  meaning  of  the  word  ? 

25.  What  confirmed  their  faith  ? 

26.  Why  did  he  communicate  them   orally  ? 

27.  Is  it  probable  so  eminent  a  merchant  did 

not  know  how  to  read  and  write  ? 

28.  Why  did  he  then  pretend  ignorance? 
89.  In  what    book    were    these    revelations 

preserved  ? 
iO.  The  meaning  of  the  term  ? 

31.  How  soon  did  he  publicly  proclaim  him- 

self a  prophet  ? 

32.  How  was  he  received  ? 

33.  Under  what  circumstances  did  he  make 

the  avowal  ? 

34.  How  did  Ali  act  ? 

35.  Where  did  Mohammed  begin  to  preach  ? 
3G.  Why  did  the  guardians  of  the  city  oppose 

him  ? 

37.  How  were  some  of  his  most  zealous  fol- 
lowers treated  ? 

38  Was  he  alarmed  by  these  demonstra- 
tions ? 

39.  What  did  he  say,  when  requested  to  eus- 
pend  his  preaching  ? 

40  On  what  great  occasion  did  he  preach  ? 

41  What  rendered  the  inhabitants  of  Medi- 

na that  vrere  present  peculiarly  atten- 
tive ? 

42  What  was    Mahommed's    first   step   in 

imposture  ? 

43  Wliat  was  he  all  along   an  impostor  or 

an  enthusiast  ? 

44  What  doctrine  did  he  now  preach  in  op- 

position to  his  former  doctrines  ? 

45  What  personal  interview  did  the  angel 

Gabriel  atFord  him  ? 

46  How  did  the   Meccan  chiefs   act   after 

this? 

47  Whither  did  he  flee  ? 

48  What  is  his  flight  called  ? 

49  How  old  was  he  at  this  time  ? 

50  How  was  he  received  in  Medina? 

51.    The  meaning  of  the  term  "  Medina  "  ? 

52  How  did  his  converts  act  ? 

53  What  attracted  warriors  to  his  standard  ? 

54  What  occurred  near  the  well  Bedr  ? 

55  How  did  he  now  exteu  i*.  his  religion  ? 

56  What  sublime  orientalihm  was  long  the 

war  cry  of  his  followers  ? 

57  Who    were    the   special    objects   of   his 

hatred  ? 

58  Why  were  they  so  ? 

59  W'hat  effect  did  a  defeat  at  Ohod  have 

on  him  ? 

60  To  what  did  he  ascribe  it  ? 

61  What   character  did   the  war   now  as- 

sume ? 

62  How  did  the  Meccans  suffer  ? 

63  What  did  they  do  ? 

64  What  did  Mohammed  say? 

65  What  did  Mohammed  become  ? 
16    His  character  ? 


67.  Did  he  take  Mecca  ^ 

68.  To  whom  did  he  send  ambassadofB? 

69.  The  king  of  Persia's   treatment  of  ttlf. 

letter  sent  him  ? 

70.  How  did  Heraclius  treat  it  ? 

71.  What  sowed  the  seeds  of  disease  in  }m 

constitution  ? 

72.  How  did  he  enter  Mecca? 

73.  How  did   he  show  homage  to   the   na- 

tional faith  ? 

74.  The  effect  produced  by  his  presence  ? 

75.  In  what  war  did  he  now  engage  ? 

76.  The  consequence  of  his  success  ? 

77.  How  did  he  treat  the  Kaaba  ? 

78.  What  emblem  was  pormitted  to  remain? 

79.  What  was  the  black  stone  ? 

80.  The    consequence    of    the    captiire    oi 

Mecca? 

81.  What  two  great  objects  did  he  tius  ef- 

fect? 

82.  How  many  warriors  did  he  now  hr.ve  ? 

83.  What  led  to  his  death  ? 

84.  At  what  age  and  in  what  year  ? 

85.  His  dying  words  ? 

86.  His  favourite  wife  ? 

87.  Why  did  he  make  no  will  ? 

88.  Who  was  Fatima  ? 

Sec.  4. — Early  Progress  of  the  Saracens. 

1.  What  shook   the  fabric  of  Islamism  lo 

its  foundation  ? 

2.  Who  had  the  best  hereditary  claims  1 

3.  What  rendered  him  unpopular? 

4.  How  was  tne  controversy  decided  ^ 

5.  What  surname  did  he  assume  ? 

6.  The  rneanuig  of  it? 

7.  His  first  exploit  ? 

8.  What  ])urpose  did  he  then  form  ? 

9.  The  success  of  his  army  ? 

10.  Its  general,  who? 

11.  Why  did  he  wish  to  take  Jerusalem? 

12.  His  instructions  to  his  army  ? 

13.  What  renders  them  so  remarkable  ? 

14.  Quote  Rev.  9.  4. 

15.  What  other  city  did  he  wish  to  take 

16.  Did  Heraclius  succour  it? 

17.  How  often  was  his  army  routed? 

18.  What  dispute  arose  between  the  Sarucf^L 

generals  ? 

19.  Why  was  the  memory  of  the  Khaliplj 

Abii  Bckr  venerated  ? 

20.  His  character? 

21.  His  successor? 

22.  How  did  he  evince  his  jealousy  of  Kha- 

led? 

23.  What  empire  fell  next  ? 

24.  The  result  of  the  hattle  of  Kadesia? 

25.  Describe  the  standard  of  Persia? 

26.  What  was  done  with  it  ? 

27.  What  foolish  act  did  an  Arabian  scldloi 

perform  ? 
28    Where  w;is  the  final  hattle  fotiglil.  \?!iic:L 
decided  th«  fate  of  Persia  ' 


QUK8TI0NS    ON 


29 
30. 
31 
30. 

33. 

34. 

.i.5. 

rfti. 
37. 

3a 

39. 

40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 

46. 
47. 

48. 

49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 
54. 


5(i. 
57. 
58. 
59. 

60. 
61. 

62. 
G3. 

64. 
65. 
66. 
67. 

68. 
69. 
70. 

71. 


The  fate  of  the  Perbian  king  ? 

What  dynasty  ended  with  him  / 

What  country  fell  next  ? 

Tlie  equipage  of  the  khaliph  a.s  he  came 
to  the  surrender  of  Jerusalem  ? 

What  did  he  do  when  he  reached  his 
ca)np  ? 

Wiiat  pj'oofs  of  his  moderation  are 
given  1 

Where  did  he  huild  his  mosque  ? 

What  cities  were  ne.xt  taken  ? 

How  many  years  did  the  conquest  of 
Syria  occupy  ? 

What  country  fell  next? 

The  fate  of  the  famous  library  at  Alex- 
andria 1 

The  fate  of  Omar  ? 

The  results  of  his  reign  of  ten  years? 

By  whom  is  hii»  "lemory  venerated  ? 

By  whom  execrated  ? 

His  habits  ? 

For  what  are  the  Arabs  Indebted  to 
him  ? 

What  customs,  &c.,  did  he  introduce  : 

His  successor? 

What  exploits  were  perfcr-Tied  in  his 
reign  ? 

The  fate  of  the  Colossus  of  Rhodas? 

How  many  camel-loads  did  it  contain  ? 

The  fate  of  Othmau  '. 

His  successor  ? 

Who  revolted,  and  her  fate? 

How  was  the  difficulty  with  Moawiydh 
settled  ?     Relate  the  circumstances. 

Who  thus  became  khaliph? 

All's  character  ? 

What  tradition  is  mention.ed  ? 

Tlie  fate  of  his  posterity? 

Whose  martyrdom  is  yearly  celebrated 
in  Persia  ? 

The  conquests  of  the  Saracens? 

What  country  in  Europe  did  they  sub- 
due? 

How  long  did  they  hold  it  ? 

What  plans  did  they  design  to  accom- 
plish ? 

Who  resc\ied  Europe  from  their  yoke? 

In  what  buttle  ? 

How  long  did  it  last ' 

What  led  to  the  dismemberment  of  their 
empire  ? 

The  three  standards  ? 

What  did  Abul  Abbas  do  ? 

Relate  the  circumstances  of  the  assassi- 
nation of  the  Ommiade  family. 

Who  escaped,  and  his  subsequent  for- 
tune ? 

The  capital  of  the  Abbasside  dynasty  ? 

The  hero  of  the  Arabian  Nights'  Enter- 
'ainmeat  ? 

'Ihe  literary  character  of  the  Sara- 
cens.? 

Tlio  end  of  the  matter  ? 


CHAPTER   III 

nUSTOKATlO.N    OF   THE    WESTERN    EMFIRL. 

Sec.  1. —  The  Life  of  Charlemagne. 

1.  What  circumstances  conspired   to  ^vt 

power  and  authority  to  the  pope  ? 

2.  Why  did  the    Italians  desire  to  havr  thr 

pope    recognised   as  the   head   of  the 
Christian  church  ? 
3    What  favour  did  the  pope  sliow  Pejyin  ? 

4.  How  was  it  returned  ? 

5.  Who  commanded  the   French  armies  in 

Italy  ? 

6.  To  whom  did  Pepin  leave  his  kingdom  ? 

7.  What  circumstance  made  Charlemagne 

sole  monarch  ? 

8.  What  were  the  grounds  of  hostility,  be- 

tween  Charlemagne  and  the  king  of 
the  Lombards  ? 

9.  What   ir.."uced  Charlemagnfi   to  declare 

war  against  the  Saxons  ? 

10.  What  lead  him  into  Italy  ? 

11.  What  exploits  did  he  perform  there? 

12.  What  led  him  into  Spain? 

13.  What  recalled  him  h^iie,  before  he  had 

conquered  the  Saracens? 

14.  Describe  the  battle  of  Roncesvalles. 

15.  What  is  said  of  the  song  of  Roland  ? 

16.  Relate  the  legend  of  Roncesvalles. 

17.  The  anecdote  of  John,  king  of  France. 

18.  What  is  said  of  the  devastation  of  the 

Saxons,  at  this  time  ' 

19.  Who  was  their  leader? 

20.  His  fate  ? 

21.  How  did  Charlemagne  employ  the  inter 

vals  of  tranquillity  ? 

22.  By  whom  was  he  assisted? 

23.  What  circumstance  proves  the  renown 

of  Charlemagne  ? 

24.  What  presents  were  sent  him  ? 

25.  What  new  enemy  now  appeared  ? 

26.  How  was  Charlemagne  affected  by  theii 

appearance  ? 

27.  How  did  the.se  Normans  act  in  England! 

28.  What  led  Charlemagne  again  into  Italy  ? 

29.  What  title  did  the  pope  confer  on  him  ? 

30.  What  project  was  now  formed? 

31.  How  was  it  defeated? 

32.  Who  succeeded  Charlemagne  ? 

33.  How  long  did  Charlemagne  live? 

34.  The  character  of  Louis  ? 

Sec.  2. — Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Carlovin- 
giav.  Dynasty 

1.  The  boundaries  of  the  Western  empire  i 

2.  What  crimes   did    Louis  commit,  at  thr 

instigation  of  his  wife? 

3.  The  consequences  of  them? 

4.  How  did  he  show  his  remorse? 

5.  What  led  to  a  civil  war? 

6.  What  civil  war  ensued  after  liis  death  I 
7    Who  maj'  be  considered  the  founder  i-i 

the  Frencii  monarchy? 


MODERN   HISTOKY. 


9 


3.  ^\]^at  kingdoms  and  stales  were  formed 
out  ol    the  fragments  of  the  Western 
empire  ? 
9.  To  what  did  they  owe  their  origin? 
-U.  How    did    Charlemagne    endeavour    to 
remedy  this  evil  ? 

11.  AVliat  nullified  his  wise  policy? 

12.  What  principle  was  the  foundation  of  the 

feudal  system  ? 

13.  Of  what  great  race  were  the  Normans  a 

branch  ? 

14.  \\  hat    exasperated    them    against    the 

Franks  ? 

15.  What  was  their  character  as  sailors  ? 

16.  How  did   they  find  the  land  when  they 

were  far  out  at  sea  ? 

17.  What  title  did  their  leaders  assume? 
16.  Hovc  did  these  sea-kings  get  followers  ? 

19.  Their  usual  conduct,  &c.  ? 

20.  Why  were  they  specially  hostile  to  the 

clergy,  &c.  ? 

21.  Thierry's  description  of  a  sea-king? 

82.  From  what  ballads  do  we  obtain  all  our 
information  of  these  sea-kings  ? 

23.  Recite  the  enactments  of  an  ancient  law 

among  them. 

24.  Who  were  the  Kempe  ? 

25.  How  did  Hiorolf  act  ? 

26.  His  success  ?  \ 

27.  How  did  Half  act?  1 

28.  What  was   necessary  in  order  to  obtain 

admission  into  this  number? 
Jd.  'SVhat  were  they  forbidden  to  do  ? 

30  What  circimistance   proved  the  devotion 

of  his  crew  to  Half? 

31  Who  were  the  berseker? 

32.  How  did  Sivald's  sons   act,  when  they 

were  in  this  state? 

33.  Their  fate  ? 

34.  What  other  exploits    did    Halfdau  per- 

form? 
o'i.  How  did  the  sons  of  Arngrim  act,  during 
their  berserk  madness  ? 

36.  How  di      he  sea-kings  procure  wives  for 

themselves  ? 

37.  Show  how  Moalda  was  treated. 

38.  What  sufferings  did  these  pirates  Inflict 

on  Fruuce  ? 

39.  How  did  tne  Franks  defend  themselves  ? 
ill.  The  consequences  of  such  folly? 

41.  By  whom  was    the    Russian    monarchy 

foinidcd  ? 

42.  What    foothold   did  they  obtain  in  other 

coiuitries? 
4.3.  The  story  of  Charles  and  Ro'lo? 
44.   How  did  Rollo  afterwards  act? 
♦5.   What  iucidtMit  is  mentioned,  as  showing 

the  security  of  property  ? 
4G    What  new  enemy  appeared  at  this  time  ? 
17    Who  savf-d  Euglaud  for  a  time  ? 
48    The  la.st  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  ? 
i'J    The  founder  of  the  present  race  of  French 

kings  ? 


50.  The  state  of  France  at  this  period? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Foundation  of  the  Germaiilb 
Empire. 

1.  ^\  hat  oath   were  the  German  emperors 

obliged  to  take? 

2.  Where  did  the  custom  of  electing  empe- 

rors commence  ? 

3.  How  long  did  it  continue  ? 

4.  What   emperor   raised  Germany  to  the 

highest  rank  among  European  states  ? 

5.  From   what    disgraceful    tribute  did  ho 

free  his  kingdom? 

6.  How  did  the  Germans  show  their  senst* 

of  the  importance  of  this  victory  ? 
7    What  incident  shows  the   character  ol 


this 


age; 


8    How  did  Otho  beccr-f.  king  of  Italy? 
9.  Why  did  the  pope  f.cknowledge  him  aa 

Roman  emperor  and  supreme  head  of 

the  church  ? 

10  Why  did  ho  afterwards  oppose  him? 

1 1  How  did  Otho  resent  this  conduct  ? 

12  What  hastened  the  death  of  Otho  II. 

13  How  was  Otho  III.  killed? 

14.  What  anecdote   is  related  of    Conrad'e 

generosit}'  ? 

15,  What  proofs  of  energy  did  Henry  III. 

give  ? 

16  In   whose   reign  did  the  great  struggle 

between  the  papal  and  imperial  powei 
begin  ? 

17  The     condition    of  affairs    in    EnglauJ 

favourable  to  the  pope  ? 

18.  The  condition  of  affairs  in  Spain? 

19.  The    condition    of   affairs    in    Northeru 

Europe  ? 

20.  Whom  did  Edward  the  Confessor  nonii* 

nate  as  his  successor? 

21.  Whom  did  the  English  prefer? 

22.  What  oath  did  Harold  take  ? 

23.  Under  what  circumstances? 

24.  What    artifice    was    employed    to    give 

sanctity  to  it  ? 

25.  Did  he  adhere  to  it  ? 

26.  What  induced  William  to  invade  Eng- 

land ? 

27.  What  battle  decided  the  contest  ? 

28.  How  did  William  treat  the  English  ? 

29.  How  did  some  Normans  lay  the  foundu- 

tion  of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Siciht-s  S 

30.  How  did  all  these  events  strengthen  tht 

pope  ? 

Skc.  4. — State  of  the  Ei at  from  the  Estab- 
lishment to  the  Orerthrow  of  the  Khaliphate 

1.  What  issaid  of  the  history  of  i^ie  Byzan- 

tine empir».,luriug  the  n'iddle  ages? 

2.  Its  couditiou.  ..Sif.  ' 

3    Wheiice    did    the    Turks     and    T^r'ars 

c>-mc  ? 
4.  When  was   their   country   'nvaded  and 

by  whom  ' 


10 


QUESTIONS   ON 


11 


^^^lat  dangerous  \  ractice  did  the  Khaliph 

A".  Moiitasscm  introduce  ? 
'1  ho  consciiucnco  of  it  ? 
How  was  tlie  revolution  completed? 
What  new  horde  now  appeared  , 
Their  victories  ? 
The   extent  of  the   dominions  of  Malek 

Shah  ? 
What  httlo  circumstance  now  occurred, 

which  led  to  mighty  consequences? 

12.  The  conduct  of  the  assassins  ? 

13.  What  shows  tlie  extent  of  the  evil  ? 

14.  How  was  the  kingdom  of  Malek   Shah 

divided  ? 

15.  Of  what  benefit   to  the  Cliristians   was 

this  division  ? 


CHAPTER  IV. 

GROWTH    OF    THE    PAPAL    POWER. 

Sec.  1. —  The  Origin  of  the  Papacy. 

\.  What  is  remarkable  in  the  clerical  or- 
£ranization  of  Christianity  ? 

2.  What  statement  is  made  on  this  subject  ? 

'3-  What  two  great  principles  were  fully  re- 
cognized at  a  very  early  period  ? 

4.  The  opinion  of  infidels  on  this  point  ? 

5  The   general    outline    of    the    apostolic 

model. 
6.  To  what  two  different  lines  of  tempta- 
tion were  the  clergy  exposed  ? 

7  Show  how  they  tended  to  the  same  re- 

sult ? 

8  The    only  bond    that   held    nations   to- 

gether l 
9.  What  led  to  the  persecution  of  the  pagans? 
0.  How  did  this  tend  to  increase  the  power 

of  the  clergy  ? 
n.  How  was  the   discipline   of  the  church 
injured  ? 

12.  How  were  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 

corrupted  ? 

13.  What  miserable  practices  were  thus  in- 

troduced ? 

14  What  bodies  have  always  been  prominent 

in  introducing  and  supporting  supersti- 
tions, &c.  ? 

15  Was  the  charge  of  idolatrj'  urged  against 

the  Christians  true? 

6  What  proves  it  to  be  so  ? 
17.  Who  were  the  Iconoclasts? 

18  The  decrees  of  the  synod  of  Constanti- 
nople ? 

19.  How  did  the  pope  act  ? 

20.  Who  made  the  poi)e  a  temporal  prince? 

21.  Whei>    does    the    proj)er    history    of  the 

papacy  begin  ? 
fi2.  What   three    transactions    combined    to 

giv"  it  fonn  ? 
?J.    What  naturally  led  to  the  temporal  sov- 

?roifTjity  of  the  pope  ? 


24.  What  is  said  of  the  pojje's  conftmit.iJrit 

of  Pepin  as  king  of  Prance? 

25.  On  what  is  popery  founded  ? 
2G.  Separate  the  two  parts  ? 

27.  What  happened  ere  one  generation  hai, 
passed  away  ? 

Sec.    2. — The    early   Development   of    the 
Political  System  of  the  Papacy. 

1.  Tlie  important  links  between  ancient  and 

modern  history  ? 

2.  Was   the    French    monarchy  originally 

elective  or  hereditary  ? 

3.  Why  ;  'd   Pepin   then  wish  to  be  recog 
nized  by  the  pope  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  measures  of  the  pope  ' 

Wiiat  ceremony  did  they  rev-ve  ? 

How  did  Pepin  regard  it  ? 

How  did  the  pope  regard  it  ? 

Its  effect  ? 

How  did  the  Frank  nobles  regard  .t  ? 

What  new  act  did   pope   Stephen  pei- 

form? 
Its  effect  ? 
What  return  did  the  Carlovingians  make 

to  Stephen  ? 
What  fraud  did  the   holy  father  commit 

in  order  to  secure  these  acquisitions  7 
Its  effect  ? 
Is  it  now  acknowledged  to  have  been  o 

fraud  ? 
What  pontiff  first  combined  the  elemeutw 

of  the  papacy  into  a  system  ? 
What  difficulty  met  him  at  the  outset  ? 
How   did  the  pope  attempt  to  ward  ofl 

the  danger  ? 
How  did  Leo  III.  act  ? 
How  has  his  act  been  interpreted  ? 
What  is  said  of  it  ? 
What  benefits  did  Leo  experience  froiu 

this  moderation  ? 
How  did  he  show  his  gratitude  ? 
The  dangers  and  beneiits  to   the   papa! 

see,    of    the    re-establishment    of    ih«« 

empire  ? 
What   is  said  of  the  struggles  between 

the  bishops  of  Rome  and  of  Constant! 

nople  ? 
The  effect  on  the  papacy  of  the  death  ol 

Charlemagne? 
What  is  said  of  the   usurpations  of  th'> 

church  during  the  wars  between  the 

successors  of  Charlemagne  ? 
What    shameful    ackno\irledgment    dii* 

Charles  the  Bald  make? 
What  canon  did  the  bishops  make  ? 
How  did  king  and  people  regard  it? 
What  right  did  the  pope  assume  ? 
Why   did   he   depose   the   archbishop  (J 

Raveima  ? 
How  did  he  treat  King  Lothaire? 
What  acknowledgment  did  the  pope  ( .s 

act  of  the  king  of  France  ' 


MODERN    HISTORr. 


11 


ij5.  How  was  ne  recognized  as  emperor? 
K    What   letter  did  the  pope  write  to  the 


37 


mg-! 


How  did  tho  feudal  lords  treat  the  pon- 
tifTs? 

38.  To  what  are  the  vices  of  this  period  at- 

tributable ? 

39.  The  great  error  of  the  pontiffs  ? 

}i»  What  rendered  popery,  as  a  system,  in- 
operative ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Struggle  for  Supremacy  be- 
tween the  Popes  and  Emperors. 

1.  For  what  services  was  Otho  rewarded 
with  the  iron  crown  of  Lombardy  and 
the  title  of  emperor  of  the  West? 

a.  How  did  Otho  show  his  jealousy  of  the 
designs  of  the  pope  against  him,  eveu 
in  his  coronation  ? 

3.  How  did  the  pope  treat  Otho  ? 

4.  Otho's  conduct  in  return  ? 

5.  The  character  of  Pope  John  ? 

6.  Who  was  elected  in  his  room  ? 

7.  What  bull  did  he  issue  ? 

8.  What  did  the  bishops  think  and  say  of  it? 

9.  What  led  to  John's  restoration  ? 

10.  His  subsequent  conduct  ? 

11.  His  end? 

12.  W^hat  did  the  people  think  of  his  death  ? 

13.  Who  succeeded  him  ? 

14.  The  condition  of  the  papacy  at  this  time  ? 

15.  To  what  did   the  papacy  owe  its  first 

success  ?  I 

16.  What  now  gave  it  strength  for  a  new 

struggle  ? 

17.  How  was  Pope  John  treated? 

18.  His  successors,  and  who  prevailed? 

19.  What  traitorous  act  did  Boniface  VII. 

commit? 

20.  The  death  of  Boniface  ? 

21.  The  death  of  his  rival  ? 

22.  W'hat  shov/s  how  low  the  papacy  had 

now  sunk  ? 

23.  How  did  Sj'lvestcr  act  ? 

24.  How  did  Benedict  VHI.  treat  the  Em- 

peror Henry? 
8.5.  The  state  of  tho  popedom  soon  after  this? 

26.  How  old  was  Benedict  IX.  when  raised 

to  the  popedom  ? 

27.  Who    induced    him    to   resign,    and    by 

what  means? 

28.  Who  was  Hildebrand? 
09.  What  became  of  him? 
30.  His  character  ? 

Sec  4. — Revival  of  the  Papal  Power. 

I.  \Miat  led  to  the  success  of  the  papal 
usurpation  ? 

3.  How  did  it  endeavour  to  secure  its  ac- 
quisitions? 

3.  What  is  said  of  the  nobles  of  Italy? 

t.  What  opinion  was  the  papacy  during 
tills  time  generating  ? 


5.  Under  what  pressure  was  ito  orgnnrzH- 

tion  completed  ? 

6.  How  did  it  link  itself  with  every  clas.^ 

of  tho  community? 

7.  How  was  the  clerical  identified  with  tho 

popular  cause  ? 

8.  Who  was  the  first  that  clearly  perceived 

the  tendency  and  strength  of  this  cm 
rent? 

9.  What  is  said  of  his  personal  chnxacterf 

10.  Of  his  measures? 

11.  His  design  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  Leo  IX.? 

13.  Hildebrand's  first  interview  with  him? 

14.  What  had  the  pontiff"  dreaded  ? 

15.  What  service  did  Hildebrand  render  hi:n  ? 

16.  How  was  he  rewarded? 

17.  Why    were    the    clergy    and    people   ol 

Rome  pleased  at  these  Ihjiigs  ? 
IS.  Leo's  conduct  ? 

19.  His  fate? 

20.  What  led  to  his  -.eatn? 

21.  Who  succeeded  him? 

22.  Hildebrand's  views  and  conduct  ? 

23.  How  did  the  new  pope  treat  him  ? 

24.  How  did  he  conduct  himself  in  France? 

25.  How  did  the  people  act  on  the  death  cJ 
Pope  Stephen  ? 

26.  How  did  Hildebrand  ? 

27.  V\'hy  did  the  emperor  aid  Nicholas? 

28.  How  did  Nicholas  act? 

29.  How  did  he  act  towards  the  Normans  iu 

the  south  of  Italy  ? 

30.  How  did  they  serve  him  in  turn  ? 

31.  Thee.Tect  of  this? 

32.  What  is  said  of  the  church  of  Milan  ? 

33.  Peter  Damian's  boldness? 

34.  The  result  of  it  ? 

35.  How  was  Nicholas'  successor  chosen  ? 

36.  Who    was    the    real    governor    ol    llic 

church  ? 

37.  How  did  he  treat  the  Milanese? 

38.  How  did  it  happen  that  two  archbishops 

of  Milan  were  chosen  ? 

39.  The  contest  that  ensued? 

40.  How  had  Hildebrand  ot^en  preparing  for 

the  contest? 

41.  How  did  he  contribute  to  the  Norniar^ 

conquest  of  England  ? 

42.  How  did  he  act  towards  William  ? 

43.  What  did  he  send  him  ? 

44.  How  did  he  act  towards  Matilda  ? 

45.  What  daring  act  threw  all  these  polid 

cal  struggles  into  the  shade  ? 

46.  The  real  author  of  all  these  acts? 

Sec.  5. — Pontificate  of  Gregory  VII. 

1.  What  is  said  of  tho  accession  of  Ilildo 

brand  to  the  papacy  ? 

2.  How  did  he  obtain   the  emperor's  ratifi- 

cation of  his  irregular  election? 

3.  What  favourite  plan  of  his  did  he   begiu 

at  once  to  put  in  execution  1 


12 


QUH8TION8    ON 


4    For  what  purposes  did  he  sem^  a  legate 

tu  Spain  ? 
5.  What  etfect  did  his  energy  produce  on 

tiie  emperor  ? 
n    VVIiat  were  the  two  great  objects  of  the 

])ope  ? 

7.  What  were  the  arguments  for  the  ceU- 

bacy  of  the  clergy  ? 

8.  What  against  it? 

9.  What  were  lay-investitures  1 

10.  The  objections  to  them  ? 

11.  What  seemed  to  make  it  necessarj'  that 

these     appointments    in    the     church 
should  be  independent  of  the  state  ? 

12.  What  blasphemous  claim  did  the  pope 

put  forth  ? 

13.  What  canon  was  passed  on  this  subject 

in  a  general  council  held  at  Rome  ? 
14    What  is  said  of  the  letters  of  the  pope 
in  which  he  communicated  these  de- 
crees to  the  European  sovereigns  ? 

15.  Mention  some  of  his  actions  correspond- 

ing to  his  words. 

16.  How  did  the  emperor  relish  these  things? 

17.  What  conspiracy  was  formed  in  Rome 

against  the  pope  ? 

18.  What  daring  act  was  perpetrated  by  the 

prelect  of  the  city  ? 

19.  The  consequences  of  it? 

20.  How  did  the  pope  treat  the  emperor  ? 

21.  How  did  the  emperor  act  in  return  ? 

22.  What  did  the  pope  then  do  ? 

23.  Mention  the  most  important  of  the  reso- 

lutions that  he  passed. 

24.  What  reply  did  he  make  when  advised 

not  to  excommunicate  the  emperor  ? 

25.  What  did  both  parties  now  prepare  to  do  ? 

26.  What  circumstance   happened,    at   this 

time,  very  opportunely  for  the  pope  ? 

27.  How  was  Henry  situated  ? 

2c  What  hardships  did  he  endure  in  crossing 
the  Alns  ? 

29.  How  did  he  act  when  he  reached  Lom- 

bardy  ? 

30.  To  what  Indignities  was  he  subjected  by 

the  pope  ? 

31.  Their  effect  on  his  mind? 

32.  What  led  him  to  repent  of  his  degrada- 

tion ? 

33.  How  did  he  renew  the  war? 

34.  How  was  he  treated  at  home  ? 

35.  Why  did  this  disconcert  the  pope? 

36.  How  did  I:e  act    &c.  ? 

37.  What  is  the  doctrine  of  uausubstantia- 

tion? 

^8.  Why  were  the  clergy  zealous  in  the  sup- 
port of  it  ? 

i9  What  remark  was  made  to  a  discon- 
tented nobleman  of  the  queen  of  Sj)aiu 
by  her  confessor? 

40  Who  assailed  the  doctrine  vigorously  in 
the  eleventh  centurj'? 

11    What  induce<i  the  pope  to  depart  froi.i 


his  neutrality  between  Ileury  a;id  Ro 
dolph? 
42    How  did  Henry  act  thereupon ' 

43.  How  did  ho  act  after  Rodolph  was  de- 

feated and  slain  ? 

44.  What  did  Gregory  do  after  his  departure 

from  Rome? 

45.  How  did  he  view   his  conduct  on  hiij 

death -bed  ? 
4S.  His  frequent  remark  1 

47.  Of  what   may  he  be    reirarded    as   th-- 

founder  ? 

48.  How  has  he  beeL  Ipoken  of  by  historians  ? 

49.  Of  what  may  he  be  called  the  represen- 

tative ? 

50.  How  was  he  regarded  by  the  soldiers: 

the  people,  and  the  clergy  ? 

51.  What  is  said  of  his  faults  ? 

52.  How  did  he  act  with  reference  to  crimi- 

nals whom  he  sentenced  to  death  ? 

53.  Give  a  summary  of  his  history  and  cha> 

racter. 

Sec.  6. — The  War  of  Investitures, 

1.  How  did  Urban  II.  commence  his  pon- 

tificate ? 

2.  Whom  did  Matilda  now  marry  ? 

3.  Of  what  Ulustrious  family  are  they  the 

ancestors  7 

4.  What  domestic  trouble  now  afflicted  the 

Emperor  Henry  ? 

5.  To  what  threatening  danger  was  the  at- 

tention  of  the   Christian    world  now 
directed  ? 

6.  Whose  eloquence  led  to  the  first  crusade  1 

7.  What  new  oath  did  the  clergy  take  in 

A.D.  1104? 

8.  What    grievous    misfortune    now   befel 

Henr)'  ? 

9.  How   did  the  bishop  of  Liege  act,  and 

how  was  he  treated  in  consequence  ? 

10.  Did   Hjnry  V.   yield  to  the  pope,  m  the 

matter  of  investitures  ? 

11.  How  did  he  treat  Pope  Paschal? 

12.  How   was    the   matter  finally   compro« 

mised  ? 

13.  What  schism   now   took   place   in   the 

church  ? 

14.  Owing    to   whose   exertions   was   Pope 

Anacletus  stigmatized  as  an  antipope 

15.  How    many  bishops    assembled    at   the 

general  council  in  Rome  A.D.  1139  ? 

16.  Who  was   Abelard,  and  by  whom  op- 

posed ? 

17.  Of  what  was  this  controversy  the  firal 

symptom  ? 

18.  The  doctrines  of  Arnold  ? 

19.  What  struggle  now  commenced  in  II'iIy' 

20.  Why  did  it  so  speedily  cease  ? 

Sec.  7. — The  Crusades. 

1.  When    did    pilgrimages    to    JltusqIout 

btgiiL 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


13 


2    When   die  they  begin   to  multiply  and 
why? 

3.  How  did  the  Saracens  treat  the  pilgrims, 

whilst  they  possessed  Jerusalem  ? 

4.  How  did  the  Turks  treat  them  ? 

5.  Who  first  proposed    a  general    crusade 

against  the  Turks  ? 

6.  Who  actually  excited  the  first  crusade  ? 

7.  How  did  he  do  it  ? 

3.  Who  were  the  first  crusaders? 
9.  Why  were  they  so  called  ? 

10.  How  did  they  act  on  their  march  ? 

1 1.  The  consequences  to  themselves? 
1 2    Their  treatment  of  the  Jews  ? 

i3    Who  commanded   the  first  regular  army 

against  the  Turks? 
M    What  noblemen  joined  his  standard  ? 

15  How  were  they  received  and  treated  by 

the  Greek  emperor  ? 

16  Their  career  in  Asia? 

17.  When  was  Jerusalem  taken  ? 

18.  How  was  it  defended  by  the  Mohamme- 

medans? 

19.  By  what  stratagem  did  Godfrey  excite 

his  troops  to  deeds  of  valour  ? 

20.  How  was  their  triumph  sullied  ? 

21.  What  boast  did  the  knights  make  ? 

22.  How  long  did  the  massacre  last  ? 
2.3.  What  suddenly  put  a  stop  to  it  ? 

24.  Their  conduct  thereupon  ? 

25.  Who  was  chosen  king  of  Jerusalem  ? 

26  What  noble  declaration  did  he  make  ? 

27  How  long  did  this  new  kingdom  last  ? 

28.  How  many  crusdJss  were  there  ? 

29.  How  long  did  they  last  ? 

30  Give  the  history  of  the  second  crusade. 

31  Through  whose  influence  had   it   be«n 

undertaken  ? 

32  His  conduct  under  the  storm  of  public 

indignation  that  burst  upon  him  ? 

33  What  kings  joined  in  a  new  crusade  on 

the  news  of  tlie  capture  of  Jerusalem 

by  Saladin? 
34.   What  prevented  their  success  ? 
35    What  led  king  Philip  to  return  home? 

36.  What,  king  Richard  ? 

37.  What  befel  Richard  on  his  return  ? 

36.  At  whose  instigation  was  the  fourth  cru- 
sade undertaken  ? 

S9.  Their  first  departure  from  their  orig'iial 
design  ? 

40.  Their  second  ? 

41    How  did  they  act  toward  ConM  antinople  ? 

42.  By  whom  was  the  fifth  crusade  under- 
taken ? 

43    The  history  of  it  ? 

14   How  did  Frederick  II.  of  Germany  act  * 

ii.  Why  was  he  twice  excommunicated  by 
the  pope  ? 

iC    His  success  ? 

•47    What  caused  him  to  return  heme  ? 

48  Why  was  he  a  third  time  excommuni- 
cated 7 


49.  How  did  he  act  or.  nis  rotuii.  / 

50.  Who  led  the  ninth  crusade  7 

51.  What  led  to  the  ruin  of  this  crupade  ? 

52.  The    pope's    address   to    the   clergy  of 

Sicily,  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  the 
emperor  ? 

53.  The  fate  of  Louie  7 

54.  When  was  Acre,  the  last  stronghold  o' 

the  Christians  in  Palestine,  taken  ? 

Sec.    5. —  The    Crusade  against   the  Albi- 
geuses. 

1.  What  is  a  general  council  ? 

2.  Who  were  the  Aibigenses  ' 

3.  What    decree     had    been     pronounced 

against  them  ? 

4.  Why  were  the  feudal  lords  unwilling  to 

execute  it  ? 

5.  Why  did  some  persons  maintain  that  tht 

Old    Testament   was  writlon    by  th' 
Spirit  of  Evil  ? 

6.  Against  what  Romish   doi-tiines  die  tilt 

Aibigenses  protest  V 

7.  The  moral  character  of  the  Aibigenses? 

8.  What  relation   did  they  wish  to  hold  to 

the  Romish  church  ? 

9.  Explain  this. 

10.  Innocent  III.'s  first  step  in  his  endeavours 

to  crush  them  ? 

1 1.  What  is  said  of  his  emissaries  ? 

12.  Howdid  Castelnau,  the  papal  legate,  act? 

13.  His  conduct  to   Raymond,  on  his  refueul 

to  treat  with  him  ? 

14.  What   inflamed   the   Pope  against  Ray- 

mond ? 

1 5.  How  vfas  he  treated  ? 

16.  How  did   Philip  Augustus,  the  ki„g  of 

France,  act  ? 

17.  What   promises  did  the  monks  make  to 

the  crusaders  ? 

18.  What  new  monastic  order  was  instituted 

by  the  Pope,  Innocent  III  ? 

19.  Their  special  object  ? 

20.  By  what  dreaded  name  is  this  institution 

best  known  ? 

21.  How  did   Raymond  act  at  the  approaclj 

of  danger  ? 

22.  How  did  his  nephew  act  ? 

23.  Raymond's  conduct  at  the  approach  of 

the  hostile  anny  of  the  crusaders  ? 

24.  The   conduct  of  the  crusaders  toward.' 

their  prisoners  ? 

25.  The  barbarous  answer  of  the   abbot  of 

Citeaux,  when  asked  by  the  army, 
how  they  should  distinguish  catholicfj 
from  heretics  ? 

26.  How  did  the  army  act  ? 

27.  Who  interfered  in  behalf  of  young  Ray- 

mond ? 

28.  His  advice  to  him  ? 

29.  His  fate,  and  that  of  the  townsmen  If 

30.  What  had  the  country  been  made  hy 

these  crusaders  ' 


14 


QUESTIONS    ON 


HI    How  were  the  Albigenses  still  treated  ? 
32.  How  much   better  were  the   monks  of 

Citeaiix  than  robbers  7 
'i3    Simon  de  I\Iontfort"s  conduct  7 

34.  What  did  Raymond  do  7 

3."<.  How  was  he  treated  in  Rome  7 

3'J.  What  was  Montlbrt  doing  hi  the  mcau- 

tmie  ? 
ST.  How  did  the  king  of  Aragon  attempt  to 

secure  his  friendship  7 

35.  Why  was  not  peace  made? 

59.  The  fate  of  the  defenders  of  the  strong- 
hold ol  Raymond — the  castle  of  La- 
vaur  ? 

40  What  now  interrupted  the  friendship  be- 
tween the  monks  of  Citeaux  and  the 
crusaders  ? 

41.  How  did  Arnold,  the  papal  legate,  act  ? 

42.  How  was  the  pope  set  at  defiance  by 

his  creatures  7 

43.  The  fate  of  the  king  of  Aragon  and  the 

citizens  of  Toulouse  7 

44.  The   cause  of  the  quarrel  between  the 

legate  and  Montfort  7 

45.  What  more   formidable  enemy  now  ap- 

peared 7 

46.  How  did  Montfort  lose  Toulouse  7 

47.  His  fate  7 

48.  The  siibsequent  fate  of  Toulouse  ? 

49.  What  institution  was  now  established  in 

this  country  7 

50.  The  effects  of  these  wars  7 

Pec.  9. — Consequences  of  the  Crusades. 

)     What  advantages  did  the  popes  darive 

from  the  crusades  ? 
2.  What   effect    had    the   increase   ot'  the 

papal   power  on  that  of  the  kings  of 

Europe  7 
3    What  peculiar  circumstances  led  to   a 

contrary  result  in  France  7 

4.  How  did  the  kings  of  Spain  profit  by  the 

fanaticism  of  the  age  7 

5.  Tiie  effects  of  the  crusades  on  chi\alry  ? 

6.  Describe  the    Hospitallers,  or  knights  of 

St.  John,  or  knights  of  Malta. 

7.  The  knights  Templars. 

8.  The  Teutonic  Order. 

9.  The  Order  of  St.  Lazarus. 

10.  The  effects  of  the  crusade  on  the  Italian 

cities  i 

11.  What  laid  the  foundation  of  the  present 

Hanscatic  league  7 

12.  What   led   to  the  establishment  of  mu- 

nicipal institutions  7 

13.  How  did  the  royal  authority  gain  by  the 

extension  of  municipal  freedom  7 
i-i.  What    followed    as    a   necessary  conse- 
quence of  this  freedom  ? 
15    The  state  of  Germany  at  this  period  7 

16.  What  brave  emperor  restored  tranquillity? 

17.  To  whom  did  the  pope  give  the  kingdom 

of  Naples  ? 


18  The  effect  of  his  :;ruoltioa '' 

19  The  fate  of  Conradin  / 

20.  The  effect  of  the  severance  of  Italy  fifyii 

the  German  empire? 

21.  What  proved  a  more  formidable  fof-  to 

the  Romish  church  than  the  sovereijpie 
of  Germany  ? 

Sei:.    10. — Formation    and     Constiiutiiiul 
History  of  the  Spanish  Monarc'iy. 

1.  The  condition  of  Spain  for  seven  I  hun- 

dred   years  after  the  invasion  of  the 
Saracens  ? 

2.  In  what    four   statjs    were    they  cniu- 

pnsed  after  the  fourteenth  century? 

3.  W'hat  is  said  of  the  kingdom  of  Granula '' 

4.  What  is  said  of  Navarre? 

5.  What  is  said  of  Aragon  ? 
6    \\'hat  is  said  of  Castile  ! 

7.  How  did  they  begin  to  secure  their  col. 

quests  ? 

8.  What  is  said  of  their  dissensions  7 

9.  The  complaint  of  the  soldiers  of  Fernai; 

Gonzales  7 

10.  How  long  did  it  take  the  Spaniards  to 

reach  the  Douro? 

11.  How  long  to  reach  the  Tagus? 

12.  To  what  circumstances  should  be    im- 

puted the  liberal  charters  of  communi- 
ties in  Castile  and  Leon  7 

13.  Some  of  their  enactments  7 

14.  The  date  of  popular  representation   tn 

Castile  7 

15.  How  much  sooner  than  the  first  convu- 

cation  of  the  English    house  of  com 
mons  ? 

16.  What  powerful  check  on  the   operation? 

of  the  crown  did  they  fail  to  avail  them- 
selves of  7 
17    AVhat  important  principle  of  the  constitu- 
tion  was  recognised  ? 

18.  What    prerogative    long    survived    the 

wreck  of  their  liberties  ? 

19.  What  anomalous  institution  was  peculiai 

to  Castile  ? 

20.  Describe  it. 

21.  W'hat  were  these  associations  called  i 

22.  The  state  of  the  cities  of  Castile  7 

23.  The  state  of  the  nobles,  &c.7 

24.  How  did  the  over-weening  confidenct  ot 

the  nobles  prove  thf  ir  ruin  ? 

25.  The    effects    of  the    long   minorities   hi 

Castile  ? 

Sec.  11. — Survey   of    the    Constitution    cf 
Aragon. 

1.  What  firftt  raised  Aragon  to  politioa]  iiu- 

portance? 

2.  Where  were  the  seeds  of  liberty  plant»><3 

and  brought  to  maturitj  7 

3.  Which    of   the    maritime  repuhrna  VfHF 

eminently  conspicuous? 
4    What  Is  said  of  iXa  navy  ? 


MODERN    HI8T0KY. 


15 


5.  Wliat  countries  did  it  conquer  ?  ]  9. 

6.  What  city  did  it  conquer  ? 

7    What   is  said  of  the  authority  of  their   20. 

moiiarchs  ? 
H    How  were  they  chosen  ?  21. 

^.  What  did  they  swear  to  do  before  assum-   22. 

Lig  the  sceptre? 

10.  Some  of  the  privileges  of  the  nobles?  23. 

1 1.  What  is  said  of  tlie  commons  of  Aragon  ? 

12.  What  of  the  triennial  Cortes  ?  24. 

13.  What  of  the  committee  of  interim  ?  25. 

14.  The     privileges    and   functions    of    the 

cortes  ?  26. 

15.  What  is  said  of  Barcelons.  '^  27. 
!<i.  How  was  its  wealth  exhibited  ?  28. 

1 7.  Its  peculiar  glory  ? 

18.  Its  government  and  privileges  ?  29. 

19.  The  influence  of  these  democratic  insti-   30. 

tutions  on  the  character  of  the  Cata-   31. 
lonians  ?  32. 

20    What  did  the  Venetian  ambassador  say   33. 
of  them  in  the  sixteenth  century  ? 

21.  The  policy  of  the  kings  of  Spain  when   34. 

Castile  and  Aragon  were  united  ? 

22.  W^hat  did  Ferdinand  say  of  the  nobles  of   35. 

Aragon  ?  36. 

23.  How  did  they  lose  their  privileges  ?  37. 

24.  What  is  said  of  the   connexion  between   38. 

freedom  of  trade  and  freedom  of  insti-   39. 
tutions  ?  40. 

25.  Of  what  great  truth  is   Spain  a  memo-   41. 

rable  and  sad  example  ? 

26.  With   whom   did  the   Austrian   line   of 

Spanish  monarchs  begin  ?  1, 

Sec.  12. — State  of  Western  Europe  at  the 
coinviencement  of  the  Fourteenth  Century. 

1.  Rodolph   of  Hapsburg's  first  step   after 

becoming  emperor  of  Germany  ? 

2.  Who    founded   the    imperial   house    of 

Austria  ? 

3.  How  and  when  was  Venice  founded  ? 

4.  When  did  it  first  rise  into  importance  7 

5.  Who  conferred  on  them  the  sovereignty 

of  the  Adriatic  ? 

6.  What  ceremony  thence  arose  ? 
7    Hc^  w  did  the  crusades  extend  their  power  ? 

8.  What  change  of  government  did  the  in- 

creasing wealth  of  Venice  occasion  ? 

9.  W'hat  led  to  the  terrible  council  of  ten  ? 

10.  To  what  did  Genoa  owe  its  prosperity  ? 

1 1.  How  were  they  rewarded   by  the  Greek 

emperors  for  the  help  afforded  by  them  ? 

12.  What  led  to  tlie  war  between  them   and 

the  Pisaiis,  and  its  result  ? 
13    Why   was    Charles  of  x\njou,   king    of 
Naples,  hated  ? 

14.  What  led  to  the  Sicilian  vespers  ? 

15.  Who  wet-e  massacred,  and  who  spared  ? 

16.  Who  protected  the  islanders? 
17    The  po[)e's  doings  in  consequence  ? 

S.  How  did   Peter,  king  of  Araj^;\u,  outv/it 
Charlea  ? 

54 


Did  the  Catalonians  regnrd  fht    pope'fc 

fulmiuations  ? 
What  naval  victory  did   Peter's  ailmirul 

gain  ? 
The  end  of  Charles  ? 
What  sav-^d  the  Mohammedans  at  thia 

time  from  Alphonzo,  king  of  Castile  7 
To  what  new  kingdom   in   Europe  did 

the  crusade  in  Spain  lead  ? 
How  was  this  result  produced  ? 
The  policy  of  the    French   kings  afLei 

Hugh  Capet'?  usurpation  ? 
What  error  did  Philip  I.  commit  ? 
How  was  this  danger  increased  ? 
Who  was  the  founder  of  the  greatness  oi 

the  French  monarchy  ? 
What  is  said  of  the  Plantagenets  7 
Of  Rid  ard  I.  ? 
Of  John  ? 

The  battle  of  Bouvines  ? 
Of  the  papacy  after  the  dea.h  of  Nichf> 

las? 
How  did  the  doctrine  of  infallibility  in 

jure  it  ? 
How  long  was  the  holy  see  vacant? 
Whom  did  the  cardinals  elect  1 
What  is  said  of  him  ? 
How  did  he  show  his  pride  ? 
Who  forced  him  to  resign,  and  how  7 
His  successor  ? 
How  did  he  act  ? 

Sec.  13. — Pontificate  of  Boniface. 

What  is  said  of  the  manner  in  which 

Boniface    obtained    the  resignation   o/ 

Celestine  ? 
What  declaration  did  Celestine  make  ol 

him  ?     See  p.  446. 
How  did  he  treat  Celestine  ? 
His  character  and  designs  ? 
His  letters  to  Philip,  Edward,  and  Adol- 

phus  ? 
Tlse  conduct  of  James  of  Aragon  ? 
How  did  the  Sicilians  view  this   conduct 

in  their  sovereign  ? 
How  was  Philip  of  France  acting  at  i\v» 

time  7 
The  pope's  command  to  him  ? 
What  did  the  pope  do,  wlieii  Philip  re 

fused  to  obey  him  ? 
How  was  this  bull  received  in  Europe  ? 
How  did  Edward  of  England  act  7 
How  did  Philip  ? 
The  effect  of  their  conduct  ' 
Arbitration  of  Boniface,  and   how  wa; 

his  decision  treated  ^ 
His  treatment  of  the  Colonnas  ? 
How  did  he  endeavour  to  lull  the  king't 

vigilance  ? 
Flow  did  Philip  treat  iiis  proposal  7 
How   did    Bonif;icc    induce    persons    tf 

come  to  Rome  to  attend  the  celcbra 

tion  of  the  iubilee  ? 


16 


QUESTIONS   OH 


?0. 
81. 


■2:1 
24. 

25 
26. 


The  secret  object  of  the  jubilee  ? 

Wlio  was  the  pope's  messenger  to  Philip, 
after  the  jubilee  was  over  ? 

How  did  tiie  king  treat  him  ? 

Boniface's  subsequent  pioceedings  ? 

Peter  Flotte's  summary  of  the  bull, 
Ausculta  JiLi  ? 

Philip's  treatment  of  it  ? 

His  letter  ?     Repeat  it. 

The  substance  of  tho  manifestoes  of  -he 
three  orders  ? 

Boniface's  command  to  Edward  of  Eng- 
land ? 

Edward's  reply  ? 

Conduct  of  some  of  the  French  clergy, 
and  Philip's  proceedings  thereupon  ? 

Demands  of  Boniface  on  Philip  ? 

Philip's  retaliation  ? 

Boniface's  violent  proceeding  ? 

Philip's  retaliation  1 

What  did  Boniface  then  proceed  to  do  ? 

How  was  his  purpose  of  vengeance 
thwarted  ? 

What  alone  saved  him  from  being  car- 
ried a  prisoner  to  France  ? 

His  end  ? 

The  effect  of  his  reign  on  the  papal 
power  ? 

Show  how  this  was  produced  ? 

What  change  was  occasioned  &c.,  by 
the  death  of  Boniface  ? 

How  did  Benedict  XL  act  ? 


28. 

29. 
'iO. 

^1. 
32. 
33 
34. 
3.'i. 
36. 

37. 

38. 
39. 

4f). 
41. 

42. 

See.  14. — State  of  England  and  the  Nor- 
thern Kingdoms  at  the  Commencement 
of  the  Fourteenth  Century. 

1.  How  did    William  the  Conqueror  treat 

the  Saxon  population  of  England  ? 

2.  Who   was  the  first  of  the  Plantagenet  j 

dynasty  ? 

3.  The  situation  of  Ireland  at  this  time  ? 

4.  What  sugsjested  to  William  the  idea  of 

conquering  Ireland  ? 
.S.  Who  was  the  only  English  pope  ? 
6.  On  what  condition  did  he  permit  Henry 

to  invade  Ireland  ? 
/    What  right  had  he  over  Ireland  or  the 

Irish  church  ? 
8.  What  led  Henry  to  invade  Ireland  ? 
'J.  What  is  said  of  the  great  charter  ? 

10.  How  did  the  pope  treat  John  ? 

11.  What  saved  England  from  becoming  a 

French  province  ? 

12.  Character  of  Henry  III.  ? 

13.  What  laid  the  basis  of  the  house  of  com- 

mons ? 

14.  The  chief  object  of  Edward's  ambition  ? 
15    Why  is  the  eldest  son   of  the  king  of 

England  called  prince  of  Wales  ? 
6.   What  gave  Edward  a  pretence  to  invade 

Scotland  ? 
17.  The  three  competitors  ? 
18    Who  was  chosen,  and  on  what  condition  ? 


19.  His  end  7 

20.  Wliat  Scottish  h*ro  arose  to  siutti'iu  hk 

countrj'  7 

21.  Who  finaily  secured  the  crown? 

22.  What  produced  innumerable  civil  wars 

in  the  north  of  Europe  7 

23.  Who  subdued  Prussia  and  Livonia? 

Sec.  15. — Revolutions  in  the  East  in  con- 
sequence of  the  Mongolian  Invasion 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  Mongolian  empire  ' 

2.  Of  Jenghiz  Khan  ? 

3.  His  early  history  ? 

4.  His  first  expedition? 

5.  His  conquests? 

6.  His  maxim  ? 

7.  The  conquests  of  his  successors  ? 

8.  Who  were  the  Mamelukes  ? 

9.  Their  career  ? 

10.  How  long  did  their  dominion  over  EgypI 

last  ? 

1 1.  When  did  they  finally  expel  the  Christian* 

from  Syria  and  Palestine  ? 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  REVIVAL  OF    LITERATURE;    THE    PROGRESI 
OF  CIVILIZATION  AND  INVENTION. 

Sec.  1. — Decline  of  the  Papal  Power. — Tht 
great  Schism  of  the  West. 

1.  WTiere  did  Clement  V    fix  his  residence. 

and  why,  &c.  ? 

2.  What  further  did  Philip  require  of  liira  ? 

3.  How  did  he  act  on  the  occasion  1 

4.  What  sacrifice  was  he  forced  tc  make  tc 

gratify  Philip  ? 

5.  How  were  these  knights  treated  ? 

6.  What  was  their  only  crime  ? 

7    What  inspired   Philip  with  the  hope  o( 
obtaining  the  empire  for  his  brother  ' 

8.  Did  the  pope  aid  him  ? 

9.  How  did  he  act,  and  why  ? 

10.  How   did   the   new   emperor  begin    his 

reign  ? 

11.  For    what    purpose  had  the   council  of 

Vienue  bien  summoned  ? 

12.  What  was  proved? 

13.  Why  was  Clement  unwilling  that  Boni- 

face should  be  condemned  ? 

14.  The  sentence  of  the  council  ? 

15.  The  decrees  of  the  co^incil  ? 

16.  What  had  nearly  brought  ;n  a  war  b© 

tween    the   emperor  and   the  kl^g  o' 
France  ? 

17.  Henry's  death,  how  occasioned? 

18.  What   important  personages  died  about 

this  time  ? 

19.  The  consequences,  &c.  ? 

20.  How  long  were  the  cardinals  in  eloctiug 

a  pope  ? 

21.  What  happened  at  tlieu  first  meeting  ? 


MODERN   HISTORY. 


17 


t2    How  were  tlicy  forccv^  ..o  come  to  a  de- 
cision ? 
'23    Who  was  elected,  and  by  what  means  ? 

24.  The  state  of  Europe  at  this  time  ? 

25.  How  did  the  pope  act  ? 

26.  What  did  the  emperor  Louis  do  ? 

27.  What    excited    the    indigiiation   of    the 

Germans  against  the  pope  ? 

28.  How  did  Louis  treat  him  ? 

29.  What  prevented  the  destruction  of  the 

pope  '' 
SO.  Tlie  fate  of  the  antipope  ? 

31.  By  what  rehgious  dispute  was  the  church 

now  disturbed  ? 

32.  Who  compelled  the  pope  to  retract  his 

doctrines  ? 

33.  ^Could  the  pope  then  be  infallible  ?) 
34    'vVhat  is  said  of  the  pope's  wealth  ? 

35.  What  was  the  pope's  sojourn  at  Avignon 

called,  and  why  ? 

36.  To  what  did  the  successor  of  Jo'nn  owe 

his  election  ? 

37.  How  was  he  regarded  by  the  kings  of 

Europe  ? 
5i.  How   did  Philip,   king  of  France,  treat 
him  ? 

39.  Who  v/as  chosen  his  successor  ? 

40.  What  deputation  was  sent  him? 

41.  How  did  he  treat  Naples  ? 

42.  How  the  emperor  Louis  V.  ? 

43.  How  the  church  of  England  1 

44.  How  did  Louis  V.  act  ? 

45.  The  effect  of  his  humiliations  ? 

46.  What  events  now  took  place  in  Italy  ? 

47.  How  did  Jane  conciliate  the  pontifF? 

48.  What  did  the  king  of  Hungary  do  ? 

49.  What   did    the    pope    do    to   avert   the 

danger  ? 

50.  The  history  of  Rienzi  ? 

'jl.  The  doings  of  the  king  of  Hungary  ? 
')2.  How  did  Clement   avail   himself  of  the 
opportunity  ? 

53.  How  did  he  act  towards  the  archbishop 

of  Milan  ? 

54.  His  decision   with  regard  to  the  dispute 

between  the  king  of  Hungary  and  the 
queen  of  Naples  ? 

55.  Why  is  the    eldest    son    of  the  king  of 

France  called  the  dauphin? 

56.  What  is  said  of  the  power  of  the  papacy 

at  this  time  ? 

57.  How  did  the  pope   endeavour  to  recover 

the  ancient  patrimony  of  St.  Peter  ? 
68.  The  end  of  Rienzi  ? 

59.  Actions  of  Charles  IV.  ? 

60.  Wl/jit  events  were  now  taking  place  in 

F  ranee  ? 

61  How  did  John,  the  king  of  France,  re- 
plenish his  colFers  ? 

f2  Give  some  account  of  the  origin  and 
doings  of  the  Free  Companies  ? 

63  How  dill  the  pope  keep  tlmm  fi-om  ])lnn- 
deruig  Avignon  ? 


64.  How  did  his  succcb-sor  Urban  \.  keof 

tliem  away  ? 

65.  How  did  the  emperor  Charles   demean 

himself  toward  the  pope  ? 

66.  What  was  thought  of  his  conduct  ? 

67.  W  hy  was  the  pope  unwilling  to  live  id 

Rome? 

68.  What  had  he  gained  by  going  tiiither  ? 

69.  Gregory's  great  object  ? 

70.  By  what  infamous  means  did  he  endeav- 

our to  gain  over  the  Florentines  ? 

71.  The  consequence  of  this  conduct  ? 

72.  How  did  Gregory  retaliate 

73.  The  reply   of    the   papal   ligate   to  the 

Bolognese  when  they  sued  for  pardon  T 

74.  What  reformer  now  arose  in  England  ? 

75.  How  did  Gregory  order  him  to  be  treated  1 

76.  Who  protected  him  ? 

77.  His  doctrines  ? 

78.  Why  was  Gregory  so  enragv-J  with  him  1 

79.  Why    did     he    think    of    returning    to 

Avignon  ? 

80.  What  prevented  him  ? 

81.  Of  what  was  the  death  of  Gregory  XI. 

a  new  era  ? 

82.  What  attached  the  Romans  to  the  pa- 

pacy ? 
83    Who  succeeded  Gregory  ? 

84.  By  what  means  was  he  elected  ? 

85.  What  expectations  had  been  formed  ol 

Urban's  conduct  ! 

86.  W^ere  they  realized  ? 

87.  How  did  he  act  ? 

88.  How  did  the  cardinals  act  ? 

89.  How  was  the  fate  of  the  church  now  tu 

be  determined  ? 

90.  How  did  Urban  treat  the  count  of  Foudi  ? 

91.  The  consequence  ? 

92.  Whom  did  the  cardinals  think  of  choos- 

ing as  antipojie  ? 

93.  Whom  did  they  choose  ? 

94.  Why  was  he  hated  by  the  Italians? 
85.   For  whom  did  the  emperor  declare  1 

96.  For  whom  tiie  queen  of  Naples  ? 

97.  What  became  of  Clement  ? 

98.  \Miom   did  the  king  of  France  fa7'>u'i 

and  why  ? 

99.  How  did   Urban  treat  the  queen  of  Na- 

])les  ? 

100.  Hov.?  did   the  \'xo   popes   treat  one  aa 

other  ? 

101.  What  states  favoured  each  ? 

102.  How  did  France  sulFer  in  the  contest? 
103    How  did  Jane,  queen  of  Naples,  suffei 

for  the  part  she  took  in  the  contest? 

104.  AVho  undertook  to  Kvenge  her  ? 

105.  His  fate,  and  that  of  his  barons  ? 

106.  How  did   Urb.ui  treat  the  king  of  N» 

pics? 

107.  How  did  the  king  act  thereupon? 

108.  What  conspiracy  was  now  detected' 

109.  How  were  the  cardinals  trested  .' 

110.  How  did  he  treat  Durazzo  ? 


i^ 


QUESTIONS    ON 


111.  How  did  Diirazzo  rotort  ? 

112.  Wliither  did  he  escape  ? 

113.  liis  conduct  during  liis  flight? 

114.  How  vva.s  Clement  VJl.,  the  antipope, 

acting  all  tins  ■>vii,e  ? 

115.  What  kingdom  suirLied  most  from  the 

achisin  ? 
116    How  wa.s  it  treated? 
1 1 7.  What  doctrinal  dispute  was  now  added 

to  the  schism  ? 
lid.   Wkiit  became  of  Mon^on? 

119.  How  did  the  pope  resolve  the  question  ? 

120.  Who  undertook  to  decide  it? 

121.  Bull   of  Clement   VII.    on    the    sub- 

ject ? 

122.  How  was  Urban  VI.  now  acting  ? 

123.  His  end  ? 

124.  The  conduct  of  his  successor  ? 

125.  How  did  Clement  propose  to  strengthen 

himself? 

126.  How  did  the  doctors  of  the  Sorbonne 

propose  to  terminate  the  schism  1 

127.  The  effect  on  Clement  ? 

128.  Letter  of  the  French  mhiisters  to  the 

cardinals  ? 

129.  How  did  they  act  ? 

13U.  The  decision  of  the  French  court  there- 
upon ? 

131.  Benedict's  obstinacy  ? 

132.  The  state  of  the  Western  governments  ? 

133.  What   advantage  did   Boniface  take  of 

these  circumstances  ? 

134.  How  did  the  cardinals  attempt  to  put 

an  end  to  the  schism  ? 

135.  Who  recognised  the  several  popes  ? 

136.  Th°  effect  of  these  disputes? 

137.  Who,  in  Germany ,  advocated  Wickliffe's 

doctrine  ? 

138.  Alexander's  successor  ? 

139.  His  qualifications? 

140.  How  was  the  schism  now  to  be  termi- 

nated ? 

141.  John's  remark  on  Constance? 

142.  Sigismond's  infamous  treatment  of  John 

Huss? 

143.  How  was  Pope  John  treated  ? 

144.  How  were  Huss  and  Jerome  treated? 

145.  Wiiat   hero  sustained  the  cause  of  the 

Hussites,  in  Germany? 

146.  The   result  of  the   deliberations  of  the 

council  ? 

147.  What  council  succeeded   that  of  Con- 

stance ? 

148.  1  he  result  of  it  ? 

149.  1  he  good  effects  of  these  councils  ? 
150    Ak'hat  enemy,  still  more  formidable  than 

councils,  was  now  arising  ? 

S«c.  2. — First   Revival  of  Literatiirr,  and 
Inventions  in  Science. 

1.  Who  firstemployedllterary  talent  against 

the  church  ? 
2    The  founder  of  Italian  literature  ? 


3.  The   first  reviver   of  e.Tporinienliil   ic\ 

ence  ? 

4.  His  great  merit,  what  ? 

5.  What  was  thought  of  his  discoveries  ? 

6.  Who  followed   Daute  in  reviving  litera- 

ture ? 

7.  What  now  inventions  were  now  made  1 

8.  What  was  used  before  paper  ? 

9.  What  did  the  Arabs  find  in  Bokhara  ? 
10    What  answered  instead  of  cotto'i  for  pa- 
per? 

11.  The   first   manufactorj'  of  linen   paper 

when  and  where  ? 

12.  What  is  said  of  the  invention  of  oil  paint- 

ing ? 

13.  What  of  the  invention  of  printing'' 

14.  The  first  printing-press,  wherc«?     • 

15.  How  did  Faustns  treat  Gutenberg? 

16.  What   is  said  of  the   invention  of  gun- 

powder ? 

17.  The  first  account  of  it,  in  what  year? 

18.  Who  first  used  powder  in  mines,  &c.  ? 

19.  Cannon,  how  first  made  ? 

20.  The   discoverer  of    the  polarity  of  the 

needle  ? 

21.  Of  the  compass  ? 

22.  How   did   the  old   Danish  sailors  direct 

their  course  ? 

23.  To  whom  are  we  indebted   for   the   ijn- 

proveraent  of  the  compass  ? 

Sec.  3. — Progress  of  Commerce. 

1.  Who  engrossed  the  commerce  of  Europt 

from  A.D.  1300  to  1450  ? 

2.  Who  the  trade  of  the  Levant  ? 

3.  What  led  to  the  wars  between  the  Italian 

cities  ? 

4.  Who  finally  became  supreme  ? 

5.  Where  was  the  largest    silk    manufac- 

tory? 

6.  With  what  did  Venice  supply  Europe  ? 

7.  What  made  them  the  chief  bankers  and 

money-lenders  every  where  ? 

8.  The  origin  of  the  three  balls,  exhibited 

over  pawnbrokers'  shops  ? 

9.  What  led  to  dissensions,  &c.,  among  the 

Italian  republics  ? 

10.  What  houses  became  chief  in  the  sevo 

ral  citie,«  ? 

11.  The  last  war  between  Veniae  and  Ge- 

noa, called  what ;  and  its  effects  ? 

12.  What  else  contributed  to  the  decline  of 

Genoa  ? 

13.  How  long  did  it  remain  a  dependency  ci 

the  dulchy  of  Milan  ? 

14.  What   saved  Venice  from  internal  con- 

vulsions ? 

15.  What  secured  and  festered  its  trade  ? 

16.  The  greatest  advantage  gained  by  Ve- 

nice  over   Its  commercial  rivals   arose 
from  what  ? 

17.  Of  what  advantage  was   thiii   treaty  l« 

them  ? 


MODERN    HISTORY 


19 


20 


21 
22. 


24. 


a6. 

27. 

28. 
29. 
30 

31 

32 
33 

34 
35. 

36. 

37 

38. 
39. 

40 
41. 

42. 

43. 

44. 

45. 
46. 

47. 
48. 
49 
50. 
51. 
52. 

53. 

54. 
55. 

56. 

57, 
58 
59 

tr 

6 


What  is  said  of  the  territorial  acquisi- 
tions of  Venice  ? 

What  is  said  of  its  power  r.nd'conduct  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  Hanec-atic  confede- 
ration ? 

What  cities  joined  the  confederacy  ? 

At  what  city  did  the  representatives 
regularly  meet,  and  how  often  ? 

IJow  many  cities  sent  delegates  in  the 
fifteenth  century  ? 

Were  these  all  that  belonged  to  the  con- 
federacy ? 

What  rights  did  they  exercise  ? 

The  principal  marts  ? 

What  misfortune  befel  Novogorod  7  and 
when  ? 

What  became  of  its  merchants  ? 

W^hat  took  place  annually  at  Bruges  ? 

To  what  did  this  intercourse,  &c.,  natu- 
rally lead  ? 

What  gave  commerce  a  new  direc- 
tion? 

What  else  injured  the  confederation  ? 

What  led  the  ncrthern  sovereigns  to  ns- 
sail  the  confederation  1 

The  result  of  this  ? 

W'hat  cities  finally  remained  united  ? 

On  what  was  commercial  prosperity 
based  in  Flanders  ? 

In  what  did  they  trade  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  earls  of  Flanders  ? 

With  whom  did  Edward  I.  of  England 
seek  an  alliance  ? 

What  is  said  of  Philippu  ? 

How  did  Philip,  the  Fair,  treat  her  and 
her  father? 

How  did  Guy,  the  earl,  act  after  his 
escape  ? 

Of  what  was  this  the  commencement  ? 

^^'hal  is  said  of  the  burgesses  of  Flan- 
ders ? 

How  did  the  nobles  view  their  progress  ? 

At  what  were  they  grieved  ? 

What  brought  on  war  ? 

Who  directed  the  mercantile  Flemings  ? 

The  results  of  the  war  ? 

What  powerful  rival  appeared  ? 

What  manufacture  flourished  there  ? 

\\'hat  proportion  of  the  exports  of  the 
kingdom  did  it  constitute  ? 

How  did  Edward  I.  obtain  workmen 
from  Flanders  ? 

How  were  they  regarded  ? 

Of  what  did  the  petitions  complain  ? 

What  was  the  conduct  of  the  land- 
owners ? 

The  law  passed  on  the  subject  ? 

The  effect  of  it  ? 

What  is  said  of  the  woolen  manufac- 
tures in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  ? 

'I'he  reciprocity  law  ? 

What  foolish  attempt  was  made  to  hmit 
lh«  supPlY  of  labour  ? 


62.  The  besetting  error  of  legislatois  al  tii* 

period  ? 

63.  The  real  use  of  money  ? 

64.  The  essence  of  all  commerce  ? 

G5.   What    laws   did    the    ignorance    of  the 
legislators  lead  them  to  pass  ? 

66.  What  check  to  industry  did  Henry  VH 

remove  ? 

67.  What  proved  the  necessity  of  legislative 

interference  ? 

68.  What  other  law  did  he  make  ? 

69.  What  was  thought  of  it  at  the  time  ? 

70.  What  kept  the  parliaments  from  trou- 

bling commerce,  &lc.,  in  Henry  Vlll.'a 
time  ? 

71.  What  circumstance  deserves  to  be  men- 

tiontd  in  connection  with  the  woolen 
ti-ude  ? 

72.  The  effect  of  hostilities  between  England 

and  Flanders  in  1528  ? 

73.  How  did  Woisey  act  ? 

74.  The  true  remedy  ? 

75.  What  act  was  passed  under  Edward  \  1. 1 

76.  The  effect  of  it  ? 

77    The  effect  of  the  persecutions  in  France 
and  Flanders  ? 

78.  What  is  said  in  the  remonstrance  of  the 

Ilanse  towns  concerning  the  exports  ol 
England  ? 

79.  What  did  the  English  begin  to  do  in  this 

reign  T 

80.  What  is  said  of  their  success  ? 

81.  What  is  said  of  Elizabeth's  monopolies  ? 

82.  What  right  did  the  company  of  merchant 

adventurers  possess  ? 

83.  How  did  they  secure  their  patent  ? 

84.  The  trade  in  woolen  goods  in  the  reign 

of  James  I  ? 

85.  In  what  state  was  the  cloth  exported  ? 
66.  How  much  did  the  Dutch  gain  by  dress- 
ing it  ? 

87.  How  did    James   endeavour  to  prevent 

this? 

88.  How  did  the  Germans  and  Dutcii  meet 

this  piece  of  legislation  ? 

89.  The  consequence  ? 

90.  The   recommendation   to   the   commis 

sioners  ? 

91.  Why   did    English    commerce      icreast? 

under  the  commonwealth  ? 

92.  The  effect  of  the  restoration  ? 

93.  Report  of  the  merchant  adventurers  T 

94.  What  is  said  of  the  Walloons  ? 

95.  WHiat  evils  are  illustrated  in  the  history 

of  maiuifactures  so  far  ? 

96.  Was  this  folly  peculiar  to  England  ? 

97.  When  did  the  system  of  protection  be- 

gin? 
93.  From  what  did  it  derive  its  support  ? 
99.  When  did   England  enter  into  the  spinl 

cf  mtiriiime  discovery  ? 
lOO.Wliy  was  the  progress  of  corjraeice  Bt 
slow  ? 


20 


QUESTIONS   OH 


8eo  4  —RcvobUions  of  Germnmj,  France, 
and  Spain. 

1.  From  what  period  did   the  German  em- 

pire begin  to  be  consolidated  ? 

2.  Under  whose  government  did  an  impor- 

tant  change  take   place  in    Switzer- 
land? 

3.  How  was  the  revolntion  effected? 

4.  \Vhere  did  the  Austrians  suffer  a  ruinous 

defeat  ? 

5.  The  results  of  it  ? 

(i,  The    successor  of  Albert  and  his  cha- 
racter ? 

7.  What  led  the  German  princes  to  form 

written  constitutions  ? 
B.  What  led  to  the  Golden  Bull  ? 
9.  What  did  it  fix  ? 
i  0.  How  was  the  crown  given  ? 

11.  To  whom  was  the  right  of  voting  re- 

stricted ? 

12.  Who  administered  the  empire  during  an 

interregnum  ? 

13.  How  did  the  electors  show  their  authority 

in  the  next  reign  ? 

14.  Who  succeeded  Sigismond  ? 

15.  (Wliat   breach    of  faith   did   Sigismond 

once  commit  ?) 

16.  Who  succeeded  Albert  ? 

17.  What  is  .said  of  Frederic's  posterity  ? 
]  8.  The  policy  of  Philip  Augustus  of  France  ? 
19    Who  pursued  it  with  the  most  vigour? 

20.  On  what  did  Edward  found  his  claims  to 

the  crown  of  France  ? 

21.  The  success  of  Edward's  invasion  ? 

22.  Wliat  terrible   calamities  visited  France 

at  this  period  ?     Mention  seven. 

23.  Conduct  of  Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  in 

his  French  dominions  ? 

24.  The  result  of  his  wars  7 

25.  Wliat  saved  the  English  from  being  ex- 

pelled from  all  their  continental  pos- 
sessions ? 

2(3  Between  whom  was  the  battle  of  Agin- 
court  fought  ? 

27.  The  terms  of  the  treaty  ? 

^8.  Who  overthrew  the  power  of  England  ? 
9.  How  did  she  manage  it  ? 

iO.  What  alone  remained  of  England's  pos- 
sessions ? 

31.  The  consequences  of  the  destruction  of 

the  French  nobility? 

32.  What  change  was  made  in  ecclesiastical 

affliirs  ? 

33.  What  was  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  ? 

34.  The  state  of  Spain  at  this  period? 

35.  What  Castilian  monarch   defeated   the 

Moors  ? 

36.  How  was  the  power  of  Castile  weak- 

ened ? 

57  What  madb  Aragon  ahnost  equally  im- 
portant with  Casti'e  ? 

£8  What  kingdom  did  vhe  Aragonese  mon- 
archs  acquire  ? 


39.  What  fortunate  event   united   tUc  twi 

crowns  of  Aragon  and  Castile  ? 

Sec  5. — The  State  of  England  and  the 
Northern  Tiingdciui  it  the  Fourteenth 
and  Fifteenth  Centuries. 

1.  One  benefit  of  the  inglorious  ..»ign  of 
Edward  II. 

2.  To  what  was  he  forced  by  his  barons  V 

3.  What  clause  was  added  to  thu  grt*tU 
charter? 

4.  Who  succeeded  ? 

5.  What  made  his  name  illustrious  ? 

6.  What  three  fundamental  principles  of 
government  were  established  in  thi» 
reign  ? 

7.  How  did  his  parliament  treat  him  when 
in  the  midst  of  victory  ? 

8.  How  when  the  tide  was  turned  ? 

9.  What  great  poet  flourished  in  England 
in  this  reign  ? 

10.  In  what  lai^uage  were  the  lavv's  now 
written  ? 

11.  In  what  language  had  they  been  written 
up  to  this  time  ? 

12.  Edward's  successor  ? 

13.  By  what  was  the  early  part  of  his  reign 
troubled  ? 

14.  What  dangerous  insurrection  occurred  ? 

15.  What  reformer  in  the  church  now  aj>- 
peared  ? 

16.  The  success  of  his  doctrines  ? 

17.  What  misfortune  now  befell  Richard? 

18.  W^ho  succeeded  him  ? 

19.  Who  was  the  rightful  heir? 

20.  Why  then  was  Henry  chosen  ? 

21.  What  discovery  did  Henry  IV.  make  ? 

22.  Why  did  the  Percies  take  up  arms  ? 

23.  Who  maintained  a  stout  resistance  fcr 
several  years  ? 

24.  Who  succeeded  Henry  IV.  ? 

25.  His  character  both  before  and  after  hia 
accession  ? 

26.  What    alienated    the    nation   from   the 
ho«ise  of  Lancaster  ? 

27.  What  led  Richard,  duke  of  York,  to  take 
up  arms  against  Henry  VI.  ? 

23.  The  cognizance  of  the  Yorkites? 

29.  Of  the  Lancastrians  ? 

30.  The  successor  of  Henry  VI.  ? 

31.  His  character  ? 

32.  Who  usurped  the  crown  after  his  death  t 

33.  How  did  he  endeavour  to  secure  it  ? 

34.  Who  now  revived  the  claims  of  the  Lan- 
castrian family  ? 

3.5.  What  extinguished  the  hostility  between 
the  tv.-o  families  ? 

36.  How  were  the  wars  excited  by  disputed 
succession  terminated  in  Scotla.r.d  ? 

37.  (Who  was  the  first  of  the  Stuart  familj 
that  sat  on  the  throne  of  Englpud?) 

38.  What  was  Queen  Margaret  of  lyjnraarj 
called  ? 


MODE.KN    HISTORY. 


21 


jy    What  kingdoms  did  shfj  r<i"i;t3  under  one 

govornment  ? 
40.  Why  did  the  Swedes  separate  from  it  ? 
*1.  In  wha*^  family  has  the  Danish  crown 

continued  ? 

42.  The  state  of  Russia   in  the  fourteenth 

and  fifteenth  centuries  ? 

43.  How  did  the  Teutonic   knights  add  to 

their  dominions  at  this  time  ? 

44.  Could  tliey  retain  these  provinces  ' 

45.  What  revohition  proved  fatal  to  Poland  ? 

46.  How  was  it  occasioned  ? 

47.  I'rom  what  family  were  the  Pohsh  kings 

chosen  ? 

48.  When  did  this  family  become  extinct  ? 

Sec.  6. — Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire. 

\.  What  is  said  of  the  Byzantine  empire 
under  the  administration  of  the  Pateo- 
logi  ? 

2.  What  vt^ould  have  ruined  the  state,  even 

had  the  Mohammedans  left  it  to  itscif  ? 

3.  W^hat  delayed   the  triumph  of  the  Mo- 

hammedans ? 

4.  Where  did  the  power  of  the  Ottoman 

Turks  commence  ? 

5.  What  caused  a  small  wandering  tribe  of 

the  Turks  to  settle  in  Armenia  ? 

6.  How  long  did  they  stay  there  ? 

7.  What  occurred  on  their  return  to  their 

own  country  ? 

8.  Who  returned  back  into  Asia  Minor  ? 

9.  What  motive  induced  him  to  do  so  ? 

1 0.  What  occurred  on  his  return  ? 

11.  The  reward  of  his  services  ? 

12.  The  founde-  of  the  Turkish  empire  ? 

13.  When  borr.  ' 

14.  Who  instructed  him  how  to  govern  ? 

15.  What  family  descended  from  this  rene- 

gade ? 

16.  His  exploits  ? 

17  What  military  force  did   Othman's  son 

establish  ? 

18  Exploits  of  Soliman  ? 

19  Who  captured  Adrianople  ? 

20  Where  did  he  fall  ? 

21  Exploits  of  Bayezid  ? 

22  The  limits  of  the  empire  of  Constantino- 

ple ? 

<J3  How  long  besieged  ? 

24  W'hat  saved  it  ? 

25  Who  was  Tamerlane  1 

26  What  is  said  of  him  ? 

27  Why  was  he  called  Timur  the  Tartar? 

28  His  descendants,  called  what? 

29  Extent  of  his  empire  ? 

30  How  did  he  treat  Sebaste  ? 

31  How,  Damascus  ? 

32  Fate  of  Bayezid  ? 

33  EndofTimtir? 

34  Fate  of  hia  empire  after  his  death  ?  ! 


35.  Baber's  empre,  where   establisliec,  wui 

its  name  and  duration  ? 

36.  Bayezid's  successor  ■? 

37.  The  greater  part  of  his  reign,  how  spent  \ 

38.  Exploits  of  Amurath  II.  ? 

39.  V  hat  two  Christian  heroes  arrested  hia 

progress  ? 

40.  Who  was  Hunniadcs  ? 

41.  Who  was  Scanderbeg? 

42.  Mohammed  II. 's  great  aim  1 

43.  Army  and  navy,  how  large? 

44.  The  last  of  the  Greek  emperors  ? 

45.  Who  assisted  hu,i? 

46.  Duration  of  the  siege  of  Constantinople! 

47.  When  was  it  taken  ? 

48.  Fate  of  its  inhabitants  ? 

49.  How  was  Europe  affected,  &,c.  ? 

50.  Mohammed's  treatment  of  his  ChristiAB 

subjetts  ? 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE     REFORMATION,    AND     COMMENCEMENT    OI 
THE    STATES-SYSTEM    IN    EUROPE. 

Sec.  1. — Progress  of  Maritime  Discovery. 

1.  The  scene  of  the  earliest  navigation  ? 

2.  Its   location   in   tho   opinion  of  the  an- 

cients? 

3.  How  long  did  it  take  the  ancients  to  ex- 

plore this  sea  ? 

4.  What   discovery    was   made   by    them, 

which  assisted  their  navigation  ? 

5.  Who  first  availed  himself  of  these  winds  1 

6.  How  much  did  they  shorten  voyages  ? 

7.  The  fruit  of  this  discovery  ? 

8.  How  was   the   navigation  to   the  Indies 

changed  under  the  emperor  Claudius  ? 

9.  What   advantages  did  the  Arabians  see 

could  be  derived  from   a  port  on  the 
Euphrates  ? 

10.  What  city  did  they  build  ? 

11.  In  what  year? 

12.  The    enterprise    of    the    Arabiuc    .ner- 

chants  ? 

13.  The  author  of  the  Christian  Topography? 

14.  The  design  of  the  work? 

15.  Its  doctrines  ? 

16.  Who  ditL-overed  the  Feroe  Islands? 

17.  Who,  Iceland? 

18.  What    proved    that    Iceland    had   beer' 

known  before  ? 

19.  The  first  discoverers  of  it? 

20.  What  do  the  Icelandic  chronicles  relate  ' 

21.  When  was  Greenland  discovered? 

2.  The  income  of  the  pope  from  Greenland? 

23.  How   many   years   were  occupied  in  s 

voyage  from  Greenland  to  Iceland  and 
Norway,  and  back  again  ? 

24.  How  long  was   news   sometimes  on   ita 

way  from  Greenland  to  Norway  ? 

25.  (How  long  would  it  take  us  now  to  carry 

news  ^>^'ween  the  two  countries  i) 


22 


QUKSXIOMS   ON 


86    Early  nanie  of  Greeulanc  ? 

27.  Why  so  called? 

28.  Tlic  opinion  of  some  on  this  point  ? 

29.  What  is  said  of  this,  &c.? 

3U.  The  cllect  of  the  full  of  Constantinople 
oil  tl  e  learning  of  Europe  ? 

31.  How  was  this  eti'ect  produced  ? 

32.  What  old   belief  existed  with  respect  to 

the  globe  ? 

33.  What  have   Augustiue   and  Lactantius 

written  on  the  subject,  and  why  ? 

34.  The  first  discovery  that  followed  the  in- 

troduction of  the  mariner's  compass? 

35.  Character  of  Prince  Henry,  of  Portugal  ? 
3t).  What  seaport  town  did  he  found  ? 

37.  What  did  he  do  there  ? 

38.  To  what  point  did  he  direct  his  chief  at- 

tention ? 

39.  How  much  did  he  accomplish  ? 

40.  The  southernmost  cape  of  Africa  known 

in  those  days  ? 

41.  Why  so  named  ? 

43.  What  cape  was  found  beyond  it? 
43    What  is  said  of  it  ? 

44.  What  did  the  sailors  say  of  it  ? 

45.  What  river  was  next  discovered  ? 

46.  What  islands? 

47.  When  did  Prince  Henry  die  ? 

48.  WMiat  grant  did  the  pope  make  him  ? 

49.  Who  revived   the  passion  for  discovery 

after  his  death  ? 

50.  What  error  of  the    ancients  was   now 

discovered  ? 

51.  What  common  belief  did  the  Portuguese 

practically  refute  ? 

52.  Wliat  ambassadors  did  the  king  send  out  ? 
ii3.  What  is  said  of  the  rituals  and  ceremo- 
nies of  Buddhism  ? 

t)4.  W'hat    reports    were    prevalent    in    the 

thirteenth  century  ? 
55.  The  "upposed  name  of  this  king  ? 
5G.   (Of  what  was  •'  Prester  "  a  contraction?) 

57.  What  Venetian  visited  Pekin? 

58.  What  Englishman  followed? 

59.  What  discovery  did  Bartholomew  Diaz 

make  in  1483  ? 

60.  AVhat  did  he  name  the  cape  ? 

61.  What  did  King  John  name  it? 

62.  What    letters   were    received    from   t'^e 

monks  ' 

63.  What  diverted  men's  minds  at  this  time 

from  the  voyage  around  Africa? 

64.  Who    first    rounded   the  Cape  of  Good 

Hope  ? 

65.  How  many  years  after  its  discovery  did 

he  do  this  ? 

66.  In  what  harbour  did  he  anchor? 

67    What  distinguished  Genoese  joined  the 

Portuguese  ? 
C3    What  led  him  to  think  he  might  reach 

India  by  going  west? 
53    From  whom  did  he  obtain  his  armament  ? 
TO    Wbea  did  he  set  sail  ? 


71.  From  what  pojt,  and  with  how  uiauj 

ships' 

72.  Why  were  the  West  India  Islands  sc 

named? 

73.  How  was  Columbuo  received  on  his  re- 

turn ? 

74.  How  was  the  world  divided  by  the  poj^  ; 

75.  What  has  always  been  a  characterist^''. 

of  the  Spaniards? 
76   To  what  did  they  devote  themselves  in 
America  ? 

77.  When  did  they  begin  to  pay  some  atten- 

tion to  agriculture  ? 

78.  What    is   said   of  the   commercial    and 

colonial  policy  of  the  Spaniards? 

79.  The  cause  of  the  low  state  of  civiliza  • 

tion  in  Spain  and  her  colonies  ? 

80.  What  Englishman  made  new  discoveritx: 

in  America? 

81.  Who  first  attempted  to  circumnavigate" 

the  world  ? 

82.  What  followed  this  exploit  ? 

Sec.  2. — Origin  of  the  Reformation. 

1.  What  first  excited  a  repugnance  to  of- 

clesiastical  supremacy  ? 

2.  What  increased  it? 

3.  What    compell-ed    men  to    exercise  the 

right  of  private  opinion  ? 

4.  What  spread  tlie  disrespect  for  the  Ro- 

man See  still  further  ? 

5.  What  convinced  the   people  that  theic 

was  a  power  superior  to  that  of  the 
pope's  ? 

6.  The  effect  of  their  feeble  efforts  to  cor- 

rect abuses  ? 

7.  Character  of  Alexander  VI.? 

8.  (Story  of  his  death  ?     Csesar  Borgia,  his 

son's  ring  ?)     See  Rank^'s  history. 

9.  His  snccessor  ?     His  character? 

10.  What  was  thought  of  papal  pretensiona 

at  this  time  ? 

11.  Character  of  Romish  ecclesiastics? 

12.  Who  had  exhausted  the  treasury  of  the 

church? 

13.  How  did  Leo  X.  propose  to  replenish  it  1 

14.  The  origin  of  indulgences? 

15.  Doctrine  of  indulgences? 

16.  When  first  issued,  and  to  whom? 

17.  Subsequently  to  whom  ? 

18.  Finally  to  whom  ? 

19.  To  whom  was  the  monopoly  of  indul- 

gences granted  ? 

20.  The  chief  agent  in  retailmg  them  ? 

21.  How  did  he  execute  his  commission? 

22.  How  was  his  conduct  viewed  ? 

23.  The  author  of  the  reformation  ? 

24.  To  what  order  of  monks  did  he  belong  1 

25.  How  had  he  prepared  his  mind  for  tht 

noble  career  on  which  he  entered  ? 

26.  (How  did  he  get  a  Bible  ?) 

27  His  first  move? 

28  What  .=.  said  af  L-.th-r? 


MODERN    HISTORf. 


23 


i9-   What  excuse  is  made  for  his  violence  ? 

30.  His  character  ? 

31.  Who  conmieuced  the  reformation  before 

Luther  l 

32.  Who  prepared  the  way  for  both  ? 

33.  Leo's  bull  ? 

34.  How  did  Luther  treat  it  ? 

35.  How  did   he   treat  the  volumes  ti  the 

canon  law  ? 
.SG.  How  did  he  engage  the  princes  on  his 

side  ? 
37    The  first  among  his  great  converts  ? 

38.  For  what   purpose   were   corruptions  in 

doctrine    introduced  into  the    Roman 
church  ? 

39.  Illustrate. 

40.  What  French  reformer  appeared,  a  fol- 

lower of  Zuinglius  ? 

4L  His  native  place  ? 

42    The  year  in  which  he  commenced  pub- 
lishing ? 

43.  Title  of  his  followers  ? 

44.  In  what  Swiss  city  did  he  establish  him- 

self] 
45    Of  what  system  was  he  the  author? 

46.  What  is  said  of  the  conduct  of  the  ec- 

clesiastical courts? 

47.  Who  was  burned  for  his  opinions  ? 

48.  What  is  said  of  the  difTerences  between 

the  Calvinists  and  Lutherans? 

49.  Decree  of  the  diet  of  Spires  ? 

50.  What  is  said  of  the  confession  of  Augs- 

burgh  ? 

51.  What   countries    adopted    the    reformed 

doctrines  ? 

52.  What  the  Romish  ? 

53    What  council  was  assembled  to  decide 
differences  ? 

54.  How  many  years  did  it  sit  ? 

55.  What  Roman  Catholic  country  rejected 

its  decrees  ? 

Sec.  3. — History  of  the  Negotiations  and 
Wars  Respecting  Italy. 

1  What  is  meant  by  the  balance  of  jxiwer  ? 

2  Where  did  the  theory  have  its  origin  '. 
3.  Its  chief  members  in  Italy? 

4  How  did  Rene,  the  last  nLonarch  of  the 

house  of  Anjou,  act  ? 

5  To  whom  did   Provence  revert  on  the 

death  of  Rene  ? 

6.  Prudent  conduct  of  Louis  XI.  ? 

7    Folly  of  his  son  Charles  VIII.  ? 

8.  What  induced  him  to  act  thus  ? 

9    His  success  at  first  ? 
10.  What  caused  his  hasty  retreat? 
11    Th:>   rirties  to  the  league  ? 
12.  The  fate  of  his  men  left  behind  in  Italy? 

3  How  did  Louis  XII.  prepare  for  a  suhse- 

quent  invasion  of  Italy? 

14  His  success  ? 

15  Ferdinand's  intention  ? 

16  The  name  of  the  great  captain? 


17.  Who    now    fornved    a    design    againat 

Venice  ? 

18.  Who  aided  him? 

19.  What  averted  the  danger? 

20.  What  left  it  defenceless  ? 

21.  How  did  Julius  treat  the  Venetians? 

22.  How  did  Ferdinand  ? 

23.  What  saved  them  ? 

24.  How  did  the  Venetians  appease  the  pop* 

and  Ferdinand  ? 

25.  What  design  had  the  pope  formed  ? 

26.  What  confederacy  was   formed  again.st 

France  out   of  the  fragments    of  the 
league  of  Cambray  ? 

27.  What  part  was  assigned  to  Henry  VIII. 1 

28.  One  master-stroke  of  the  pope's  jii.  jcv 

29.  What  is  said  of  their  hifantry? 

30.  Louis'  conduct? 

31.  What  relieved  Louis? 

32.  How  did  the  war  terminate  ? 

Sec.  4. — The  History  of  Burgundy   uri^r 
the  Princes  of  the  House  of  Valois. 

1.  What  is  said  of  Burgundy? 

2.  Why  is  its  history  an  episode  ? 

3.  To  whom  did  King  John  give  it  ? 

4.  Whom  did  he  marry  ? 

5.  How  did  he  bring  about  a  peace  between 

the  nobles  and  merchants  of  Flanders? 

6.  Message    of    the  ambassadors  of  Hun. 

gary  ? 

7.  Sultan  Bayezid's  boast  ? 

8.  What  crusade  was  proclaimed  ? 

9.  Its  commander? 

10.  How  did  Sigismund  relish  his  allies? 

1 1.  The  count  of  Nevers'  imprudence? 

12.  Proof  of  his  carelessness  ? 

13.  How   did   the   knights    act  in   the  fint 
alarm  ? 

14.  Advice  of  the  Hungarians  ? 

15.  Why  was  it  not  taken? 

16.  How  had  Bayezid  arranged  his  army? 

17.  With  what  ob|ect? 

18.  The  success  of  his  plan  ? 

19.  How  did  Sigismund  act  ? 

20.  What  is  said  of  the  valour  of  the  Frencll 

knights  on  the  day  of  the  battle  ? 

21.  The  object  of  Bayezid   in    taking    pri. 

soners  ? 

22.  Who  was  set  at  liberty,  and  why  ? 

23.  The  duty  assigned  him  ! 
24  Fate  of  the  rest  ? 

25.  How  was  the  money  raised  to  pay  th« 

ransom  ? 

26.  What  increased  the  difficulty? 

27.  How  was  it  obviated? 

28.  AVho  were  the  Prisons? 

29.  Who  now  attacked  them  ? 

30.  The  success  of  the  enterprise  ? 

31.  What  is  said   of  Philip's   administralim 

of  the  government  of  France  ? 

32.  His  great  fault  ? 

33.  Why  was  his  death  regretted  ? 


24 


QUESTIONS   on 


izo  5. —  The   History  of  Burgundy    {con- 
tinued). 

1.  AVlio  succeeded  Philip  1 

2.  His  tirst  step  \ 

3.  By  wlioin  opposed  ? 

4.  John's  treaclieiy  ? 

5.  How  was  a  parly  arrayed  against  him  ? 
t).  His  fate  ? 

7.  Why  regretted  by  his  Flemish  subjects? 

8.  His  successor  ? 

9.  His  first  step? 

10.  What  changed  the  aspect  of  affairs? 

11.  Who  delivered  France? 

12.  What  order  of  knighthood  did  Philip  the 

Good  institute  ? 

13.  W'hat    is  said   cf  the   brilliancy    of  his 

court  ? 
14    Why  did  Philip  encourage  this  teiste  for 

display  among  his  subjects  ? 
15.  How  were  the  Swiss  now  engaged? 
1.6    What  league   was   now  formed  against 

them  ? 

17.  Why? 

18.  How  was  an  army  raised? 

19.  Result  of  the  first  battle? 

20.  How  was  the  war  terminated? 

21.  How  was  the  duke  cf  Burgundy  engaged 

at  this  time  I 

22.  The  result? 

23.  Why    did    the    dauphin    flee    from    his 

father's  court? 

24.  With  whom  did  he  take  refuge  ? 

25.  His  gratitude  ? 

26.  How  did  Charolais  endeavour  to  avenge 

himself? 

27.  What  is  said  of  Philip  the  Good's  reign  ? 

28.  Why  was  he  the  more  lamented? 

Szc-  6. — The  Hixlory  of   Burgundy   {con- 
cluded). 

1.  What  disturbance  took  place  immediately 

on  the  installation  of  Charles  the  Bold  .' 

2.  W'hat  secret  vow  did  he  make? 

3.  What  increased  his  indignation  ? 

4.  How  did  the  citizens  of  Liege  act? 

5.  How  did  ("harles  avenge  himself  on  the 

king  of  France  ? 
f).  What  did  Louis  XL  do  thereupon? 

7.  What  advantage   did    Louis  have    over 

Charles  in  this  kind  of  warfare  ? 

8.  What  memorable  piece  of  folly  did  Louis 

commit  ? 

9.  How  did  Charles  profit  by  it  ? 

).0.  The    most   morlifjing   condition  of    his 
liberation  ? 

11.  How  was  the  city  of  Liege  treated? 

12.  What  saved  it  from  utter  ruin  ? 

13.  How  did  Louis  avenge  the  indignities  put 

on  him  ? 

14.  How  did  Charles  alienate  from  hiin  the 

chivalry  of  Burgundy? 

15.  How  did  he  change  the  Swiss  Aoni  being 

his  friends  into  foes  ? 


16.  Charles'  design  against  tliem'' 

17.  Size  and  condilion  of  his  army  ? 

18.  His  baseness  to    the   governor,   ditc.  o' 

Granson  ? 

19.  The  vengeance  of  the  Swiss? 

20.  Their  war-cry  and  the  meaning  of  it  T 

21.  What  was  now  heasd  in  the  distance'' 

22.  What  were  they  ? 

23.  Fate  of  Charles  and  his  army  ? 

24.  The  booty  taken  ? 

25.  Distribution  of  the  three  diamonds? 

26.  Etiect  of  the  defeat  on  Charles? 

27.  His  measures  for  renewing  the  war  ? 

28.  How  were  the  Swiss  employed? 

29.  Account  of  the  siege  of  Moral  ? 

30.  Folly  of  Charles? 

31.  Fate  of  his  army  ? 

32.  Describe  the  battle? 

33.  What   proverb   took    its   origin   ic    tua 

battle  ? 

34.  What  further  disasters  befel  Charles  ? 

35.  Wlio  had  sold  him  to  his  enemies? 

36.  How  did  he  treat  him  in  time  of  battled 

37.  TheendofCharlcb? 

38.  His  successor  ? 

39.  The  designs  of  I-ouis  XL 

40.  Conduct  of  the  Flemings  1 

41.  Whom  did  Mary  marry  ? 

42.  W'ho  conquered  Burgundy? 

43.  To  what  hostilities  did  this  lead  ? 

Sec.  7. — The  Age  of  Charles  V. 

1.  W^hat  caused  the  political  idea  of  tht 

balance  of  power  to  spread  in  Europe  i 

2.  What  had  Maximilian  added  to  his  do- 

minions  by  marriage  ? 

3.  Whom  did  his  son  marry  ? 

4.  Their  sons  ? 

5.  Inheritance  of  Charles  ? 

6.  What  other  good  fortui.6  befell  him  ? 

7.  His  power  ? 

8.  To  whom   did  ho  resign  his  German  do- 

minions ? 

9.  When  did  Ferdinand's  dvnasty  end  ? 

10.  When  that  of  Charles  V;? 

11.  W^hom  did  Ferdinand  marry? 

12.  Whom  Charles  V.  ? 

13.  What  two  monarchs  determined  to  resist 

the  house  of  Au.-itria? 

14.  What  is  said  of  Henry  VHL? 

15.  His  prime  minister  ? 

16.  Character  of  Francis  I.? 

17.  His  conduct  soon  after  his   accession  to 

the  throne  ? 

18.  What  aggravated  the  mutual  jcalousiin 

of  Chai'les  and  Francis  ? 

19.  Their  power,  how  balanced? 

20.  Their  allies? 

21.  Where  did  the  war  begin? 

2:2.  What  led  to  the  loss  of  Milan  ? 
23.   What  other  calamities  befel  Francifl  i 
24   W^hat  other  evil  did   the  queou-motn«( 
do  him  ? 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


25 


25. 
2o 
27. 

2S 
29 

30. 

3.3 
.34 
35. 

3{;. 

37. 

40. 
41. 
4-2. 
43. 
44 

45 

46. 
47. 

43. 

49. 
iO. 
51. 
5-2. 
5.3. 
54 
55 
56 

57 

58 

!>9 

60 

61 
62 
63 
64 
65 

btj 
67 
68 
69 

7C 
71 


Plan  of  Ch-irles  to  invade  France  ? 

How  and  by  whom  deleiitcd  ? 

Francis'  plan  and  its  success  ? 

What  misibrtune  befell  him  '.' 

What  led  to  his  capture  ? 

The  bcittle  of  Pavia — describe 

What  led  to  the  defeat  of  Francis  ? 

Describe  his  capture. 

Describe  his  surrender  of  his  sword. 

How  was  he  treated  ? 

Francis'  expectations  ? 

How  did  Charles  receive  the  news  ? 

His  first  demand  ? 

How  did  Francis  receive  these  propospjs  ? 

What  step  did  he  then  take  ? 

How  was  he  treated  in  Spain? 

The  effect  of  this  triumph  ? 

Conduct  of  Henry  VIII.  ? 

Effect  of  imprisonment  on  Francis  ? 

The  cfaief  obstacle  to  a  treaty  between 
him  and  Charles? 

What  resolution  did  he  take  ? 

Its  effect  on  Charles  ? 

Francis'  insincerity  ? 

How  did  Charles  manifest  his  suspicion 
of  Francis'  insincerity  ? 

Describe  his  departure. 

How  was  the  river  crossed  ? 

Francis'  actions  on  reaching  France? 

How  long  had  he  been  a  prtsoner? 

First  violation  of  the  treaty  ? 

How  did  Francis  excuse  himself? 

Who  absolved  him  of  his  oath  ? 

What  dreadful  insurrection  afflicted  Ger- 
many at  this  time  ? 

The  leader  of  it  ? 

Had  the  reformation  any  thing  to  do 
w-ith  it  ? 

How  had  Luther  diminished  his  influ- 
ence ? 

What  league  did  Francis  organize  against 
Charles  ? 

Why  called  "Holy?" 

Who  joined  it  ? 

How  was  Rome  treated  by  Charles  ? 

How  did  Charles  receive  the  news  ? 

What  prayers  were  offered  in  all  the 
Spanish  churches? 

Francis'  success? 

His  reverses,  and  the  cause  of  them  ? 

Who  was  Andrew  Doria  ? 

The  treaty  of  Cambray,  by  whom  ne- 
gotiated ? 

League  of  Smalkald,  by  whom  made? 

Cauae  Ji"  Charles'  concessions  ? 

Kow  had  Francis  secured  the  friendship 
of  the  pope  ? 

What  led  Henry  VIII.  to  break  off  from 
the  league  ? 

What  acts  were  passed  in  England  ? 

What  now  employed  men's  minds  for  a 
season  ? 

What  cmwned  the  emperor  with  glory  ? 


99. 

100. 

101. 

102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107 
108, 

109. 
110. 

Ill 

112 
113 
114. 
115. 
116 

117. 

118. 
119. 
120. 


121 
122 
123, 
124, 
125, 


Challenge  of  Charles? 
What  other  folly  was  committed  ? 
What  brought  about  a  truce  ■? 
What  now  filled  Charles  with  anxiety  1 
What  added  to  it? 

What  foolLsh  expedition  did  he  now  un- 
dertake ? 
The  consequence  of  his  failure  ? 
Francis'  designs  ? 

What  gave  him  a  pretext  to  take  up 
arms  ? 

Francis'  plan  of  operations  ? 
What  opened   the  way  for  an   alliance 

between  Charles  and  Henry  ? 
What   marriage    excited    jealousy   and 

akrm  in  England  ? 
Tin  fruit  of  this  •carriage? 
How  were  Henry*s  plans  chinged  bvtne 

birth  of  Mary  I 
What  alliances  were  now  formed  ? 
What  aid  did  the  sultan  afford  Francis  ? 
Who  now  invaded  France  ? 
Charles'  projects? 
What  favoured  them  ? 
Who  first  seized  on  church  :  joperty? 
What  compelled  the  Protestants  to  renew 

the  league  of  Smalkald  ? 
Who  deserted  the  league  ? 
Why  did  he  act  so  basely  ? 
Conduct  of  the  pope  ? 
What  was  the  "  Interim,"  and  why  so 

called  ? 
What  city  refused  it  ? 
Maurice's  designs? 
His  actions  ? 
The  result  of  them  ? 
What  offended  the  pope  ? 
His  conduct  ? 

What  surprising  event   astonished  Eu- 
rope ? 
What  is  said  of  him  and  his  career  ? 
What  was  calculated  to  make  him  re- 
gretted ? 
In  whose  reign  was  the  prolestant  reli- 
gion established  in  England? 
\\'ho  succeeded  Edward  VI.  ? 
Whom  did  she  marry  ? 
(Their  relationship?) 
Her  successor  ? 
Of   what    folly   were    the    Lutheran* 

g,(ilty? 
To  whom  did  Charles  give  his  severrf 

dominions  ? 
Whither  did  he  retire  ? 
How  long  afterwards  did  he  die  ? 
What  society  was  now  establisiied  foJ 
the  purpose  of  sustaining  the  cause  d 
popery? 
What  made  it  formidable  ? 
When  suppressed,  and  why  1 
(Whc-n  re-established  ?) 
The  condition  of  Venice  at  this  time  i 
What  had  exhausted  their  resources.* 


26 

126.  How  were  they  injmed  by  tho  discovery 
of  the  new  route  to  India? 

l27  What  endeavours  did  they  make  to 
avert  tho  danger? 

J  28    Success  of  the  Portuguese  ? 

129  What  city  became  the  staple  for  the 
commodities  of  the  East  ? 

.130.  What  befell  the  Venetians? 

131  What  proved  no  less  fatal  to  the  infe- 
rior branches  of  their  connnerce  ? 

1 3a  When  did  Venice  cease  to  be  one  of  the 
principal  powers  of  Europe  ? 

133  What  still  caused  it  to  be  considered 

and  respected? 

134  Who  became  the  head  of  Florence? 

135  Who  established  his  supreme  authority 

over  it,  and  under  what  title  ? 

136  The  extent  of  his  dominions  ? 

Sec.  8.— The  Age  of  Elizabeth. 

The  crisis  of  tho  reformation  in  England? 

How  did  Elizabeth  strengthen  herself? 

Who  assumed  the  arms  and  title  of 
England? 

What  prevented  any  hostile  attempt 
against  England? 

The  champion  of  the  Protestants  in 
Europe  ? 

Tho  champion  of  the  Roman  Catholics  ? 

Of  what  importance  to  England  was 
the  ancient  rivalry  between  France  and 

■  Spain  ? 

Relationship  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots  to 
Elizabeth  ? 

Mary's  husband  who  ? 

What  reasons  had  she  to  hope  for  success 
in  establishing  herself  on  the  throne  of 
England  ? 

What  induced  Philip  of  Spain  to  ac- 
knowledge Elizabeth's  title  ? 

The  great  object  of  the  alliance  between 
Spain  and  France  ? 

To  what  did  it  lead,  and  how  did  it  end  ? 

What  compelled  Mary  to  return  to  Scot- 
land ? 

Was  she  willing  to  go  ? 

What  had  she  to  endure  at  home  ? 

AVhat  prevented  an  immediate  outbreak  ? 

What  led  to  the  first  open  breach  be- 
tween her  and  her  subjects  ? 

What  aroused  her  husband's  jealo-isy  ? 

His  conduct  towards  her  ? 

What  reconciled  them  ? 

How  was  the  hollowness  of  this  recon- 
ciliation proved  ? 

How  was  Darnley  murdered  ? 

■^'"hat  confirmed  the  suspicions  that  his 
wife  was  the  author  of  the  deed  ? 

The  result  ? 

What  constraint  was  put  on  Mary  ? 

Whither  did  she  escape  ? 

What  befell  her  <iiere  ? 


QUESTIONS   ON 


11 

12 

13. 
14. 

15. 

16 
17 
18. 

i9 
BO 
21. 
22 

2r< 

2, 

25. 
26 
27 
S8. 


29.  What  made  it  necessary' for  Eli?abeth  H 

keep  her  in  close  confinement  ? 

30.  W'hat  is  said  of  Francis  H.  of  France  t 

31.  The  leading  object  of  the  Guises  ? 

32.  Who  was  trying  to  do  the  same  thing  is 

the  Netherlands  ? 

33.  The  object  of  Philip's  ambition  ? 

34.  How  did  he  aim  to  attain  it  ? 

35.  His  fatal  error  ? 

36.  What  proud  title  did  it  give  the  reformed  1 

37.  What    precipitated    the    civil    war    iu 

France  ? 

38.  What  conspiracy  was  formed  ? 

39.  What  confirmed  opposition  to  the  Guises  ? 

40.  What  showed  the  power  of  the  Hugu« 

nots  ? 

41.  What  sjniod  was  talked  of  ? 

42.  How  was  it  prevented  ? 

43.  What  sentence  was  passed  Ou  Jie  prince 

of  Conde  ? 

44.  What  saved  him  ? 

45.  Of  what  insincerity  vas  she  guilty  ? 

46.  Her  fatal  error,  and  ils  -fl'ect  ? 

47.  Policy  of  the  duke  of  Guise  '< 

48.  His  aims  and  plans  ? 

49.  What  were  the  bisho-ps  doing  at  Trent  1 

50.  Whom  alone  did  it  terrify  ? 

51.  How    did    Maximilian   act    toward    the 

pope? 

52.  What    plans    were    concocting   at    tho 

council  of  Trent  ? 

53.  What  letter  was  read  from  Mary  ? 

54.  What  did  the  cardinal  declare  of  her  in- 

tentions ? 

55.  How  were  the  Italians  engaged  ? 

56.  Philip's  opinion  of  Protestants  ? 

57.  How  long  had  this  council  sat  ? 

58.  Its  results? 

59.  The  last  acts  of  the  council  ? 

60.  What  great  change  in  the   papacy  did 

this  council  produce  ? 

61.  What  remark  is  made  of  European  sov- 

ereigns favourable  tr  despotism? 

62.  What  law  was  established  in  relation  tr 

priests  ? 

63.  The  effect  of  this  law  on  the  papacy  1 

64.  What  were  made  articles  of  faith  ? 

65.  How  did  the  pope  excite  disturbances  it 

Europe  ? 

66.  On  what  points  was  the  pope  inflexible 

and  why  ? 

67.  What    general    suspicion   was    diffused 

through   Europe  soon  after  the  rising 
of  the  council  ? 

68.  Was  it  groundless  ? 

69.  Design  of  Pius  IV.  ? 

70.  What  interview  did  he  urge  ? 

71.  The  designs  contemplated? 

72.  How  were  tho  days  and  nights  spent  ?  _ 

73.  In  what  did  they  agree,  and  in  what  dil 

they  differ? 

74.  Alva's  plans? 

75.  Why  did  the  queen  oppose  them  ? 


I 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


27 


76  On  what  ilid  she  rely  to  retain  her  power? 

77  Why  did  she  hate  the  Huguenots  ? 

78.  Of  what  was  she  more  afraid  than  of  the 

progress  of  heretical  opinions  ? 

79.  What  interfered  with  the  spread  of  pro- 

testantism in  France  ? 

80.  How  did  Philip  begin  to  execute  his  part 

of  the  plan? 
fe      His  lord  lieutenant,  who  ? 
£2.  The  consequence? 

83.  Etiects  of  this  on  England  ? 

84.  Alva's  conduct? 

^5.   Was  it  liked  at  Rome? 

86.  Who  undertook  to  protect  the  Flemings  ? 

87.  Where,    and  by  whom,  were  they  de- 

feated ? 

88.  Design  of  Pius  V.  against  the  Turks  ? 

89.  Why  did    Philip  refuse  to  come  into  the 

scheme  ? 

90.  Conduct  of  this  pontiff? 

91.  His  successor  ? 

92.  What  conspiracy  was  detected  in  France 

in  A.  D.  15G0? 

93.  What  ensued  ? 

94.  When  was  it  terminated  ? 

95.  What  marriage  was  proposed  ? 

96.  How  was  the  proposal  received  ? 

97.  Who  were  among  the  invited  guests  ? 

98.  What  is  said  of  the  populace  of  Paris  at 

this  period  ? 

99.  What  feelings  did  the  presence  of  Coligni 

inspire  in  them  ? 

100.  Who  fostered  it? 

101.  W"hat  alone  restrained  them? 

102.  Who  was  the  nominal  king  of  France? 

103.  Who  possessed  the  authority  ? 

104.  What  led  to  Coligni's  assassination  ? 

105.  How  was  the  author  discovered  ? 

106.  Of  what  imprudence  were  the  protes- 

tants  guilty  ? 

107.  Catherine's  scheme  to  defeat  their  ven- 


geance 


108.  How  numerous  were  the  conspirators  ? 

109.  T  rom  -"hom  was  the  secret  kept  ? 
110    Catherine's  story  to  the  king? 

111.  Its  effect  on  him  ? 

112.  His  conduct  ? 

113.  When  did  the  work  begin  ? 

114.  How    wore    most   of    the    Huguenots 

killed  ? 

115.  Charles'  conduct? 

]  16.  How  long  did  the  massacre  last  ? 

117.  On  whom  was  it  attempted  to  throw 

the  bhime  ? 

118.  How  many  Huguenots  survived  ? 
19.  The  effect  of  it .' 

.20.  How  was   the  news   received  at  Rome 

and  at  Madrid  ? 
1 21     What  was  thought  of  the   deed  in  the 

north  of  Europe  ? 
22.  The    head    of    the    roolters    in    the 

Netherlands? 
123.  What  were  they  styled? 


124.  What  city  captured  gave  tnom  a  naval 

station  ? 

125.  The  effect  of  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 

tholomew on  them  ? 

126.  Who  succeeded  Alva? 

127.  What  decisive  battle  did  ho  gain  ? 

128.  What  distinguished  persons   fell  iu  thi« 

battle  ? 

129.  What  prevented  its  proving  fatal  to  the 

Netherlanders? 

130.  What  excited  the  indignation  of  both 

Catholics  and  Protestants  ? 

131.  What  confederacy  was  fonned? 

132.  What  caused  it  to  fall  through  ? 

133.  How  only  could  freedom  be  secured? 
134    Who    organized    the    confederacy    of 

Utrecht  ? 

135.  Of    what    commonwealth    was    it   the 

basis  ? 

136.  What  had  well  nigh  ruincl  ••he  prc_wct 

of  the  prince  of  Orange  '{ 

137.  What   defection   from  the  confederacj 

took  place,  and  wiiy  ? 

138.  How  did  the  Hollanders  act? 

139.  Whom   did   they  choose  as  their  sove- 

reign ? 

140.  Why  did  they  not  elect  the  prince  of 

Orange  ? 

141.  Who   was   elected  after   the    duke    of 

Anjou  deserted  them? 

142.  What  important  city  did  they  lose? 

143.  Did  they  despair  ? 

144.  To  whom  did  they  offer  the  sovereignty? 

145.  How  did  she  assist  them  ? 

146.  What  gave  them  a  decided  advantage 

by  sea  and  land  ? 

147.  When  was  their  independence  secured 

and  recognised? 

148.  Who  succeeded  Charles  IX.  ? 

149.  His  course  ? 

150.  His  conduct? 

151.  The  head  of  the  Catholic  party? 

152.  Advantages  of  the  duke  of  Guise? 

153.  What   encouraged  him  to  raise  the  cry 

of  religion  ? 

154.  Object  of  the  Holy  league? 

155.  By  whom  drawn  up  ? 

156.  By  whom  signed? 

157.  Its  head  ? 

158.  Its  protectors? 

159.  The  consequence  of  it? 

160.  Whose  fate  did  it  precipitatt*  ? 

161.  What  led  to  her  death  ? 

162.  Relate  the  circumstances  ? 

163.  What     assassinations    took     placfl    "« 

France  ? 

164.  Tiie  consequence  of  this  crime  ? 

165.  Philip's  great  undertaking? 

166.  Size  of  his  army,  and  its  general  7 

167.  Name  of  the  armament? 

168.  How  did  Elizabeth  prepare  to  meet  't  ' 

169.  Her  only  ally  ? 

170.  When  did  the  armada  sail  7 


28 


QUESTIONS    ON 


171 
172 

173, 

174 
175. 
176. 
177. 
178. 
!79. 
180. 
181. 

182. 
183 

184. 

185. 
186. 

187. 


189. 

F90. 
191 


When  did  it  rear.n  the  Englisli  channel'' 

What  disajipointmeut  awaited  tlie  ad- 
miral there  ? 

How  was  his  fleet  assailed  ? 

The  result  ? 

How  assailed  in  the  harbour  ? 

How  did  he  attempt  to  return  home  ? 

What  befell  him  ? 

How  many  ships  reach  home  in  safety  ? 

How  was  this  glorious  success  regarded  ? 

Its  effect  ? 

Its  effect  on  the  Spanish  state  and 
people  ? 

End  of  Henry  III.  of  France? 

What  house  became  extinct  by  his 
death  ? 

What  house  succeeded  ? 

From  whom  descended  ? 

Its  representative  ? 

His  cha-racter  ? 

What  did  he  find  it  necessary  to  do  iii 
order  to  secure  his  crown  ? 

How  did  he  atone  to  the  Huguenots  for 
this  desertion  ? 

Who  aided  him  ? 

AVhat   clouded  the  close  of  Elizabeth's 


192 
193 


197. 


198. 


199. 
200. 


reig^u  : 
Wliat  war  did  she  still  maintain? 
What   gave    Philip    command  of    the 

India  trade  ? 

194.  What  ruined  his  commerce  ? 

195.  When  did  the  English  first  reach  India  ? 

196.  W^hen  was  the   East   India  Company 

founded  ? 

Of  what  did  the  Hanseatie  league  com- 
plain ? 

By  what  measures  did  they  destroy 
their  own  power  ? 

The  state  of  England  during  Elizabeth's 
reign  ? 

What  proves  that  this  was  owing  to  her 
energy  and  wisdom  ? 

Sec.  9. —  The  Age  of  Gustavus  Adolphus. 

1.  The  object  of  Rudolph's  anxiety  ? 

2.  What  prevented? 

3.  What  new  league  was  formed,  and  why  ? 

4.  What  to  oppose  it  ? 

5.  What  came  near  involving  Europe  in  a 

general  war  ? 

6.  The  prime  minister  of  Henry  IV.  ? 

7.  His  administration  ? 

8.  Henry's  grand  scheme  ? 

9.  His  more  immediate  object  ? 

10.  What  gave  him  a  pretext  for  interfering 

in  the  affairs  of  Germany  ? 

11.  W^hat  alliances  did  he  form  ? 

13.  What  put  an  end  to  all  his  schemes  ? 

1 3.  What  contributed  to  avert  a  general  war  ? 

14.  Fate  of  Rudolph? 

15  His  end? 

16  Matthias'   conduct   towards  the  Protes- 

tants ? 


Ferdinand's  treatment  of  his  protestaat 
subjects  ? 

Matthias'  successor  ? 

The   effect  of  the   union  of   Spain  and 
Portugal  ? 

Its  popularity  in  Portugal  ? 

The   influence  of  Philip's  reign  on  the 
peninsula  ? 

Fatal  error  of  Philip  III.  •? 

Power  of  Spain  at  his  death  ' 

W' ho  completed  its  rmn  ? 

W'hat  revolutions  took  place? 

The  ruling  house  of  Portugal? 

Frederick  the  elector-palatine's  misfor 
tune  ? 

Conduct  of  James  I.,  his  father-in-law  ? 

What  led  to  it  ? 

His  reputation  in  Europe  ? 

What   had  occurred  to  change  his  neu- 
tral policy? 

What  inflamed  the  nation   against  th« 
papists  ? 

The  object  of  this  plot  ? 

(How  was  it  discovered  ?) 

Of  what  was  James  now  convir.ood  ? 

The  head  of  the  new  protestant  union  ? 

The  imperial  generals  and  their  success  ? 

On  what  terms  did  the  king  of  Denmark 
purchase  peace  ? 

Wallenstein  elevation  ? 

Wiiat  kept  England  aloof  from  this  con- 
test ? 

The  principal  causes  of  this  ? 

The  head  of  the  French  administration? 

The  effect  of  his  administration  ? 

His  first  operations  ? 

What  strong  city  of  the   Huguenots  did 

he  capture  ? 
What  war  ensued  ? 
Effect  of  the  treaty  of  Chierasio  ? 
W^hat  war  was  renewed  in  Germany? 
Edict  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  ? 
To  whom  was  the  execution  of  the  de- 
cree committed  '( 
His  conduct? 

The  effect  of  the  clamour  against  him? 
W^ho  declared  war  against  the  emperor 
When  did  he  land  in  Germany? 
What  alliances  did  he  form  ? 
W' ho  afterwards  joined  them  ? 
What  prevented  Gustavus'  decisive  suc- 
cess ? 
Fate  of  Magdeburg  ? 
What  remained  of  it  ? 
The  effect  of  this  cruelty? 
Conduct  of  the  elector  of  Saxony  ? 
Battle  of  Leipsic  ? 
Where  was  Count  Tilly  killed  ? 
To  whom  did  the  emperor  again  havt  m 

course  ? 
Battle  of  Nuremburg  ? 
Battle  of  Lutzen  and  it?  results . 
Who  succeeded  (Justavus^ 


i 


MODERN    HISTORl 


29 


68.  To  whom  was   the  management  of  the 

German  war  entrusted  ? 

69.  His  character? 

70.  His  success? 

71.  What  added  to  the    confidence  of  the 

evaiigelical  union? 

72.  How  was  VVallenstein  treated  ? 

73.  Who  succeeded  him  ? 

74.  Battle  of  Nordlingen  ? 

75.  How  did  the  emperor  improve  it  ? 

76.  On  whom  now  was  the  whole  weight  of 

the  war  thrown? 

Sec.  10. — Administration  of  the  Cardinals 
Richelieu  and  Mazarine. 

1.  Richelieu's  popularity  1 

2.  What  prevented   him   from  cordially  co- 

operating with  Gustavus  ? 
3    How  was  he  induced  to  take  an  active 
part  in  the  war  ? 

4.  His  energy  1 

5.  Success  of  the  confederates? 

6.  Death  of  Saxe  Weimar  ? 

7.  Battle  of  Leipsic,  between  whom  ? 

8.  What,  for  a  time,  inclined  the  Swedes  to 

peace  ? 
9    What  gave  them  new  courage? 

10.  The  result  of  the  war? 

11.  Peace  of  Westphalia,  what  of  it  ? 

12.  What  was  now  going  on  in  England  ? 

13.  What  had  caused  discontent  there  ? 
1 1.  What  of  the  petition  of  right  ? 

15.  Charles  I.'s  folly? 

16.  What  aggravated  political  animosities? 

17.  The  head  of  the  church  in  England? 

18.  Object  of  the  high  commission  court? 

19.  Opinions  of  many  in   England  couceri- 

ing  the  reformation  there  ? 

20.  Their  wishes  ? 

21.  AVhat  were  these  reformers  called  ? 

22.  What  more  serious    cause  of  complaint 

did  they  liave  ? 
2.i.  What  new  sect  now  started  up  ? 

24.  What  gave  them  power  and  influeiice? 

25.  What  return  did  they  make  for  Charles' 

favours  to  them  ? 

26.  How  did  parliament  regard   these  doc- 

trines, and  why  ? 

27.  Charles'  two  ministers  ? 

28.  Their  character  ? 

29  Their  measures  ? 

30  What  produced  an  <  utbreak  in  Scotland? 
31.  The  design  of  the  solemn    league  and 

covenant  ? 

32  Richelieu's  measures  in  Scotland  ? 

33  Effect  of  the  treaty  at  Berwick  ? 

i4  What  did  Charles  do  in  order  to  obtain  a 
grant  to  carry  on  the  war  against  Scot- 
land? 

35  The  doings  of  Parliament  ? 

36  Charles'  conduct  thereupon  ? 

37.  Measures  of  tbe  Scots  ? 

38.  What  did  Charles  then  do  ? 


How  did  Parliament  manifest  itsdifpori- 
tion  ? 

Their  first  step? 

How.  were  the  Scots  described  ? 

Fate  of  Stratford  ? 

The  ne.xt  bill  passed  by  the  commons? 

Conduct  of  the  bishops  ? 

Tne  consequence  of  this  step  ? 

Charles'  ne.xl  step  ? 

What  change,  fatal  to  his  interests,  wa« 
now  produced,  and  how  ? 

The  Norman  aettlers  in  Ireland,  theii 
conduct  ? 

What  prevented  the  Tudor  monarcha 
from  breaking  the  power  of  the  aris- 
tocracy "i 

How  did  Elizabeth  treat  the  nobles  ? 

How  did  James  I.  treat  the  province  of 
Ulster  ■; 

What  rendered  property  insecure  ? 

StrafFord's  conduct  ? 

What  means  did  he  u(?e  to  e.xpel  tho 
Irish  from  their  property  ? . 

Why  did  the  English  nation  countenance 
this  injustice  ? 

Who  were  the  new  settlers  ? 

How  were  the  papists  treated  ? 

How  did  Charles  treat  them  ? 

StrafFord's  plan  ui  Ireland  ? 

What  induced  the  Irish  to  rebel? 

What  hastened  the  rebellion  ? 

How  were  the  Irish  regarded  in  England? 

How  their  efforts  to  right  themselves  ? 

What  report  was  studiously  circu- 
lated? 

How  did  he  refute  this  suspicion  ? 

What  resolution  did  parliament  pass  ? 

The  history  of  tho  civil  war? 

What  foolish  attempt  did  Charles  now 
nittKe  i 

The  result  ? 

Why  was  not  a  treaty  formed  between 
Charles  and  his  parliament  ? 

When  did  the  civil  war  commence  ? 

What  alliance  did  parliament  make  ? 

The  parliamentary  leader  ? 

What  city  did  he  besiege  ? 

Tho  royalist  leader  ? 

(His  relationship  to  Charles  ?) 

Where  was  the  great  battle  fought  ? 

Whose  skill  secured  the  victory  ? 

What  prevented  the  immediate  submis- 
sion of  Charles  ? 

What  caused  dissensions  in  the  ranks  (A 
his  adversaries  ? 

How  did  the  Presbyterians  act  ? 

Where  did  they  nave  the  majority  T 

Where  the  Incippend^nts? 

The  Self-donying  ordinance  ? 

Who  gained  the  battle  of  Naseby  T 

Its  results  ? 

Charles'  next  step? 

Hnw  (vas  lie  t routed  hv  thorn  ? 


BO 


QUESTIONS    ON 


Object  of  the  anxiety  of  the  Presbyterians 

and  Iiulfpendeiits  ? 
Who  succetded  ? 
What  alarmed  Ihcin  ? 
\\'lio  stimulated  the  sold''>rs  tc    disobey 

the  parliament  ? 
What  bold  measure  did  he  'ake? 
Cromweirs  measures  and  the  result  ? 
Charles'  injudicious  course? 
How  did  Cromwell  become  master  of  his 
fate? 
Who  then   took  up  arms  in  his  favour, 

and  with  what  success  ? 
How  did  the  parliament  act,  and  why  ? 
Charles'  folly  ? 

How  was  the  parliament  treated? 
.  What  proposals  were  then  made  ? 
.  What  resolution  was  adopted  ? 
,  Charles'  spirit? 
.  His  sentence  ? 
.  ^V'heu  and  where  executed  '' 
.  What  followed  his  death  ? 
.  His  government  ? 


89 

90 
91 
9~'. 

93 
94 
95. 
9G. 

97. 

98. 

99. 

100. 

101. 

102, 

103. 

104 

105. 

106, 

107, 

Sec.  11. — Formation  of  the  States-Syste7n 
in  the  Northern  Kingdoms  of  Europe. 

1.  Who  kept  Sweden  in  continual  agita- 
tion? 

2  Whom  did  they  choose  as  administrators 
of  the  kingdom  ? 

3.  Who  undertook  to  destroy  Swedish  inde- 

pendence ? 

4.  His  base  and  treacherous  conduct  ? 

5.  Of  what  was  this  massacre  the  signal? 

6.  Who  headed  it? 

7.  The  reward  of  his  heroism  ? 
S.  The  fate  of  Christian  H.  ? 

9.  For  how  long  a  time  did  the  Danish 
kings  attempt  to  recover  Sweden  I 

10.  The  state  of  Denmark  at  this  time? 

11.  In    whose    reign    was   the   Reformation 

established  in  Denmark  ? 

12.  Who  completed  it  ? 

13.  What    became    of  the    domains  of  the 

bishops  ? 

14.  Fate  of  Norway  about  this  time  ? 

l.\  By  what  was  Christian  IV.  distinguished 
among  the  sovereigns  of  northern 
Europe  ? 

16.  Wliat    commercial     establishment    was 

founded  in  his  reign  ? 

17.  What    caused    the    failure  of  his    wars 

again.st  Austria  and  Sweden  ? 

18.  Prosperity  of  Sweden  ? 

19.  To  whom  was  it  owing  ? 

20.  What  did  Vasa  substitute  in  the  place  of 

the  aristocratic  senate  ? 

21.  What  religion  did  he  introduce? 

22.  What  did  he  establish  ? 

23.  Who  raised  Sweden  to  the   summit  of 

greatness  1 

24.  To  what  distinction  was  he  raised? 

25.  In  what  battle  did  he  fall  ? 


2G.  What  advantages  did  Sweden  gain  bj 

the  peace  of  Bromsebro  ? 
27    What  elector  of  Brandenburg  was  the 

true    founder  of  the  greatness  of  hii 

house  ? 

28.  The  first  king  of  Prussia? 

29.  Who    achieved     the    independence    of 

Russia  ? 

30.  To  whom  was  it  in  subjection  ? 

31.  By  what  khan  was  Iwan  III.  attacked? 

32.  His  conduct? 

33.  His  success  ? 

34.  Attempts  of  Iwan  IV.  ? 

35.  What  country  did  he  discover  and  annex 

to  his  dominions? 

36.  Who  founded  the  city  of  Tobolsk? 

37.  Who  succeeded  Fcdor? 

38.  How  did  he  obtain  peace  from  Swedov 

and  Poland  ? 

39.  During  whose  reigns  was  Poland  a  flour- 

ishing country  ? 

40.  What   prevented  the  Reformation  from 

taking  deep  root  in  Poland  ? 

41.  How  was  the  sovereign  chosen  in  Poland? 

42.  By  v/hat  were  these  elections  marked  ? 

43.  The  condition  of  Poland   under  its  con- 

stitution ? 

44.  Which  of  its  monarchs  distinguished  him- 

self by  foreign  conquests  ? 

Sec.  12. — Progress  of  the  Turkish  Power  tn 
Europe. 

1.  The  policy  of  the  successors  of  Moham- 

med II.  ? 

2.  Fate  of  Bayezid  II.  ? 

3.  How  was  Selim  obliged  to  maintain  hi» 

throne  ? 

4.  What  country  did  he  conquer  ? 

5.  What  people  did  he  next  subdue  ? 

6.  What  country  did  he   then  invade  and 

conquer  ? 

7.  Give  an  account  of  the  invasion. 

8.  The  fate  of  Tiiman,  the  sultan  ? 

9.  The  object  of  Soleyman's  ambition  ? 
10.  What  kingdom  did  he  invade? 

11    What  signal  victory  did  he  gain? 

12.  How  did  he  treat  the  country? 

13.  What  still  greater  triumph  did  he  gain 

during  this  war  ? 

14.  What  is  said  of  the  siege? 

15.  When  was  it  taken  ? 

16.  What  country  did  Soleyman  then  invade-. 

and  with  what  success  ? 

17.  Who  attempted  to  form  a  confederation 

against  the  Turks  ? 

18.  What  prevented? 

19.  What  opportunity  did  Charles  V.   avRD 

himself  of  to  take  Tunis  ? 

20.  How  did  Soleyman  determine  to  avenfir* 

himself? 

21.  What  turned  his  wrath  on  Venice  ? 

22.  What  conquests  did  he  make  in  the  Kaal 

in  the  meantime  ? 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


81 


i3    WIao  Cwiiiaiuhded  ilie  aiiiea  navies  against 
him  ? 

24.  What  became  of  the  knijrhts  of  St.  John 

after  their  expulsion  from  Rhodes  ? 

25.  Soleyman's  attempt  against  them  ? 
P.6.  His  success  ? 

27.  What  revenge  did  he  try  to  take  ? 
28    Wlieu  and  where  did  he  die  ? 
2l).  AVhat  island  did  his  successor  take  from 
the  Venetians? 

30.  The  ffite  of  the  Turkish  fleet? 

31.  The  results  of  the  diet  of  Presburg  ? 

CHAPTER   VII. 

THE  AUGUSTAN  AGES  OF  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE. 

Sec.  1. — Slate  of  the  Continental  Kingdoms 
after  the  peace  of  Westphalia. 

1.  The   prime  mover  in  the  civil  broils  of 

France  at  this  time  ? 

2.  His  object? 

3.  W^hat  were  the  parliajnents  of  France  ? 

4.  Its  conduct  on  this  occasion  ? 

5.  The  conduct  of  the  queen-regtent  ? 

6.  The  result  of  it  ? 

7.  To  what  condition  was  the  queen  soon 

reduced  ? 

8.  To  what  did  such  intrigues  lead  ? 

9.  MazariKo's  movements  ? 

10.  His  success? 

11.  Movements  of  Conde  ? 

12.  Proclamation  of  the  parliament  of  Paris? 

13.  How  was  the  danger,  with  which  the  mon- 

archy was  now  threatened,  averted  ? 

14.  Louis'  conduct  ? 

15.  What  were  the  Spaniards   doing  at  this 

time  ? 

16.  What  French  general  excelled  Conde  in 

military  skill ' 

17.  How  did    Maz*  'ne   engage    England  to 

take  a  share  in  the  contest  ? 

18.  Their  movements  ? 

19.  To  whom  was  Dunkirk  given  ? 

20.  Mazarine's  favourite  policy  ? 

21.  Who  was  chosen  Emperor  of  Germany, 

and  why  ? 
'22.   His  first  measure  ? 

23.  Character  of  Christina  ? 

24.  Whom  did  her  senate  wish  lier  to  marrj'  ? 

25.  Why  did  she  refuse  ? 
2G.  How  did  she  act  ? 

27  Her  conduct  during  the  remainder  of  her 

life? 

28  Against   whom   did  Charles  X.  declare 

war  ? 

29  His  success? 

JO    What    excited    indignation    against    the 

Swedes  ? 
31    What  powers  united  against  them  ? 
?'^    What  city  did  he  besiege  ? 
33    What  disposed  him  to  peace  ? 
i4    What     made   the    Swedes    desirous   of 

penf e  . 

55 


S»c.    2. — History   of    England    under   the 
Commonwealth. 

1.  Tlie    consequence    of   the  execution  « 

Charles  I.  ? 

2.  The  feelings  of  the  nation  thereupon? 

3.  What    restrained    them    from  evincing 

their  dissatisfaction  ? 

4.  In  whom  was  vested  the  supreme  au- 

thority '* 

5.  What  sooxi  claimed  the   attention  of  the 

new  government? 

6.  How  was  Ireland  regarded  in  England  ' 

7.  Who  was  appointed    lord-lieutenant  o/ 

Ireland  ? 
.8.  Why  did  he  covet  the  appointment? 
9.  What  circumstances  rendered  the  con- 
quest of  Ireland  easy? 

10.  Whom    had   Charles  I.  appointed  .;cd 

lieutenant  ? 

11.  His  doings  ? 

12.  The  grounds  of  the  dissatisfaction  t/I  the 

diffeient  parties  with  the  treaty  be  con- 
cluded? 
i3.  Who  induced  them  to  reject  it? 

14.  What  step,  fatal  to  the   royal  autlij.ty, 

did  he  take  ? 

15.  How  was  the  nuncio  treated,  and  why  ? 

16.  Who  then  resumed  the  authority? 

1 7.  His  first  step  ? 

18.  Cromwell's  first  success  ? 

19.  His  cruelty  ? 

20.  Its  effect  ? 

21.  What  soon  distressed  him  ? 

22.  How  was  he  relieved  ? 

23.  By  what     means  did    he    conquer   the 

country  ? 

24.  How  many  catholics  went  into  voluntary 

exile  ? 

25.  Movements  of  Charles  II.? 

26.  To  what  terms  did  he  submit  ? 

27.  The  fate  of  Montrose,  and  who  was  he? 

28.  Who  was  sent  for  to  oppose  him  ? 

29.  What  general  headed  his  troops  ? 

30.  What  saved  Cromwell  ? 

31.  The  results  of  the  battle  ? 

32.  Why  was  not  this  defeat  disagreeable  to 
Charles  ? 

33.  His  resolute  conduct  ? 

34.  Its  success  ? 

35.  Where  defeated  ? 

3G.  What  became  of  the  prisoners  7 

37.  Charles'  movements  ? 

38.  Fate  of  the  presbyterian  clergy  ? 

39.  In  what  foreign  war  was  England  now 

engaged  ? 

40.  How  had  their  ambassador  been  treated 

at  the  Hague  ? 

41.  The   terms  of  the  celebrated  navigatiM 

act? 
42    How  did  it  affect  the  Dutch  ? 
43.   How  did  the  war  commence  7 
44   The  number  oji  each  side  7 


32 


QUESTIONS   OW 


i5.  Tlie    result   of  tho   battle,    and    of  the 
war? 

46.  Who  was  now  tho  ruler  of  England  ? 

47.  What  had  brought  the  long  parliament 

into  disrepute  ? 

48  How  did  Cromwell  treat  it  ? 

49  How   was  his    conduct  viewed   by  the 

people  ? 

50.  His  next  step,  and  the  reason  of  it  ? 

51.  The  title  of  this  parliament? 

52.  Cromwell's  treatment  of  it  ? 

53.  The  nature  of  the  new  constitution  ? 

54.  Spirit  of  the  new  parliament  ? 

55.  Cromwell's  treatment  of  it? 

56.  How  did   he  at  length  secure  a  pliant 

parliament? 

57.  How  did  they  gratify  Cromwell's  ambi- 

tion ? 

58.  What  restrained  him  from  assuming  the 

title? 

59.  How  did  he   endeavour  to  divert  the  at- 

tention cf  tha   nation    from   domestic 
affairs  ? 
PO.  What   decided  him   to  attack  Spain  in- 
stead of  France  ? 

61.  His  demands  of  the  Spanish  ambassador, 

and  why  made? 

62.  The  ambassador's  reply  ? 

63.  The  effect  of  the  demand  on  the  English 

nation  ? 

64.  Admiral  Blake's  first  step? 

65.  His  next  step  ? 

66.  His  treatment  of  Tunis  ? 

67.  Success  of  Penn  and  Venables  ? 

68.  Their  treatment  on  their  return? 

69.  Blak»'s  further  success  ? 

70.  Blake's  political  principles? 

71.  Feelings  of  the  nation  respecting  Crom- 

well's usurpation  ' 
"2.  Cromwell's  treatment  of  parliament  ? 

73.  What   experiment  did  he  determine  to 

hazard  ? 

74.  By  whom  was  he  opposed  ? 

75.  What  sobered  him  for  life  ? 

76.  His  fears,  how  manifested? 

77.  When  did  he  die  ? 

78.  How  did  the  populace  evince  their  feel- 

ings ? 

79.  Evelyn's  report  of  the  funeral  ? 

80.  His  successor  ? 

81.  His  difficulties? 

82.  What  parliament  was  now  re-assembled  ? 
63.  How  was  it  fettered  ? 

■84    Richard's  conduct  ? 
85    The  state  of  the  nation  at  this  time  ? 
€6    Who  resolved  to  act  a  decided  part  ? 
■xP    What  letter  did  Cromwell  once  write  to 

him  ? 
ifiS    What   declaration    did    he    make    that 

■caused  the  re-assembling  of  the  long 

parliament  ? 
fi9.  What  was  it  called  1 
90   ItB  doing!? ' 


91.  Wlien  did  Mojik  commence  his  rndn!£ 

to  London,  and  with  what  force  ? 

92.  How  was  he  received? 

93.  How  did  he  first  show  his  intentions? 

94.  His  subsequent  conduct  ? 

95.  When  did  the   long  parliament  conclude 

its  sittings  ? 

96.  When    did    a   new   house    of  common! 

meet  ? 

97.  Who  attempted  to  raise  an  armya5;ainst 

it  ? 

98.  Vv'hat  became  of  him  ? 

99.  The  question  to  be  decided,  and  hi'w  wa2 

it  decided  ? 

100.  When  did  Charles  H.  enter  LondcL" 

101.  He  »•  was  he  received  ? 

102.  His  age? 

Sec.  3. — History  of  England,  from  the  Re 
storation  to  the  Revolution;  and  Rise  of 
the  Power  of  Louis  XIV. 

1.  What  is  s&id  of  Charles? 

2.  His  first  measures? 

3.  By  what  was  the  harmony  of  the  nation 

disturbed  ? 

4.  What  act  was  passed  ? 

5.  How  many  of  the  clergy  rejected  these 

conditions  ? 

6.  How  were  they  treated  '! 

7.  By  what  three  measures  did  Charles  ren- 

der himself  very  unpopular? 

8.  What  province  did  Charles  take  from  tht 

Dutch  in  America? 

9.  The  head  of  the  Dutch  at  that  time  ? 

10.  Why  did  he  seek  the  allian«;e  of  France! 

11.  What  naval  victory  was  gained  by  the 

English  ? 

12.  What   dreadful   calamity  now   afilicted 

London  ? 

13.  How  many  died  in  one  year? 

14.  De  Witt's  efforts  ? 

15.  What  second  calamity  afflicted  Loudon  ? 

16.  Describe  it. 

17.  The  effect  of  the  treatment  of  the  non- 

conformists ? 

18.  The  state  of  Ireland  at  this  time  f 

19.  What  unwise   act  was  passed  relating 

to  it? 

20.  De  Witt's  movements? 

21.  Why  did  tho  treaty  of  peace  increase  thf 

discontent  of  the  people  ? 

22.  What  is  said  of  Louis  XIV.  ? 

23.  What  country  did  he  claim,  and  on  whai 

ground  ? 

24.  His  success  ? 

25.  Why  were  the  Dutch  alanned  ? 

26.  From  what  unexpected  quarter  did  they 

receive  assistance  ? 

27.  The  effect  of  this  alliance  ? 

28.  What  other  mortification  did  he  have  U 

endure  ? 

29.  How  did  Louis  win  over  Charles  t 

30.  The  terms  of  the  agreement  '♦ 


MOIiati;    HISTORY. 


31    By  what  atrocious  acts  was  the  war  com- 
menced ? 

32.  Louis"  career  ? 

33.  On  whom  did  the  Dutch  vent  their  rage, 

and  how  ? 

34.  Who  was  chosen  stadtholder  ? 

35.  Noble  resohition  of  the  Dutch? 

36.  Noble  reply  of  the  stadtholder  to  tliose 

that  tried  to  corrupt  him  ? 

37.  The  etlects  of  this  stubborn  spirit  ? 

38.  How  did  Charles  now  act,  and  why  ? 

39.  EtFcct  of  Turenne's  cruelty  in  the  Pala- 

tinate ? 
40    Why  did  Louis  bribe  Charles? 
41.  Thy  etforts  of  parliament,  and  the  cause 

of  their  failure  ? 

42  Louis'  success  ? 

43  How  did   Charles  attempt  to  conciliate 

the  nation  ? 
44.  Wliat  spread  a  glocra  over  England  ? 
15.  Tale  of  Titus  Gates? 

46  Was  there  really  a  plot  formed  to  restore 

the  Romish  religion  ? 

47  What  completed  the  delusion  ? 

48  What  law  was  passefl  by  the  parliamcut? 

49  How  did  the  Covenanters  act? 
50.  How  were  they  punished  ? 

5L  State  of  Ireland  at  this  time  ? 

52  What  was  the  titla  of  the  supporters  of 

the  court  ? 

53  What  was  the  title  of  the  leaders  of  the 

opposition  ? 

54  V/hat  bill  passed  the  house  of  commons? 

55  How  did  Charles  treat  the  parliament  ? 

56  And  the  new  one  also  ? 

57  How  did  he  obtain   the  support  of  the 

clergy  ? 

58  How  did  he  treat  London  ? 

59  Who  were  executed  ? 

60  The  death  of  Charles  ? 

61  How  was  Louis  XIV.  acting  at  this  time  ? 
u2    Conduct  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  ? 

63  The  head  of  the  insurgents? 

64  Who  aided  Leopold  against  the  Turks  ? 

65  The  progress  of  the  Turks  ? 

66  How  was  Vienna  saved? 

67  Leopold's  conduct  to  his  deliverers  ? 

66    Why  did  Louis  raise  the  siege  of  Luxem- 
burg at  this  time  ? 
69    His  successes  ? 
70.  How  did  he  weaken  his  kingdom 

71  What  edict  did  he  rirst  issue  ? 

72  The  etf 'ct  of  this  ? 
73.  The  next  step  ? 

74    The  crowning  act  of  cruelty  ? 

75.  How  many  abandoned  their  country  ? 

76.  The  consequences  of  this  treatment  of 

them  ? 

77.  What  countries  united  against  France? 

78.  Who  conspired  against  James  [L  ? 

79.  The  fate  of  Argvle  ? 

30.  The  fate  of  Molimouth  i 

31.  Maimer  of  his  death  ? 


82.  The  effect  of  Judge  Jeffries'  cruelty  7 

83.  James'    conduct    with    respect    to    lh» 

Catholics  ? 

84.  His  folly  ? 

85.  H's  first  step  ? 

86.  What  kept  the  nation  quiet  ? 

87.  His  daughters,  and  to  whom  married? 

88.  What  edict  did  James  now  issue  ? 

89.  His  design  in  so  doing  ? 

90.  How  was  it  received  by  the  disseaten 

themselves  ? 

91.  Its  folly? 

92.  Conduct  of  the  bishops  ? 

93.  Their  treatment  ? 

94.  What  event  now  took  place  ? 

95.  What  report  was  circulated  ? 

90.  How  was  he  treated  by  his  daughter? 

97.  What  trial  now  took  place  ? 

98.  The  question  at  issue  ? 

99.  The  verdict  7 

1 00.  How  received  ? 

101.  James'  remark  ? 

102.  State  of  things  throughcut  England  on 

the  receipt  of  the  news  ? 

103.  What  project  was  now  formed  ? 

104.  The  object  of  the  whig  party  ? 

105.  How  had  the   lower  ordtrs  been  aUen- 

ated  from  the  Presbyterians  ? 

106.  Another  reason  for  this  ? 

107.  How  did  they  excuse  themselves  for  sc 

doing  ? 

108.  How  were  matters  in  Scotland  ? 

109.  How  did  James  view  Scotland? 

110.  What    far    more   powerful    party   ex- 

isted? 

111.  Their  rallying  cry  ? 

112.  In  what  awkward  position  did  the  lo- 

ries find  t.iemselves  on  James'  acces- 
sion ? 

The  crisis  of  their  loyalty? 

How  was  it  regardod  ? 

Why  were  the  first  movements  of  the 
tories  slow  and  unsteady  ? 

The  most  they  looked  for  ? 

The  state  of  Europe  p.t  iiiis  time  ? 

Why  was  the  reign  of  James  odious  to 
the  princes  of  Germany  ? 

Why  to  the  pope,  also  'i 

Why,  particularly  so,  t)  the  Dutch  ? 

Why  did  William  niak)  so  vigorous  ef- 
forts to  take  advantage  of  the  crisis  in 
England  ? 

What  now  excited  universal  alarm  and 
indignation  in  Europe? 

The  consequence  ? 

What  is  said  of  William's  landing" 

James'  conduct  ? 

The  conduct  of  William  ? 

The  motive  that  led  James  to  leave  hia 
kingdom  ? 

The  cause  of  his  ruin  ? 

What  three  proposals  wore  made  to  thi 
conv^.ition  ? 


113, 
114. 
115, 

116. 
117. 

118, 

119. 
120, 
121. 


122. 

123. 
124 
125, 
126. 
127. 

128, 
129, 


u 


QUESTIONS    ON 


130  Tc  whom  was   iht  first  proposal  most 

ajTrooable  '! 

131  Wliy  was  it  not  a(lo])ted? 

132  Wliat  proverb  was  current  f 

133  T!ie  difficulties  of  tlie  secoud  proposal  ? 

134  Were  William  and  Mary  heartily  elect- 

ed ? 

135  What   completed    the    ruin  of  James' 

cause  ? 

136.  The  effect  of  Louis'  elTorts  in  his  be- 

half? 

137.  Who,   in    after   times,   committed    the 

same  folly  ? 

5 EC.  4. — General  History  of  Europe,  from 
the  Lea  sue  of  AngsJmrg  to  the  Formation 
of  the  Grand  Alliance, 

1.  Demand  of  the  Scottii  \  ecuvention  7 
'2.  Hopes  of  the  dissenters  ? 

3.  .State  of  Ireland  ? 

4.  Conduct  of  the  Irish  Protestants  ? 
o.   IMovements  and  acts  of  James  1 

6.  His  party  in  Scotland  ? 

7.  Siege  of  Londonderry'  ? 

8.  Battle  of  Boyne,  describe. 

9.  Conduct  of  the   Irish  after  the  desertion 

of  their  monarch  ? 
10    Final  success  of  William  ? 

11.  Terms  of  the  treaty  ? 

12.  How  many  Irish  joined  James  ? 

13.  What  act  brought  great  odium  on  Wil- 

liam's government  ? 

14.  Relate  the  circumstances. 

1.3.   What  hopes  did  Louis  found  on  it  ? 
1(5.   His  attempt,  and  its  fate  ? 
I  7    James'  remark   on  witnessing  the  burn- 
ing of  the  French  ships  ? 

18.  What  was  the  title  of  the   partisans  of 

the  Stuarts  ? 

19.  Tlieir  plan  ? 

20.  The  effect  of  the  attempt  ? 

21.  How  was  the  act  of  succession  changed  ? 

22.  Who  was  Sophia  ? 

23.  Character  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  ? 

24.  His  conduct  to  the  Himgarians? 

25.  Horrible  conduct  of  Louis  XIV.  ? 

26.  Did  it  benefit  his  cause  ? 

27.  His  subsequent  success  ? 

28.  What  kept  the  emperor  quiet  ? 

29.  The  probable  consequence,  had  he  long 

remained  so  ? 
3fl.  Tiie  success  of  Louis  in  Flanders? 
31.   His  succeSvS  at  sea  ? 
32    The  state  of  things  in  France  ? 
3'{.   What  etiect  did  a  knowledge  of  these 

things  have  on  the  allies  ? 
34.  ^\'ith  what  success? 
3.T    What  led  to  a  peace? 

36  What  is  said  of  it  ? 

37  Conduct  of  the  emperor  ? 

38  The  name  of  his  distinguished  general  ? 
39.  Describe  the  great  battle  of  Zenta. 

40    The  teniis  of  the  peace  of  Carlowitz. 


41.  Tlie  tliree  candidates  for  ine    throne  dI 

Spain  ? 

42.  Conduct  of  William  and  Loiu',  kings  (J 

England  and  France  ? 

43.  Conduct  of  the  king  of  Spain  in  con-se- 

quence  ? 

44.  How  were  the  affections  of  the  Scotclt 

alienated  irom  William  ? 

45.  Who  was  proclaimed  king  of  Spain  ? 

46.  Conduct  of  Louis  ? 

47.  How  was  it  received? 

48.  Conduct  of  the  emperor  ? 

49.  What  alliance  was  formed? 

50.  Its  avowed  objects  ? 

51.  Great  imprudence  of  Louis? 

52.  Death  of  William,  how  occasioned? 

53.  Effect  of  it  on  the  allies  ? 

54.  liovv  were  their  fears  quieted  ? 

Sec.  5.— TAe   War    of  the     Spanish    Svc 
cession. 

1.  How  was  Anne's  accession  received? 

2.  Why  was  William  disliked? 

3.  Why  did  both   whigs   and  tories  disliAs 

him  ? 

4.  ^^"hat  suspicion  was  circulated  of  him  1 

5.  What  interest  had  England  in  the  wai 

against  Louis  ? 

6.  ^^'hy  did  she  engage  in  it  ? 

7.  What  discovery   did   they   subsequently 

make  ? 

8.  The  commander-in-chief  of  the  English 

army  ? 
i    9.  Where    and    when    was    war    declared 

against  France  ? 
!  10.  Which    of  the    generals    of    the    allied 

armies  obtained  success  ' 
]  11.  Who  hampered  Irs  movements? 

12.  Splendid  action  of  Rooke  and  Ormond  ? 

13.  Their  trophies  ? 

14.  The   battle  of  Hochstet,  between  whom 

fought,  and  the  result  ? 

15.  Doings  of  the  emperor  ? 

16.  Movements  of  the  allies  in  the  next  cam- 

paign ? 

17.  Battle  of  Blenheim,  describe. 

18  The  consequences  of  this  victory  ? 

19  What  signal  conquest  did  Rooke  make  ? 

20.  What  victor}^  did  he  gain? 

21.  What  prevented  the  ruin  of  liOuis  ? 

22.  Louis'  success  in  Italy  ? 

23.  Success  of  the  allies  in  Spain  ? 

24.  The  effect  of  these  variations  of  succeas  1 

25.  Describe  the  battle  of  Ramilliee  ? 

26.  The  results  of  this  victory  ? 

27.  How  were  its  effects  felt  in  Italy  ? 

28.  The   deliberations  of  the  French   mai- 

shals  / 

29.  The  consequences  ? 

30.  The  results  of  the  battle  ? 

31.  To  -vhat  was  the  ill  success  of  the  allie* 

in  Spain  attributable  ? 

32.  The  movements  of  the  differeu^:  B.-mie8 


I 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


35 


SiJ,   \Vnut  losses  were   sustained  ly  Louis  in  7. 

the  Mediterranean  Sea?  8. 

34  What  prevented  peace  ? 

35  What  important   treaty    was    made    in  9. 

England  ? 

36.  What  advantage  did  Louis  derive  from  10. 

his  recent  misfortunes?  11. 

37.  What  victory  did  the  dulie  of  Berwick  12. 

gain?  13. 

38.  What  success  did  the  French  obtain  in  14. 

Germany  ?  15. 

39.  What    naval    enterprise   did    the     alUes  16. 

undertake?  17. 
■10.  What  evils  did  the   French  suffer  from 

the  invasion  ?  18. 

41.  Feelings  of  the  nation  toward  Godolphin  19. 

and  Marlborough  ?  20. 

42.  What  did  he  do  in  order  to  regain  his  21. 

popularity  ?  22. 

43.  What  city  did  he  take?  23. 

44.  What  island  did  the  English  take  ?  24. 

45.  The  effect  of  these  victories  ou  the  allied  25. 

powers  ?  26. 

46.  The  effect  on  Louis  ?  27. 

47.  Why  was  peace  not  obtained  ? 

48.  What  \nctory  was  obtained  ?  28. 

49.  The  effect  of  the  capture  of  Mons  ?  29 

50.  Conduct  of  the  Archduke  Charles  ?  30 

51.  The  success  of  Louis  in  Spain  ? 

52.  What  revolution  in  the   English   cabinet  31. 

was  of  great  service  to  Louis  ? 

53.  Give  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  32. 

it  was  brought  about.  33. 

54.  What  cry  did  the  tories  raise  ?  34. 

55.  Conduct  of  the  whigs  ? 

56.  Give    an    account   of  Dr.  Sachevereirs  35 

sermon  and  the  proceedings  thereupon. 

57.  The  consequence  of  his  persecution  ?  36. 

58.  Doings  of  the  new  parliament  ? 

5-    What  unexpected  event  changed  entirely  37. 

the  aspect  of  affairs  ? 

Oil.  The  result  of  it  !  38. 

61.  W^hat  was  Philip  forced  to  do,  and  why?  39. 

62.  Who  continued  the  war  ?  40. 

63.  Wheu  and  where  was  the  final  treaty  41. 

made  ?  42. 

64.  How  was  it  relished  in  England  ?  43. 
6.5.  Why?  44. 

66.  By  what    means   did  the  whigs    regain  45. 

much  of  their  lost  popularity  ?  46. 

67.  What  disappointed  the  hopes  of  the  Pre-  47. 

tender  ?  48. 

68.  Who  succeeded  Anne?  49. 

Kec    6. —  Ppter    the    Great    of    Russia. — 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 

1.  Doings  of  Alexis,  czar  of  Russia  ? 

2.  Doings  of  his  son  Theodore  ? 
3    His  character  and  popularity  ? 

4.  His  successor  ? 

5.  How  was  she  trcatsd  by  Peter? 
6    What  extraordinary  revolution  tcok  place  i  56 

ill  Denmark'  (57 


Conduct  of  Christian  V. ': 

What  title  has  been  given  to  Cliurle» 

XIL  ? 
How  did  Peter  the  Great  commence  hix 

reign  ? 
Magnificent  plans  of  Peter  ? 
His  wisdom,  how  displayed? 
The  first  place  he  visited  ? 
His  conduct  there  ? 
Whither  then  did  he  go  ? 
What  present  was  made  him  ? 
How  long  had  he  been  absent  from  homel 
What   alliance  did   he  form,    and  witli 

what  object  ? 
Who  commenced  the  war,  and  how ' 
What  arrested  their  progress  ? 
Charles'  measures  ? 
Their  success  ? 

The  battle  of  Narva,  desc/ibe  ? 
Peter's  remark  ? 
Charles'  next  movements  ? 
What  project  did  he  form  ? 
What  victory  did  he  gain  ? 
The   result  of  the  battle  of  Pultusk  ic 

Augustus  ? 
Who  was  elected  king  of  Poland? 
What  was  Peter  doing  in  the  meantime  ? 
Under    what    circumstances    was     St. 

Petersburgh  founded  ? 
What  new  scheme  was  formed  between 

Augustus  and  Peter  ? 
Their  success  ? 
His  boldness  to  the  emperor  ? 
Joseph's  facetious  remark  when  informed 

of  the  pope's  displeasure  ? 
How  did  the  allies  feel  at  the  departure 

of  Charles  ? 
The  duke  of  Marlborough's  politic  course 

toward  Charles  ? 
The  haughty  reply  of  Charles  to  Peter's 

ambassador  ? 
The  answer  of  Peter  ? 
How  did  Peter  prevent  his  advance  ? 
Charles'  folly  ? 
His  disappointment  ? 
What  still  greater  misfortune  befeil  bins 
The  severity  of  the  winter  '. 
What  city  did  Charles  besiege  ? 
What  news  reached  him  there  ? 
What  terrible  misfortune  overtook  him 
The  spoils  that  Peter  took  ? 
Whither  did  Charles  escape  ? 
Repeat   Campbell's    description   of  this 

catastrophe  ? 
The  results  of  this  victory  ? 
What  became  of  the  prisoners  ? 
What  saved  Sweden  ? 
What    new  plan   did   Charles    form   iu 

Turkey  ? 
What  frustrated  it  for  a  time  ? 
How  did  Charles  thereupon  act  i 
What  new  war  now  broke  out  ? 
Into  what  danger  was  Peter  Mow  placed 


QUESTIONS    ON 


36 

58.  Who  sared  him,  and  how  ? 

59.  Disappoint  incut  of  Charles? 

60.  His  foolhardiiiess  ? 

61.  His  folly? 

oii.  Viitory  of  Steenbock  ? 

6"^  How  sullied  ? 

54  His  disaster  ? 

Vio.  What  great  victory  did  Peter  gaiu  ? 

66.  How  did  he  celebrate  it  ? 

67.  What  carried  Charles  home? 

68.  How  did  he  travel  ? 

69  His  enemies  ? 

70  His  misfortune  ? 

71.  His  next  step  ? 

72.  Flan  of  his  minister  ? 

7.3.  Charles'  death,  how  and  where? 

74.  How  regarded  by  the  Swedish  senate  ? 

7.1.  Fate  of  his  minister  ? 

76.  His  successor  ? 

77.  What  oath  was  exacted  of  the  sovereigns? 
7i^  When  was   peace  made,  and  ou   what 

conditions  ? 


CHAPTERVIII. 

GROWTH  OF   THE    MERCANTILE    AND    COLONIAL 

SYSTEM. 

Sec.  1. — Estahlishment  of  the  Hanoverian 
Succession  in  England. 

1.  What  system  had  been   established   in 

England  during  the   wars  with  Louis 
XIV.? 

2.  "^VTien  was  the  bank  of  England  founded? 

3.  Th«  eflect  of  it  ? 

4.  Its  internal  effect  ? 

5.  When  did   the  mercantile  system  begin 

to  manifest  its  strength  ? 

6.  In  what  manner  ? 

7    What  is  said  of  the  effects  of  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht? 

8.  Of  what  did  it  contain  the  germs  ? 

9.  What  was  the  first  commercial  state  in 

Europe  at  the  commencement  of  the 
eighteenth  century  ? 
JO.  What  change  was  made  in  the   English 
administration     at    the     accession    of 
George  I.? 

11.  How  did  the  whigs  use  their  power? 

12.  What   favourable  opportunity  was  thus 

afforded  ? 
I.J.  Why  did  not  Louis  XIV.  avail  himself  of 
it? 

14.  Course  of  the  regent  of  France  ? 

15.  Imprudence  of  the  Pretender  ? 

16.  What  were  his  supporters  called  ? 

17.  What  took   place  in  the  north  of  Eng- 

land ? 

18.  Tlie  treatment  of  the  leaders  ? 

19.  Cours3  of  the  Pretender? 

80.  What  title   did   Peter  assume   afte'   his 

peace  with  Sweden  ? 
il.   How  did  ho  extend  his  dominions '; 


I 


22.  How  di.\  ne  treat  his  eldest  son.   ant 

why  ? 

23.  Peter's  successor  ? 

24.  Doings  of  the  Turks  ? 

25.  By  whom  opposed,  and    with    what   re- 

sult ? 

26.  The  results  of  the  next  campaign? 

27.  The  fruits  of  the  peace  of  Passarowitz  ? 

28.  What  interests  depended  on  the  preser- 

vation of  the   terms  of  the  treaty   m 
Utrecht? 

29.  Who  was  opposed  to  them,  and  why  ? 

30.  The  grand  scheme  of  Alberoui  ? 

31.  How  frustrated  ? 

32.  How  was  the  pope  mortified  ? 

33.  What  society  began  now  to  be  suspected  ? 

34.  What  is  taid  of  the  doctrines  of  tho  othof 

secret  societies  ? 

35.  What  new  war  now  arose  1 

36.  The  result  of  it? 

37.  Law's  scheme  ? 

38.  His  success  ? 

39.  Its  result? 

40.  The  object  of  the  Souir  Sea  scheme  1 

41.  Its  progress  and  the  results  ? 

42.  What  new  effort  was  made,  and  its  re- 

sults ? 

43.  What    now    preserved     the     peace    oJ 

Europe,  and  for  how  long  a  time  ? 

44.  Why  did  Walpole  lose  his  popularity  ? 

45.  How  did  he  contend  against  the  opposi- 

tion ? 

46.  Course  of  the  Emperor  Charles,  in  order 

to  secure  the   throne  to  his  daughter, 
Maria  Theresa? 

47.  What  was  this  law  called  ? 

48.  How  was   the  guarantee  of  France  ob- 

tained? 

49.  What  brought  on  the  war  ? 

50.  What  led  to  a  second  war? 

51.  What  involved  Europe  in   new  conten- 

tions ? 

52.  What  forced  Walpole  to  commence  hos- 

tilities  against  Spain  ? 

53.  The  consequence  of  Vernon's  success  7 

54.  The  results,  and  their  causes  ? 

55.  Anson's  success  ? 

56.  Enemies  of  Maria  Theresa  ? 

57.  Who  commenced  the  war  ? 

58.  What  offer  did  he  make  the  queen,  and 

how  was  it  received  ? 

59.  Her  conduct,  and  its  results? 

60.  What  kingdom  aided  her  ? 

61.  Conduct  of  tho  new  ministers  of  Eng- 

land? 

62.  Revolution  in  Russia  t 

63.  Conduct  of  Elizabeth? 

64.  Course  of  affairs  in  Germany  ? 

65.  Repeat  Dr.  Johnson's   description  of  th* 

fate  of  the  Bavarian  prince? 

66.  Exploit  of  the  count  of  Bellisle? 

67.  Why  did  Maria  Theresa  refuse  to  mxhi 

peace  with  France  ? 


MODERl^    HISTOKT. 


37 


S8.  Fato  of  the  elector  of  Bavaria? 

69.  Battle  of  Dettiiigen,  and  the  results  ? 

70.  Eli'eot  of  the  haughtiness   and  ambition 

of  Maria  Theresa? 

71.  Object  of  the  family  compact? 

1'2.  Plan    of  the    monarclis    of   Spain    and 
France  ? 

73.  His  success  ? 

74.  Naval  fight,  and  the  cause  of  the  defeat 

of  the  English  ? 

75  Consequences  to  the  admirals  ? 

76  What  should  have  put  an  end  to  the  war? 

77.  What  parties  continued  to  fight  ? 

78.  What  battle  was  fought,  and  with  what 

results? 

79.  What  now  terminated  the  war  ? 

60    Give  an  account  of  the  young  Pretender? 

81.  What  victory  did  he  gain  ? 

82.  His  misconduct .' 

83.  His  subsequent  movements  ? 

64.  What  mistake  did  he  commit  ? 

65.  His  movements  in  Scotland  ? 

66.  What  victory  did  he  gain  ? 

87.  A  second  mistake  ? 

88.  Where  was  his  cause  ruined  ? 

89.  What  saved  his  life  ? 

SO.  The  conduct  of  the  royalists  after  the 
the  battle  ? 

91.  Fate  of  the  young  Pretender  ? 

92.  Success  of  Marshal  Saxe  ? 

93.  Movements  in  Italy  ? 

94.  Results  of  the    animosity  between  the 

French  and  English  ? 
95    What    paralyzed   the    exertions   of  the 

allies  ? 
96.  Fruit  of  the  popular  revolt  in  Holland? 
97    Describe  the  battle  of  Val. 

98.  What    strong    fortress    did    the    French 

take! 

99.  The  advantage  it  gave  them  ? 

100.  What   naval   engagement   took   place, 

and  the  fruits  of  it  ? 

101.  What  second  loss  at  sea  did  the  French 

sustain  ? 

102.  A  third  loss  ? 
10:j.  The  result? 

104.  Where  was  ■'he  treaty  signed? 

105.  The  basis  of  J.\e  treaty  ? 

106.  What  did  it  leave  unsettled  ? 

107.  The    only    advantage    of  the    war    to 

England? 

108.  What  folly  had  England  committed? 

109.  Whose  policy  had  led  to  it  ? 

110.  The  fruits  of  the  folly  ? 

Sec.  2. —  T/ie    Colonial    Struggle  between 
France  and  Great  Britain. 

1  What  is  said  of  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Cha- 

pelle  ? 

2  What  two   causes  tended  to  produce  a 

new  and  fiercer  struggle  ? 
3.  What  injury  had  the  court  of  Austria  to 
Gompla>n  of? 


4.  What  prevented  Frederick  from  gaining 

any  permanent  friend  ? 

5.  Of  what  two   powerful   personages  wai 

he  the  personal  enemy  ? 

6.  Wliat  prevented   Austria  from  declaring 

war  against  Prussia? 

7.  Who  was  the  real  guide  of  the   court  ol 

Vienna  at  this  time? 

8.  What  grand  project  did  he  form  ? 

9.  What  is  said  of  Louis  XV.  ? 

10.  Why  was  England  jealous  of  France  ? 

11.  What  were  the  chief  subjects  contest€«d 

between  them  ? 

12.  How  did  the  partiality  of  George  II.  for 

Hanover  affect  his  policy? 

13.  What  state  of  things  in    India  led  both 

the    French   and    English    to  enlarge 
their  territories  in  thai  country  ? 

14.  Who  was  the  French  governor  in  In<ria? 

15.  What  afforded  him  an  orjv  rtunity  of  in- 

terfering in  the  politics  of  India? 

16.  What  effect  did  his  doings  hav«  on  the 

English  ? 

1 7.  Who  was  the  English  jeader  in  India  ? 

18.  How  was  Dupleix  treated  by  the  French? 

19.  What  treaty  did  his  successor  make  with 

the  English  authorities  ? 

20.  By  what  means,  and  for  what  purpose, 

did  the  British  ministry  endeavour  to 
secure  Nova  Scotia? 

21.  How  did  the  French  view  these  mea- 

sures ? 

22.  What   object  did  the  French   have  in 

view  in  the  interior  of  N.  America? 

23.  By  what  means  was  it  necessary  to  effect 

this  object  ? 

24.  Who  commenced  hostilities  ? 

25.  What  caused  the  defeat  of  the  expedi- 

tion against  the  French  forts  on  the 
Ohio  ? 

26.  What  remark  is   made  of  the  Virginia 

troops  under  Washington  ? 

27.  What  other  expeditious  were  undertaken, 

and  their  success  ? 

28.  What  successes  did  the   English  obtaiu 

at  sea  ? 

29.  What  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  provia- 

cial    governors    of  India   against    the 
English  ? 

30.  What   enraged    Suraja    Dowla    against 

them  ? 

31.  The  conduct  of  the  English? 

32.  How    were   the   captives    among   them 

treated  ? 

33.  Who  recovered  Calcutta  ? 

34.  Describe  the  battle  of  Plassy. 

35.  The  fate  of  Suraja  Dowla  ?' 

36.  The  consequences  of  this  victor)'  of  tht 

English  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  Seven  Years'  War. 

1.  The  actions  of  the  French  goveiumenl 
when  mtelligence  was  received  of  the. 


88 


QUESTIONS    ON 


events  that  h;id  taken  place  in  India 
and  America  ? 

2.  How  did  the  British  view  these  prepara- 
tions ? 

3  What  honourable  act  did  the  British 
government  pei-fonn  at  this  time  ? 

4.  Object  of  the   French  in  menacing  an 

invasion  of  England  ? 

5.  Conduct  of  Admiral  Byng? 

6.  What  aggravated  the  popular  discontent? 
7    Movements  of  the  kuig  of  Prussia  ? 

8.  His    treatment  of  King  Augustus  and 

Saxony  ? 

9.  Tiie  fate  of  Admiral  ilyijg  ? 

U).  What  attempt  was  K:;!.'io  against  the  life 
of  Louis  ? 

11.  The  treatiiiont  of  t;i«  !i<;sas8in  ? 

12.  Conduct  of  George  II.  'I 

13.  The  condition   of  Prassia   at  the  com- 

mencement iii  tho  campaign  ? 

14.  Skilful  movements  of  Frederic? 

15.  Describe  the  battle  of  Prague. 

16.  The  consequence  of  his  delay  before  the 

walls  of  the  city  ? 

17.  How  was  he  nov/  situated? 

18.  How  was  Berlin  treated  ? 

19.  What  plans  of  Pitt  were   defeated,  and 

the  cause? 

20.  Why  did  this  fail  to  destroy  the  ministry  ? 

21.  The  good  efi'oct  of  the  failure? 

22.  What  brilliant  exploit  did  Frederic  per- 

form ? 
2.3.  What  other  exploit  did  he  perform  ? 
24.  What  third  one,  a  week  afterwards  ? 
2.5.  Frederic's  subsequent  movements? 
2().  The  successes  of  the  British  ? 

27.  Their  effect  on  the  nation  ? 

28.  What     three    expeditions    did     General 

Abercrombie  plan  in  America? 

29.  Describe  the  battle  of  Minden  ? 

30.  What  fault  was  committed  in  this  battle, 

and  by  whom? 

.51.  By  what  defeat  was  this  victory  counter- 
balanced ? 

32.  What  rendered  even  the  Austrian  vic- 
tories useless  ? 

3.3.  The  effect  of  this  indecisive  campaign  ? 

3-i.  What  place  was  justly  considered  the 
key  of  Canada  ? 

35.  What  had  prepared  the  colonists  in  Can- 

ada to  submit  to  a  change  of  masters? 

36.  What  places  were  captured  by  General 

Amhcret  and  Sir  William  Johnson  ? 

37.  The  object  of  Wolfe's  expedition? 

38.  What  daring  plan  did  he  adopt? 

39.  Describe  the  battle. 

40.  Describe  Wolfe's  death. 

41    ?»Iontcalm's,  the  French  general 

42,  The  fruit  of  this  battle  ? 

i?  What  is  said  of  the  success  of  the  Eng- 
lish in  the  East  Indies? 

i44  Who  were  tho  generals  on  each  side  ? 
and  compare  them. 


45.  What  defeats  did  the  French  sustaiu  ? 
46    What  is  satd  of  the   Dutch  armameatt 
and  of  Clive's  promptne.ss? 

47.  Threat  of  the  French  court  ? 

48.  Exploit  of  Admiral  Boscaweu? 

49.  Of  Sir  Edward  Hawke  ? 

50.  Doings  of  Commodore  Thurot  ? 

51.  What  beautiful  incident  occurred  duriug 

the  attack  on  Carrickfergus? 

52.  The  fate  of  himself  and  his  fleet? 

53.  The  conduct  of  the  peojjle  of  France  to 

their  sovereign  ? 

54.  What  untoward  event  caused  tho  failure 

of  the  campaign  ? 

55.  The  movements  of  Frederic  ? 

56.  What  deranged  his  plans  ? 

57.  How  did  he  out-manceuvre  Count  Danu  ? 

58.  The  disaster  of  Berlin  ? 

59.  Describe   the  battle  of  Torgau  and  its 

results. 

60.  What  efforts  were  made  by  the   French 

to  recover  Canada  ? 

61.  By  whom  baffled? 

62.  The  successes  of  the  English  in  India  ? 

63.  The  complaints  of  the  English  ? 

64.  The  age  of  George  III.  at  his  accession 

to  the  throne  ? 

65.  To  what  results  did  the  death  of  tho  king 

of  Spain  lead  ? 

66.  What    contributed   to    the    hostility    of 

Spain  to  England  ? 

67.  The  doings   of  the    combatants  on   the 

continent  ? 

68.  How  did  Pitt  propose  to   anticipate  the 

hostile  designs  of  Spain  ? 

69.  What  led  to  his  resignation? 

70.  The  consequences  ? 

71.  How  did  the  allies  propose  to  attack  Bri- 

tain ? 

72.  What  was  the  state  of  Portugal  at  this 

period  ? 

73.  How  had  the  king  offended  the  Jesuits  7 

74.  Their  attempt  against  him,  and  its  con 

sequences  ? 

75.  What   demand  was  made  of  him,  and 

under  what  circumstances  ? 

76.  The  consequence  of  his  refusal  ? 

77.  WHiat  unexpected  event   delivered   the 

king  of  Prussia  from  ruin? 

78.  Conduct  of  the  emperor  of  Russia? 

79.  His  subsequent  fate? 

80.  Conduct  of  his  successor? 

81.  Movements  of  Frederic? 

82.  Movements  of  the  English  in  the  Weel 

Indies? 

83.  In  the  East  Indies  ? 

84.  What  did  they  gain  by  tho  war  : 

85.  On  what  basis  was  peace  made  botweet 

Prussia  and  Austria  ? 

86.  The  result  of  the  continental  war  ? 

87.  What   had   Britain  gained  by  the  coio 

nial  war? 

88.  What  question  arose  during  the  f,^\e\ 


MODERN    lilSTOKir. 


feaw'  war  that  led  in  important  dis- 
cussions ? 

69  By  what  sj-stem  was  the  internal  condi- 
tion of  England  greatly  improved  ? 

90  The  effect  of  the  increase  of  the  national 
debt? 


CHAPTER   IX. 

THE    AGE    OF    REVOLUTIONS. 

Sec.  1. — Change  in  the  Relations  of  the 
Catholic  Powers  to  the  Holy  Sec. — Dis- 
memberment of  Poland. 

1.  What  is  said  of  the  sufferings  of  France 

during  the  late  war  ? 

2.  Character  and  conduct  of  Louis  XV.  ? 

3.  Conduct  of  the  parliaments  ? 

4.  VV^hat  ecclesiastical  order  was  suppressed 

in  France,  A.D.  17(32  ? 

5.  What  occasioned  popular  discontent  in 

Spain  ? 

6.  Conduct  of  Charles  III.? 

7.  Of  the  marquis  of  Pombal  in  Portugal  7 

8.  What  is  said  of  his  reforms  ? 

9.  How  were  the  .Jesuits  treated  in  Spain  ? 
iO.  In  Mexico,  Peru,  and  Paraguay? 

11.  Where  else   were    they   treated    in  the 

same  way  1 

12.  Who  tried  to  protect  them  ? 

13    What  island  did  the  French  gb>  posses- 
sion of  in  the  Mediterranean  ? 

14.  Who  endeavoured  to  maintain  its  inde- 

pendence ? 

15.  How  did  the  French  minister  attempt  to 

strengthen  his  influence  with  Louis  XV.? 

16.  What  accident  interrupted  the  festivities 

of  the  occasion  ? 
17    To  what  did  Choiseul  owe  hisdisjrrace  ? 

18.  What  empire  was  now  rapidly  rising  in 

Europe  f 

19.  How  did  Catherine  treat  Poland? 

20.  The  king  of  Prussia's  conduct  ? 

21.  Between  whom  did  a  war  now  breakout  ? 

22.  Frederic's  remark  on  it  ? 

23.  Catherine's  plans  ? 

24.  Her  treatment  of  the  Greek-;? 

25.  What  great  naval   defeat  did  the  Turks 

sustani  ? 

26.  Who  was  forced  to  joni  in  the  war  against 

them  ? 

27.  Who   now  became  jealous  of  the  Rus- 

sians ? 

28.  Whom  did  the  king  of  Denmark  marry? 

29.  Her  subsequent  fate  ? 

30.  Who  usurped  the  royal  authority  ? 

31  For  what  did  the  Danish  court  become 

remarkable  ? 

32  What  bloodless   revolution  was  now  ef- 

fected in  Sweden  ? 

J3    How  was  it  effected  ? 

M    How  were  thci  efforts  of  the  king  of  Po- 
land thwarted  l  I 


35.  What  gave  Catherine  a  rit;lit  t )  interfere  i 

36.  What  base  act  was  now  perpt^trated  on 

Poland,  and  by  what  powers  ? 

37.  What  did  Russia  gain   by  the  war  with 

Turkey  ? 

38.  The  exclamation  of  Louis  XV.  when  ho 

heard  of  the  i)artition  of  Poland  ? 

39.  How  did  D'Aquillon  endeavour  to  atouo 

for  his  negligence  ? 

40.  When    was  the  order  of  Jesuits  finally 

suppressed  ? 

41.  What  crimes  were  subsequently  charged 

on  them  ? 

Sec.  2. — History  of  England  from  the  Peace 
of  Paris  to  the  Commencement  of  the 
American  War. 

1.  Why  did  the  Brunswick  dynasty  at  first 

rely  on  the  whigs  for  support  ? 

2.  Why  were  tho  tories   afterwards  more 

favoured  ? 

3.  What  led  to  the  resignation  of  the  prime 

minister  ? 

4.  Who  assailed  the  English  ministry  with 

bitterness  in  a  periodical  ? 

5.  Their  conduct  thereupon  ? 

6.  What  became  of  Wilkes  ? 

7.  Conduct  of  the  East  India  Company  at 

this  time  ? 

8.  Why  was  it  now  proposed  to  tax  Ame- 

rica? 

9.  On  what  ground  was  the  tax  resisted  ? 

10.  Whose    appointment    aggravated   party 

animosities  ? 

11.  Conduct  of  Wilkes? 

12.  Conduct  of  the  house  of  commons  ? 

13.  What  gave  importance  to  this  contest  ? 

14.  What  circumstances  added  to  the  exas  ■ 

peration  of  parties  ? 
15".  What  kept  alive  the  dispute  with  Ame- 
rica? 

16.  The  only  beneficial  results  of  these  dis- 

putes ? 

17.  Conduct  of  the  Bostonians  ? 

18.  Retaliation  of  the  English  govennnent  7 

19.  Acts  of  the  colonists  I 

20.  What  defeated   all  hopes  of  an  accom- 

modation ? 
21     Feelings  of  the  continental  powers  with 
reference  to  this  contest  ? 

22.  Wlio  prevented  France  from  interfering ' 

23.  What  kept  Spain  quiet  ? 

24.  Why   was  Frederic   of  Prussia  rejolce<? 

at  the  contest? 

25.  Why,  Catherine  of  Russia  ? 

26.  How  was  the  colonial  revolt  regaj  ied  ia 

England  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  American  War. 

1.  What  completed  the   alienation  oi  th« 

colonies  ? 

2.  When  did  they  declare   their  indepen 
dence  ? 


40 


QUESTIONS    ON 


3.  How  did  the  first  campaign  terminate? 

4.  What    nation   first  recognized  the  inde- 

pendence ol"  tlio  United  Stales  ? 

5  W  hat,  for  a  time,  menaced  the  peace  of 

the  continent  ? 

6  What  conip(?lled  Joseph  to  reHruiiiish  his 

prey  ? 

7.  The  policy  of  \\'ashingtou  'i 

8.  \\  hat  lowered  the  character  of  ine  Eng- 

hsh  among  foreign  nations? 

9.  The  eliect  of  them  ? 

10.  Wliat  forinidahle  enemy  now  appeared 

ill  Hiiidostaii  ? 

11.  His  successes  ? 

12.  Exploits  of  Sir  Ch>irlos  Rodney  ? 

13.  What  dispute  now  arose  between  Eng- 

land  and  all   the   European  maritime 
powers  ? 

14.  What  nations  united  »g?,inst  England? 

15.  Against  whom,  and  why,  did  England 

declare  war? 

16.  Disrisiers  of  the  Dutch  ? 

17.  What  led  the  English  ministry  to  despair 

of  conquering  America? 

18.  What  two  signal  triumphs  shed  lustre  on 

the  British  arms  ? 

19.  What  successes   attended  them  in  the 

East  Indies? 

20.  When  was  the  independence  of  America 

i-ecognized  '. 

Sec.  4. —  The  British  Empire  in  India. 

1.  On  what  was  the  British  empire  in  India 

founded  ? 

2.  Who  were  the  first  to  interfere  in  the 

East? 

3.  Under  whose  government  did  the  Eng- 

lish obtain  a  preponderatuig  influence 
in  the  East  ? 

4.  What  disputes   arose  between  the  direc- 

tors at  home  and  the  officers  in  India  ? 

5.  What   roused    Hyder   Ali    against   the 

English  ? 

6.  Conduct  of  Warren  Hastings  ? 

7.  Condition  of  affairs  In  Ireland  ? 
8    What  averted  a  civil  war  ? 

9.   Mr.   Fo.x's   plan   for  the  government  of 
India? 

1 0.  His  design  in  this  plan  ? 

11.  What  defeated  it? 

12.  Under  whose  auspices  was  a  new  min- 

istry formed  ? 
3    The    now  bill    for   the    government   of 
India  ? 

14.  What  brunch  of  commerce  did  the  East 

India  company  monopolize  1 

15.  What    governor-general    of   India    was 

now  impeached  ? 
»6    The  result  of  the  trial? 

17  What  is  said  of  Capt.  Cook's  three  voy- 

ages ? 

18  What   suggestion    of    Cook    was    acted 

upon  ? 


19.  ^Vhat  dangers  di  I  the  illness  of  the  kkj 

disclose  ? 

20.  What  did   Mr.   Pitt  detormine  upon  in 

consequence  ? 

Sec.  5. — History  of  Europe,  from  the  end 
of  the  American  War  to  the  commencement 
of  the  French  Revolition. 

1.  What  took  place   in   Europe  during  the 

progress  of  the  American  war  ? 

2.  W^o  was  the   most  enterprising  of  the 

royal  reformers? 

3.  With  whom   did   his   measures   involve 

him  in  a  contest  ? 

4.  How  did  the  pope  act  ? 

5.  What    now    prevented  the    dismember- 

ment of  Turkey  ? 

6.  The  measures  of  Frederic  ? 

7.  The  effect  of  the  success  of  the  Ameri- 

cans on  the  Dutch? 

8.  Who  encouraged  them,  and  why? 

9.  What  brought  matters  to  a  crisis? 

10.  The  consequence  of  Frederic  William's 

interference  ? 

11.  The  condition  of  France? 

12.  Who  aggravated  the  disorder,  und  how  T 

13.  What  measures  did  he  recommend  ? 

14.  Who  demonstrated  their  inadequacy? 

15.  Conduct  of  Louis  ? 

IG.  Feelings  of  the  French  soldiers  that  had 
fought  for  American  independence  ? 

17.  How  did   the  connexion  of  the  court  oi 

France    with    Austria  cause    discon- 
tent? 

18.  Who,    in   consequence,    became    unpo« 

pular? 

1 9.  Wliat  mortified  the  French  ? 

20.  The  progress  of  reform  in  other  states  ? 

21.  How  did  the  French  minister  of  finance 

otTend  the  parliaments  ? 

22.  Their  great  object  ? 

23.  Their  demand? 

24.  Who  took  up  the  matter  in  earnest  ? 

25.  Who  superseded  liio  archbishop  as  min- 

ister ? 

26.  How  many  years  had  elapsed  since  the 

last  assembly  of  the  states-general  ? 

27.  When  and  where  did  they  now  meet? 

28.  What  demand  did  the  democratic  partj 

make  ? 

29.  What  excited  a  spirit  of  insubordinatioi 

in  Paris? 

30.  Against  whom  was  the  popular  indigna 

tion  directed  ? 

31.  What    act   of  violence  was  nov.'  com« 

mitted  ? 

32.  How  did  Louis  endeavour  to  coiiciliat* 

his  subjects? 

33.  Tii6  connnander  of  the  National  Guards  1 

34.  The  treatment  of  Louis? 

35.  Of  what  was  this  outrage  the  commence- 

nient  ? 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


4J 


Sec.  6. —  The  French  Revolution. 
I.   What  measures  established  popular  sove- 
reignty ? 

2  What  club  wa.s  formed  ? 

3  Conduct  of  the  nobility  ? 

4  What  conference  took  place  at  Pilnitz  ? 

5  What  attempt  did  Louis  now  make? 

b    What,  for  a  time,  restored  his  popularity  ? 

7  Conduct  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  ? 

8  The  great   object    of  the    revolutionary 

party  ? 

9  What    proceedings    furnished    them    a 

plausible  pretext  for  hostilities  ? 

10  What  forced  Louis  to  declare  war? 

11  Effect  of  the  defeat  of  his  armies  in  Paris? 
\'i.  What  new  incident  gave  fresh  strength 

to  the  Jacobin  party  ? 

13  What  declaration   proved  still  more  in- 

jurious to  Louis  ? 

14  Its  effect  in  Paris  ? 

13    Conduct  of  La  Fayette  ? 

16.  His  successor? 

17.  What  diabolical    plot    was  executed   m 

Pans,  and  by  whom  ? 
18    Success  of  the  allies? 
jS.  Success  of  Dumouriez  ? 

20.  What  decree  of  the  convention  was  a 

virtual  declaration  of  war  against  all 
the  kings  of  Europe  ? 

21.  T^.e  fate  of  Louis  ? 

22.  The  date  of  his  execution  ? 

23.  The    effect    of    this    act   on   the    other 

powers  ? 

24.  Who  united  against  France  ? 

25.  Catherine's  policy  ? 

26.  Conduct  of  Dumouriez  ? 
27    The  fate  of  his  successor  ? 

28.  Movements  of  the  allies? 

29.  The   effect  of  this  revolutionary  excite- 

ment in  St.  Domingo  ? 

30  "What  was  Catherine  doing  at  this  time  ? 

31  Who  joined  in  the  iniquitous  scheme? 

32  What  Polish   patriot  attempted  to  avert 

the  fate  of  his  country  ? 

33  In  what  year  was  Poland  'blotted  from 

the  list  of  nations  ? 

34  The  fate  of  Marie  Antoinette  ? 

35  Whtit  civil  war  broke  out  in  France  ? 

36  The  fate  of  the  Lyonese  revolters  ? 
.37    What  were  assignats  1 

38  What  city  in  southern  France  revolted  ? 

39  Who   directed   the   artillery  of  the  be- 

siegers ? 
4C    How   were    the    inhabitants   of  Toulon 

punished  ? 
41    Whose   enormities  in  Paris  became  now 

insupportable  ? 
^■l    His  fate  ? 
4."1    What  revived  the  spirits  of  the  English  ? 

44  The  fate  of  the  Dutch? 

45  What  is  said  of  Burke  ? 

4G    How  had  the  king  of  Prussia  treated  the 
English  ^ 


The  condition  of  France  ? 

What  colonies  did  the  Dutch  lose  7 

Who  subdued  a  formidable  insurrection 
in  Paris  ? 

Who  was  now  entrusted  with  the  execu- 
tive functions  of  government  ? 

What  French  general  made  a  celebrated 
retreat  in  Germany? 

Where  was  Bonaparte  commanding? 

On  what  terms  did  he  force  the  king  of 
Sardinia  to  purchase  peace? 

How  was  the  pope  treated? 

Conduct  of  the  Corsicans  ? 

Condition  of  Ireland  ? 

What  new  enemy  now  appeared  against 
England  ? 

What  formidable  mutiny  broke  out  in 
the  fleet  ? 

The  end  of  it  • 

Napoleon's  progress  m  Italy? 

His  treatment  of  Genoa  and  Venice  ? 

What  naval  victory  did  the  English  gaia 
over  the  Spaniards  ? 

What  Spanish  island  did  they  take  ? 

What  loss  did  the  Dutch  sustain  ? 

What  new  revolution  broke  out  in 
France  ? 

With  whom  was  peace  made  ? 

What  threat  alarmed  Great  Britain  ? 

What  expedition  did  Napoleon  plan  ? 

His  success  there  ? 

What  brilliant  naval  victory  did  Lord 
Nelson  achieve  ? 

Condition  of  Ireland  ? 

Who  was  now  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  ? 

The  results  of  the  victory  of  Lord  Nel- 
son ? 

The  movements  of  the  allies  in  Italy? 

What  was  Napoleon  doing? 

Under  what  circumstance  did  he  arrive 
in  Paris  ? 

How  had  the  duke  of  York  been  com- 
pelled to  purchase  a  safe  retreat  from 
Holland  ? 

Bonaparte's  conduct  in  Paris  ? 

His  exaltation  ? 

What  important  change  was  made  in  tne 
constitution  of  the  British  empire  ? 

In  what  year? 

What  daring  plan  did  Napoleon  form  ? 

What  two  great  victories  did  he  gain  ? 

What  induced  the  emperor  to  continue 
the  war? 

What  defeat  dashed  his  hopes  ? 

With  what  new  enemy  was  Great  Bri 
tain  threatened  ? 

Conduct  of  the  Russian  emperor? 

What  induced  Mr.  Pitt  to  retire  from  the 
cabinet  ? 

Naval  victory  of  the  British  in  t'rt 
Baltic? 

Fate  of  the  Russian  emperor. 

Expedition  of  Abercrombie  ? 


12 


QUESTIONS   ON 


99.  Terms  of  tlie  treaty  of  Ainiens  ? 
33.  Doings  of  tlie  English  ia  India  ? 
94.  Condition  p*'  France  ? 


CHAPTER  X. 

TilE     FllE.NCH     EiMl'IRE. 

Sec.  1. — Renewal     of    the     War     between 
England  and  France. 

i.  To  what  aid  Napoleon  now  direct  his 
attention  ? 

2.  What  power  was  conferred  on  him  'i 

3.  Why  did   not   Great   Britain  interfere  to 

protect  St.  Domingo? 

■i    Wliat  gave  rise  to  angry  discussions  ? 

5.  Who  renewed  the  war,  and  how  ? 

G    How  did  Napoleon  retaliate? 

7  The  leaders  of  the  insurrection  in  Ire- 
land ? 

8.  The  first  movements  of  the  hostile 
powers  ? 

9    Doings  of  the  English  in  India  ? 

10.  Condition  of  St.  Domingo  ? 

11.  Who  was  made  prime  minister  of  Eng- 

land ? 

L2.  Of  wliat  base  attempt  were  the  English 
ministers  guilty  ? 

13.  What  crime  did  Napoleon  commit  in  re- 
taliation ? 
t    What    new    dignity  was    conferred   on 
Bonaparte  ? 

15.  What  power  refused  to  recognise  him  ? 

IG.  Who  was  anxious  to  avenge  the  death 
of  the  Duke  D'Enghien? 

17  How  was  war  commenced  against 
Spain  ? 

18.  How    did   Pitt    attempt   to    justify    his 

conduct  ? 

19.  What   powers  united  against  Napoleon  ? 

20.  What  new  title  did  Napoleon  assume  ? 

21.  How  did  Austria  commence  the  war  ? 

22.  What  signal  victoiy  was  gained  by  Lord 

Nelson  ? 

23.  ^^'hat  success  did  Napoleon  meet  with 

in  Austria? 

24.  What  revived  the  courage  of  Franc'«  ? 

25.  V/hat  capital  did  Napoleon  capture? 

26.  Where  did  he  gain  a  briUlaat  victory? 
27    How  were  a  large  body  of  Russians  de- 
stroyed ? 

28.  How   did    Napoleon   keep   the    king  of 

Prussia  quiet  ? 

29.  What  hastened  the  death  of  Pitt  ? 

30.  V/hat  honours  were  paid  him  ? 

Sec.  2. — Progress  of  Napoleon's  Power. 

1.  What  British  general  was  distinguishing 

himself  in  India! 

2.  Who  succeeded  him? 

3.  What  great  measure  did  Mr.  Fox  carry  ? 
4   Movements  of  the  British  in  South  Ame- 

-'ca  1 


5.  What  king  did  Napoleon  Jet: , rone  t 

6.  On    whom    did    he    confer    the    vacfia 

throne  ? 

7.  Whom  did  ho  make  king  of  Holland? 

8.  IJi.-J  character? 

9.  Wiiy  was  peace  refused  by  the  English 

10.  What    circumstances    exasperated    th» 

king  of  Prussia  agamst  Napoleon  ? 

11.  What  enraged  the  Germans? 

12.  Folly  of  Frederic,  and  its  fruits? 

13.  What  fatal  defeat  did  he  sustain  ? 

14.  What  was  worse  than  this  defeat? 

15.  Fate  of  Berlin  ? 

16.  The  Berlin  decrees? 

17.  What  three   successive    lefeats  did  tha 

British  sustain  ? 

18.  How  did  the  ministers  d  ; please  the  king? 

19.  How  did  the  Turks  treat  their  sultan  ? 

20.  What  sanguinary  battle  was  fought  be- 

tween \}\a  French  and  Russians  ? 

21.  What  iiTif  ortant  city  was  taken  by  Na- 

poleon i 

22.  How  did  the  two  emperors  meet  ? 

23.  What  treaty  was  made,   and   at  whose 

expense  ? 

24.  What   reply  was   made  to  the   remon- 

strances of  Frederic  ? 

25.  How  was  he  treated  ? 

Sec.  3. —  The  French  Invasion  of  Spain. 

1.  How   were   the   Danes   treated  by  the 

English  ? 

2.  The  effect  of  this  base  conduct  on  the 

maritime  powers? 

3.  What  imperious  edict  did  Napoleon  i.ssue 

respecting  tho  reigning  family  of  Por- 
tugal? 

4.  How  did  the  British  government  retaliate 

en  France  for  the  Berlin  decrees  ? 

5.  How  did  it  embroil  itself  with  America  1 

6.  What    proclamation    did   the  American 

government  issue  ? 

7.  The  condition  of  Spain  ? 

8.  How  did  Godoy  treat  Ferdinand  ? 

9.  How  did  Napoleon  win  Godoy's  support? 

10.  How  did  he  treat  Ferdinand? 

11.  How  did  Murat  act  in  Madrid? 

12.  What  new  kings  did  Napoleon  make? 

13.  How  did  tho  Spanish  people  relish  thesf 

measures  ? 

14.  How  did    England  avail  herself  of  thii 

altered  state  of  things  ? 

15.  Tho  fate  of  Marshal  Dupont? 

16.  How  did  Joseph  Bonaparte  act  when  Inr 

heard  of  it  ? 

17.  Noble  conduct  of  tho  citizens  of  Sara 

gossa  ? 

18.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley's  success  in  Portu- 

gal^ 

19.  The  conduct  of  Kuig  Gustavus? 

20.  How  was  he  trea»<?d  by  his  subjects? 

21.  What  three   defeats  did  the  Spaniard* 

sustain  ■' 


I 

1 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


43 


J2    With  what  forces  did   Napoleon  invade 

Spain  ? 
23.  Conduct  of  the  English  under  Sir  John 

Moore  ? 

24  Of  what  misconduct  was  the  duke  of 

York  accused  ? 

25  Who  succeeded  him   as  commander-in- 

chief? 

26.  What  new  enemy  now  appeared  against 

France  ? 

27.  What  led  Francis  to  take  this  step 

28.  What  baffled  his  calculations  ? 

29.  Successs  of  Napoleon  against  him  ? 
3U.  The  result  of  the  campaign  ? 

31.  Fate  of  the  Tyrolese  ? 

32.  Sentence  of  their  chieftains  ? 

33.  What  efforts  were  made  to  shake  off  the 

French  yoke  in  Germany? 
34    What    expedition  was   planned   by  the 

British  ministry? 
35.  The  result  of  it? 

36  How  did   England  offend  the  sultan  of 

Turkey  ? 

37  What,  notwithstanding,  induced  hnn  to 

court  an  alliance  with  England  ? 

38  On  what   other  power  did  the  same  mo- 

tive operate  ? 

39  How    was   Austria    treated   by   Napo- 

leon ? 

40  W^hy  was  he  so  moderate  ? 

41  Who  was  now  the   English  commander 

in  Spain  ? 

42.  What  great  battle  did  he  fight  ? 

43.  The  offence  of  Sir  Francis  Burdett  ? 

44.  How  was  it  punished  ? 

45.  The  effect  of  Napoleon's  marriage? 

46  Who  was  his  wife  ? 

47  Movements  of  the  hostile  powers  in  Por- 

tugal? 

48  What  prevented  the  French  from  taking 

Cadiz? 

49  What  extraordmary  revolution  now  took 

place  in  Sweden  ? 

50  Calamity  of  George  III.  ? 

51  Massena's  conduct  in  Portugal? 

52  Movements  of  Wellington  and  Soult  in 

Spain  ? 

53  How  d;d  Spain  offend  her  South  Ameri- 

can colonies  ? 

54  What  important  island  was  wrested  from 

the  Dutch  ? 

55  Policy  of  Bernadotte  ? 

56  What  was  Alexander  of  Russia  engaged 

in  doing  ? 

57  Condition  of  Turkey  ? 

5S    Treacher)'  of  Mohammed  Ali,  pacha  of 
Egypt  ? 

59  Condition  of  Sicily? 

60  What  victories  did  Wellington  gain  in 

Spain  ? 

61  The  results  of  the  buttle  of  Salamanca  ? 
S2    What  led  the   South   American  colonies 

to  return  to  their  allejriance  ? 


G3.  Wliat  formidable  enemy  was  now  arni' 
ing  against  Napoleon  '. 

Sec.  4. —  The  Russian  War. 

1.  What  act  of  Napoleon  alarmed  AloxaD 

der? 

2.  What  alarmed  the  Austrian  emperor  ? 

3.  What   system   did  Alexander  wish  re- 

laxed ? 

4.  Why  was  not  peace  made  ? 

5.  What  mistake  did  Napoleon  commit  with 

reference  to  Poland  ? 

6.  Why  did  he  refuse  the  inde])endpnce  of 

Poland  ? 

7.  To  what  capital  did  he  first  advance  ? 

8.  How  did  the  Russians  act  ? 

9.  To  what  capital  did  ho   then  «<irect  hin 

rr,  uch  ? 

10.  What  dreadful  battle  did  he  gain  ? 

11.  Near  what  village  was  a  stili  more  .'):e«id- 

ful  battle  fought  ? 

12.  How    many   of    the    combatants   wei^ 

killed? 

13.  How  did  the  Russians  regard  Moscow? 

14.  How  did  they  destroy  the  hopes  of  Na- 

poleon ? 

15.  What  was  he  now  compelled  to  do? 

16.  W^hat  sufferings  did  his  army  experience 

in  their  retreat  ? 

17.  Describe  the  passage  of  the  Borodino. 

18.  Napoleon's  coui-se. 

19.  In  what  war  was  Great  Britain  engaged ' 

20.  What  countr}'  did  the  Americans  invade  J 

21.  What  victories  did  they  gain? 

22.  W^hat   domestic  transactions  took  place 

in  England? 

23.  W'hat  new  enemy  did  Napoleon  have  to 

encounter? 

24.  Who  abandoned  his  cause  ? 

25.  What  great  battle  liberate    Germany  7 

26.  Describe  it. 

27.  Conduct  of  Bernadotte. 

28.  Of  the  Hanoverians. 

29.  Of  the  Dutch. 

30.  Where  was  Wellington,  and  what  was 

he  doing  ? 

31.  Who  exercised  the  real  authority  in  Spaini 

32.  What  is  said  of  Josr|)h  Bonaparle  ? 

33.  W'hat  marshal  was  sent  to  Spain  to  ai«* 

the  French  ? 

34.  What  country  was  now  about  to  be  iu 

vaded  ? 

35.  Conduct  of  Soult  ? 

3G.   What  prevented  Spain  from  reaping  thJ 
benefits  of  her  frev-dom  ' 

37.  Prosriess  of  the  war  in  America  ? 

38.  What  power-;  invnded  France? 

39.  Conduct  of  Napoleon  ? 

40.  Proirress  of  Bernadotte  ? 

41  Whiit  n-eneral  alarmed  Bonaparte  mott 

42.  What  friend  forsook  him? 

43.  When  was  Paris  taKen  ' 

44.  When  was  Bonaparte  depcsed? 


H 


QUESTIONS    ON 


15.  V\^iO  was  made  king  ? 

46    Whoii  did  lie  reach  Frauce? 

47.  What  provision  was  inado  for  Bonaparte? 

Sec.  5. — History  of  Europe  from  the  De- 
Ihrnneinent  of  Napoleon  to  the  Conclusion 
of  the  Treaty  of  Vienna. 

1.  First  proceedings  of  Ferdinand  in  Spain? 

2.  Mistakes  of  the  alhes  ? 

3.  Wliat  battles  were  fought  in  America  ? 

4.  Wliat   distinguished    personages   visited 

England  ? 

5.  What  threw  a  shade  of  gloom  over  the 

general  joy  ? 

6.  How  did  Louis  XVIII.  give  offence  ? 

7.  Resolution  of  Bonaparte? 

8.  When  did  he  land  in  France? 

9.  With  how  many  men  ? 

10.  His  progress  ? 

11.  Course  of  Louis? 

12.  Proclamation  of  the  congiess  of  Vienna? 

13.  Terms  of  the   treaty  between  the  four 

allied  powers  ? 

14.  Conduct  of  Napoleon? 

15.  The  first  battle  ? 

If).  Describe  the  battle  of  W^aterloo. 

17.  Whither  did  Napoleon  flee? 

18.  His  fate  ? 

19.  Conduct  and  end  of  Murat? 
aO.  Fate  of  Ney  and  Labedoy^re  ? 

21.  Terms  of  the  treaty  of  Vienna? 

22.  Avowed  object  of  the  holy  alliance  ? 

23.  Its  real  object  ? 

CHAPTER   XL 

HISTORY    OF    THE    PEACE. 

^EC.  I. — State  of  Europe  at  the  Close  of  the 
War. 

1. 
2. 
3. 
4 
5. 
6. 


ImmeUiate  results  of  peace  ? 
What  coiuitry  felt  them  most  sensibly  ? 
Why  so? 

WHiat  states  were  humbled  ? 
Whose  marriage  diffused  joy  in  England? 
How    was   the    nation    affected    at   her 
death  ? 

7  What  other  deaths  occurred  ? 

8  Condition  of  France  ? 

9  Of  the  Netlierlands  ? 

10  Of  Germany? 

11  Of  Spain? 

12  Who    revolted    from    the    Spanish   do- 

minion ? 

13  What  change  took  place  in  the  Spanish 

Constitution  ? 

14.  In  what  other  places  did  similar  revolu- 

tions take  place  ? 

15.  Effect  of  these  changes  on  Iho  rnonarchs 

cf  Europe  ? 
15.  Conduct  of  Louis  XVIIL  ? 
17    Of  the  A.'.'.sirie.n  emperor? 
IS    Condition  of  Sweden  ? 


19.  Between  what  princip  cs  was  a  strttgjjU 
going  on  in  the  civih.ed  world  ? 

Sec.   2. — History    of    Europe   during  iht 
Reign  of  George  IV. 

1.  What  conspiracy  waa  detected  in  Eng. 

land  ? 

2.  Character  of  the  conspirators  ? 

3.  How  were  they  treated  ? 

4.  What  suspended  the  preparations  for  th« 

king's  coronation  ? 
.5.  Where  had  she  been  ? 

6.  Why  did  she  return  to  England  ? 

7.  What    inducement   was   offered   her   U 

stay  away  ? 

8.  Describe  her  trial. 

9.  Her  melancholy  end  ? 

10.  Condition  of  Ireland  ? 

11.  When  and  wheit.  did  Bonaparte  di*. ' 

12.  Distracted  condition  of  Spain? 

13.  Who  composed  the  insurgents? 

14.  Resolution  of  the  congress  of  Verona  ? 

15.  Who  opposed  it  ? 

16.  Who   undertook  to  carry  it  into  execu- 

tion, and  why  ? 

17.  Conduct  of  Ferdinand  ? 

18.  Course  of  the  English  ministers  ? 

19.  What   struggle    was    going    on    in    tho 

south-east  of  Europe  ? 

20.  How  was  it  viewed  by  the  Holy  Alliance  ? 

21.  What    celebrated    poet    went   to   their 

aid? 

22.  Commercial   embarrassments    in    Eng- 

land? 

23.  What  association  was  formed  in  Ireland? 
24    What  event  now    excited   attention    in 

Europe  ? 
'5.  The  conduct  of  tlie  British  government  1 
il6.  Tnrough  whose    influence    was    Donna 

Maria  established  on  h«r  throne  ? 
27.  What   British  nobleman   died   in    A.  D 

1827? 
28    Conduct  of  the  cabinet  on  Canning's  ap> 

pointment  as  premier  ? 

29.  Why  did  they  resign  ? 

30.  Why  did  the  European  powers  interfere 

in  tho  struggle  of  the  Greelis  for  free- 
dom? 

31.  W^hy  did  Austria  keep  aloof? 

32.  How  did  tho   emperor  act  on  the  occa. 

sion  ? 

33.  Movements  of  the  combined  fleet. 

34.  When,   and    where,    and  why  was  thfl 

Turkish  navy  annihilated? 

35.  The  effect  of  this  victory  ? 

36.  How   was  it   regarded   in    France    tnrf 

Russia  ? 

37.  How  m  England  ? 

38.  Conduct  of  the  sultan? 

39.  Doings  of  the  allies  ? 

40.  Movements  of  Russia  ? 

41.  Describe  their  second  campai^v 

42.  Terms  of  tho  treaty  ? 


i 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


4o 


56. 


To  whoir,  was  th*  rj'own  of  Greece 
offered  ? 

VVho  filially  accej/ted  it  ? 

What  revolution  now  took  place  in  Por- 
tugal ? 

Treachery  of  Don  Miguel  ? 

Conduct  of  Charles  X.  of  France  ? 

Conduct  of  hie  ministry  ? 

What  made  them  riipopular  ? 

How  was  the  appointment  of  Prince 
Polignac  to  office  regarded  ? 

What  contest  was  going  on  in  England  ? 

Who  resisted  all  change  ' 

Ohject  of  the  emancipation  bill  ? 

W^hat  brought  matters  to  a  crisis  ? 

When  did  the  bill  receive  the  royal 
assent  ? 

When  did  Georg-e  IV.  die  ? 


Sec.  3. —  History    of   Europe    during    the 
Reign  of  William  IV. 

1.  Who  succeeded  George  IV.? 
8.  Causes  of  his  popularity? 

3.  W^hich   of  the   two  great  parties,  whig 

or  tory,  did  he  favour  ? 

4.  Condition  of  France  ? 

5.  What  rendered  Charles  X.  exceedingly 

unpopular  ? 

6.  Conduct  of  Polignac  ? 

7.  What  threat  did  the   royal  speech  con- 

tain? 

8.  Charactei  of  the  refJ.y  ? 

9.  Conduct  of  Charles  thereupon  ? 

10.  Row  did  he  hope   to  overcome  his  un- 

popularity ? 

11.  Success  of  the  expedition  ? 

12.  Conduct  of  Polignac  thereupon? 

13.  Consequences  of  it  ? 

14.  Why  did  the   commercial  classes  dread 

the  renewal  of  civil  commotion  ? 

15.  How   might  Charles  have    averted  the 

storm  ? 
IG    His  course  ? 
17    The  three  ordinances  of  July? 

18.  How  wdi    the   intelligence   received   in 

Paris  ? 

19.  Doings  of  the  opponents  of  the  ministry  ? 

20.  Of  the  principal  journalists  ? 

21.  By  what  act  was  the  first  disturbance 

occasioned  7 

22.  What  proved   that   no  insurrection   was 

anticipated  ? 

23.  Events  of  the  27th  of  July  ? 

24.  Conduct  of  the  citizens  at  night  ? 

25.  Appearance  of  things  on  the  morning  of 

the  28th  ? 

26.  Conduct  of  the  marshal  • 

27.  Events  of  the  day  ? 

28.  Situation  of  the  troops  in  the  evening? 

29.  Orders  of  the  king? 

iO.  What  defection  took  place  on  the  29th  ? 
31.  The  eliect  of  it? 
'i-2.  Fate  of  Charles  ? 


I. 


Who  was  chosen  i;eutenant-{,eneiul  of 

the  kingdom  ? 
To  what  dignity  was  he  elected  by  tb»; 

chambers  ? 
The  effect  of  this  levdution  in  Europe? 
Declaration  of  the  duke  of  Wellington? 
Its  effect  ? 
What  event  proved  still  more  injuriouBtc 

the  Wellington  administration? 
Its  results  ? 
How  did  the  people  excuse   their  vain 

terrors  ? 
Principles  of  the  new  administration  ? 
Views  of  the  European  sovereigns  ? 
Conduct  of  the  emperor  of  Russia  ? 
In  what  country  did  this  revolutionary 

spirit  produce  the  more  decisive  effects? 
When  and  why  did  the  revolution  break 

out  there  ? 
Policy  of  the  king  of  Holland  ? 
Course  of  Prince  Frederick  ? 
The  result  of  the  revolution  ? 
Who  was  elected  king  ? 
Whom  did  he  marry? 
What  changes  took  place  in  Germany  1 
Condition  of  Spain  ? 
Of  Portugal  ? 

Of  Italy  and  Switzerland  ? 
Where  did  the  rlaine  of  insurrection  rage 

most  furiously  ? 
Whose  cruelties  had  provoked  them? 
The  continuance  and  result  of  the  strugf- 

gle? 
Explain  the  state  of  parties  in  France. 
What  body  sustained  the  king  ? 
What  severely  tested  the  stabihty  of  the 

governmcit? 
The  sentence  of  the  late  ministers? 
State  of  things  in  England  ? 
How  long   did    the    debate   on  the  first 

reading  of  the  bill  last  ? 
Character  of  the   members  of  the  new 

parliament  ? 
Fate  of  the   reform    bill   in   the  house  of 

lords  ? 
What  calmed  the  excitement  in  London  ? 
What  dreadful   scourge   now  made   its 

appearance  ? 
Fate  of  the  new  reform  bill  in  the  house 

of  lords  ? 
How  did  the  premier  propose  tocarrj'it' 
Consequence  of  his  refusal  ? 
The  new  premier  ? 
State  of  the  country  ? 
Conduct  of  Wellington  ? 
What  secret  compact  was  made  ? 
When  was  the  bill  carried  ? 
To  what  dangers  was  the  new  Freioh 

monarchy  exposed  ? 
Conduct  of  the  republican  party  ? 
What    insurrection    took    place    in    th* 

south  of  France  ? 
Who  was  taken  captive  ' 


40 


QUESTIONS   ON 


80.  ^Vhat  revolt  took  place  in  Paris  1 

81.  Its  effect ; 

S'l.  What  transactions  now  took  place  in 
Heljjiuiii  ? 

83.  What  exposed  Turkey  to  groat  danger  ? 

84.  Proceedings  of  the  p;icha  of  Egypt  ? 

85.  What  saved  Constantinople  ? 

86.  What  events  were  taking  place  in  Spain  ? 

87.  Conduct  of    Ferdinand   on    discovering 

how  ho  had  been  treated  ? 

88.  Fate  of  Don  Carlos? 

89.  What  revolution  broke  out  in  Brazil? 

90.  Pedro's  measures  thereupon  ? 

91.  His  success  ? 

B'2.  Whom  did  his  daughter  marry? 

93    What  distiirhanees  took  place  in  the  pa- 

pai  states  ? 
94.  State  of  the  papal  power  ? 
9.5.  What  measures  occupied  the  attention 

of  tlie  British  parliament  ? 

96.  What  rendered  the  second  session  of  this 

body  memorable? 

97.  What  changes  took  place  in  the  cabinet? 

98.  Why  was  Peel  soon  forced  to  resign  ? 

99.  Who  was  left  out  of  the  Melbourne  cabi- 

net ? 

100.  Course  of  Don  Carlos  ? 

101    Who  organized  a  revolt  in  his  favour? 

102.  What  were  the  terms  of  the  treaty  be- 
tween the  four  powers  ? 

iO.3  Wniat  was  the  court  of  Madrid  forced 
to  do? 

104.  What  aid  was  granted  ? 

105.  What  alienated  the  king  of  the  French 

from  the  cause  of  the  Spanish  queen? 
lOo.  Course  of  the  Carlists  ? 

107.  Of  Don  Carlos? 

108.  Of  the  queen-regent? 

109.  Course  of  events  in  Canada  ? 

110.  "What   produced  embarrassment  in  the 

commercial  world? 

111.  When  did  William  IV.  die? 

112.  What  is  said  of  his  reign  ? 

113.  Who  succeeded  him? 


CHAPTER  XII. 

HI5T0RY    OF    COLO.XIZATION. 

Ikc.  1. —  Thr  Establishment  of  the  Span- 
iards ill  Mexico. 

1.  Where   wao   the    first    Spanish    colony 

established  ? 

2.  The  orders  of  Isabella? 

?>.  The  consequence  of  them  ? 

4.  The  effects  of  slavery  on  the  Indians  ? 

.5.  The  second  island  occupied? 

6.  The  third  one  ? 

7    Its  extent  and  populousness  ? 

8.   How  many  Spainards  were  sufficient  to 

conquer  it  ? 
9    By  whose   intrepidity  were  more  impor- 

taut  conquests  made  ? 


10.  Under  (vhose   command  waa  an  expeA 

tion  fitted  out  against  the  continent  i 

11.  When  and  where  did  he  land? 

12.  IIow  was  ho  received  ? 

13.  To  what  degree  of  civilization  had  tho 

Mexicans  attained? 

14.  Cortez' first  step  ? 

15.  How  was  his  demand  received? 

16.  The  eflect  of  these  gifts  ? 

17.  His  next  step  ? 

18.  What   city  grow  up   from  his  encamp- 

ment ? 

19.  What  did  he  do   in  order  to  inspire  his 

men  with  courage; 

20.  His  forces? 

21    With  whom  was  his  first  encounter  ? 

22.  V.  '  what  cruelty  was  he  guilty  ? 

23.  The  effect  of  ..  ? 

24.  His  description  of  .he  ancient   city  oJ 

Tlascala? 

25.  How  did  Montezuma  receive  him  ? 

26.  The  perils  of  his  situation  ? 

27.  \\hat  bold  resolution  did  he  adopt? 

28.  What  did  he  do  to  secure  his  retreat  ii 

necessary  ? 

29.  His  ostensible  pretext  for  seizing  Monte 

zuma? 

30.  The  treatment  of  Qualpopoca? 

31.  His  letter  to  the  emperor  ? 

32.  His  description  of  the  city  of  Mexico  ? 

33.  What  danger  impended  over  him  ? 

34.  His  prudent  measures  ? 

35.  What  dangers  surrounded  him  on  his  re- 

turn to  Mexico? 

36.  Fate  of  the  emperor? 

37    Losses  of  the  Spaniards  during  their  ro« 
treat  ? 

38.  What  victory  restored  their  confidence  ? 

39.  Conduct  of  Guatiniozin  ? 

40.  His  cruel  fate  ? 

41.  Result  of  his  capture  T 

42.  How  was  Cortez   treated  by  his  sov* 

reign  ? 

43.  The  first  thought  of  the  conquerors  ? 

44.  Conduct  of  Sahagun  and  Las  Casas  ? 

45.  The  results  of  their   protection   of  th« 

Mexicans? 

46.  Who  were  the  conquistadores  7 

47.  What  were  haciendas? 

48.  What  fortunate  circumstance  contributed 

to  the  [)reservation  of  the  Indians  ?  . 

49.  Why  did   not  the  conquistadores  entsi 

into  mining  speculations  ? 

50.  What  were  audiencias  ? 

51.  What  abuses  grew  up  ? 

52.  How  long  did  they  continue  ? 

53.  What  first  led  to  the  assertion  of  Mexi 

can  independence  ? 

54.  Conduct  of  the  viceroy  / 

55.  The  cause  of  the  enthusiasm  with  whick 

his  proclamation  was  received  '' 

56.  What  pr()j)osition  was  made'' 

57.  Why  rejected  '' 


MODERN    HISTORY 


47 


W    Conduct  of  the  audiencia  1 

59.   Feelings  of  the   Creoles  and  Indians  at 

tliis  usurpation  ? 
61)    Common  remark  of  Dataller,  one  of  the 

members  of  the  council  ? 
61.  Decrees  of  the  juntas  of  Spain  ? 
tJ-2.   Who  raised  ths  standard  of  revolt  ? 
G3.  What  declaration  did   he   make    to   hia 

congregation  ? 
'>i    His  progress  and  conduct  ? 
lio.  Acts  of  the  Viceroy  Venegas  ? 
6C.  What  stopped  the  career  of  Hidalgo  ? 
t>7    His  further  career  and  end  ? 
b8    Conduct  of  his  dispersed  army  ? 
69.  Manifesto  of  Rayon  ? 
1^.  The  treatment  it  received? 

71.  Who    succeeded    to   the     influence    of 

Hidalgo  ? 

72.  His  prudent  course  ? 

73.  What  rendered  the  royalist  cause  odious? 

74.  By  wrhom  was  Morelos  finally  defeated? 

75.  His  end  ? 

76.  Exploits  of  Mina  and  his  end  ? 

77.  Conduct  of  the  Viceroy  Apodaca  ? 

73.  Whom  did  he  e^nploy  to  draw  up  his 
plan  ? 

79.  Substance  of  his  draft  of  a  c<tistitution  ? 

tSO.  How  was  it  received  by  the  old  Span- 
iards ? 

81.  Their  conduct  thereupon  ? 

b:2.  EtFects  of  this  false  step  '. 

S3.   Success  of  Iturbide  ? 

*-A.  Conduct  of  the  cortes  o'  Ma  Lnd  ? 

•ih.  Etfects  of  it  ? 

86.  Elevation  of  Iturbide  ? 

87.  How  long  did  he  reigi  \ 

68.  His  end  ? 

69.  When  did  Mexico  become  ijidependent  ? 
90.  Its  progress  since  ?• 

s^E,;.   2. —  The  Estahlishinent  of  the   Spa?i- 
iards  in  Peru. 

1.  Who    discovered    the    passage    around 

Socini  America? 

2.  Who  conquered  Peru  ? 

3.  When  did  he  land  there  ? 

4.  The  civil  condition  of  the  countrj'  when 

the  Spaniards  first  appeared  in  it  ? 

5.  Who  was  the  reigning  inca  ? 

6.  How  was  he  treated  by  Pizarro  ? 

7.  How  did  ho  receive  the  Spaniards'? 

8.  Subject  of  the  priest's  discourse  to  liim  at 

their  first  interview  ? 
9    Relate  the  circumstances  of  the   inter- 
view. 
JO.  Cruel    and    treacherous  conduct   of  the 

Spaniards. 
1 1    Fate  of  the  inca. 
2    Fate  of  Pizarro. 

13  How  long  after  the  first  conquest  was  it 

before   the  royj  1  authority  was  estab- 
lished ? 

14  Treatment  of  tho  Peruviaiu'' 

50 


15.  What  proportion  of  the  labourers  pert-'heU 

annually  ? 

16.  How  else  were  they  oppressed  ? 

17.  What  is  said  of  the  insurrections  a',  Ihfl 

close  of  the  last  century  ? 

18.  How  did  Chili  become  annexed  to  the 

Spanish  dominions  V 
19    Loyalty   of  the   Spanish  colonies  whea 
Joseph  Bonaparte  was  proclaimed  kin| 
*.f  Spain  ? 

20.  Describe  the  struggle  for  independ  mca 

in  Chili  and  PeiTi. 

21.  When  did  the  last  Spanish  garrison  but 

render  ? 

22.  To  what  province  was   Upper  Per<-  at- 

tached previous  to  the  revolution  <. 

23.  What  name  did  it  then  assume? 

24.  What  tribute  of  national   gratitude    vaa 

paid  to  Bolivar? 

25.  His  noble  conduct  ? 

26.  Condition  of  Bolivia? 

27.  By  whom  was  Florida  discovered? 

28.  Who  discovered  the  Mississippi  ? 

29.  Plan  of  the  French  Huguenots  ? 

30.  When  and  why  was  Florida  annexed  to 

the  United  States  ?• 

31.  The  date  of  its  cession  ? 

Sec.  3. — Portuguese  Colonies  in  South  Ame- 
rica. 

1.  How  was  Brazil  discovered? 

2.  How  long  was  it  neglected  ? 

3.  Condition  and  character  of  the  natives  ? 

4.  Why  were  the  Portuguese  in  Brazil  at 

tacked,  and  by  whom  I 

5.  The  policy  of  the  Portuguese? 

6.  How  long  did  this  policy  continue  ? 

7.  How  was  Brazil  governed  ? 

8.  Rest  "iction  on  the  chief  otficers  ? 

9.  Judicial  power  of  the  captains-genera^  i 

10.  How  were  the  regular  troops  recruited? 

11.  How  ofiicered? 

12.  Who  were  tflb  ordenan^as  ? 

13.  Their  duty  ? 

14.  Who  were  the  fidalgos? 

15.  The  orders  of  knighthood  ? 

16.  The  privileges  of  the  grand  master  of  th« 

order  of  Christ  ? 

17.  Salaries  of  the  clergy  ? 

18.  Why  so  small? 

19.  How  did  this  jealousy  of  the  Portuguea? 

government  show  itself? 

20.  Describe  the  conspiracy  of  1769. 

21.  The  fate  of  Tiradentas. 

22.  What  conspiracy  was  organized  iu  A.D 

1801  ? 

23.  Vv'hat  created  a  new  era  in  the  history 

of  Brazil  ? 

24.  Plow  did  Don  Jotin  govern  the  country  1 

25.  The  p  ogress  under  his  government  ? 

26.  The  firr^t  cause  of  discontent' 

27.  What  formal  proposition  wan  made  by  • 

Portuguese  general  i 


48 


QCESTIONS    OM 


18.   When  was  the  constitution   proclaimed 

in  Rio  Jaiiein  ' 
v}9    What  urojccts  v\  uo  the  Portuguese  form - 

n\g  witli  reference  to  Brazil '? 
til.   How  were  tliey  received  ! 

31.  What  led  to  Brazilian  independence? 

32.  What  is  said  of  Paraguay  ? 

33.  How  did  the  Jesuits  rule  it,  '• 

34.  W  10  headed  the  revolution  in  it? 

35.  His  policy  ? 

Sec.  4. — The  Engdsh  in  America. 

I  The  great  ohject  of  the  Englisli  adven- 
turers? 

2.  How  did  they  seek  to  accomplish  it  ? 

3.  What  port  in  Russia  did  Chancellor  dis- 

cover ? 

4.  What   wao   accomplished  by  the  com- 

pany of  merchant  adventurers  ? 

'  With  what  Asiatic  power  did  Queen 
Elizabeth  conclude  a  commercial 
treaty  ? 

b.  How  were  the  English  navigators  dis- 
appointed ? 

7.  What  successful  enterprise  encouraged 
them  ? 

b.  What  gave  importance  to  the  informa- 
tion obtained  by  Sir  Francis  Drake  ? 

9.  How  did  the  English  avdl  themselves 
of  it? 

iO    By  whom  was  Canada  first  settled  ? 

1 1.  What  is  said  of  the  early  progress  of  the 

colony  ? 

12.  What  of  the  contests  of  the  French  with 

the  Indians  ? 
13    When   was    Louisiana   settled,    and   by 
whom  ? 

14.  Why  was  it  more  valued  than  Canada  ? 

15.  How  did  the  French  propose  to  connect 

Canada  and  Louisiana? 

16.  The  consequence  of  the  attempt  ? 

17.  The  subsequent  fate  of  the  two  colonies? 

18.  What  do  the  British  colonies  in  America 

now  form  ? 

Sec.  5. — Cuhuizatioa  of  the  West  Indies. 

1  What  is  said  of  Barbadoes  when  the 
English  first  took  possession  of  it  ? 

2.  When  were   negroes    first   imported    as 

slaves  ? 

3.  What  is  said  of  their  increase? 

4.  What  is  said   of  the  settlement  of   St. 

Lucia? 

5.  Of  Martinico  and  Guadaloupe  ? 

6.  Of  Tobago? 

7.  Of  Trinidad? 

8.  Of  the  Bahama  islands? 

9.  Of  the  Bermuda  islands  ? 

LO.   What  little  animal  came  near  destroying 

the  colony  ? 
IL  What  use  do  the  English  muKe  of  thesf> 

islands  ? 
\2.   What  is  said  of  Jamaica  ? 


13.  Why  A>'.is  it  made  the  great  jendsivoui 

of  the  bucaniers  ? 

14.  The  conduct  of  these  men  ? 

15.  What  is  said  of  Morgan,  their  most  noted 

•eader  ? 

16.  From  what  has  Jamaica  suffered? 

17.  What  is  said  of  Guiana' 

18.  What  of  Hispaniola  ? 

Sec.  6. —  The  Portuguese  in  India. 

Who  discovered  the  passage  around  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  ? 

Poiicy  of  tha    Portuguese  under  Albu 
querque  ? 

Conduct  of  the  Mohammedans? 

By  whom  were  they  assisted  ? 

What  city  became  the  seat  of  the  Portu- 
guese governn  ent  ? 

What  system   was  strongly  deprecate*" 
by  Vasco  de  Gama  ? 

How  did  Albuquerque  defend  himself? 

What  other  places  did  he  subdue  I 

What    people    attempted    to    estjonsb 
themselves  on  the  coasts  of  Malabar  '. 

What  would  have  been  the  consequence 
of  their  success  ? 

What  progress  did  the  Portuguese  mak« 
in  sixty  years  ? 

What  occasioned  the  ruin  of  this  mighty 
empire  ? 

Explain  the  cause  ? 

The   most   remarkable   of  their   jKxsses- 
sions  ? 

Describe  it? 

What  gave  it  importance  ? 

Of  what  did  it  give  the  world  a  memo- 
rable example? 

Describe  it,  a.s  it  was  during  the  busy 
seasons? 

What  led  to  its  destruction  ? 

What  is  it  now  ? 


1. 
2 

3. 

4. 
5. 

6. 

7. 
8. 
9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 
16. 
17. 

18. 

19. 
20. 

Sec.  7. —  The  Spaniards  in  the  East  Indies. 

1.  The  object  of  the   first  voyage  of  Co- 

lumbus ? 

2.  What  prevented  the  Spaniards  from  oc- 

cupying the  Moluccas  ? 

3.  Who  settled  the  Philippine  isJinda  ? 

4.  Why  so  named  ? 

5.  What  city  did  he  build  ? 

6.  By  whom  was  it  attacked 

7.  What  rivals  soon  api)eared  ? 

8.  Who  now  owns  these  islands? 

Sec.  8. — The  Dutch  in  the  East  Indies. 

1.  What  drove  the    Outch  to  revolt  from 

Spain  ? 

2.  What  laid  the  foundation  of  their  com- 

mercial prosperity  ? 

3.  How  did  the  Spaniards  seek  to  check 

the   growing  spirit  of  freedom  'q  tlu 
Netherlands  ? 

4.  The  consequence  7 


MODERN    HISTORY. 


48 


5    How  did  they  seek  to  huniblo  tho  Por- 
tuguese ? 
fi.  The  consequence  ? 

7.  What  fruitless  expeditions  were  made  ? 

8.  The  story  of  Cornelius  Houtman  ? 

9    How  did  the  Spaniards  tirst  attempt  to 

defeat  tlie  enterprise  he  started  ? 
.0.  Their  next  attempt? 

11.  How  was  their  cahimny  refuted  ? 

12.  The  first  islands  occupied  by  the  Dutcli  ? 
13    For  what  island  did  they  and  the  Eng- 

hsh  contend  ? 

14.  Which  succeeded  ? 

15.  What  city  did  tliey  build  ? 

IB.  What  trade  did  they  wrest  from  the  Por- 
tuguese / 

i  7.  The  next  island  they  obtained  possession 
of? 

18.  0(  what  trade  did  this  give  them  the 
monopoly  ? 

li).  To  whom  does  Ceylon  now  belong  ? 

20.  VVhatbatlled  their  etTbrts  to  open  a  trade 
with  the  Chinese  ? 

^1.  On  what  island  did  they  establish  a 
flourishing  settlement  ? 

12.  How  did  they  lose  this  island? 

2.3.  To  whom  does  it  now  belong? 

i4.  What  caused  the  ruin  of  the  Dutch  em- 
pire in  the  East  ? 

25.  Ho\i  was  their  dominion   maintained  in 

Java? 

26.  What  trade  do  they  still  monopolize  ? 

Sec.  9. —  The  Danes  in  the  East  Indies. 

1.  What  led  to  the  Danish  association  for 

trade  in  the  East  Indies? 

2.  Where  was  an  establishment  made  ? 

3.  What  checked  the  prosperity  of  the  com- 

pany ? 

4.  For  what     did    the    Danes    distinguish 

themselves  ? 

Sec.  10. —  The  French  in  the  East  Indies. 

1    When  was  the  French  East  India  com- 
pany fo.'nied  ? 

2.  Why  was  the  India  trade  abandoned? 

3.  In  what  island  did  the  French  attempt  a 

settlement  • 

4.  What  town  did  they  purchase? 

5.  What  islands  did  they  subsequently  ac- 

quire ? 

6.  What  opened   to  them  a  new  career  of 

an\hitioii  ! 
7    Tho  designs  of  M.  Dupleix  ? 

8.  By  whom  were  they  completely  bafHed 

9.  Their  subsequent  attempts  ? 

Sec.  11. —  The  EngVsh  in  India. 

1  The  settlements  of  the  English  in  India 

a  hundred  years  ago  ? 

2  T'le    muiiber  of    Bcitish  subjects  there 

now  ? 
I    The  a  I)  11 'J  a!  revenue  obtained  from  them? 


4.  The   army  maintained   by   the    Euglian 

company? 

5.  What  is  said  of  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Ma- 

dras ? 

6.  When  was  the  I.ondon  conipany  incor- 

porated ? 

7.  When  was  the   English  company  incor- 

porated ? 

8.  Why,  and  when,  and  under  wl  at  nam* 
were  the  two  companies  united  ? 

The  first  settlement  of  any  importance? 

What  grant  of  land  did  tliey  obtain  in 
A.D.  1658  ? 

How  did  they  secure  it  ? 

What  island  did  they  obtain  in  1668? 

When  was  a  settlement  made  at  Cal- 
cutta? 

What  fortunate  circumsli^.ce  secured 
them  valuable  privileges  over  othel 
Europeans  ? 

Conduct  of  the  viceroy  of  Bengal  ? 

By  whom  was  Calcutta  retaken? 

Bold  resolution  of  Clive  ? 

To  whom  did  he  give  the  viceroy's  post! 

To  whom  was  the  government  of  Cal- 
cutta afterwards  entrusted  ? 

To  what  was  the  council  bribed  ? 

What  claim  did  ihe  servants  of  the  East 
India  company  make'' 

Tho  effect  of  granting  it ' 

How  did  Cossim  act? 

What  rash  act  did  he  commit  ? 


s  consequences 


Who  was  his  successor  ? 

W^ho  was  now  made  governor-general  7 

The  condition  of  the  aflairs  of  tiie  presi- 
dency ! 

The  consequence  of  his  zeal  in  refonniug 
abuses  ? 

Who  first  rose  against  him  ? 

By  whom  was  the  plot  instigated  ? 

How  was  he  treated  ? 

How  was  another  of  the  mutineers  r»<- 
warded  by  the  council? 

Effect  of  Clive's  firmness  ? 

What  removed  the  chief  source  of  in- 
trigue ? 

Who  nearly  ruined  the  presidency  of 
Madras? 

Who  retrieved  the  losses  of  the  English  '! 

What  serious  constitutional  Question 
arose  ? 

How  was  the  right  of  the  British  Parlia- 
ment virtually  asserted  ? 

Whose  administration  greatly  extended 
the  territories  of  the  company? 

What  is  said  of  the  means  he  employed 
for  this  purpose  ? 

Proposition  of  Mr.  Fox,  and  how  de 
fcated  ? 

What  important  change  was  mnde  in  Ihf 
government  of  India  by  Mr.  Pitt' 

Tlie  object  of  the  nev.  measure  ? 


50 


3ITESTION8   ON 


iii.  The  first  g<  \ernor-geiieral  under  the  ii»w 
system  ! 

46  Whose  ambitious  projects  excited  his  sus- 
picions ? 

47.  By  whom  instigated  ? 

48.  What  led  to  their  interference? 

49.  What  dispute  arose  between  Mr.  Pitt  and 

the  court  of  directors? 

50  The  result  of  the  war  with  Tijpoo  Saib? 

51  The  most  remarkable  events  of  Sir  John 

Shore's  administration  ? 

52.  The  third  governor-general  ? 

53.  The  object  of  his  first  efibrts? 

54.  Against  whom   did  he  declare  war,  and 

with  what  result  ? 

55.  In  what  points  of  policy  was  he  thwarted 

by  the  home  government  ? 

56.  Conduct  of  Lord  Olive  ? 

57.  Of  Lord  Wellesley  ? 

58.  What   gave    rise   to   serious   embarrass- 

ments I 

59.  What  led  to  an  angry  controversy  with 

the  English  ministry  ? 
(iO.  What  compromise  was  effected  ? 
61.  The  cause  of  the   mutiny  of  the  native 

Indian  army  ? 
G2.  Who  aggravated  their  feelings  of  natural 

discontent  1 
6.3.  The  pretext  for  revolt  ? 

64.  Lord    Bentinck's    conduct    towards    the 

mutineers? 

65.  What  system  of  policy  did  Lord  Minto 

propose  to  introduce  ? 
06.  Why  was  his  success  impossible  ? 

67.  What  is  said  of  his  administration  ? 

68.  What  war  broke  out  under  his  successor? 

69.  Condition  of  central  India? 

70.  ^V  hat  important  settlement  was  made  in 

A.D.  1819? 

71.  Who  succeeded  the  marquis  jf  Hastings? 

72.  In  what  war  did  he  engage  ? 

7.3.  What  strong  fortress  did  he  take  ? 

74.  Earl  Amherst's  successor  ? 

75.  For  what  vas  iiis  administration  remark- 

al)lo  ? 

76.  What   important  change    was   made  in 

the  government  of  India,  A.D.  1833? 

77.  What  two   new  kingdoms  were  founded 

on  the  ruins  of  the  Mogul  empire? 

78  What  is  said  of  the  Afghans? 

79  Who  restored  the  Persian  sup.'emacy? 

80  How    long    did    the    Afghan    monarchy 

continue  ? 

81  By  what  was  it  then  distracted? 

B2.   Its  condition  under   the   Baurikzye   bro- 
thers ? 
8.3-    For  what  purpose  was   an  embassy  sent 

to  Cabui ; 

84  Why  was  it  changed  to  a  political  lega- 

tior.  ? 

85  Demand  of  the  ruler  of  Cabul  ? 

b6  What  resolution  did  the  British  Indian 
govenim»'nt  then  adopt  ? 


87.  What  is  ?aid  of  Shih   Sujali's  goTera 

ment  ? 

88.  Result  of  the  insurrection   in   Cabul   if 

1841? 

89.  The  result  of  the  war  that  ensued  ? 

90.  What  is  said   of  the   importance   of  thi« 

annexation  ? 


CHAPTER  Xin. 

HISTORY  OF  CHI.NA. 

1.  Wh,en  does  the  authentic  history  of  th« 

Chinese  commence? 

2.  When  did  Confucius  flour.>vi? 

3.  Condition  of  China  in  his  time  I 

4.  What  use  did  he  make  of  the  old   tradi- 

tions of  the  country? 

5.  His  main  principle  ? 

6.  What  is  said  of  his  ritual  ? 

7.  Who  first  united  all  the  Chinese  undei 

one  sovereign  ? 

8.  What  great  work  did  he  perform? 

9.  Its  object  ? 

10.  How  was  this  service  overbalanced  ? 

11.  Who    invaded    China    under   the    Han 

dynasty  ? 

12.  Why  is  the   memory  of  the  Hans  stili 

cherished  in  China? 

13.  W^hen  did  the  Mongols  invade  China? 

14.  When  was  the  conquest  completed  ? 

15.  Describe   the    naval   fight   between    the 

Mongols  and  the  Chinese. 

IG.  Conduct  of  the  Chinese  admiral  I 

17.  Government  of  the  Mongols? 

18.  When  were  they  driven  from  the  country  1 

19.  Who  was  the  conqueror  of  the  Mongols! 

20.  Describe  his  rise  from  rank  to  rank. 
21  Character  of  his  government. 

22.  The  last  of  his  dynasty  ? 

23.  Who  invaded  the  empire  in  his  reign  ? 
24    His  end  and  dying  request? 

25.  Who   avenged  his  death,  and  by  whose 

assistance  ? 

26.  Conduct  iff  the  Tartars  ? 

27.  How  did  they  treat  the  country? 

28.  Who  was  Coxinga,  and  his  actions  ? 

29.  Character   and    acts    of    Kang-he,    the 

second  of  the  Tartar  emperors  ? 

30.  Conduct  of  his  successor? 

31.  Conduct  of  Keen-lung  his  successor? 

32.  What  inscription  did  he  engrave   on  thd 

stone  tablet  of  Ele  ? 

33.  What  is  said  of  his  fame  ? 

34.  How  long  did  he  reign  ? 

35.  Character  of  his  successor? 

36.  Conduct  of  the  British  squadron  ! 

37.  Object  of  the  British  embassy? 

38.  Who  is  the  reigning  emperor? 

39.  The  cause  of  the  late  war  between  Chin<i 

and  England? 

40.  What  is  said  of  Chinese  military  proweaH  ' 
41    Te-ms  of  the  treaty  ? 


1 


MODERN    UISTORT 


51 


42.  OpiaioDS  of  the  Chinese  respecting  them-  ( 40.  In  Russia  ? 


selves? 

43  How  are  the  Tartar  conquerors  regarded 
by  the  natives? 

44.  What  secret  societies  now  exist  through- 
out China? 


C  HAPTER  XIV 

HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS. 

1.  What  is  said  of  Jewish  colonies? 

2.  or  Jewish  philosophers  at  Alexandria? 

3.  What  was  Gnosticism  ? 

4.  In  what  distant  countries  did  the  Jews 

settle  themselves? 

5.  What  is  said  of  the  Jews  of  Arabia,  in 

the  time  of  Mohammed  ? 

6.  Why  did  they  ever  act  in  concert  with 

Mohammedans  ? 

7.  Ho^v  were  they  treated  by  the  Abbaside 

khaliphs  ? 

8.  By  Almanzor,  and  Mamun? 

9.  For  what  were  they  noted  ? 

10.  How  were  they  treated  under  the  Mon- 

gols ? 

11.  Condition   of  Persia  at  the  accession  of 

Shah  Abbas  ? 

12.  What  led  the  Jews  to  his  country  ? 

13.  How  did  he  treat  them  ? 

14.  What  saved  them  from  ruin  ? 

1 5.  How  were  they  treated  in  Spain  ? 

16.  How  by  the  Spanish  Moslems? 

17.  What  distinguished  Jews  belong  to  this 

era  ? 

18.  How    were   they   treated    in   the    more 

northern  countries  ? 

19.  How  by  Charlemagne  and  his  immediate 

successors  ? 

20.  Decree  of  the  council  of  Meaux  ? 

21.  Conduct  toward  them  of  Philip  Augus- 

tus, in  A.D.  1180? 

22.  Of  St.  Louis  IX.? 

23  or  the  parliament  of  Paris  in  1288? 

24.  Of  Pbilip  the  Long? 

2,5.  Of  Iviiig  John  in  1350? 

2(5.  Of  Pope  Honorius  III.? 

27  Of  Pope  Gregory  IX.? 

28  The  condition  of  the  Jews  at  Avignon  ? 

29  Conduct  towards  them  of  Gregory  XIII. 'f 

30  OfSixtusV.? 

31  Their  sufFerings  during  the  crusades  ? 

32  Their  condition  in  England  ? 

33  What  circumstances  confirm  this? 

34  When  were  they  expelled  from  Spain  ? 

35  How  many  left  the  countiy  ? 

36  What  tonk  place  at  the  era  of  the  Re- 

form-'tion  ? 

37  Their  condition  in  England  at  the  pre- 

sent time  ? 
SB    Conduct  towards  them  of  Maria  Theresa 

of  Austria  ? 
J3    Their  condition  in  France  ' 


41.  In  Mohammedan  couutned  t 

42  Theij  number? 

43  How  many  in  Europe- 

44  In  Asia? 
45.  In  Africa  ? 
4G.  In  America? 


CHAPTERXV. 


HISTORY    OF   'CHE   UNITED    STATES  OF    iMERICi 

Sec.  1. — Colonial  History 

1.  When  was  the  first  permanent  attempt 

made    to    plant    a    colony   within   the 
limits  of  the  United  States? 

2.  The  last  colony  planted  ? 

3.  The  dimensions  ol  Virginia,  in  the  reign 

of  Elizabeth? 

4.  Why  so  named? 

5.  How  was  it  afterwards  divided  ? 

G.   In  what  year  was  Jamestoivn  settled? 

7.  AMien  and  where,  and  by  whom  was  the 

settlement  of  New-York  began? 

8.  When  was  it  occupied  by  the  English  ? 

9.  When,  and  by  whom  was  the  colony  cj 

Plymouth  planted  ? 

10.  What  attempts  had  been  previously  made 

to  form  settlements  in  New  England? 

11.  When    was    the    Massachusetts    colony 

established? 

12.  The  first  settlement 

13.  When  vvas  the  Plymouth  colony  iiicor 

porated  with  that  of  Massachusetts? 

14.  When,  and  where  was  the  settlement  <1 

New  Hampshire  begun? 

15.  What  three  other  settlements  wea-emade? 

16.  Under  the  government  of  what  colony 

were  they  at  first  ? 

17.  When  was  New  Hampshire  formed  into 

a  separate  province  ? 

18.  When,  and  by  whom  was  New  Jersey 

settled  ? 

19.  By  whom  was  it  first  conquered? 

20.  When  did  the  English  occupy  it? 

21.  When,  and  by  whom  was  Delaware  firs' 

occupied? 

22.  Who  afterwards  seized  it? 

23.  When  was  Maine  settled? 

24.  The  first  town  built  in  it  ? 

25.  How  long  did  it  remain  a  part  of  Massa 

chusetts  ? 

26.  AVhen,    and   by   whom    was    MarylanC 

settled  ? 

27.  Where  did  Lord  Baltimore  first  plant  hij> 

colony  ? 

28.  When,  and  by  whom  was  Connecticut 

settled  ■' 

29.  When  New  Haven? 

30  When    was    it   united   to  the  colony  ol 

Connecticut  ? 

31  When,  and  by  whom  was  Rhodi  lalaod 

settled ; 


b2 


QUESTIONS   OK 


t 


S2 

3.3. 

^^. 
3.-) 

36 
37 

3S. 

31). 

40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
4.5. 
46. 
47. 
4S. 

49. 
50. 
51. 

52. 

53. 
54. 
55. 

56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 

65 
6b 

67 

63 

t)9 
70 


73. 

74. 
75. 

76 
77. 
78 
T9 


Under  «r.nt  circumstances? 

What  credit  is  due  to  riim? 

Wlu'ii,  and  by  whom  was  North  Caro- 
lina settled? 

When  did  it  become  a  distinct  cf^'ony? 

Wiicn  was  South  Carolina  settled  ? 

When  wus  the  city  of  Charleston  com- 
menced ? 

Wlien,  and  by  whom  was  Pennsylvania 
settled? 

Why  was  ts  growth  more  ra])id  than 
that  of  the  other  colonies? 

When  was  Georgia  colonized? 

The  first  place  founded? 

What  union  was  formed  in  1643? 

The  motives  of  this  confederation  ? 

Why  was  Rhode  Island  excluded? 

What  war  broke  out  in  1675? 

The  loss  sustained  by  New  England  in  it  ? 

The  causes  of  Bacon's  rebellion? 

The  condition  of  the  New  England  colo- 
nies during  the  reign  of  James  II.? 

Their  governor  ? 

What  finally  became  of  him  ? 

What  three  kinds  of  government  pre- 
vailed in  the  colonies  ? 

Where  did  the  charter  governments  pre- 
vail ? 

Describe  them  ? 

The  royal  governments  ? 

The  sources  of  grievance  in  th«se  colo- 
nies? 

The  proprietary  governments  ? 

The  causes  of  tho  quarrels  in  them  ? 

The  population  of  the  colonies  in  1689? 

Their  trade  with  whom  ? 

Their  chief  employment  ? 

For  what  is  the  year  1692  signalized? 

How  many  were  the  sutlerers  ? 

The  principal  theatre  of  the  delusion? 

The  etFect  on  the  colonies  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  l()b8? 

What  is  said  of  King  William's  war  ? 

Of  Queen  Anne's  war  ? 

The  result  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht  in 
1713? 

The  principal  event  of  the  war  com- 
menced 1744? 

The  effect  of  this  war  on  tht  colonies  ? 

The  cause  of  the  war  that  followed  soon 
after  ? 

The  fate  of  the  first  expedition  agsinst 
the  French  ? 

Its  commander? 

The  singular  fate  of  the  "  Plan  of  Union," 
adopted  in  1754? 

What  is  said  of  Braddock's  expedition  ? 

What  victory  made  amends  ibr  this  de- 
feat I 

The  parties  in  the  seven  years'  loar  1 

T  je  campaign  of  1756  iu  America? 

Of  1 757  ? 

Of  1758  7 


80.  Of  1759  T 

81.  Of  1760? 

82.  The  terms  of  the  treaty  of  1763  ' 

83.  How  many  wars,  occupying  how  riiai.j 

years,  were  the  colonies  engased  in 
during  the  seventy  years  termiuatinp 
A.U. 1760? 

84.  The   increase  in   population   during  thi 

time  ? 
85    In  trade  and  commerce'? 
86.  How  had  a  national  spirit  been  created 

Sec.  2. — Revolutionary  History. 

1.  In  what  year  did  the  revolutionary  war 

commence  ? 

2.  What  doctrine   was  established  among 

the  colonists  so  early  as  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century? 

3.  What  restrictions  liad  been  imposed  upon 

them  ? 

4.  When  was  America  first  taxed  by  Great 

Britain  for  the  purpose  of  raising  » 
revenue  ? 

5.  The  object  of  the  stamp  act  ? 

6.  How  was  it  received  in  the  colonies? 

7.  The  proceedings  of  the  colonists  ? 

8.  By  what  declaration  was  the   repeal  of 

tho  act  accompanied  ? 

9.  What  new  act  was  passed? 

10.  How  were  the  cargoes  of  tea  treated  in 

the  diflerent  ports  to  which  they  were 
sent  ? 

11.  The  Boston  port  bill? 

12.  ItseflFect? 

13.  The  first  proceedings  of  the  colonies  1 

14.  What  did  they  next  do  ? 

15.  The  proceedings  of  the  government  o. 

Great  Britain  thereupon  ? 

16.  The    first    hostile    proceedings,    when. 

where,  and  how  occasioned  ? 

17.  What   fortresses  were  taken,   and  what 

memorable  battle  was  fought  ? 

18  Who  was  now  appointed  the  American 

commander-in-chief  ? 

19  Size  of  the  American  army? 

20  What  expedition  was  next  planned,  anc 

its  success  ? 

21.  How  were  the   British  driven  from  Bos 

ton? 

22.  When  was  American  independence  de 

clared  ? 

23.  Washington's  head-quarters,  and  size  o» 

his  army  ? 

24.  British  army,  how  large  ? 

25.  What  victory  did  Lord  Howe  gain? 

26.  Policy  of  Washington  ? 

27.  VVHiat  fort  was  taken  by  the  enemy  ? 

28.  What  is  said  of  Washington's  retreat? 

29.  How  was  his  army  diminished  ? 

30.  Number  of  his  troops? 

3 1.  What  succession  of  victories  did  he  gaia 

32.  Tho  efTect  of  them  ? 

33.  Conduct  of  the  American  congress  dm 


KODESN    HI8T0BT. 


63 


S4 

3? 

36 

37 

35. 

39. 

40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 

44. 

45. 

46. 

47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 

52. 
53. 

54. 

55. 
56. 

57. 

58. 
59. 

60. 
6i. 

62. 

63. 

64. 
65. 

66 


iag  the  darkest  period  of  the  revolu- 

tiouary  struggle  ? 
What   French    nobleman    embarked    in 

the  struggle  ? 
What  battle  was  fought  for  the  purpose 

of  protecting  Philadelphia,  and  the  re- 
sult ? 
What  other  battle  was   fought  nearly  a 

month  later,  and  the  result? 
Objects  of  Burgoyne's  invasion? 
Fate  of  his  army  ? 
Consequences  of  the  surrender? 
Describe  the  battle  of  Monmouth  ? 
What  was  doing  in  the  South  ? 
Describe  the  campaign  of  1779. 
Object  of  the  enemy  ? 
what  were  the  causes  of  the  inactivity 

of  the  Americans? 
What  is  said  of  tiie  depreciation  of  the 

currency  ? 
What   American  general  capitulated  in 

1780? 
What  defeat  did  the  Americans  sustain  ? 
What  foreign  help  arrived  this  year? 
For  what  was  this  year  memorable  ? 
Fate  of  Arnold  and  of  Andre  ? 
By  what  inauspicious  event  was  the  cam- 
paign of  1781  opened? 
From  what  was  Virginia  suffering  ? 
What  signal  victory  was  achieved  by  the 

Americans  in  South  Carolina? 
What    two   battles     were     subsequently 

fought  by  General  Greene  ? 
What  on  the  September  following? 
Whither  did  Cornwallis  retire,  and  with 

what  forces  ? 
What  was  Washington's  original  plan  of 

the  campaign? 
How  and  why  did  he  change  it? 
When   did     the    siege    commence,    and 
when  and  how  did  it  terminate  ? 
Clinton's  movements? 
Action  of  congress? 
Subsequent  resolution  of  the  British  house 

of  commons  ? 
What  commissioners  were  appointed  to 

negotiate  a  peace  ? 
When  was  the  treaty  signed  ? 
The  conclusion  of  WasJiington's  farewell 

address  ? 
Effect  of  the   war  on   the   trade,   com- 
merce, agriculture,   and  manufacturesi 

of  the  country  ? 

Sft  3. — Constitutional  History. 
Debt  of  the   country   at  the  return    of 


peace 


Powers  of  the  confederation  ? 

What  plan  to  redeem  the  credit  of  the  coun- 
try was  defeated,  and  by  what  states  ? 

Cond'^ct  of  Massachusetts? 

When  was  the  constitution  ratified  an^t 
iuiopted  ? 


6.  Onr  first  President "! 

7.  Where  did  the  first  congress  assemble? 

8.  What  measures  occupied  its  attention? 

9.  What  measure  did  Hamilton  propose  is 

order  to  restore  public  credit? 

10.  What  tax  was  imposed    at   the  seconii 

session  of  congress  ? 

11.  What  institution  was  established? 

12.  The  two  parties  in  tlve  country  ? 

13.  Where  did  Indian  hostilities  break  out? 

14.  What  generals    were    defeated    by   th« 

Indians  ? 

15.  On  what  ground  was  the  bill  for  adding 

to  the  army  resisted? 

16.  By  what  uifficulties  was  Washington 

second  term  embarrassed  ? 

17.  Proclamation  of  Washington  ? 

18.  How  was  it  received  by  the  anti-federa- 

ists  ? 

19.  Conduct  of  Genet  ? 

20.  Of  the  democratic  party  ? 

21.  What  bdl  passed  in  1794? 

22.  Conduct  of  Great  Britain? 

23.  Who  subdued  the  Indians? 

24.  Cause  of  the  "  Whiskey  insurrection?'' 

25.  How  was  it  put  down  ? 

26.  Objections  to  Jay's  treaty  ? 

27.  What  treaty  was  made  with  Spain? 

28.  VV'hat  is  said  of  Jay's  treaty? 

29.  Concluding    remarks    of  Washington 

farewell  address? 

30.  Results  of  Washington's  administration  1 

31.  Conduct  of  the  French  government? 

32.  Our  second  presidezit  ? 

IT3.  Opposition  to  France,  how  mauifestwl'' 

34.  Its  eftect  ? 

35.  Date  of  Washington's  death  ? 

36.  His  character? 

37.  VMiat  laws  killed  the  federalist  party? 

38.  Our  third  president? 

39.  'I'he  most  important  event  of  this  pcri-n 
4rf).  Object  of  Burr's  conspiracy  ? 

41.  His  subsequent  history  '. 

42.  How   were  the  interests  of  the   United 

States  becoming  complicated  with  the 
policy  of  the  belligerent  powers  of 
Europe  ? 

43.  What  right   had    Great  Britain  ahvayn 

claimed  and  e.xerciscd? 

44.  What  special  outrage  was  committed? 
45    Action    of    the    American    governmsul 

thereupon  ? 

46.  Of  the  British  government  ? 

47.  The  Milan  decree  ? 

48.  Our  fourth  president  ? 

49.  The  state  of  the  country? 

50.  Object  of  the  non-inlercourso  act? 

51.  Napoleon's  Rambouillet  decree? 

52.  Act  of  May  1st  of  the  American  coa 

gfess  ? 

53.  Conduct  of  the  British  government  ? 

54    How  many  American  vessels  had  hnet 
thus  '*»  "tured  .' 


54 


QUESTIONS    ON    MODERN    HISTORY. 


55    When  vv?.s  war  declared  against  Great   86. 
Britain '!  87. 

56.  Tiie  grounds  of  the  war  ? 

57.  \Vas  it  popular  'vith  all  parties  ? 
58    How  long  did  it  last  ?  '  89. 
W    The  campaign  on8l2? 

SO.  What     brilliant    naval    victories     were   90. 
gained  ?  | 

81.  Military  and  naval  operations  of  1813  7    | 
62.  What  victory  put  an  end  to  the  Indian   91. 

war  in  the.  northwest?  I  92. 

63    Jackson's  victory  over  the  Indians,  iu  the  | 

south  ■;  93. 

C4.  Naval  operations  in  1814?  [94. 

35.  What  forces  did  the  British  send  over  in   95 
1814?  j 

66.  What  battles  were  fought  in  the  north?     96. 

57.  Actions  of  the  British  fleet  in  the  Chesa- 
peake ?  97. 

68.  Attempt  on  Baltimore  ? 

69.  Engagement  on  Lake  Champlain  ?  98. 

70.  Battle  of  Plattshnrgh?  99. 

71.  Object  of  the  Hartford  convention? 

i2.   Its  statement  of  grievances  ?  100. 

73.  Describe  the  battle  of  New  Orleans?         101. 

74.  When  was   the  United   States  bank  in-    102. 

corporated?  103. 

75.  Our  fifth  president?  104, 
76  Condition  of  the  country  ?  105. 
~~.  What  Indian  war  broke  out  in  1818?  106. 
78    Terms   of    the    convention    made    with    107. 

Great  Britain  in  1819?  108. 

79.  Treaty  with  Sp;iin  ? 

aO.  What  disthiguislied  foreigner  visited  the  :  1 09. 
United  States  in  1824?  '      110. 

fi.  How  was  he  sent  home? 

82.  Our  sixth  president?  111. 
33    Relate  the  atTiiir  of  the   Indians  and  the    112. 

stale  of  Georgia.  1 13 

84  What  ex-presidents  died  July  4,  1826  ?  1 14. 
i5    What  important   bill  was  passe*"  by  the    115. 

tweutieth  congress  I  116, 


Mr.  Adams'  administration  ? 

What  is  said  of  party  spirit  duriug  ih« 

election  ? 
Our  seventh  president  ? 
How   did   he  signalize  his  accession   to 

office  ? 
What  important   measures  engaged  the 
attention    of    the    twenty-hrst    con- 
gress ? 
What  bills  did  Jackson  veto  ? 
When  and  where  did   nullification  com- 
mence ? 
Jackson's  proclamation  ? 
Conduct  of  South  Carolina? 
W'hat  led  to  a   repeal   of  the   nullifying 

ordinances  ? 
How    wer<5    the    "  deposites "    removed 

from  the  United  States  bank? 
With    what  country  was  a  -.var  threat- 
ened ? 
How  was  it  prevented? 
How  was  the  city  of  New-York  afflict«>^ 

in  the  winter  of  1835? 

Value  of  the  property  destroyed  ? 

What  Indian  war  now  broke  out? 

Benton's  "  expiuiging  resolution  ?  " 

Our  eighth  president  i 

State  of  the  country  ? 

What  occasioned  it? 

Amount  of  failures  in  New-York  ? 

Conduct  of  the  banks  ? 

How  did  congress  endeavour  to  remedj 
the  difficulty? 

Our  ninth  president  ? 

How  long  did   he  survive  his  inaugiir* 
tion  ? 

His  successor  ? 

The  trriity  of  Washing[tan  ? 

The  difficulties  in  Rhode  Isl&ud  ^ 

[low  were  they  settled? 

The  fate  of  Dorr  ? 
,    The  present  presi.ieiil  ? 


WB 


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AMERICAN  CYCLOPAEDIA. 


Entirely  rewnttett  by  the  ablest  writers  on  every  subject.      Printed  from  tiew  type, 
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HISTORY 

OF 

EUROPEAN    MORALS, 

From  Augustus  to  Charlemagne. 

By  WII.Lf  AM  E.  M.  L.ECKY,  M.  A. 

THIRD    EDITION,    REVISED. 

2  vols.,  12mo.         .....         Cloth,  |3.00. 


"It  has  been  subjected  to  such  critical  attack,  and  sustained  by  such  able 
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restricted  but  important  province,  and  will  long  be  quoted  for  its  thoroughness 
in  opening  a  study  which,  though  touched  by  other  writers,  never  before  had 
such  exhaustive  consideration.  Those  who  have  not  read  it  will  find  their  study 
richly  rewarded." — Albany  Evening  Times. 

"In  his  methods,  Mr.  Lecky  is  a  model  of  clearness  and  force.  Holding 
firmly  the  doctrine  of  evolution  in  morals,  he  finds  the  origin  of  typical  vices 
and  virtues  in  the  ideal  standards  of  the  people,  tracing  the  specific  virtues  and 
vices  of  each  epoch  considered  to  the  special  characteristics  of  a  preceding  epoch, 
which  have  been  handed  down  as  ideals.  That  his  conclusions  do  not  command 
universal  acceptance  is  undoubtedly  true,  but  they  do  command  respect  wherever 
honest  thought  and  faithful  labor,  in  search  after  truth,  are  appreciated." — 
Detroit  Free  Press. 

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refer,  as  occasion  requires,  with  a  certainty  of  finding  something  to  the  point. 
The  volumes  are  arranged  with  foot-notes,  giving  authorities,  references,  and 
quotations." — Evening  Wisconsin. 

"  The  controversial  part  of  the  first  chapter  having  given  rise  to  a  good  deal 
of  discussion,  and  to  some  little  acrimony  of  feeling,  perhaps,  the  author  has 
softened  it  by  tlie  omission  of  a  few  lines,  and  strengthened  his  position  by  the 
insertion  of  some  brief  passages,  explaining  the  meaning,  or  enforcing  it." — Neio 
Yorh  Evening  Post. 

"  The  excellence  of  this  work  is  already  attested,  and  it  has  long  ago  been 
considered  a  standard.  The  controversial  portion  of  the  work  is  clear  in  its 
statements,  and  so  masterly  in  its  handling  of  the  salient  points  that  none  but 
an  exceedingly  obtuse  person  could  fail  to  catch  the  full  force  of  the  argument 
presented.  The  author's  object  is  to  trace  the  changes  that  have  taken  [dace  in 
the  moral  standard  and  moral  type  through  the  different  ages,  and  he  concerns 
himself  mostly  with  the  period  between  Augustus  and  Charlemagne." — Indian- 
apolis Journal. 


New  York:  D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY. 


IPDUR  SCIENCE  HONTILT, 


CONDUCTED    BT 


""2- o  xj  ivo: -A.  3sr  s. 


This  periodical  7vas  started  {in  1S72)  to  promote  the  diffusion  of  valuable  scientific 

knowledge,  in  a  readable  and  attractive  form,  among  all  classes  of  the 

community,  and  has  thus  far  met  a  want  S2ipplied  by  no 

other  magazine  in  the  United  States. 


Eight  volumes  have  now  appeared,  which  are  filled  with  instructive  v'.ud  interesting  arti-  les  and  ab- 
stracts of  articles,  original,  selected,  translated,  and  illustrated,  from  the  pens  of  the  leading  scientific  men 
of  different  countries.  Accounts  of  important  scientific  discoveries,  the  application  of  science  to  the  prac- 
tical arts,  and  the  latest  views  put  forth  concerning  natural  phenomena,  have  been  given  hx  sttvanti'.  of  the 
highest  authority.  Prominent  attention  has  been  also  devoted  to  those  various  sciences  which  l.elp  to  a 
better  understamling  of  the  nature  of  man,  to  the  bearings  of  science  upon  the  questions  of  society  and 
government,  to  scientific  education,  and  to  the  conflicts  which 'spring  from  the  progressive  nature  of  scien- 
tific knowledge.  ' 

The  Popular  Science  Monthly  has  long  since  ceased  to  be  an  experiment.  It  has  passed  into  a 
circulation  far  beyond  the  most  sanguine  hopes  at  first  entertiiined,  and  the  cordial  and  intelligent  approval 
which  it  has  everywhere  met,  shows  that  its  close  and  instructive  discussions  have  been  well  appreciated 
by  the  reading  portion  of  the  American  people.  It  has  not  been  its  policy  to  make  boastful  promises  of 
great  things  to  be  done  in  the  future,  but  rather  to  appeal  to  what  it  has  already  accomplished  as  giving 
it  a  claim  upon  popular  patronage.  But  no  pains  will  be  spared  to  improve  it  and  make  it  still  more  worthy 
of  liberal  support,  and  still  more  a  necessity  to  the  cultivated  classes  of  the  country. 

The  following  quotations  illustrate  the  way  it  has  been  habitually  spoken  of  by  the  press: 


'■  That  there  is  a  place  for  The  Popular  Science 
Monthly,  no  one  can  doubt  who  has  watched  the 
steady  increase  of  interest  in  scientific  investigation 
manifested  in  this  CDuntry,  not  only  by  a  select  cl.ass, 
but  by  the  entire  community." — New  Turk  Times. 

'•  We  think  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  this  is 
thd  best  first  number'  of  any  magazine  ever  pub- 
lished in  America." — New  York  World. 

"A  journal  which  promises  to  be  of  eminent 
value  to  the  cause  of  popular  education  In  this 
country."— iV«iy  I'ork  Tribune. 

•'It  is,  beyond  comparison,  the  best  attempt  at 
journalism  of  the  kind  ever  made  in  this  country." 
— Jlome  JournaL 

"It  is  just  what  is  wanted  by  the  curious  and 
progressive  mind  of  this  country,  and  ought  to  be 
widely  circulated." — Nnv  Yoik  Evening  Post. 

'■•  It  is  the  first  successful  atteaipt  in  this  coimtry 
to  popularize  science  in  the  pages  of  a  monthly." — 
N.  Y.  School  Journal. 

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are  as  follows : 


No. 

1. 

tt 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 
6. 

ti 

7. 

<< 

8. 

ii 

9. 

H 

10. 

Afc 

1  1. 

<i 

12. 

<( 

13. 

<i 

14. 

« 

15. 

<i 

16. 

<i 

17. 

« 

18. 

i< 

19. 

« 

20. 

<( 

21. 

<< 

22. 

Prof.  W.  KiNBDON  Clifford,  M.  A.,  T/ie  P'trsl  Pri 
Exact  ScUnces  explained  ta  the  Xxn'Malheitialirc 
Prof.  T.  H.  Huxley,  LL.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  Bodily  Mdiun  and  Con- 


Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter,  LL.D.,F.R.S.,K«  Phyaical  Geogra- 

r.hii  oflhe  Sea. 
Prof.  Wii.  OoLiNG,  F.  R.  S.,  The   Old   Chemistri/  viewed  from 

the  Xew  '^tand~]"jint. 
W.  Lauder  Lindsay,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S  K.,  Mind  in  the  Lower 

Auimah. 
Sir  John  Lubbock,  Bart.,  F.  R  S  ,  On  Anit  and  Bees. 
Prot  W.T.  THisELroN   Dyer,  B.  A.,  B.  Sc, /orra  oiirf  floW(  in 

F/omerini/  P.'anlt. 
Mr.  J.  N.  Lockver,  F.  R.  =!.,  S/i'rtrum  Analytit. 
Prof.  Michael  Foster,  M.  D.,  I'rutiiiJaxm  and  the  Cell  TTienry, 
H.    Charlton    Bastian,   M.  D.,   F.  R.  S.,    The   Brain  at  an 

Oryan  of  Mind. 
Prof.  A.  C.  Ramsay.  LL.  D..  F.  R  S..  ^i-^  Srulf'.ure:  thlh, 

Valleij',  Momitains.  Plaint,  Rm-n,  Laket;    how  they  were 

r,r-xluceU,  and  hmr  they  hive  keen  dettrni/ed. 
Prof.  Rudolph  Vikchow  (Berlin  VnWersity),  Morbid  Phytiolo- 

aical  Action. 
Prof:  Claude  Bernard,  77m  nry  oflhe  Thenrie'  of  Life. 
Prof.  H.  Saint-Claire  DevilLeJ  yln  Inlroduciion' to  General 

Chemitlry.  • 
Prof.  Wurtz,  Atonvt  and  the  Atnmic  Theory. 
Prof.  De  QuaT"EF«ges,  The  Human  Rare. 
Trot.  Lacaze-Outhirrs,  Znnlngii  itinre  Ctivier. 
Prof.  Berthklot,  Chemical  S'rn'lhexia. 

Prof  C.  A.  Young,  Ph.  D.  (of  Dartmouth  Collece),  Tlie  Sun. 
Prof.  OoDKS  N.  Rood  (Columhia  Collefre,  New  York),  Mod- 
ern Chromatics  and  its  Relatums  tn  Art  and  Indtisirt/. 


Dr.  Eugene  Lommel  (University  of  Erlan(;en),  Tlie  KaXure  of 

Liyht. 
Prof.  j.RosEXTH>.l.,  Gnieral  Phmiolnipi  of  Muscles  and  Kenes. 
Prof.  jAMEsi  D.  Dana,  M.  A.,  LL.  D.,  On   CefJializalion  ;    or, 

Head-Characters  in  the  Grtidalion  and  PnigrtSHof  Life. 
Prof.  S.  W.  JoHN.soN,  M.  A.,  On  the  X,Urition  of  Plants. 
Prof.   Au.stin  Flint,  Jr.,  M  D.,  The  Nervous  System,  and  tis 

Relation  to  the  BikHIii  Funniims. 
Prof.  Bernstein  (University  of  Halle),  The  Five  Senses  of  Man, 
Prof.   Fkrdinand    Cohn    (Breslau    University),  Thailwj,hytes 

(Alijce,  Lichens,  Fungi). 
Prof.  Hermann   (University  of  Zurich),  0;i  7?e»;'ira/iOTl. 
Prot  Leuckart  (University  of  Leipsic i,    Outlines  of  Animal 

Organization. 
Prof.  tiEBREicH  (Universitv  of  Berlin),  Outlines  of  Toxicology. 
Prof.  KuNDT(Uni.ersitv  of'Strasburgi,  On  Sound. 
Prof.  Rebs  (Universilyof  Eriangen),  On  Parasitic  Plants. 
Prof.  Stfinthal  (University  of  Berlin),  Outlines  of  the  Science 

of  Language, 
P.  Bep.t  (Professor  of  Physiology,  Paris),  Forms  ff  Life  and 

other  Otsiuical  Canditii-ns. 
E.  Ai.GLAVK  (Professor  of  Constitutional  and  Administrative 

Law  at  Douai,  and  of  Political  Economy  at  Lillej,  The 

Priniillve  Elements  if  Political  Constitutions. 
P.  Lorain   (I'rofessor  of  Medicine,  Paris),  Mi'dcrn  Ej-idenncs. 
Prof.  ScHfTZENBERGER  ( Director  of  the  Chemical  Lahoratory 

at  the  Sorhonne),  On  Fermentations. 
IMons.  Fr.ElDEL,  The  Functions  of  Organic  Chemistry. 

Mons.  DeBKAY,  Precious  Metals. 

Prof.  CoRFlELD,  M.  A.,  M.  D.  (Oxon),  Air  in  its  Relation  to 

Health. 
Prof.  A.  GiARD,  General  Embryology. 


D.  APPLETON  dr"  CO.,  PtMishers,  549  d--  551  Broadway,  N.  Y. 


D.  APPLETON  &,  CO., 

S49  Sc  551  BI^O-iA.lD^W'-A.'Z',  KTE^W"   "YORIK, 

Have  just  piiblished  : 
A  SUPERB  NEW  WORK  BY  LACROIX, 

THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

The  Manners,  Customs,  and.  Costumes  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  m  France,   1700-1789. 

niustrated  with  twenty-one  magnificent  Chromo-litliographs  (art-gems  in  themselves),  and 
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gaud,  Boucher,  Lancret,  J.  Vernet,  Chardin,  Jeaurat,  Beauchardon,  Saint-Aubin, 
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and  engravings,  all  executed  by  eminent  artists,  under  the  direction  of  M.  Racinet,  the 
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The  comprehensive  character  of  this  work  will  be  appreciated  more  fully  by  noting 
contents,  embracing,  as  they  do,  the  social  ranks  and  customs,  the  public  occupations, 
amusements,  etc.,  of  "  La  Belle  France,"  as  follows,  viz. : 


1.  The  King:  and  the  Court. 

2.  The  Nobles. 

3.  The  Bourgeoisie. 

4.  The  People. 

5.  The  Armv  and  Navy. 

6.  The  Clergy. 


7.  The  Parliament. 

8.  The  Finances, 

9.  Commeroe. 

10.  Education. 

11.  Charities. 

12.  Justice  and  Police. 

19.  Costumes  and  Modes. 


13.  Aspect  of  Paris. 

14.  Fetes  and  Pleasures  of  Paris. 

15.  The  Cuisine  and  Table. 

16.  The  Theatres. 

17.  The  Salons. 

18.  Voyages,  etc. 


*iif*  The  splendid  success  of  the  various  works  of  M.  Lacroix,  on  the  "  Manners,  Cus- 
toms, and  Dress,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  during  the  Renaissance,"  suggested  the 
preparation  of  a  work  of  a  similar  character,  on  the  "  Institutions,  Manners,  and  Dreas,  in 
France,  during  the  Eighteenth  Century."  This  sumptuous  volume  is  a  brilliant  exhibition 
of  every  grade  of  life  and  society  in  France,  from  1700  to  I'ZSO.  The  work  is  illustrated 
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Wood.  These  illustrations  are  copied  with  the  utmost  care  from  the  original  paintings  of 
the  best  and  most  esteemed  artists  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  in  beauty  of  design,  ex- 
quisite finish,  and  the  real  interest  of  their  subjects,  fiir  surpass  any  similar  productions. 
The  typographical  excellence,  and  elaborate  and  appropriate  binding,  combined  with  its 
intrinsic  literary  and  artistic  value,  render  it  one  of  the  richest  volumes  ever  published. 


Other  Works  hy  the  same  Author. 

The  Arts  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  at  the  Period  of  the  Renaissance.  By  Paul 
Lacroix,  Curator  of  the  Imperial  Library  of  the  Arsenttl,  Paris.  Tlustrated  with  19 
Chromo-lithographic  Prints  by  Kellerhoven,  and  upward  of  400  Engravings  on  Wood. 
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$15  ;  half  morocco,  $15 ;  full  calf,  $18  ;  full  morocco,  $25. 

Manners,  Customs,  and  Dress,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  during  the  Renais- 
sance Period.  By  Paul  Lacroix.  Illustrated  with  15  Chromo-lithographic  Prints 
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Military  and  ReUgious  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  at  the  Period  of  the  Re- 
naissance. By  Pacl  Lacroix.  Illustrated  with  14  Chromo-hthographic  Prints  by  J.. 
Kellerhoven,  Rejamey,  and  L.  Allard,  and  upward  of  400  Engravings  on  Wood.  1 
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BY  DISTINGUISHED  ARTISTS  OF  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA  ; 

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The  Art  Journal  is  a  quarto  monthly  publication,  superbly  illustrated  and  printed,  and  specinlly 
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eling, and  Designing  in  all  its  branches— having  in  view  the  double  purpose  of  supplying  a  complete  illus- 
trated record  of  progress  in  the  Arts,  and  of  affording  a  means  for  the  cultivation  of  Art-taste  among  the 
people.  Each  number  is  richly  and  abundantly  illustrated  on  both  steel  and  wood,  and  no  pains  are  spared 
to  render  tliis  "  Art  Journal  "  the  most  valuable  publication  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  It  contains  the 
Steel  Plates  and  Illus"tr.Ttions  of  the  London  Art  Journal,  a  publication  of  world-v  ide  fame  (the  exclu- 
sive right  of  which,  for  Canada  and  the  United  States,  has  been  purchased  by  the  publishers) ;  with  ejilni- 
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only  by  Subscription.     Price,  75  Cents  per  Number;  5^9.00  per  Annum,  postage  prepaid. 

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Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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